computer assignment references

Reference Sources by Subject: Computer Science Reference Sources

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Encyclopedias

• The Gale Encyclopedia of Science , 4th edition (2008) [electronic book] Covers all major areas of science, engineering, technology, as well as mathematics and the medical and health sciences, while providing a comprehensive overview of current scientific knowledge and technology. Entries typically describe scientific concepts, provide overviews of scientific areas and, in some cases, define terms.
• Encyclopedia of geographic information science (2008) Available ion 3rd floor under call number: G70.212 .E53 2008
• McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology (2007) Available in the Reference Collection on the 1st floor under call number: REF Q121 .M3 2007 Some of the topics covered in this resource include: computational intelligence, computer-aided circuit design and nanotechnology.
• Encyclopedia of human computer interaction (2006) [electronic book] Provides an overview of many topics in the relatively new and evolving field of human computer interacation.
• Encyclopedia of computer science (2000) Available on the 3rd floor under call number: QA76.15.E48 2000 Contains over 600 articles by internationally-known computing experts on topics covering computers, computing, and computer science.
• The Facts On File encyclopedia of science, technology, and society (1999) Available on the 3rd floor under call number: Q121 .V65 1999

Dictionaries

• Dictionary of information technology (2010) [electronic book] Includes the main technical terms used in the IT field.
• Modern dictionary of bioinformatics and biotechnology (2008) [electronic book] A specialized dictionary that is a comprehensive introduction to the use of computers in biological research.
• Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography (2008) [electronic book] Provides information on the history of science through articles on the professional lives of scientists. All periods of science from classical antiquity to modern times are represented.
• The information security dictionary: defining the terms that define security for E-business, Internet, information, and wireless technology (2004) [electronic resource] provides a relatively complete and easyto read explanation of common security, malware, vulnerability and infrastructure protection terms.
• McGraw-Hill dictionary of electronics and computer technology (1984) Available in Library on Book Shelves on the 3rd floor under call number: TK7804 .M4 1984

Handbooks, Guides, and Manuals

• Guidelines for smart grid cyber security (2010) [electronic book]
• Security engineering : a guide to building dependable distributed systems (2008) Available in Library on Book Shelves on the3rd floor under call number: QA76.9 .A25 A54 2008
• The computer science and engineering handbook (1997) Available in Library on Book Shelves on the 3rd floor under call number: QA76 .C57315 1997
• Handbook of logic in computer science (1992) Available in Library on Book Shelves on the 3rd floor under call number: QA76 .H2785 1992
• Handbook of theoretical computer science (1990) Available in Library on Book Shelves on the 3rd floor under call number: QA76 .H279 1990

Computer Science Librarian

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Information Technology: Referencing for IT

As   IT students, you will be using the  APA 7th referencing style . 

Why do we reference?

At university you are expected to reference information sources used in your assignments. Referencing is important as it:

• gives credit to authors
• shows that you’ve done your research  
• means that others can find the resources you have used .

APA 7th Referencing Guide

For help on how to reference using APA 7th style, have a look at our comprehensive referencing guide.

You can open it in a new page and download it by clicking the link below.

Referencing Videos

Useful Sections

Here are some common types of sources you will need to reference as an IT student:

Journal Articles (Section 2.01)

Conference papers  (Section 7.07)

Tip: Conference papers or proceedings that have been published in a journal or book should be referenced as journal articles or chapters in an edited book.

Chapter in an edited book  (Section 1.10)

Standards  (Section 5.08)

Statistics (Section 7.01)

Reports (Section 7.01)

Patents  (Section 5.07)

Generative AI   (Section 6.08)

As   IT students, you may also be asked to use the IEEE referencing style

• IEEE Referencing Guide

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) style is a numbered referencing system, and widely used in technical fields, particularly in computer science. IEEE  style uses citation numbers in the text of the paper, provided in square brackets. A full corresponding  references  are listed at the end of the paper and sorted by citation numbers. The IEEE Reference Guide outlines how to cite a variety of references in IEEE style.

Watch the video below for a demonstration of how to create in-text references and a reference list in IEEE referencing style.

IEEE referencing - The Basics from Victoria University Library on Vimeo .

• IEEE Reference Guide by IEEE
• IEEE Referencing guide by Victoria Univesity
• IEEE referencing - all format examples
• IEEE RMIT Easy Cite referencing tool
• Referencing Software

UTS Library supports RefWorks and EndNote .

RefWorks is a cloud-based reference manager that can assist your referencing. It can be used to create reference lists and in-text citations. We recommend this to undergraduate students. 

• UTS Library: RefWorks

EndNote is suitable for researchers and can be a helpful tool when undertaking a scoping or literature review.

To learn more about EndNote, visit the Library pages linked below, have a look at our EndNote videos and sign up for our EndNote workshops!

• UTS Library: EndNote Click here to see the EndNote page on the UTS Library website.
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• Plan Your Search
• What is Scholarly Information?
• Finding Books & Book Chapters
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• Why we reference
• APA 7th referencing guide
• Referencing videos
• Useful Sections for IT

Related Guides

• Statistics Guide
• Patents and Standards Guide
• Company, Industry and Country Information Guide
• Mathematics and Statistics
• Data Science

Need more help?

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APA Templates

These are formatting templates that you can use; just select the appropriate template for your assignment needs.

• APA Microsoft Word Template (no abstract with references) - 7th Edition
• APA Microsoft Word Template (abstract and references) - 7th Edition
• APA Microsoft Word Template (no abstract or references) - 7th Edition
• APA Microsoft Word Template with Headings/References
• APA 7th ed. Template This is an interactive template with headings

Student Success Center Writing Resources

• WilmU Student Writing Resources Essay Writing, research strategies, APA, and Grammar (MUGs) help, blog and more!
• Math and Writing Resources

APA Formatting and Citation

The OWL provides an easy to follow formatting and citation guide for APA style.

• OWL Purdue Online Writing Lab - 7th edition
• APA Instructional Aids and Tutorials American Psychological Association website listing links to instructional aids, tutorials, and sample papers.
• Using Discovery for Locating Citations
• Statistics and APA/Editing Resources for Doctoral Students at Wilmington University

Citation Managers

Popular tools to manage your citations.

Managing research citations is an essential part of the research process. Citation management tools can help you to:

• organize your research all in one place
• avoid plagiarism by tracking your research path
• create in text citations with the click of a button(s)
• easily format - and re-format - bibliographies

It is highly recommended that students double-check all citations and formatting produced by citation generators.

• BibMe BibMe is a free automatic bibliography generator that supports MLA, APA, Chicago, and Turabian formatting.
• RefWorks RefWorks can help you save, organize and share references. References can be added to your Microsoft Word documents as in-text citations and reference lists formatted in any citation style you choose. Sign up for a free account and find more helpful information in this LibGuide.
• Zotero Zotero [zoh-TAIR-oh] is a free, easy-to-use Firefox extension to help you collect, manage, and cite your research sources.

Academic Integrity

• Plagiarism Pitfalls This interactive page provides quick tips to avoid plagiarism and details on what constitutes plagiarism through three different student scenarios.
• Student Code of Conduct This page outlines the academic code of conduct at Wilmington University. A violation of any of the codes listed on this page is a violation of academic integrity.
• TurnItIn This page explains the benefits, uses, and capabilities of the TurnItIn Plagerism Detection software.
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References, citations and avoiding plagiarism

Assignments.

• Getting Started
• Independent research
• Understanding a reference
• Managing your references
• How to reference
• Acknowledging and referencing AI
• Harvard referencing
• Vancouver referencing
• APA referencing
• Chicago referencing
• OSCOLA referencing
• MHRA referencing
• MLA referencing

Avoiding plagiarism

• Further help

Referencing in your assignments

In academic work of any kind, effective referencing of your sources will ensure that you:

• show that you are writing from a position of understanding of your topic.
• demonstrate that you have read widely and deeply.
• enable the reader to locate the source of each quote, idea or work/evidence (that was not your own).
• avoid plagiarism and uphold academic honesty.

