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English Language & Linguistics

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ISSN: 1360-6743 (Print) , 1469-4379 (Online)
Editors: Professor Laurel J. Brinton University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada , Professor Bernd Kortmann University of Freiburg, Germany , and Dr Warren Maguire University of Edinburgh, UK
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So different and pretty cool! Recycling intensifiers in Toronto, Canada 1

SALI A. TAGLIAMONTE
English Language & Linguistics , Volume 12 , Issue 2

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Investigating the relationship among english language learning strategies, language achievement, and attitude.

1 Institute of Education, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
2 MTA–SZTE Digital Learning Technologies Research Group, Szeged, Hungary

The main objective of the study was to ascertain whether English as a Foreign Language learners with various levels of English language achievement differ significantly in applying foreign language learning strategies. We also aimed to explore strategy use frequency in connection with attitude toward English language learning. Data were collected from 1,653 lower secondary students in Hungary through a revised version of the previously developed online Self-Regulated Foreign Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (SRFLLSQ) based on Oxford’s Strategic Self-Regulation (S 2 R) Model. The findings point to statistically significant differences in the frequency of English language strategy use among more and less proficient learners. Quantitative analyses also reported that, in spite of the students stated low or moderate levels of strategy use, it turned out as a statistically significant predictor of foreign language attitude and language achievement. The results draw attention to the relevance of strategy research in foreign language teaching as well as encourages strategy teaching within language instruction.

Introduction

Foreign language learning requires many underlying skills and techniques. Learners have to master a number of complex linguistic, personal, cultural and social skills, and competences and be aware of effective techniques and strategies to help them cope with various challenges during the learning process. The frequent use of learning strategies can help learners to become more competent and effective language users in the classroom and inspire them to achieve higher levels of mastery in the target foreign language ( Wong and Nunan, 2011 ; Oxford, 2016 ). Since the mid-1970s, an immense amount of learning strategy research has attempted to establish the concept and identify strategies that help learners to become more effective language learners ( Oxford, 1990 ; Cohen, 1998 ). It is a widely researched and highly debated area even today ( Thomas and Rose, 2019 ; Thomas et al., 2021 ). The most well-known and widely used taxonomy of language learning strategies (LLS) was developed by Oxford (1990 , 2011 , 2016) . In her recently reconsidered Strategic Self-Regulation (S 2 R) Model based on Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory of self-regulated learning (SRL) and Zimmerman’s three-phase model ( Zimmerman, 2000 ; Zimmerman and Schunk, 2011 ), she identified four main strategy categories: cognitive, affective, motivational, and social, each of them guided by the master category of “meta-strategies.” These meta-strategies are metacognitive, meta-affective, metamotivational, and metasocial strategies, respectively ( Oxford, 2016 ).

Oxford also developed a measurement tool (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, SILL) for investigating LLS use, which is employed worldwide; however, it is based on her original conceptualization. Nevertheless, it is essential to relate the latest pedagogical theories to language teaching practice. Self-regulation theory, which was the basis for Oxford’s new taxonomy, has been dominant since the beginning of this century. It is thus crucial to develop state-of-the-art measurement tools which can be used in the classroom by language teachers. In previous research, we have developed and validated a questionnaire based on Oxford’s S 2 R Model (SRFLLSQ; Habók and Magyar, 2018b ). To obtain a more comprehensive view of the role and possible effect of language learning strategies on certain other factors, such as attitude, motivation, and self-efficacy, it is essential to conduct further research. In this study, we aimed to examine LLS in relation to other crucial factors of language learning; we have investigated the relationships among the application of English language learning strategies, language achievement, and attitude toward English among lower secondary students in Hungary.

Literature Review

The concept of language learning strategies.

Language learning strategies have been a research focus since the mid-1970s, as strategic language learning is a key to successfully acquiring a foreign language ( Rubin, 1975 ). A number of definitions of LLS have emerged, with one of the most influential having proved to be that of Rebecca Oxford, who not only established a conceptualization, but also conducted empirical research. In her content-analytic study, Oxford involved 33 distinct definitions and interpretations of the term LLS and thus determine it as follows:

L2 learning strategies are complex, dynamic thoughts, and actions, selected and used by learners with some degree of consciousness in specific contexts in order to regulate multiple aspects of themselves (such as cognitive, emotional, and social) for the purpose of (a) accomplishing language tasks; (b) improving language performance or use; and/or (c) enhancing long-term proficiency. Strategies are mentally guided but may also have physical and therefore observable manifestations. Learners often use strategies flexibly and creatively; combine them in various ways, such as strategy clusters or strategy chains; and orchestrate them to meet learning needs. Strategies are teachable. Learners in their contexts decide which strategies to use. Appropriateness of strategies depends on multiple personal and contextual factors ( Oxford, 2016 , p. 48).

Strategic language learners select their LLS according to their personal preferences, motivational intentions, and situational circumstances. Therefore, it is especially difficult to identify a system for these strategies. This is one of the reasons why an extremely large number of conceptualizations and debates have emerged ( Thomas and Rose, 2019 ; Thomas et al., 2021 ). Thomas et al. (2021) have pointed out that with the emphasis on self-regulation, the field of strategy research has moved away from formal educational settings toward learner autonomy. They argue that this is a hazardous trend because definitions of LLS minimize teachers’ role and classroom contexts that can also be an influencing factor in strategic behavior among students. Thomas and Rose (2019) have therefore suggested a separation of LLS from self-regulation and introduced the Regulated Language Learning Strategies Continuum to make it clear that self-regulation can be conceptually separated in defining LLS. By interpreting LLS as being both other- and self-regulated, Dörnyei and Skehan (2003) argue that strategy use cannot be regarded as either emotional or cognitive or even behavioral, thus opening up another debated area in the field.

