action research vs case report

Action Research vs. Case Study

What's the difference.

Action research and case study are both research methodologies used in social sciences to investigate and understand complex phenomena. However, they differ in their approach and purpose. Action research is a collaborative and participatory approach that involves researchers and practitioners working together to identify and solve practical problems in real-world settings. It aims to bring about positive change and improvement in the context being studied. On the other hand, case study is an in-depth and detailed examination of a particular individual, group, or situation. It focuses on understanding the unique characteristics and dynamics of the case being studied and often involves extensive data collection and analysis. While action research emphasizes practical application and problem-solving, case study emphasizes detailed exploration and understanding of a specific case.

Further Detail

Introduction.

Action research and case study are two widely used research methodologies in various fields. While both approaches aim to gain insights and understanding, they differ in their focus, design, and implementation. This article will explore the attributes of action research and case study, highlighting their similarities and differences.

Action Research

Action research is a participatory approach that involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners to address real-world problems. It emphasizes the active involvement of stakeholders in the research process, aiming to bring about practical change and improvement. Action research typically follows a cyclical process, consisting of planning, action, observation, and reflection.

One of the key attributes of action research is its focus on generating knowledge that is directly applicable to the context in which it is conducted. It aims to bridge the gap between theory and practice by actively involving practitioners in the research process. This participatory nature allows for a deeper understanding of the complexities and nuances of the problem being investigated.

Action research often involves multiple iterations, with each cycle building upon the insights gained from the previous one. This iterative approach allows for continuous learning and adaptation, enabling researchers to refine their interventions and strategies based on the feedback received. It also promotes a sense of ownership and empowerment among the participants, as they actively contribute to the research process.

Furthermore, action research is characterized by its emphasis on collaboration and co-learning. It encourages the exchange of ideas and knowledge between researchers and practitioners, fostering a sense of shared responsibility and collective action. This collaborative approach not only enhances the quality of the research but also increases the likelihood of successful implementation of the findings.

In summary, action research is a participatory and iterative approach that aims to generate practical knowledge through collaboration between researchers and practitioners. It focuses on addressing real-world problems and promoting positive change within specific contexts.

Case study, on the other hand, is an in-depth investigation of a particular phenomenon, event, or individual. It involves the detailed examination of a specific case or cases to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject under study. Case studies can be conducted using various research methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis.

One of the key attributes of case study research is its ability to provide rich and detailed insights into complex phenomena. By focusing on a specific case, researchers can delve deep into the intricacies and unique aspects of the subject, uncovering valuable information that may not be easily captured through other research methods.

Case studies are often used to explore and understand real-life situations in their natural settings. They allow researchers to examine the context and dynamics surrounding the case, providing a holistic view of the phenomenon under investigation. This contextual understanding is crucial for gaining a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the subject.

Furthermore, case studies are particularly useful when the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are not clearly defined. They allow for the exploration of complex and multifaceted issues, enabling researchers to capture the interplay of various factors and variables. This holistic approach enhances the validity and reliability of the findings.

Moreover, case studies can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory in nature, depending on the research questions and objectives. They can be used to generate hypotheses, provide detailed descriptions, or test theoretical frameworks. This versatility makes case study research applicable in various fields, including psychology, sociology, business, and education.

In summary, case study research is an in-depth investigation of a specific phenomenon, providing rich and detailed insights into complex situations. It focuses on understanding the context and dynamics surrounding the case, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of multifaceted issues.

Similarities

While action research and case study differ in their focus and design, they also share some common attributes. Both approaches aim to gain insights and understanding, albeit through different means. They both involve the collection and analysis of data to inform decision-making and improve practice.

Furthermore, both action research and case study can be conducted in naturalistic settings, allowing for the examination of real-life situations. They both emphasize the importance of context and seek to understand the complexities and nuances of the phenomena under investigation.

Moreover, both methodologies can involve multiple data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. They both require careful planning and design to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.

Additionally, both action research and case study can contribute to theory development. While action research focuses on generating practical knowledge, it can also inform and contribute to theoretical frameworks. Similarly, case studies can provide empirical evidence that can be used to refine and expand existing theories.

In summary, action research and case study share common attributes, including their aim to gain insights and understanding, their focus on real-life situations, their emphasis on context, their use of multiple data collection methods, and their potential contribution to theory development.

Action research and case study are two distinct research methodologies that offer unique approaches to gaining insights and understanding. Action research emphasizes collaboration, participation, and practical change, while case study focuses on in-depth investigation and contextual understanding. Despite their differences, both approaches contribute to knowledge generation and have the potential to inform theory and practice. Researchers should carefully consider the nature of their research questions and objectives to determine which approach is most suitable for their study.

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Action Research vs. Case Study: What's the Difference?

Key Differences

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Home » Education » Difference Between Action Research and Case Study

Difference Between Action Research and Case Study

Main difference – action research vs case study.