In order to cite sources correctly in your assignments, you need to understand the essentials of how to reference and follow guidelines for the referencing style you are required to use.

• Referencing styles

Citing your sources can help you avoid plagiarism. You may need to submit your assignments through Turnitin, plagiarism detection software. Find out more about Turnitin and how you can use it to check your work before submitting it:

• What is plagiarism?

Why do I need to reference? Find out more

Referencing and empowerment

Karen Gravett & Ian M. Kinchin (2020) Referencing and empowerment: exploring barriers to agency in the higher education student experience, Teaching in Higher Education, 25:1, 84-97

Plagiarism: what is it, whom does it offend, and how does one deal with it?

J D Armstrong, 2nd (1993) Plagiarism: what is it, whom does it offend, and how does one deal with it?, American Journal of Roentgenology, 161:3, 479-484

Teaching Referencing as an Introduction to Epistemological Empowerment

Monica Hendricks & Lynn Quinn (2000) Teaching Referencing as an Introduction to Epistemological Empowerment, Teaching in Higher Education, 5:4, 447-457

Academic honesty and conduct

• UCL guide to Academic Integrity What is Academic Integrity, why is it important, and what happens if you breach it?
• Understanding Academic Integrity course UCL's online and self-paced course to help you understand academic integrity, designed to help students to develop good academic practice for completing assessments.
• Engaging with AI in your education and assessment UCL student guidance on how you might engage with Artificial Intelligence (AI) in your assessments, effectively and ethically.
• Referencing and avoiding plagiarism tutorial

Referencing style guides

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Computer Science

• Reference Sources
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Handbooks and Tables

Dictionaries and encyclopedias, biographical sources.

• Websites of Interest
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• Writing and Presenting Resources
• ACM Collected Algorithms Includes software associated with papers in ACM publications. Electronic version includes all algorithms numbered 493 and above, as well as a few earlier ones; organized by algorithm number. Algorithms may be downloaded from this server.
• Martindale's Calculators On-Line Center Provides links to a wide range of online calculators, arranged in broad subject categories.
• The Computer Science Handbook, 2nd edition. Editor-in-chief, Allen B. Tucker, Jr. CRC Press, 2004. (Print) A comprehensive handbook with information organized in chapters within 11 subject sections. Published in cooperation with the ACM. QA76.C54755 2004 -- Crerar First Floor Reference Collection
• Encyclopedia of Computer Science Electronic version of the 2003 print edition with over 600 entries in all aspects of computer science. Browse via the alphabetical table of contents or do a keyword search. Links to related entries assist in navigating between entries. Several appendices provide further information.
• Encyclopedia of Software Engineering This handbook "explores the issues and principles of software engineering" and includes over 200 major articles plus many shorter ones.
• Oxford Dictionary of Computing Provides brief definitions for 6,500 computing terms. Updated in 2008.
• Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures Provides definitions for terms related to algorithms, algorithmic techniques, and data structures. Also includes a list of "terms with definitions which have links to implementations with source code" and a category/subject index. Produced by the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology).
• FOLDOC: Free On-line Dictionary of Computing A searchable dictionary of "acronyms, jargon, programming languages, tools, architecture, operating systems, networking, theory, conventions, standards, mathematics, telecoms, electronics, institutions, companies, projects, products, history, in fact anything to do with computing". Contains over 14,000 definitions.
• Past Notable Women in Computing Provides brief biographies for a select group; includes links to relevant web sites.
• Piioneers - The People and Ideas that Made a Difference Informative biographies and images of 10 historical figures in computer science, including Charles Babbage, Vannevar Bush, George Boole, and Nikola Tesla.
• International Biographical Dictionary of Computer Pioneers. Fitzroy Dearborn, 1995. (Print) Includes biographies for over 250 computer pioneers. Most articles contain a list of selected publications and biographical references. QA76.2.A2L442 1995 -- Crerar Library Reference Collection
• Biographies - Pioneers of Computing Lists "most of the computer pioneers and their inventions, or other important people in computers or computing industry." Includes biographical information for most of the people listed.

Contact Information

Jennifer Hart Librarian for Computer Science, Mathematics, Physics and Statistics Ryerson Physical Laboratory 156 773-702-7569 Email Jenny

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Computer Science: Referencing Guide

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Referencing style

Undergraduate students will often include a bibliography in their individual projects, although it is not essential. If you do so, then please give references in a consistent form. More information can be found in the Project briefing document . You may find a tool such as BibT E X useful to automate this process.

Specific advice for Computer Science students

• Undergraduate students will find general advice in the Project briefing document .
• Postgraduate students will be given more specific advice in the Research Skills course .

A good guide to technical writing and presentations is: Justin Zobel (2014). Writing for Computer science . Springer (3nd ed.). Copies of this book are available to borrow in the West Hub library.

Technical writing

Other Referencing advice

You will find reference management software useful for creating bibliographies. Computer science students often choose to use BibT E X .

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What are reference sources?

Reference sources are resources used to locate basic information and secondary literature.

There are many types of reference sources, including dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, atlases, handbooks, guides, and style manuals. 

They are a fantastic places to begin your research, especially if you are exploring a new topic.

Reference sources can help you to:

• define your topic in general terms
• find background information, including themes and key points
• identify keywords and alternative terms for conceptualising your subject, and for database searching.

Dictionaries

Encyclopaedias

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• Free Tools for Students
• Harvard Referencing Generator

Free Harvard Referencing Generator

Generate accurate Harvard reference lists quickly and for FREE, with MyBib!

🤔 What is a Harvard Referencing Generator?

A Harvard Referencing Generator is a tool that automatically generates formatted academic references in the Harvard style.

It takes in relevant details about a source -- usually critical information like author names, article titles, publish dates, and URLs -- and adds the correct punctuation and formatting required by the Harvard referencing style.

The generated references can be copied into a reference list or bibliography, and then collectively appended to the end of an academic assignment. This is the standard way to give credit to sources used in the main body of an assignment.

👩‍🎓 Who uses a Harvard Referencing Generator?

Harvard is the main referencing style at colleges and universities in the United Kingdom and Australia. It is also very popular in other English-speaking countries such as South Africa, Hong Kong, and New Zealand. University-level students in these countries are most likely to use a Harvard generator to aid them with their undergraduate assignments (and often post-graduate too).

🙌 Why should I use a Harvard Referencing Generator?

A Harvard Referencing Generator solves two problems:

• It provides a way to organise and keep track of the sources referenced in the content of an academic paper.
• It ensures that references are formatted correctly -- inline with the Harvard referencing style -- and it does so considerably faster than writing them out manually.

A well-formatted and broad bibliography can account for up to 20% of the total grade for an undergraduate-level project, and using a generator tool can contribute significantly towards earning them.

⚙️ How do I use MyBib's Harvard Referencing Generator?

Here's how to use our reference generator:

• If citing a book, website, journal, or video: enter the URL or title into the search bar at the top of the page and press the search button.
• Choose the most relevant results from the list of search results.
• Our generator will automatically locate the source details and format them in the correct Harvard format. You can make further changes if required.
• Then either copy the formatted reference directly into your reference list by clicking the 'copy' button, or save it to your MyBib account for later.

MyBib supports the following for Harvard style:

🍏 What other versions of Harvard referencing exist?

There isn't "one true way" to do Harvard referencing, and many universities have their own slightly different guidelines for the style. Our generator can adapt to handle the following list of different Harvard styles:

• Cite Them Right
• Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU)
• University of the West of England (UWE)

Daniel is a qualified librarian, former teacher, and citation expert. He has been contributing to MyBib since 2018.