The classification of LLS is another key area of argument. Oxford’s original classification of six major fields (memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, compensation, and social strategies) was recently reconsidered and restructured on the basis of self-regulation theories. Her Strategic Self-Regulation (S 2 R) Model was developed based on Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory of self-regulated learning (SRL). In her concept, she identified four main fields—cognitive, affective, motivational, and social strategies—each of them directed by a “master category of meta-strategies.” These meta-strategies are metacognitive, meta-affective, metamotivational, and metasocial strategies ( Oxford, 2016 ). Her taxonomy was again open to a number of debates as some theorists ( Dörnyei, 2005 ; Hajar, 2019 ) argued that success in language learning cannot be assessed through the frequency of strategy use alone.

Research on Language Learning Strategies

Despite the debates, LLS researchers have been devoted to conducting quantitative research on LLS use and its connection with other individual factors, such as gender, learning style, motivation, attitude, and proficiency (e.g., Radwan, 2011 ; Alhaysony, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a , 2019 ). The most widespread measurement tool for assessing L2 learners’ strategy use is Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL; Oxford, 1990 ). This questionnaire has been translated into numerous languages and adapted for a vast number of cultures around the world. It is based on her original taxonomy and employs her original six strategy fields. Based on her renewed taxonomy, a number of reconsidered measurement tools have been developed since then, which have approached effective language learning from different perspectives ( Wang et al., 2013 ; Salehi and Jafari, 2015 ; Božinović and Sindik, 2017 ; Köksal and Dündar, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018b ; An et al., 2021 ).

One major area for researchers has been to find out what set of strategies foreign language learners rely on the most ( Platsidou and Sipitanou, 2015 ; Alhaysony, 2017 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Dawadi, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a , b , 2019 , 2020 ; Habók et al., 2021 ). Overall, results have concluded moderate use of LLS among participants. The most frequently used strategies are cognitive, metacognitive, and compensation strategies, while affective and memory strategies are the least preferred. Habók et al. (2021) have pointed out the different strategy preferences in different cultural contexts. Their results reinforced the preferred use of metacognitive strategies in both European and Asian contexts. However, there were statistically significant differences in the affective field with regard to the lower strategy use preference in the European sample.

A great deal of research has investigated strategy use in connection with other aspects ( Platsidou and Kantaridou, 2014 ; Rao, 2016 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a , 2020 ). One of the most often used factors was language achievement, which has been specified and covered in a multitude of ways. Some studies have focused on level of language proficiency or achievement test results ( Raoofi et al., 2017 ; Taheri et al., 2019 ; An et al., 2021 ; Malpartida, 2021 ), others have relied on self-ratings ( Charoento, 2017 ), and still others have involved language course marks ( Habók and Magyar, 2018a ; Sánchez, 2019 ; Bećirović et al., 2021 ). As a result, most research has pointed out that students with higher proficiency use LLS more frequently than those with less ( Rao, 2016 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Raoofi et al., 2017 ; Sánchez, 2019 ). Charoento (2017) highlighted that successful students mainly used metacognitive strategies and less proficient students preferred to use social strategies the most. Sánchez (2019) reported that the application of social, metacognitive, and cognitive strategies was the highest among high achievers. Some research failed to find any significant differences in LLS use between learners with lower and higher English proficiency levels ( Rianto, 2020 ).

A relatively small number of studies have examined how LLS use predicts language proficiency. Some research has pointed out a positive correlation between strategy use and proficiency. Comprehensive work by Taheri et al. (2019) indicated a statistically significant correlation between LLS and second language achievement. Specifically, they confirmed a statistically significant relationship between cognitive, social, and compensation strategies and second language achievement. Platsidou and Kantaridou (2014) also found that language use is predicted by learning strategy use in a statistically significantly way and that it anticipates perceived language performance. Rao (2016) also reinforced that learners’ English proficiency level determines their strategy use and highlighted that students with high proficiency use strategies more frequently than low-level learners. Habók and Magyar (2018a) stated that strategies have a statistically significant effect on proficiency through attitudes. In addition, these effects reflect general school achievement. Bećirović et al. (2021) observed that LLS can influence students’ English as a foreign language (EFL) achievement. Specifically, cognitive strategies have a statistically significant positive effect on EFL achievement, while other strategies showed negative or no significant impact. An et al. (2021) also reported the positive direct effect of SRL strategies on students’ English learning outcomes. Lin et al. (2021) concluded the direct impact of learning strategies on learners’ performance in literal and inferential comprehension.

Another research direction is the investigation of strategy use in relation to other underlying factors, like affective variables, such as motivation, attitude, self-efficacy, and self-concept. Educational research has pointed out that learners’ attitude toward language learning is crucial since it can greatly impact learning results and language learning proficiency ( Platsidou and Kantaridou, 2014 ). Studies have indicated that learners with a positive attitude toward language learning employ LLS more frequently and effectively. Platsidou and Kantaridou (2014) used confirmatory factor analysis to show that attitudes toward language learning predict the use of both direct and indirect learning strategies. Jabbari and Golkar (2014) reported a more frequent use of cognitive, metacognitive, compensation, and social strategies among students with a positive attitude toward language learning. Habók and Magyar (2018a) demonstrated the reverse effect: learners who apply LLS effectively were more likely to have improved learning experiences and positive attitudes toward foreign language learning.