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• About Referencing
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Harvard Referencing Style

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What is referencing?

Referencing is a standardised method used particularly in academic writing to acknowledge the sources used in an essay or paper. "It serves as evidence from secondary sources to your research" (Badenhorst 2007, p. 21).

Where do you reference in your paper?

• In the body of your paper. This is called textual or in-text citation (examples are given on each referencing style in this guide).
• At the end of your paper. This is known as the reference list or a bibliography. You must always start your bibliography or your reference list in a new page. There is a difference between a bibliography and a reference list. A bibliography is a list of all the sources you have consulted when preparing to write your paper, it doesn't matter whether you have cited them in the body of your paper or not. A reference list is a list of only the sources you have cited in the body of your paper. Normally in academic writing, students are required to give a reference list.

What must be referenced?

Direct quotation - this is when you use the direct words of the author as they exactly appear in the text. This must be cited and enclosed in the quotation marks.

Paraphrase - This is when you take a passage from a source and re-write it in your own words but the ideas or facts you are expressing are based on what you read. This must be cited as well but is not enclosed in quotation marks.

Summary - A summary is similar to a paraphrase since you also re-write this piece of information in your own words. However with summary you select only the main ideas and and supporting details. This also needs to be referenced but is also not enclosed in quotation marks. 

Why do you need to give references to your work?

• To redirect the readers of your paper to the original sources you have cited;
• To validate and give credibility to your argument;
• To distinguish between your own ideas and those of someone else's;
• To demonstrate to your lecturers the amount of reading you have done;
• To avoid being accused of plagiarism.

What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the act of using somebody else's ideas or words without giving credits to the originator. It is treated as an academic crime and can result in failing the whole course or being expelled from the institution. There are two kinds of plagiarism  (i) Accidental plagiarism  = this type of plagiarism happens when you did not intend to plagiarise but you still failed to acknowledge the sources.  (ii) Blatant plagiarism  = this is when you commit plagiarism deliberately - e.g. you copy and paste a passage from somebody else's assignment without acknowledging the source.

Accidental Plagiarism:

• Failing to give citation after paraphrasing or summarising;
• Referencing sources incorrectly;
• Forgetting to put a direct quote in the quotation marks;
• Using too many direct quotations constitutes plagiarism, as it indicates that you have contributed very little;
• Failing to paraphrase correctly and keep the original meaning of the passage.

Blatant Plagiarism:

• Asking somebody else to write your essay for you;
• Copy and pasting a passage from somebody else's essay without acknowledging the source;
• Stealing another person's essay and submit it as if it is yours;
• Buying somebody else's paper and submit it as if it is yours.

Harvard is also known as the Author-Date system.  The author's surname and year of publication are cited in the text of your work. The full details of the book are included in a reference list at the end of the assignment.

Quick links for citing in Harvard

Citing books More about citing books

Citing journal articles Citing other types of periodicals

Emails, blogs YouTube videos, website publications

Government publications

Miscellaneous sources

EndNote is reference management software with features to keep all your references and reference-related materials in a searchable personal library.

EndNote enables researcher to:

• Promote new and ongoing research
• Provide a standardised reference management tool with access anywhere
• Track research trends, authors or topics easily
• Capture, store, and organize vast collections of research in one place
• Simplify bibliography and report creation within Microsoft® Word
• Collaborate and share research across departments and organizations globally

Endnote Installation Guide:

More information and tips on using EndNote and links to resources can be found here: 

• How to Install Endnote 20 Guide
• How to Install Endnote 20 Installation Files (Shortcut) 

Mendeley  is a free reference manager and academic social network that serves as an information system to support research. 

It can help researchers to:

• Set up, organise and manage a library;
• Find new research on the embedded search feature;
• Access, manage and share references and research data;
• Share documents and collaborate;
• Highlight and annotate documents;
• Showcase your latest research;
• Find funding, and identify career opportunities.

Mendeley Installation Guide:

Download and install

Create a free account

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Computer Networking: Referencing and Citing

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• Referencing and Citing

Referencing and citation

• It is important (morally & legally) to acknowledge someone else’s ideas or words you have used. Academic writing encourages paraphrasing information you have researched and read.
• Paraphrasing means re-wording something you have read in to your own words. If you use someone else’s words or work and fail to acknowledge them – you may be accused of plagiarism and infringing copyright.
• Referencing correctly enables the marker or reader of your assignment to locate the source of the information. They can verify the information or read further on the topic.
• Referencing also allows for you to retrace your steps and locate information you have used for assignments and discover further views or ideas discussed by the author.By referencing clearly and correctly, it demonstrates you have undertaken research on the assignment topic and located relevant information.

Learn important tips for reference and how to reference from our referencing guide, here .

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Referencing Generator

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• Select style:
• Archive material
• Chapter of an edited book
• Conference proceedings
• Dictionary entry
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• DVD, video, or film
• E-book or PDF
• Edited book
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• Music or recording
• Online image or video
• Presentation
• Press release
• Religious text

What Is Cite This For Me’s Reference Generator?

Cite This For Me’s open-access generator is an automated citation machine that turns any of your sources into references in just a click. Using a reference generator helps students to integrate referencing into their research and writing routine; turning a time-consuming ordeal into a simple task.

A referencing generator accesses information from across the web, drawing the relevant information into a fully-formatted bibliography that clearly presents all of the sources that have contributed to your work.

If you don’t know how to reference a website correctly, or have a fast-approaching deadline, Cite This For Me’s accurate and intuitive reference generator will lend you the confidence to realise your full academic potential. In order to get a grade that reflects all your hard work, your references must be accurate and complete. Using a citation machine not only saves you time but also ensures that you don’t lose valuable marks on your assignment.

Not sure how to format your citations, what citations are, or just want to find out more about Cite This For Me’s reference generator? This guide outlines everything you need to know to equip yourself with the know-how and confidence to research and cite a wide range of diverse sources in your work.

Why Do I Need To Reference?

Simply put, when another source contributes to your work, you have to give the original owner the appropriate credit. After all, you wouldn’t steal someone else’s possessions so why would you steal their ideas?

Regardless of whether you are referencing a website, an article or a podcast, any factual material or ideas you take from another source must be acknowledged in a citation unless it is common knowledge (e.g. Winston Churchill was English). Failing to credit all of your sources, even when you’ve paraphrased or completely reworded the information, is plagiarism. Plagiarising will result in disciplinary action, which can range from losing precious marks on your assignment to expulsion from your university.

What’s more, attributing your research infuses credibility and authority into your work, both by supporting your own ideas and by demonstrating the breadth of your research. For many students, crediting sources can be a confusing and tedious process, but it’s a surefire way to improve the quality of your work so it’s essential to get it right. Luckily for you, using Cite This For Me’s reference generator makes creating accurate references easier than ever, leaving more time for you to excel in your studies.

In summary, the citing process serves three main functions:

• To validate the statements and conclusions in your work by providing directions to other sound sources that support and verify them.
• To help your readers locate, read and check your sources, as well as establishing their contribution to your work.
• To give credit to the original author and hence avoid committing intellectual property theft (known as ‘plagiarism’ in academia).

How Do I Cite My Sources With The Cite This For Me Referencing Generator?

Cite This For Me’s reference generator is the most accurate citation machine available, so whether you’re not sure how to format in-text references or are looking for a foolproof solution to automate a fully-formatted bibliography, this referencing generator will solve all of your citing needs.

Crediting your source material doesn’t just prevent you from losing valuable marks for plagiarism, it also provides all of the information to help your reader find for themselves the book, article, or other item you are citing. The accessible interface of the reference generator makes it easy for you to identify the source you have used – simply enter its unique identifier into the citation machine search bar. If this information is not available you can search for the title or author instead, and then select from the search results that appear below the reference generator.

Don’t know how to reference a website? The good news is that by using tools such as Cite This For Me’s reference generator, which help you work smarter, you don’t need to limit your research to sources that are traditional to cite. In fact, there are no limits to what you can cite, whether you are referencing a website, a YouTube video or a tweet.

To use the reference generator, simply:

• Select your style from Harvard, APA, OSCOLA and many more*
• Choose the type of source you would like to cite (e.g. website, book, journal, video)
• Enter the URL , DOI , ISBN , title, or other unique source information to find your source
• Click the ‘Cite’ button on the reference generator
• Copy your new citation straight from the referencing generator into your bibliography
• Repeat for each source that has contributed to your work.

*If you require another style for your paper, essay or other academic work, you can select from over 1,000 styles by creating a free Cite This For Me account.

Once you have created your Cite This For Me account you will be able to use the reference generator to create multiple references and save them into a project. Use Cite This For Me’s highly-rated iOS or Android apps to generate references in a flash with your smartphone camera, export your complete bibliography in one go, and much more.

What Will The Reference Generator Create For Me?

Cite This For Me’s reference generator will create your citation in two parts: an in-text citation and a full citation to be copied straight into your work.

The reference generator will auto-generate the correct formatting for your bibliography depending on your chosen style. For instance, if you select a parenthetical style the reference generator will generate an in-text citation in parentheses, along with a full citation to slot into your bibliography. Likewise, if the reference generator is set to a footnote style then it will create a fully-formatted citation for your reference list and bibliography, as well as a corresponding footnote to insert at the bottom of the page containing the relevant source.

Parenthetical style examples:

In-text example: A nation has been defined as an imagined community (Anderson, 2006).* Alternative format: Anderson (2006) defined a nation as an imagined community.

*The reference generator will create your references in the first style, but this should be edited if the author’s name already appears in the text.

Bibliography / Works Cited list example: Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined Communities. London: Verso.

What Are Citation Styles?

A citation style is a set of rules that you, as an academic writer, must follow to ensure the quality and relevance of your work. There are thousands of styles that are used in different academic institutions around the world, but in the UK the most common are Harvard, APA and Oscola.

The style you need to use will depend on the preference of your lecturer, discipline or academic institution – so if you’re unsure which style you should be using, consult your department and follow their guidelines exactly, as this is what you’ll be evaluated on when it comes to marking. You can also find your university’s style by logging into your Cite This For Me account and setting your institution in ‘My Profile’.

Citing isn’t just there to guard against plagiarism – presenting your research in a clear and consistent way eases the reader’s comprehension. Each style has a different set of rules for formatting both the page and your references. Be sure to adhere to formatting rules such as font type, font size and line spacing to ensure that your work is easily legible. Furthermore, if your work is published as part of an anthology or collected works, each entry will need to be presented in the same style to maintain uniformity throughout. It is important to make sure that you don’t jump from one style to another, so follow the rules carefully to ensure your reference list and bibliography are both accurate and complete.

If you need a hand with your citations then why not try Cite This For Me’s reference generator? It’s the quickest and easiest way to cite any source, in any style. The reference generator above will create your citations in the Harvard referencing style as standard, but it can generate fully-formatted references in over 1,000 styles – including university variations of each style. So, whether your lecturer has asked you to adopt APA referencing , or your subject requires you to use OSCOLA referencing , we’re sure to have the style you need. To access all of them, simply go to Cite This For Me’s website to create your free Cite This For Me account and search for your specific style such as MLA or Vancouver .

How Do I Format A Reference List Or Bibliography?

Drawing on a wide range of sources greatly enhances the quality of your work, and reading above and beyond your recommended reading list – and then using these sources to support your own thesis – is an excellent way to impress your reader. A clearly presented reference list or bibliography demonstrates the lengths you have gone to in researching your chosen topic.

Typically, a reference list starts on a new page at the end of the main body of text and includes a complete list of the sources you have actually cited in your paper. This list should contain all the information needed for the reader to locate the original source of the information, quote or statistic that directly contributed to your work. On the other hand, a bibliography is a comprehensive list of all the material you may have consulted throughout your research and writing process. Both provide the necessary information for readers to retrieve and check the sources cited in your work.

Each style’s guidelines will define the terminology of ‘reference list’ and ‘bibliography’, as well as providing formatting guidelines for font, line spacing and page indentations. In addition, it will instruct you on how to order each list – this will usually be either alphabetical or chronological (meaning the order that these sources appear in your work). Before submitting your work, be sure to check that you have formatted your whole paper according to your style’s formatting guidelines.

Sounds complicated? Citing has never been so easy; Cite This For Me’s reference generator will automatically generate fully-formatted citations for your reference list or bibliography in your chosen style. Sign in to your Cite This For Me account to save and export your bibliography.

How Do References Actually Work?

Although the reference generator will create your bibliography for you in record time, it is still useful to understand how this system works behind the scenes. As well as saving you time with its referencing generator, Cite This For Me provides the learning resources to help you fully understand the citing process and the benefits of adopting great citing standards.

The referencing process:

• Find a book, journal, website or other source that will contribute to your work
• Save the quote, image, data or other information that you will use in your work
• Save the source information that enables you to find it again (i.e. URL, ISBN, DOI etc.)
• Format the source information into a citation
• Copy and paste the citation into the body of the text
• Repeat for each source that contributes to your work.
• Export or copy and paste the fully-formatted citation into your bibliography.

Manage all your references in one place

Create projects, add notes, cite directly from the browser and scan books’ barcodes with a mobile app.

Sign up to Cite This For Me – the ultimate reference management tool.

Computer Hardware: Using APA

• Computer Hardware

About This Page

This page provides information on citing journals, books, websites and other sources using APA.

If you're not sure what you need, or how to begin, come in to the RTC Library, call us at (425) 235-2331, or email us at [email protected] . We'll be glad to help!

Library Resource

• APA Guidelines - 7th Edition : A QuickStudy Digital Reference Guide Quick reference guide to the 7th edition of the American Psychological Association's publication manual for rules of punctuation, reference citation, structure and format in 6 digital pages filled with the answers you need for these commonly used guidelines.

APA stands for the A merican P sychological A ssociation.  The APA publishes a manual that offers a standard for writers in the medical and biological sciences to use when formatting research papers and bibliographies.  The APA citation style is also used by writers in many more academic fields.

The APA Publication Manual  describes how to format your paper, how to cite the resources you use within the body of the paper, and how to create the references list - the bibliography of sources you used - at the end of the paper.  

Recommended resources to help you with APA: 

NoodleTools  - This tool can help you format your APA reference list. Sign up for a free account through the RTC database page and save your citations for up to a year.   RTC Library videos on using NoodleTools, the easy way to create a bibliography:

• NoodleTools - How to Register
• NoodleTools - Starting a New Project
• NoodleTools - Adding A Source
• NoodleTools - Exporting a Reference

The Citation Machine - Another web resource to help you format an APA citation (comes with a 30-second commercial).  Citation Machine won't save your citations, but you don't need to log-in to use it.

OWL - The Online Writing Lab at Purdue University.  Covers both APA and MLA citation styles, as well as much more information about writing.

Your References List

The References list is the bibliography - the list of sources you used for your paper - at the end of your paper.  This is a sample of a References list:

Creating Citations for the References List

A book citation

These elements go in this order:  The Author's last name, Author's First and Middle Initials. (Year of Publication).   Book Title.  City of Publication: Publisher Name.

Example 1: Finer, K. (1995). Tuberculosis. New York: Columbia.

A Journal article from an online database  

These elements go in this order: The Author's last name, Author's First and Middle Initials. (Year of Publication). Title of the article.  Title of the journal, volume (issue), pages. Name of the database from which the article was retrieved.