It can be concluded that strategy research is often related to other vital areas of language learning, among which attitude plays an important role. However, only a limited number of researchers have developed measurement tools for investigating self-regulated foreign LLS and measured it in relation to attitude. In addition, most studies have focused on the strategy use of tertiary samples with relatively high levels of proficiency. This study aims to fill this gap and provides an insightful investigation into the connections among strategy use, attitude, and English language achievement among lower secondary students. Based on the relevant literature ( Jabbari and Golkar, 2014 ; Platsidou and Kantaridou, 2014 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a ), we hypothesized the statistically significant effect of LLS on proficiency through attitude.

Research Questions

The research addresses the following three research questions:

1. Which EFL strategy was the most frequently used by 11-year-old lower secondary students?

2. Were there statistically significant differences among students in their language learning strategy use on the basis of their English language achievement?

3. Which language learning strategy type has a statistically significant impact on learners’ English language achievement and attitude?

Research Methods

Participants.

In Hungary, students start primary school at the age of six. This lasts 4 year. Then, they continue their studies at the lower secondary level. At the age of 14, they move on to upper secondary school. The participants of the present research were 11-year-old lower secondary students in Grade 5 (N total = 1,653; N boys = 827, N girls = 780, N missing = 46) from 64 schools in Hungary. Hungarian students take EFL in compulsory courses in school, and they usually start learning a foreign language at the age of nine. However, in some schools, they can start at the age of six. Typically, they can choose between English and German, but recently a preference for English has become more common. In upper secondary school, two foreign languages are compulsory, English and German or Italian or Spanish. The second language depends on curricular choice at the school level.

The English proficiency of the participating students was at beginner/elementary level (A1–A2). As for their engagement in learning, there were 17 students in the sample who spent 2 h or less per week on English. Around half of the learners ( N = 884) devoted 3 h a week to this subject, and few participants dedicated four ( N = 303) or five ( N = 357) hours a week to the language. We also found 67 students who dealt with English six or more hours per week. In addition, we did not receive any answers to this question from 25 students.

The revised and improved version of the Self-Regulated Foreign Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (SRFLLSQ) was employed after our first measurement and validation ( Habók and Magyar, 2018b ). We reviewed the new findings on the theoretical background to foreign LLS research and continued revising the affective field. In addition, based on the relevant literature, we included the field of motivation in the questionnaire. We thus completed the measurement tool with motivational and metamotivational factors based on Oxford’s Strategic S 2 R Model. Finally, the questionnaire covered four strategy areas: metacognitive (eight items), cognitive (six items), meta-affective (eight items), affective (eight items), metasocial (eight items), social (six items), motivational (four items), and metamotivational (four items; see Appendix ). The fifth-grade students provided their responses on a five-point Likert scale, which ranged from 1 (“Never or almost never true of me”) to 5 (“Always or almost always true of me”). The measurement tool was also complemented with a background questionnaire, which asked students about their foreign language school marks, which indicated students’ English language achievement (1 = fail, lowest school mark; 5 = excellent, highest school mark). Students also self-reported their attitudes toward English learning on a five-point Likert scale, which again ranged from 1 to 5.

First, the research was accepted by the IRB at the University of Szeged Doctoral School of Education. It was concluded that the research design follows IRB recommendations. The participating learners’ parents were asked for written informed consent, which was handled by the participating schools. Second, an invitation was sent to schools to register for the measurement. In the call, schools were given information about the purpose of the measurement. Once the schools accepted the invitation, they received further instructions on data collection and a link to log into the Online Diagnostic Assessment System (eDia), which is developed, supervised, and operated by the University of Szeged Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction ( Csapó and Molnár, 2019 ). Students’ participation was voluntary in the research. They logged into the system with an official student assessment code (developed by the Hungarian Educational Authorities), which provided complete anonymity for them. The researchers could not identify the respondents on this basis. The identification code was handled by the school administrators, but the students’ results were not available to them. Thus, complete anonymity was guaranteed. The eDia system is familiar to students because they regularly use it for diagnostic purposes during official school hours. The students had already acquired the necessary ICT skills at primary level, further improved through remote learning. For the present questionnaire, the participants indicated their responses by clicking on radio buttons. The learners were given a school lesson in a personal classroom environment provided by the school. After logging in, the respondents filled in the questionnaire in Hungarian, which is their native language, because they do not yet have the foreign language skills to provide reliable answers in English. This took 20 min to complete the instrument. Teacher assistance was not required while the questionnaire was being completed, but it was available. The students had the option to ask for assistance on any technical problems.