  Example 1:

Griffith, R. (2009, July). Role of the law in controlling the spread of tuberculosis.

Nurse Prescribing, 7 (7), 320-324. Retrieved from CINAHL database.

An article from a paper journal  

These elements go in this order: The Author's last name, Author's First and Middle Initials. (Year of Publication). Title of the article.  Title of the journal, volume (issue), pages. 

Henderson, D.A. (2008). Smallpox: Dispelling the myths. Bulletin of the  World Health  Organization, 86 (12), 917-19.

These elements go in this order: The Author's last name, Author's First and Middle Initials. (Year published or updated). Title of the page.  Date retrieved.

Clay, G. (2009). Menstuff: The national men's resource. Retrieved November 3,

2009, from http://www.menstuff.org/frameindex.html.

Showing Your Sources Within Your Paper - In-Text Citations

When quoting or paraphrasing a book, journal article, website, or other sources in your paper, you need to signal that these words or ideas are not yours.  This is usually done by listing the author's last name, page number, and the year after the sentence. This is called an in-text citation, because you are citing the work in your text.

Example 1:  “The best known lipids are fats." (Finer, 2008, p. 25).

Example 2:   According to Finer (2008) “the best known lipids are fats (p. 25).”  

If the work has  multiple authors , list all of the authors unless there are six or more. 

Example 3: Two authors: “The best known lipids are fats." (Smith & Jones, 2008, p. 29).  

Example 4: Three to five authors; “The best known lipids are fats." (Smith, Jones, Baker, Taylor & Miller, 2008, p. 31). 

Example 5: Six or more authors – list the first author and then “et al.” for the remaining authors: “The best known lipids are fats."  (Smith et al., 2001, p. 52).

Short Quotes and Long Quotes

Short Quotes - For a short quote like "The best known lipids are fats." (Smith et al., 2001, p. 52). just put the quote in the main body of your paper.  Include quotation marks and your in-text citation, but you don't have to do anything more.

Long Quotes - Put long quotes of over 40 word in a separate paragraph. Put in one blank line, indent the quote 5 spaces from the left margin, and put in another blank line at the end of the quote. Leave out the quotation marks.

The text of the paper.  This is your writing.  Then comes the long quote. You include a blank line, indent five spaces and then:.

Scientists believe that malaria originated in Africa around 30 million years ago. Human malaria perhaps evolved into its current state along with our anthropoid and early human ancestors, although no one really knows when. There is no record of its presence in Europe until the first century A.D., when it was first recorded in Rome. (Marcus, 2004, p. 38.) 

After a blank space, the text of your paper - your writing - continues.                   

Paraphrases

Paraphrases are when you use your own words to tell the reader what someone said. We often do this to for clarity or to shorten an explanation. For paraphrases, include author and date.  The page number is recommended but optional.

Example 1: Others who have studied the coast feel that currents are too strong to make this feasible (McFarlaine, 2008, p. 13). 

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• Knowledge Base
• Citing sources

Citation Styles Guide | Examples for All Major Styles

Published on June 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on November 7, 2022.

A citation style is a set of guidelines on how to cite sources in your academic writing . You always need a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize a source to avoid plagiarism . How you present these citations depends on the style you follow. Scribbr’s citation generator can help!

Different styles are set by different universities, academic associations, and publishers, often published in an official handbook with in-depth instructions and examples.

There are many different citation styles, but they typically use one of three basic approaches: parenthetical citations , numerical citations, or note citations.

Parenthetical citations

• Chicago (Turabian) author-date

CSE name-year

Numerical citations

CSE citation-name or citation-sequence

Note citations

• Chicago (Turabian) notes and bibliography

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Table of contents

Types of citation: parenthetical, note, numerical, which citation style should i use, parenthetical citation styles, numerical citation styles, note citation styles, frequently asked questions about citation styles.

The clearest identifying characteristic of any citation style is how the citations in the text are presented. There are three main approaches:

• Parenthetical citations: You include identifying details of the source in parentheses in the text—usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if relevant ( author-date ). Sometimes the publication date is omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: You include a number in brackets or in superscript, which corresponds to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: You include a full citation in a footnote or endnote, which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

Citation styles also differ in terms of how you format the reference list or bibliography entries themselves (e.g., capitalization, order of information, use of italics). And many style guides also provide guidance on more general issues like text formatting, punctuation, and numbers.

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In most cases, your university, department, or instructor will tell you which citation style you need to follow in your writing. If you’re not sure, it’s best to consult your institution’s guidelines or ask someone. If you’re submitting to a journal, they will usually require a specific style.

Sometimes, the choice of citation style may be left up to you. In those cases, you can base your decision on which citation styles are commonly used in your field. Try reading other articles from your discipline to see how they cite their sources, or consult the table below.

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) recommends citing your sources using Chicago author-date style . AAA style doesn’t have its own separate rules. This style is used in the field of anthropology.

APA Style is defined by the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . It was designed for use in psychology, but today it’s widely used across various disciplines, especially in the social sciences.

Generate accurate APA citations with Scribbr

The citation style of the American Political Science Association (APSA) is used mainly in the field of political science.

The citation style of the American Sociological Association (ASA) is used primarily in the discipline of sociology.

Chicago author-date

Chicago author-date style is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the sciences and social sciences.

The citation style of the Council of Science Editors (CSE) is used in various scientific disciplines. It includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the name-year system.

Harvard style is often used in the field of economics. It is also very widely used across disciplines in UK universities. There are various versions of Harvard style defined by different universities—it’s not a style with one definitive style guide.

Check out Scribbr’s Harvard Reference Generator

MLA style is the official style of the Modern Language Association, defined in the MLA Handbook (9th edition). It’s widely used across various humanities disciplines. Unlike most parenthetical citation styles, it’s author-page rather than author-date.

Generate accurate MLA citations with Scribbr

The American Chemical Society (ACS) provides guidelines for a citation style using numbers in superscript or italics in the text, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list at the end. It is used in chemistry.

The American Medical Association ( AMA ) provides guidelines for a numerical citation style using superscript numbers in the text, which correspond to entries in a numbered reference list. It is used in the field of medicine.

CSE style includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the citation-name and citation-sequence systems. Your references are listed alphabetically in the citation-name system; in the citation-sequence system, they appear in the order in which you cited them.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) provides guidelines for citing your sources with IEEE in-text citations that consist of numbers enclosed in brackets, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list. This style is used in various engineering and IT disciplines.

The National Library of Medicine (NLM) citation style is defined in Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (2nd edition).

Vancouver style is also used in various medical disciplines. As with Harvard style, a lot of institutions and publications have their own versions of Vancouver—it doesn’t have one fixed style guide.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is the main style guide for legal citations in the US. It’s widely used in law, and also when legal materials need to be cited in other disciplines.

Chicago notes and bibliography

Chicago notes and bibliography is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the humanities.

The Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities ( OSCOLA ) is the main legal citation style in the UK (similar to Bluebook for the US).

There are many different citation styles used across different academic disciplines, but they fall into three basic approaches to citation:

• Parenthetical citations : Including identifying details of the source in parentheses —usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if available ( author-date ). The publication date is occasionally omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: Including a number in brackets or superscript, corresponding to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: Including a full citation in a footnote or endnote , which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

A scientific citation style is a system of source citation that is used in scientific disciplines. Some commonly used scientific citation styles are:

• Chicago author-date , CSE , and Harvard , used across various sciences
• ACS , used in chemistry
• AMA , NLM , and Vancouver , used in medicine and related disciplines
• AAA , APA , and ASA , commonly used in the social sciences

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

MLA Style  is the second most used citation style (after APA ). It is mainly used by students and researchers in humanities fields such as literature, languages, and philosophy.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Citation Styles Guide | Examples for All Major Styles. Scribbr. Retrieved September 2, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/citation-styles/

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Other students also liked, apa vs. mla | the key differences in format & citation, the basics of in-text citation | apa & mla examples, how to avoid plagiarism | tips on citing sources, what is your plagiarism score.