Data Analysis

First, we employed classical test analysis and examined reliability, means, and standard deviations for the questionnaire fields with SPSS Statistics 23.0. In the case of frequency of strategy use, we aimed to find out how strategy use was perceived by our sample. We also compared the students’ strategy use vis-à-vis their English language achievement and attitude using an independent sample t -test. To interpret effect size, we followed Wei et al.’s (2019) and Wei and Hu’s (2019) benchmark: under 0.005 is small, 0.01 is typical or medium, 0.02 is large, and is 0.09 very large. We used R 2 unsquared; thus, the benchmark for the effect size index is 0.07, 0.10, 0.14, and 0.30, which, respectively, represents small, medium, large, and very large cut-off values. We applied path analysis to map the possible relationships and effects of our variables. We studied the goodness-of-fit indices by applying various cut-off values for many fit indices, including the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), the normed fit index (NFI), the comparative fit index (CFI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and Chi-square values ( Kline, 2015 ). TLI, NFI, and CFI were regarded as eligible with a cut-off value of 0.95, and RMSEA values indicated an acceptable fit of 0.8 ( Kline, 2015 ).

Descriptive Analysis

The questionnaire was reliable in all the fields ( Table 1 ). As regards the whole sample, moderate strategy use was observed. The lowest strategy use was noted in the field of metasocial strategies, and the most frequent strategy was found in the affective field. As regards the corresponding factors, the most frequent use was observed in the motivational field (see Table 1 ).

Figure 1 . The path model for EFL strategies on English language achievement through attitude.

Table 1 . Frequency of language learning strategy use in Grade 5.

We also identified the frequency of strategy use among the more and less proficient learners. Students were divided into two categories based on their English language achievement ( Table 2 ). Those with excellent and good school marks were placed in the more proficient learners’ category, while learners with average, fair, or unsatisfactory school marks were grouped into the less proficient learner category. Students ( N = 810) who received excellent school marks met the requirements of the English language curriculum and performed at a high level. Learners ( N = 500) with good marks had minor gaps. Those ( N = 229) with an average school mark had major gaps in their knowledge, and those ( N = 65) with unsatisfactory school marks had difficulty following the curriculum and varying levels of difficulty in all areas of language learning. Finally, students ( N = 9) who received an unsatisfactory school mark are at a disadvantage which is difficult to overcome. No data were received from 40 students. Students’ EFL achievement could be regarded as good with a mean of 4.2 (SD = 0.89). As a result, the more proficient learners employed strategies with greater frequency in all of the fields, a statistically significant finding. The affective factor indicated above medium effect size, while the other factors reported small effect sizes.

Table 2 . Frequency of language learning strategy use among less and more proficient learners.

Multivariate Analyses

Finally, we investigated the effect of strategy use on English language achievement and attitudes. As Oxford’s Strategic S 2 R Model considers strategies as being closely directed by their corresponding meta-strategies, we have regarded the strategies and their meta-strategy counterparts as common factors. The correlation coefficient was statistically significant between every strategy factor ( r = 0.45–0.25, p < 0.001). Our model showed acceptable fit indices (Chi-square = 35.574, df = 5, p = 0.000, CFI = 0.995, TLI = 0.977, NFI = 0.994, RMSEA = 0.061). We therefore concluded that English language achievement and attitude are statistically influenced by strategy use ( Figure 1 ).

We found that the meta-affective and affective and metasocial and social categories directly influenced students’ attitude toward English. A direct effect of attitude was observed on English language achievement. In addition, the metacognitive and cognitive categories had a direct effect on English language achievement, while English language achievement was indirectly affected by meta-affective and affective and metasocial and social factors. We could not confirm any significant effect of metamotivational and motivational factors on attitude or English language achievement.

We investigated the strategy use of 11-year-old lower secondary students in Grade 5 in connection with their language achievement and attitude toward the English language. Our first research question asked which LLS was the most frequently used by the sample. We found moderate strategy use with regard to a slightly modest application of the metasocial field, and the most frequent strategy use was observed in the affective field. These aspects of our findings partly correspond with most of the recent research with respect to moderate use of strategies; however, there are profound differences in the strategy preferences of the sample ( Platsidou and Sipitanou, 2015 ; Alhaysony, 2017 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Dawadi, 2017 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a , b , 2019 , 2020 ; Habók et al., 2021 ). Raoofi et al. (2017) also pointed out the low level of social strategy use in their research. Another important statistically significant finding is that higher proficiency learners used learning strategies with greater frequency than their less proficient peers. This applies to every strategy field in agreement with Charoento’s (2017) results.

Our second research question concerned differences in the use of LLS based on English language achievement. As concerns the sample, we regarded the EFL school mark as an indicator of English language achievement. The mean indicated that a considerable portion of the sample was grouped as more proficient. As a result, these students used LLS with greater frequency in all of the categories, which is a statistically significant finding. These results correspond with other research, which also reinforces this ( Rao, 2016 ; Charoento, 2017 ; Raoofi et al., 2017 ; Sánchez, 2019 ). However, we also found that less proficient learners employed motivational strategies the most frequently, while their more proficient peers most often preferred the affective field, a result which is not reinforced by any previous findings. Apart from this, the strategy uses of both subsamples followed the same order, with social and metasocial strategy use being the least preferred type for both. This may be due to the fact that our sample was mainly at the beginner/elementary level (A1–A2), so they cannot yet initiate conversations with others, even with native speakers. They also cannot understand many words and grammatical structures that are used by more proficient speakers, so social interaction is more difficult for them, even for the more advanced ones.

Our results on the role of LLS in English language achievement and attitude confirmed the statistically significant effect of LLS on background variables. English language achievement was directly influenced by the metacognitive and cognitive fields and attitudes and indirectly affected by the meta-affective and affective fields, as well as the metasocial and social fields. Our model could not confirm any direct or indirect effect of the metamotivational and motivational fields on attitude or English language achievement. This may be because motivational components form distinct factors and their role differs somewhat in predicting language achievement. These results are in line with previous findings ( Platsidou and Kantaridou, 2014 ; Habók and Magyar, 2018a ), which also concluded the outstanding role of attitudes, which is an important predictor of language achievement and reinforces the role of strategy use. In summary, strategy use influences English language achievement through attitude to language learning in a statistically significant way.

The main objective of the study was to find evidence for the role of strategy use in students’ achievement at the beginner/elementary level of English language learning. As a result, the strategy use preferences of the sample differed somewhat from the findings of previous research, as the affective and motivational fields were the ones the students preferred the most. This may be due to the fact that young children are more likely to use strategies that are rather emotional and related to their personality traits than strategies that require deeper understanding, specific learning techniques, and awareness, such as cognitive strategies. The use of social strategies was also quite low, probably owing to the low level of foreign language communication skills in the sample. As regards the different proficiency levels, more frequent strategy use was observed among the more proficient learners, a statistically significant finding. However, the patterns of strategy use were almost the same across the groups. The only difference was that the more proficient learners mostly preferred the affective field, while the less proficient ones mostly employed motivational strategies. This indicates that students at a higher level have more confidence to speak up and show how they feel about learning English. Learners with lower proficiency at this age often try to show that they are motivated, that is, that they are trying and want to achieve good results and present a good image of their own performance. The study also highlighted the importance of attitude; from the results, it can be concluded that, even at the beginner/elementary level, strategy use can affect language achievement and that a student’s attitude is an important predictor and plays an important role as mediator between strategies and language achievement. This can have a positive impact on classroom performance and highlights the importance of teaching students about learning strategies.

Limitations

There are some limitations to consider in the study. First, the questionnaire was administered to fifth-grade students, who were at the beginner/elementary level of their English language learning. Thus, generalizability cannot be confirmed, and more research is needed across higher grades and higher proficiency learners. Second, we had difficulty identifying the affective domain in the first version of the questionnaire. For the fields in the present measurement tool, we have succeeded in identifying the affective and meta-affective domains of LLS. However, they still have to be optimized. Additional research is also called for with regard to the motivational components. Third, other underlying factors should be included in the investigation, such as self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-concept.

Pedagogical Implications

The study points out that the role of learning strategies is substantial for the students in their language learning. Learning English is a complex process for Hungarian fifth graders. English pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar are very different from those of Hungarian. For these learners, grammatical rules are often abstract phenomena, and it is difficult for them to associate meaning with the words they say and write. Furthermore, reading and listening comprehension are also influenced by many factors. The results draw attention to the paramount importance of teaching LLS, which can promote greater success among language learners. In addition, it is essential how consciously strategies are employed. Teachers are strongly urged to include strategy training in their courses. Strategy training can be conducted either in the form of an embedded sub-course in any of the subjects or in an independent form as an individual course. Strategy courses integrated into a school subject provide specific help for students learning that specific course material. For example, language learning strategies paid students in learning grammatical formulae or vocabulary in a foreign language, while general strategy courses help students to learn strategies that can be used in other school subjects, such as reading and writing strategies.

Another implication of the study is that motivation and attitude also influence language achievement in a statistically significant way. Creating a learner-friendly and encouraging atmosphere is therefore essential. The findings from our research have provided important insights into these issues for classroom practice.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets presented in this article are not readily available because the datasets are confidential and cannot be shared with third parties. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to AH, [email protected] .

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by IRB at the Doctoral School of Education, University of Szeged. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.

Author Contributions

AH and AM designed the study and implemented the data collection, as well as analyzing the data and participating in completing the manuscript. GM supervised the research and provided support. All the authors contributed to the editing and revision of the study and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

This research was supported by the Research Programme for Public Education Development, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (grant KOZOKT2021-16) and a Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Fund grant (under the OTKA K135727 funding scheme).

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Revised Version of the Self-Regulated Foreign Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (SRFLLSQ).

Keywords: self-regulated foreign language learning, language learning strategies, foreign language attitude, language achievement, lower secondary students

Citation: Habók A, Magyar A and Molnár G (2022) Investigating the Relationship Among English Language Learning Strategies, Language Achievement, and Attitude. Front. Psychol . 13:867714. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.867714

Received: 01 February 2022; Accepted: 15 April 2022; Published: 13 May 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Habók, Magyar and Molnár. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Anita Habók, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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The Use of English Language in Research

2018, Journal for Research Scholars and Professionals of English Language Teaching

English as the global academic language facilitates the international mobility of young researchers (Graddol, D. ,2006). English has been the language of choice for many international scholarly journals. Academic writing is complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It is organized and planned precisely and accurately. Glatthorn, A. (1998) says about the academic writing style that the academic writing should strive for clarity, maturity, and formality and should strike a balance between confidence and tentativeness.

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211 Research Topics in Linguistics To Get Top Grades

Many people find it hard to decide on their linguistics research topics because of the assumed complexities involved. They struggle to choose easy research paper topics for English language too because they think it could be too simple for a university or college level certificate.

All that you need to learn about Linguistics and English is sprawled across syntax, phonetics, morphology, phonology, semantics, grammar, vocabulary, and a few others. To easily create a top-notch essay or conduct a research study, you can consider this list of research topics in English language below for your university or college use. Note that you can fine-tune these to suit your interests.