Reference management. Clean and simple.

How to format your references using the Computer Networks citation style

This is a short guide how to format citations and the bibliography in a manuscript for Computer Networks . For a complete guide how to prepare your manuscript refer to the journal's instructions to authors.

• Using reference management software

Typically you don't format your citations and bibliography by hand. The easiest way is to use a reference manager:

• Journal articles

Those examples are references to articles in scholarly journals and how they are supposed to appear in your bibliography.

Not all journals organize their published articles in volumes and issues, so these fields are optional. Some electronic journals do not provide a page range, but instead list an article identifier. In a case like this it's safe to use the article identifier instead of the page range.

• Books and book chapters

Here are examples of references for authored and edited books as well as book chapters.

Sometimes references to web sites should appear directly in the text rather than in the bibliography. Refer to the Instructions to authors for Computer Networks.

This example shows the general structure used for government reports, technical reports, and scientific reports. If you can't locate the report number then it might be better to cite the report as a book. For reports it is usually not individual people that are credited as authors, but a governmental department or agency like "U. S. Food and Drug Administration" or "National Cancer Institute".

• Theses and dissertations

Theses including Ph.D. dissertations, Master's theses or Bachelor theses follow the basic format outlined below.

• News paper articles

Unlike scholarly journals, news papers do not usually have a volume and issue number. Instead, the full date and page number is required for a correct reference.

• In-text citations

References should be cited in the text by sequential numbers in square brackets :

• About the journal

• Other styles
• Environmental & Engineering Geoscience
• Organic Letters
• Financial Innovation

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction & Top Questions

Analog computers

Mainframe computer.

• Supercomputer
• Minicomputer
• Microcomputer
• Laptop computer
• Embedded processors
• Central processing unit
• Main memory
• Secondary memory
• Input devices
• Output devices
• Communication devices
• Peripheral interfaces
• Fabrication
• Transistor size
• Power consumption
• Quantum computing
• Molecular computing
• Role of operating systems
• Multiuser systems
• Thin systems
• Reactive systems
• Operating system design approaches
• Local area networks
• Wide area networks
• Business and personal software
• Scientific and engineering software
• Internet and collaborative software
• Games and entertainment
• Analog calculators: from Napier’s logarithms to the slide rule
• Digital calculators: from the Calculating Clock to the Arithmometer
• The Jacquard loom
• The Difference Engine
• The Analytical Engine
• Ada Lovelace, the first programmer
• Herman Hollerith’s census tabulator
• Other early business machine companies
• Vannevar Bush’s Differential Analyzer
• Howard Aiken’s digital calculators
• The Turing machine
• The Atanasoff-Berry Computer
• The first computer network
• Konrad Zuse
• Bigger brains
• Von Neumann’s “Preliminary Discussion”
• The first stored-program machines
• Machine language
• Zuse’s Plankalkül
• Interpreters
• Grace Murray Hopper
• IBM develops FORTRAN
• Control programs
• The IBM 360
• Time-sharing from Project MAC to UNIX
• Minicomputers
• Integrated circuits
• The Intel 4004
• Early computer enthusiasts
• The hobby market expands
• From Star Trek to Microsoft
• Application software
• Commodore and Tandy enter the field
• The graphical user interface
• The IBM Personal Computer
• Microsoft’s Windows operating system
• Workstation computers
• Embedded systems
• Handheld digital devices
• The Internet
• Social networking
• Ubiquitous computing

What is a computer?

Who invented the computer, what can computers do, are computers conscious, what is the impact of computer artificial intelligence (ai) on society.

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• University of Rhode Island - College of Arts and Sciences - Department of Computer Science and Statistics - History of Computers
• LiveScience - History of Computers: A Brief Timeline
• Computer History Museum - Timeline of Computer history
• Engineering LibreTexts - What is a computer?
• Computer Hope - What is a Computer?
• computer - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• computer - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

A computer is a machine that can store and process information . Most computers rely on a binary system , which uses two variables, 0 and 1, to complete tasks such as storing data, calculating algorithms, and displaying information. Computers come in many different shapes and sizes, from handheld smartphones to supercomputers weighing more than 300 tons.

Many people throughout history are credited with developing early prototypes that led to the modern computer. During World War II, physicist John Mauchly , engineer J. Presper Eckert, Jr. , and their colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania designed the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC).

What is the most powerful computer in the world?

As of November 2021 the most powerful computer in the world is the Japanese supercomputer Fugaku, developed by RIKEN and Fujitsu . It has been used to model COVID-19 simulations.

How do programming languages work?

Popular modern programming languages , such as JavaScript and Python, work through multiple forms of programming paradigms. Functional programming, which uses mathematical functions to give outputs based on data input, is one of the more common ways code is used to provide instructions for a computer.

The most powerful computers can perform extremely complex tasks, such as simulating nuclear weapon experiments and predicting the development of climate change . The development of quantum computers , machines that can handle a large number of calculations through quantum parallelism (derived from superposition ), would be able to do even more-complex tasks.

A computer’s ability to gain consciousness is a widely debated topic. Some argue that consciousness depends on self-awareness and the ability to think , which means that computers are conscious because they recognize their environment and can process data. Others believe that human consciousness can never be replicated by physical processes. Read one researcher’s perspective.

Computer artificial intelligence's impact on society is widely debated. Many argue that AI improves the quality of everyday life by doing routine and even complicated tasks better than humans can, making life simpler, safer, and more efficient. Others argue AI poses dangerous privacy risks, exacerbates racism by standardizing people, and costs workers their jobs leading to greater unemployment. For more on the debate over artificial intelligence, visit ProCon.org .

Recent News

computer , device for processing, storing, and displaying information.

Computer once meant a person who did computations, but now the term almost universally refers to automated electronic machinery . The first section of this article focuses on modern digital electronic computers and their design, constituent parts, and applications. The second section covers the history of computing. For details on computer architecture , software , and theory, see computer science .

Computing basics

The first computers were used primarily for numerical calculations. However, as any information can be numerically encoded, people soon realized that computers are capable of general-purpose information processing . Their capacity to handle large amounts of data has extended the range and accuracy of weather forecasting . Their speed has allowed them to make decisions about routing telephone connections through a network and to control mechanical systems such as automobiles, nuclear reactors, and robotic surgical tools. They are also cheap enough to be embedded in everyday appliances and to make clothes dryers and rice cookers “smart.” Computers have allowed us to pose and answer questions that were difficult to pursue in the past. These questions might be about DNA sequences in genes, patterns of activity in a consumer market, or all the uses of a word in texts that have been stored in a database . Increasingly, computers can also learn and adapt as they operate by using processes such as machine learning .

Computers also have limitations, some of which are theoretical. For example, there are undecidable propositions whose truth cannot be determined within a given set of rules, such as the logical structure of a computer. Because no universal algorithmic method can exist to identify such propositions, a computer asked to obtain the truth of such a proposition will (unless forcibly interrupted) continue indefinitely—a condition known as the “ halting problem .” ( See Turing machine .) Other limitations reflect current technology . For example, although computers have progressed greatly in terms of processing data and using artificial intelligence algorithms , they are limited by their incapacity to think in a more holistic fashion. Computers may imitate humans—quite effectively, even—but imitation may not replace the human element in social interaction. Ethical concerns also limit computers, because computers rely on data, rather than a moral compass or human conscience , to make decisions.

Analog computers use continuous physical magnitudes to represent quantitative information. At first they represented quantities with mechanical components ( see differential analyzer and integrator ), but after World War II voltages were used; by the 1960s digital computers had largely replaced them. Nonetheless, analog computers, and some hybrid digital-analog systems, continued in use through the 1960s in tasks such as aircraft and spaceflight simulation.