Linguistics Research Paper Topics

If you want to study how language is applied and its importance in the world, you can consider these Linguistics topics for your research paper. They are:

An analysis of romantic ideas and their expression amongst French people
An overview of the hate language in the course against religion
Identify the determinants of hate language and the means of propagation
Evaluate a literature and examine how Linguistics is applied to the understanding of minor languages
Consider the impact of social media in the development of slangs
An overview of political slang and its use amongst New York teenagers
Examine the relevance of Linguistics in a digitalized world
Analyze foul language and how it’s used to oppress minors
Identify the role of language in the national identity of a socially dynamic society
Attempt an explanation to how the language barrier could affect the social life of an individual in a new society
Discuss the means through which language can enrich cultural identities
Examine the concept of bilingualism and how it applies in the real world
Analyze the possible strategies for teaching a foreign language
Discuss the priority of teachers in the teaching of grammar to non-native speakers
Choose a school of your choice and observe the slang used by its students: analyze how it affects their social lives
Attempt a critical overview of racist languages
What does endangered language means and how does it apply in the real world?
A critical overview of your second language and why it is a second language
What are the motivators of speech and why are they relevant?
Analyze the difference between the different types of communications and their significance to specially-abled persons
Give a critical overview of five literature on sign language
Evaluate the distinction between the means of language comprehension between an adult and a teenager
Consider a native American group and evaluate how cultural diversity has influenced their language
Analyze the complexities involved in code-switching and code-mixing
Give a critical overview of the importance of language to a teenager
Attempt a forensic overview of language accessibility and what it means
What do you believe are the means of communications and what are their uniqueness?
Attempt a study of Islamic poetry and its role in language development
Attempt a study on the role of Literature in language development
Evaluate the Influence of metaphors and other literary devices in the depth of each sentence
Identify the role of literary devices in the development of proverbs in any African country
Cognitive Linguistics: analyze two pieces of Literature that offers a critical view of perception
Identify and analyze the complexities in unspoken words
Expression is another kind of language: discuss
Identify the significance of symbols in the evolution of language
Discuss how learning more than a single language promote cross-cultural developments
Analyze how the loss of a mother tongue affect the language Efficiency of a community
Critically examine how sign language works
Using literature from the medieval era, attempt a study of the evolution of language
Identify how wars have led to the reduction in the popularity of a language of your choice across any country of the world
Critically examine five Literature on why accent changes based on environment
What are the forces that compel the comprehension of language in a child
Identify and explain the difference between the listening and speaking skills and their significance in the understanding of language
Give a critical overview of how natural language is processed
Examine the influence of language on culture and vice versa
It is possible to understand a language even without living in that society: discuss
Identify the arguments regarding speech defects
Discuss how the familiarity of language informs the creation of slangs
Explain the significance of religious phrases and sacred languages
Explore the roots and evolution of incantations in Africa

Sociolinguistic Research Topics

You may as well need interesting Linguistics topics based on sociolinguistic purposes for your research. Sociolinguistics is the study and recording of natural speech. It’s primarily the casual status of most informal conversations. You can consider the following Sociolinguistic research topics for your research:

What makes language exceptional to a particular person?
How does language form a unique means of expression to writers?
Examine the kind of speech used in health and emergencies
Analyze the language theory explored by family members during dinner
Evaluate the possible variation of language based on class
Evaluate the language of racism, social tension, and sexism
Discuss how Language promotes social and cultural familiarities
Give an overview of identity and language
Examine why some language speakers enjoy listening to foreigners who speak their native language
Give a forensic analysis of his the language of entertainment is different to the language in professional settings
Give an understanding of how Language changes
Examine the Sociolinguistics of the Caribbeans
Consider an overview of metaphor in France
Explain why the direct translation of written words is incomprehensible in Linguistics
Discuss the use of language in marginalizing a community
Analyze the history of Arabic and the culture that enhanced it
Discuss the growth of French and the influences of other languages
Examine how the English language developed and its interdependence on other languages
Give an overview of cultural diversity and Linguistics in teaching
Challenge the attachment of speech defect with disability of language listening and speaking abilities
Explore the uniqueness of language between siblings
Explore the means of making requests between a teenager and his parents
Observe and comment on how students relate with their teachers through language
Observe and comment on the communication of strategy of parents and teachers
Examine the connection of understanding first language with academic excellence

Language Research Topics

Numerous languages exist in different societies. This is why you may seek to understand the motivations behind language through these Linguistics project ideas. You can consider the following interesting Linguistics topics and their application to language:

What does language shift mean?
Discuss the stages of English language development?
Examine the position of ambiguity in a romantic Language of your choice
Why are some languages called romantic languages?
Observe the strategies of persuasion through Language
Discuss the connection between symbols and words
Identify the language of political speeches
Discuss the effectiveness of language in an indigenous cultural revolution
Trace the motivators for spoken language
What does language acquisition mean to you?
Examine three pieces of literature on language translation and its role in multilingual accessibility
Identify the science involved in language reception
Interrogate with the context of language disorders
Examine how psychotherapy applies to victims of language disorders
Study the growth of Hindi despite colonialism
Critically appraise the term, language erasure
Examine how colonialism and war is responsible for the loss of language
Give an overview of the difference between sounds and letters and how they apply to the German language
Explain why the placement of verb and preposition is different in German and English languages
Choose two languages of your choice and examine their historical relationship
Discuss the strategies employed by people while learning new languages
Discuss the role of all the figures of speech in the advancement of language
Analyze the complexities of autism and its victims
Offer a linguist approach to language uniqueness between a Down Syndrome child and an autist
Express dance as a language
Express music as a language
Express language as a form of language
Evaluate the role of cultural diversity in the decline of languages in South Africa
Discuss the development of the Greek language
Critically review two literary texts, one from the medieval era and another published a decade ago, and examine the language shifts

Linguistics Essay Topics

You may also need Linguistics research topics for your Linguistics essays. As a linguist in the making, these can help you consider controversies in Linguistics as a discipline and address them through your study. You can consider:

The connection of sociolinguistics in comprehending interests in multilingualism
Write on your belief of how language encourages sexism
What do you understand about the differences between British and American English?
Discuss how slangs grew and how they started
Consider how age leads to loss of language
Review how language is used in formal and informal conversation
Discuss what you understand by polite language
Discuss what you know by hate language
Evaluate how language has remained flexible throughout history
Mimicking a teacher is a form of exercising hate Language: discuss
Body Language and verbal speech are different things: discuss
Language can be exploitative: discuss
Do you think language is responsible for inciting aggression against the state?
Can you justify the structural representation of any symbol of your choice?
Religious symbols are not ordinary Language: what are your perspective on day-to-day languages and sacred ones?
Consider the usage of language by an English man and someone of another culture
Discuss the essence of code-mixing and code-switching
Attempt a psychological assessment on the role of language in academic development
How does language pose a challenge to studying?
Choose a multicultural society of your choice and explain the problem they face
What forms does Language use in expression?
Identify the reasons behind unspoken words and actions
Why do universal languages exist as a means of easy communication?
Examine the role of the English language in the world
Examine the role of Arabic in the world
Examine the role of romantic languages in the world
Evaluate the significance of each teaching Resources in a language classroom
Consider an assessment of language analysis
Why do people comprehend beyond what is written or expressed?
What is the impact of hate speech on a woman?
Do you believe that grammatical errors are how everyone’s comprehension of language is determined?
Observe the Influence of technology in language learning and development
Which parts of the body are responsible for understanding new languages
How has language informed development?
Would you say language has improved human relations or worsened it considering it as a tool for violence?
Would you say language in a black populous state is different from its social culture in white populous states?
Give an overview of the English language in Nigeria
Give an overview of the English language in Uganda
Give an overview of the English language in India
Give an overview of Russian in Europe
Give a conceptual analysis on stress and how it works
Consider the means of vocabulary development and its role in cultural relationships
Examine the effects of Linguistics in language
Present your understanding of sign language
What do you understand about descriptive language and prescriptive Language?

List of Research Topics in English Language

You may need English research topics for your next research. These are topics that are socially crafted for you as a student of language in any institution. You can consider the following for in-depth analysis:

Examine the travail of women in any feminist text of your choice
Examine the movement of feminist literature in the Industrial period
Give an overview of five Gothic literature and what you understand from them
Examine rock music and how it emerged as a genre
Evaluate the cultural association with Nina Simone’s music
What is the relevance of Shakespeare in English literature?
How has literature promoted the English language?
Identify the effect of spelling errors in the academic performance of students in an institution of your choice
Critically survey a university and give rationalize the literary texts offered as Significant
Examine the use of feminist literature in advancing the course against patriarchy
Give an overview of the themes in William Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar”
Express the significance of Ernest Hemingway’s diction in contemporary literature
Examine the predominant devices in the works of William Shakespeare
Explain the predominant devices in the works of Christopher Marlowe
Charles Dickens and his works: express the dominating themes in his Literature
Why is Literature described as the mirror of society?
Examine the issues of feminism in Sefi Atta’s “Everything Good Will Come” and Bernadine Evaristos’s “Girl, Woman, Other”
Give an overview of the stylistics employed in the writing of “Girl, Woman, Other” by Bernadine Evaristo
Describe the language of advertisement in social media and newspapers
Describe what poetic Language means
Examine the use of code-switching and code-mixing on Mexican Americans
Examine the use of code-switching and code-mixing in Indian Americans
Discuss the influence of George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” on satirical literature
Examine the Linguistics features of “Native Son” by Richard Wright
What is the role of indigenous literature in promoting cultural identities
How has literature informed cultural consciousness?
Analyze five literature on semantics and their Influence on the study
Assess the role of grammar in day to day communications
Observe the role of multidisciplinary approaches in understanding the English language
What does stylistics mean while analyzing medieval literary texts?
Analyze the views of philosophers on language, society, and culture

English Research Paper Topics for College Students

For your college work, you may need to undergo a study of any phenomenon in the world. Note that they could be Linguistics essay topics or mainly a research study of an idea of your choice. Thus, you can choose your research ideas from any of the following:

The concept of fairness in a democratic Government
The capacity of a leader isn’t in his or her academic degrees
The concept of discrimination in education
The theory of discrimination in Islamic states
The idea of school policing
A study on grade inflation and its consequences
A study of taxation and Its importance to the economy from a citizen’s perspectives
A study on how eloquence lead to discrimination amongst high school students
A study of the influence of the music industry in teens
An Evaluation of pornography and its impacts on College students
A descriptive study of how the FBI works according to Hollywood
A critical consideration of the cons and pros of vaccination
The health effect of sleep disorders
An overview of three literary texts across three genres of Literature and how they connect to you
A critical overview of “King Oedipus”: the role of the supernatural in day to day life
Examine the novel “12 Years a Slave” as a reflection of servitude and brutality exerted by white slave owners
Rationalize the emergence of racist Literature with concrete examples
A study of the limits of literature in accessing rural readers
Analyze the perspectives of modern authors on the Influence of medieval Literature on their craft
What do you understand by the mortality of a literary text?
A study of controversial Literature and its role in shaping the discussion
A critical overview of three literary texts that dealt with domestic abuse and their role in changing the narratives about domestic violence
Choose three contemporary poets and analyze the themes of their works
Do you believe that contemporary American literature is the repetition of unnecessary themes already treated in the past?
A study of the evolution of Literature and its styles
The use of sexual innuendos in literature
The use of sexist languages in literature and its effect on the public
The disaster associated with media reports of fake news
Conduct a study on how language is used as a tool for manipulation
Attempt a criticism of a controversial Literary text and why it shouldn’t be studied or sold in the first place

Finding Linguistics Hard To Write About?

With these topics, you can commence your research with ease. However, if you need professional writing help for any part of the research, you can scout here online for the best research paper writing service.

There are several expert writers on ENL hosted on our website that you can consider for a fast response on your research study at a cheap price.

As students, you may be unable to cover every part of your research on your own. This inability is the reason you should consider expert writers for custom research topics in Linguistics approved by your professor for high grades.

Gamification: KAHOOT in Enhancing ESL Learners’ Performance and Motivation to Learn Grammar

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First Online: 14 July 2024
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Laily Murny Kamarulzaman 10 &
Nor Adriena Abdul Mutalib 10

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Educational Technology ((LNET))

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International Conference on Advancing and Redesigning Education

The purpose of this study is to explore the possible relationship between gamification and students’ motivation and performance in learning grammar in English as Second Language (ESL) classroom. The research objectives include to determine how gamification through Kahoot affects students’ learning performance and motivation in learning grammar in ESL classroom and to investigate their views on gamifications element through Kahoot. A quasi-experimental study was conducted with two groups of university students. Kahoot was employed as an intervention for the experimental group, whereas the control group was taught by using the conventional method. Data was extracted from pre-test, post-test and two sets of questionnaires. The results were analysed by using SPSS IBM version 23 and descriptive statistics is analysed based on cumulative test score, frequencies, and percentage. Overall, the results revealed statistically significant difference in students’ performance in learning grammar as the experimental group achieved higher post test scores than the control group. Besides, the cumulative motivation level score for learning grammar for students in experimental group was much higher than the control group. In addition, from the surveys, there was positive indication from the students’ attitude in experimental group towards gamification integration in learning grammar.

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Kapp, K.M.: The Gamification of learning and instruction. Wiley, San Francisco (2012)

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Lee, J.J., Hammer, J.: Gamification in education: what, how, why bother? definitions and uses. Excha. Organizat. Behav. Teach. J. 15 (2), 1–5 (2011)

Schunk, D.H., Meece, J.R., Pintrich, P.R.: Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications, 4th ed. Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ (2013)

Wichadee, S., Pattanawichet, F.: Enhancement of performance and motivation through application of digital games in an English language class. Teaching English with Technology 18 (1) (2018)

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Centre for Foundation Studies, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Malaysia

Laily Murny Kamarulzaman & Nor Adriena Abdul Mutalib

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Correspondence to Nor Adriena Abdul Mutalib .

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Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Perak, Malaysia

Mohd Fakhizan bin Romlie

Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Siti Haryani Shaikh Ali

Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Kajang, Malaysia

Zolman Bin Hari

Multimedia University, Melaka, Malaysia

Meng Chew Leow

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Kamarulzaman, L.M., Abdul Mutalib, N.A. (2024). Gamification: KAHOOT in Enhancing ESL Learners’ Performance and Motivation to Learn Grammar. In: Romlie, M.F.b., Shaikh Ali, S.H., Hari, Z.B., Leow, M.C. (eds) Proceedings of the International Conference on Advancing and Redesigning Education 2023. ICARE 2023. Lecture Notes in Educational Technology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-4507-4_62

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DOI: 10.35445/alishlah.v16i2.4979
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Coping Strategies for English Language Anxiety: A Comparative Study of Lecturers and Students Across Disciplines

Dewi Warna , Muhamad Uyun
Published in AL-ISHLAH: Jurnal Pendidikan 25 June 2024
Education, Psychology
AL-ISHLAH: Jurnal Pendidikan

69 References

A concise introduction to mixed methods research.

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Students’ perceptions of lecturers’ motivational strategies and their attitudes towards the English language and an academic English module

The effects of emotional intelligence on the students’ learning outcomes in a state high school, relationship between japanese language anxiety, beliefs about learning, and language use in japanese language classes, investigating students’ motivation toward the use of zoom meeting application as english learning media during covid-19 pandemic, factors affecting students’ attitudes towards learning english as a foreign language in a tertiary institution of vietnam, dealing with foreign language speaking anxiety: what every language teacher should know, potential sources of foreign language learning boredom: a q methodology study, positive psychology in the foreign language and translation classroom, related papers.

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