One advantage of analog computation is that it may be relatively simple to design and build an analog computer to solve a single problem. Another advantage is that analog computers can frequently represent and solve a problem in “real time”; that is, the computation proceeds at the same rate as the system being modeled by it. Their main disadvantages are that analog representations are limited in precision—typically a few decimal places but fewer in complex mechanisms—and general-purpose devices are expensive and not easily programmed.

Digital computers

In contrast to analog computers, digital computers represent information in discrete form, generally as sequences of 0s and 1s ( binary digits, or bits). The modern era of digital computers began in the late 1930s and early 1940s in the United States , Britain, and Germany . The first devices used switches operated by electromagnets (relays). Their programs were stored on punched paper tape or cards, and they had limited internal data storage. For historical developments, see the section Invention of the modern computer .

During the 1950s and ’60s, Unisys (maker of the UNIVAC computer), International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), and other companies made large, expensive computers of increasing power . They were used by major corporations and government research laboratories, typically as the sole computer in the organization. In 1959 the IBM 1401 computer rented for $8,000 per month (early IBM machines were almost always leased rather than sold), and in 1964 the largest IBM S/360 computer cost several million dollars.

These computers came to be called mainframes, though the term did not become common until smaller computers were built. Mainframe computers were characterized by having (for their time) large storage capabilities, fast components, and powerful computational abilities. They were highly reliable, and, because they frequently served vital needs in an organization, they were sometimes designed with redundant components that let them survive partial failures. Because they were complex systems, they were operated by a staff of systems programmers, who alone had access to the computer. Other users submitted “batch jobs” to be run one at a time on the mainframe.

Such systems remain important today, though they are no longer the sole, or even primary, central computing resource of an organization, which will typically have hundreds or thousands of personal computers (PCs). Mainframes now provide high-capacity data storage for Internet servers, or, through time-sharing techniques, they allow hundreds or thousands of users to run programs simultaneously. Because of their current roles, these computers are now called servers rather than mainframes.

Computer Reference Books

Published by admin on may 9, 2014.

List of Computer Reference Books & Text Books

Advanced Computer Architecture: Parallelism, Scalability, Programmability

Hwang, Kai TMH

Business Applications Of Computers

Oka, M. M. 10th ed Everest

Oka, M. M. 7th rev ed Everest

Computer Applications In Management

Dahiya, U/ Nagpal, S. Taxman Allied Service Computer Applications With C & C++: With Programs & Numerical Problems

Abhyankar, A. K. C- Aditi

Computer Architecture & Organization

Hayes, J. P. 3rd ed MGH

Computer Data-base Organization

Martin, James 2nd ed PHI

Computer Fundamentals Goel, Anita Pearson

Computer Fundamentals: Architecture & Organization Ram, B. 4th ed New Age Computer Fundamentals: Concepts, Systems & Applications

Sinha, P. K. BPB

Computer Fundamentals: Concepts, Systems & Applications Sinha, P. K/ Sinha, P. 3rd ed BPB

Computer Fundamentals: Concepts, Systems & Applications Sinha, P. K/ Sinha, P. 4th ed BPB Computer Graphics

Hearn, D/ Baker, M. PHI

Computer Graphics In C & Pascal Bhandari, S/ Joshi, S. Everest

Computer Graphics: Using Open Gl Hill, F. S. 2nd ed Pearson Computer Guide To Dos 6.22 Norton, Peter 6th ed Techmedia

Computer Networks Tanenbaum, Andrew. S. 4th ed Pearson Computer Networks Tanenbaum, Andrew. S. 3rd ed PHI Computer Networks Tanenbaum, Andrew. S. 4th ed PHI

Computer Networks & Distributed Processing: Software, Techniques,& Architecture Martin, James PHI Computer Networks & Internets

Comer, Douglas 2nd ed Pearson Computer Networks & Internets: With Internet Applications Comer, D. E/ Narayanan, M. S. 4th ed Pearson

Computer Networks & Internets: With Internet Applications Comer, Douglas 4th ed Pearson Computer Networks: Protocols, Standards & Interfaces Black, Uyless 2nd ed PHI

Computer Networks: Systems Approach Peterson, L/ Davie, B. 4th ed Morgan Computer Organization Hamacher, C/ Vranesic, Z/ Zaky, S. 5th ed MGH

Computer Organization & Architecture Stallings, William 5th ed Pearson Edu.

Computer Organization & Architecture: Designing For Performance Stallings, William 6th ed Pearson Computer Organization & Architecture: Designing For Performance Stallings, William 7th ed Pearson

Computer Organization & Architecture: Designing For Performance Stallings, William 4th ed PHI

Computer Organization & Architecture: Designing For Performance Stallings, William 6th ed PHI Computer Organization & Design Chaudhuri, Pal P. 2nd ed PHI

Computer Organization & Design: Hardware/ Software Interface Patterson, D/ Hennessy, J. 3rd ed Morgan

Computer Organization Design & Architecture Shiva, S. G. 4th ed CRC Press

Computer Oriented Numerical Methods Rajaraman, V. 3rd ed PHI

Computer Programming In C Rajaraman, V. PHI

Computer Science: Structured Programming Approach Using Forouzan B. A/ Gilberg, R. F. 3rd ed Course Technology 2

Computer System Architecture

Mano Morris M. 3rd ed Pearson

Computer System Architecture Mano Morris M. 3rd ed PHI

Computer System Organization & Architecture Carpinelli, J. D. Pearson

Computer Today Basandra, S. K. rev ed Galgotia

Computer Today Basandra, S. K. updated ed Galgotia

Data & Computer Communications Stallings, William 6th ed AW

Design & Analysis Of Computer Algorithms

Aho, A. V/ Hopcroft, J. E/ Ullman, J. D. Pearson

Digital Computer Electronics Malvino, A. P/ Brown, J. A. 3rd ed TMH

Digital Computer Fundamentals Bartee, T. C. 6th ed TMH

Digital Logic & Computer Design Morris, Mano M. PHI

Discrete Mathematical Structures With Applications To Computer Science Tremblay, J. P/ Manohar, R. TMH 90 Discrete Mathematics For Computer Scientists & Mathematicians Mott, J/ Kandel, A/ Baker, T. 2nd ed PHI Fundamental Algorithms: Art Of Computer Programming Bhatt, P. C. P. 2nd ed Narosa

Fundamental Of Computer Algorithms Horowitz, E/ Sahni, S/ Rajasekaran, S. Galgotia

Fundamental Of Computer Networks Kundu, Sudakshina PHI 5

Fundamental Of Computers

Rajaraman, V. 4th ed PHI

Fundamentals Of Computer Algorithms Horowitz, E/ Sahni, S/ Rajasekaran, S. Galgotia

Fundamentals Of Computer Algorithms Horowitz, E/ Sahni, S/ Rajasekaran, S. 2nd ed Universities

Fundamentals Of Microprocessor & Microcomputers Ram, B. 6th ed Dhanpat Rai

Gate: Computer Science G. K. Pub.

How To Manage Computers At Work Jones, Graham Jaico

Human – Computer Interaction Dix, Alan/ Others 3rd ed Pearson

Inroduction To Digital Computer Design

Rajaraman, V/ Radhakrishnan T. 4th ed PHI Introduction To Computer Architecture

Stone, H/ Others 2nd ed Galgotia Introduction To Computer Security Bishop, M/ Venkatramanayya, S Pearson Introduction To Computers

Norton, Peter 4th ed TMH

Introduction To Computers

Norton, Peter 6th ed TMH

Introduction To Digital Computer Design

Rajaraman, V/ Radhakrishnan T. 4th ed PHI

Introduction To Operations Research: Computer- Oriented Algorithmic Approach

Gillett, B. E. TMH

Microcomputer Systems: 8086/8088 Family Architecture, Programming & Design

Liu, Y/ Gibson, G. A. 2nd ed PHI

Microprocessors, & Microcomputer Based System Design

Rafiquzzaman, Mohamed UBS

Probability & Statistics With Reliability Queuing & Computer Science Applications

Trivedi, K. S. 2nd ed John Wiley

Theory Of Computer Science

Mishra, K. L. P/ Chandrasekaran, N. 2nd ed PHI

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The Evolution of Computers: Key Resources (July 2013): General Histories and Reference Resources

• The Year of Alan Turing

General Histories and Reference Resources

• Human and Mechanical Computers
• Early Electronic Computers
• Covert Computing and Computer Security
• ARPANET, E-mail, and the World Wide Web
• The Personal Computing Revolution
• The Personalized Web, Mobile, and the Cloud
• Social Networks and Beyond

Works Cited

Numerous titles offer broad accounts of the fascinating history of computing, and more recent publications take the story up to the present.  Ian Watson’s comprehensive history published in 2012, The Universal Machine: From the Dawn of Computing to Digital Consciousness , will be particularly appealing to general readers and undergraduate students for its accessible, engaging writing style and many illustrations.  Two other notable works published in 2012 are Computing: A Concise History by Paul Ceruzzi (also author of the useful 2003 title, A History of Modern Computing ) and A Brief History of Computing by Gerard O’Regan.  Ceruzzi, curator at the National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, provides a readable and concise 155-page overview in his book, which is part of the “MIT Press Essential Knowledge” series; this work also contains ample references to the literature in a further reading section and a bibliography.  O’Regan’s work offers an encompassing chronological survey, but also devotes chapters to the history of programming languages and software engineering.  Also published in 2012 is Peter Bentley’s Digitized: The Science of Computers and How It Shapes Our World , which provides valuable historical coverage and in later chapters reports on the revolutionary developments in artificial intelligence and their impact on society.

Other informative, accessible general histories include Computer: A History of the Information Machine by Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray; Computers: The Life Story of a Technology by Eric Swedin and David Ferro; and Histories of Computing by Michael Sean Mahoney.  Mike Hally’s Electronic Brains: Stories from the Dawn of the Computer Age focuses on post-World War II developments, tracing the signal contributions of scientists from the United Kingdom, United States, Australia, and Russia.  An excellent pictorial collection of computers is John Alderman and Mark Richards’s Core Memory: A Visual Survey of Vintage Computers Featuring Machines from the Computer History Museum .

The static nature of print reference materials is not the perfect format for the topic of computer innovation; these publications may show their age not just in technical information and jargon but also in a lack of coverage of more contemporary individuals and groups.  Nevertheless, several works continue to have lasting value for their excellent and unique coverage.  The two-volume Encyclopedia of Computers and Computer History , edited by Raúl Rojas, which was published in 2001, offers comprehensive coverage of historical topics in a convenient format, enhanced with useful bibliographic aids.  More serious researchers will find Jeffrey Yost’s A Bibliographic Guide to Resources in Scientific Computing, 1945-1975 valuable for its annotations of earlier important titles and its special focus on the sciences; the volume’s four major parts cover the physical, cognitive, biological, and medical sciences.  The Second Bibliographic Guide to the History of Computing, Computers, and the Information Processing Industry , compiled by James Cortada, published in 1996, will also be of value to researchers.  For biographical coverage, Computer Pioneers by J. A. N. Lee features entries on well-known and lesser-known individuals, primarily those from the United States and the United Kingdom; however, coverage of female pioneers is limited.  Lee also edited the International Biographical Dictionary of Computer Pioneers , which provides broader geographical coverage.

Related and more recent information may be found in several online resources such as the IEEE Global History Network: Computers and Information Processing .  Sites featuring interactive time lines and interesting exhibits include the IBM Archives , and Revolution: The First 2000 Years of Computing by the Computer History Museum.

Focusing on women’s contributions to the field is “ Famous Women in Computer Science , available on the Anita Borg Institute website.  This site includes nearly eighty short biographies with links to university and other organizational and related websites.  A Pinterest board version of the awardees is also available.  “ The ADA Project , named in honor of Ada Lovelace (1815-52), who wrote what is considered to be “the first ‘computer program.’”  This site is largely based on the Famous Women in Computer Science website but also includes a time line.

In contrast to J. A. N. Lee’s International Biographical Dictionary of Computer Pioneers mentioned previously, the highly recommended Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology by Edwin Reilly focuses more on technological aspects than individuals.  However, this author did not find a more comprehensive one-volume reference resource than Reilly’s.  Appendixes include a listing of cited references, classification of entries, “The Top Ten Consolidated Milestones,” and personal name, chronological, and general indexes.

• Second bibliographic guide to the history of computing, computers, and the information processing industry by James W. Cortada (editor) ISBN: 9780313295423 Publication Date: 1996

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• Next: Human and Mechanical Computers >>
• Last Updated: Jun 20, 2016 2:11 PM
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Armstrong joins Cubs just in time for postseason push

Melanie Martinez-Lopez

This story was excerpted from the Cubs Beat newsletter. To read the full newsletter, click here . And subscribe to get it regularly in your inbox.

WASHINGTON -- Shawn Armstrong 's last few days of August were full of big moments.

He was designated for assignment by the Cardinals on Aug. 27, and the next day he accompanied his wife, who's pregnant with their second child, to an ultrasound appointment. On Saturday, Armstrong received more news: he had been claimed off waivers by the Cubs. Then he was activated the next day.

“[It’s been a] journey, that’s for sure, but everything works out in a perfect perspective,” said Armstrong. “I think everything happens for a reason.”

His path brought him to a club on a hot streak and looking to make one final push for the playoffs. The Cubs are currently three games behind the Braves in the National League Wild Card race . Knowing what's at stake, Armstrong immediately thought about how he could contribute to reaching that goal.

“They have a really good blend of guys here,” Armstrong, a 10-year MLB veteran, said. “They have a really good rotation, good bullpen. The guys are playing really good defense and they're hitting the baseball well. So whatever I can do to play a part here -- and the goal here is to win and get to October -- nothing else really matters. I'm here to pitch and do whatever I can to help this team win.”

Armstrong joined his teammates in Washington, D.C., for the series finale against the Nationals. He was called from the bullpen in the eighth inning of a 14-1 win. In his first appearance with the North Siders, Armstrong dealt 11 pitches (five strikes) with one walk allowed in one scoreless frame.

The Cubs are the third team Armstrong has joined this season, as he started the year with the Rays before being traded to St. Louis at the Deadline.

“I got picked up by these guys with some familiarity with the coaches and Carter Hawkins as a GM, who actually drafted me out of college,” Armstrong said. “So I'm excited to be here. These guys are playing unreal baseball, and I'm here to do what I can to help do my part and get the W every day.”

Having that familiarity has helped Armstrong adapt to his new environment quickly. He has also been observant of the bullpen to learn from his fellow relievers.

“I've only been here for one day, but seeing how [the Cubs relievers] go about their routines, they're all in the weight room right now, preparing,” Armstrong said. “The guys are in the training room getting ready to throw again today. That's what it takes. You're a big leaguer, you're here to pitch every day. And looking at the numbers, I think they speak for themselves with the guys in this bullpen, and they've done one heck of a job all year.”

One person who might be happier than Armstrong with how the week unfolded is his son, Declan Cutter Armstrong (yes, he is named after the pitch that got his dad into the big leagues).

“I was FaceTiming him this morning. … He’s a little confused at 3 years old going from three different teams,” Armstrong said. “He’s an avid baseball fan and always says, ‘I want to go there, I want to go there.’ He loves baseball and is just excited to see Daddy play.”