Research is the careful study of a given field or problem in order to discover new facts or principles. Action research and case study are two types of research, which are mainly used in the field of social sciences and humanities. The main difference between action research and case study is their purpose; an action research study aims to solve an immediate problem whereas a case study aims to provide an in-depth analysis of a situation or case over a long period of time.

1. What is Action Research?      – Definition, Features, Purpose, Process

2. What is Case Study?      – Definition, Features, Purpose, Process

What is Action Research

Action research is a type of a research study that is initiated to solve an immediate problem. It may involve a variety of analytical, investigative and evaluative research methods designed to diagnose and solve problems. It has been defined as “a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action. The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the “actor” in improving and/or refining his or her actions” (Sagor, 2000). This type of research is typically used in the field of education. Action research studies are generally conductors by educators, who also act as participants.

Here, an individual researcher or a group of researchers identify a problem, examine its causes and try to arrive at a solution to the problem. The action research process is as follows.

Action Research Process

• Identify a problem to research
• Clarify theories
• Identify research questions
• Collect data on the problem
• Organise, analyse, and interpret the data
• Create a plan to address the problem
• Implement the above-mentioned plan
• Evaluate the results of the actions taken

The above process will keep repeating. Action research is also known as cycle of inquiry or cycle of action since it follows a specific process that is repeated over time.

What is a Case Study

A case study is basically an in-depth examination of a particular event, situation or an individual. It is a type of research that is designed to explore and understand complex issues; however, it involves detailed contextual analysis of only a limited number of events or situations. It has been defined as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used.” (Yin, 1984)

Case studies are used in a variety of fields, but fields like sociology and education seem to use them the most. They can be used to probe into community-based problems such as illiteracy, unemployment, poverty, and drug addiction. 

Case studies involve both quantitative and qualitative data and allow the researchers to see beyond statistical results and understand human conditions. Furthermore, case studies can be classified into three categories, known as exploratory, descriptive and explanatory case studies.

However, case studies are also criticised since the study of a limited number of events or cases cannot easily establish generality or reliability of the findings. The process of a case study is generally as follows:

Case Study Process

• Identifying and defining the research questions
• Selecting the cases and deciding techniques for data collection and analysis
• Collecting data in the field
• Evaluating and analysing the data
• Preparing the report

Action Research : Action research is a type of a research study that is initiated to solve an immediate problem.

Case Study : Case study is an in-depth analysis of a particular event or case over a long period of time.                         

Action Research : Action research involves solving a problem.

Case Study : Case studies involve observing and analysing a situation.

Action Research : Action research studies are mainly used in the field of education.

Case Study : Case studies are used in many fields; they can be specially used with community problems such as unemployment, poverty, etc.

Action Research : Action research always involve providing a solution to a problem.

Case Study : Case studies do not provide a solution to a problem.

Participants

Action Research : Researchers can also act as participants of the research.

Case Study : Researchers generally don’t take part in the research study.

Zainal, Zaidah.  Case study as a research method . N.p.: n.p., 7 June 2007. PDF.

 Soy, Susan K. (1997).  The case study as a research method . Unpublished paper, University of Texas at Austin.

Sagor, Richard.  Guiding school improvement with action research . Ascd, 2000.

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What is Action Research?

Action research involves a systematic process of examining the evidence. The results of this type of research are practical, relevant, and can inform theory. Action research is different than other forms of research as there is less concern for universality of findings, and more value is placed on the relevance of the findings to the researcher and the local collaborators.

Riel, M. (2020). Understanding action research. Center For Collaborative Action Research, Pepperdine University.  Retrieved January 31, 2021 from the Center for Collaborative Action Research.  https://www.actionresearchtutorials.org/  

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The short video below by John Spencer provides a quick overview of Action Research.

How is Action Research different?

This chart demonstrates the difference between traditional research and action research. Traditional research is a means to an end - the conclusion. They start with a theory, statistical analysis is critical and the researcher does not insert herself into the research.

Action research is often practiced by practitioners like teachers and librarians who remain in the middle of the research process. They are looking for ways to improve the specific situation for their clientele or students. Statistics may be collected but they are not the point of the research.

Adapted from: Mc Millan, J. H. & Wergin. J. F. (1998). Understanding and evaluating educational research. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Teacher Action Research

According to Paul Gorski, Action Research for educators meets the following qualifications:

• a non-traditional and community-based form of educational evaluation;
• carried out by educators, not outside researchers or evaluators;
• focused on improving teaching and learning, but also social and environmental factors that affect the nature and success of teaching and learning;
• formative, not summative--an on-going process of evaluation, recommendation, practice, reflection, and reevaluation; and
• change-oriented, and undertaken with the assumption that change is needed in a given context

Gorski, P. C. (1995-2018). Teacher Action Research . Critical Multicultural Pavilion. Retrieved October 6, 2018 from https://www.edchange.org/multicultural/tar.html

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• Last Updated: Mar 12, 2024 3:14 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.ucmo.edu/actionresearch

Linking Research to Action: A Simple Guide to Writing an Action Research Report

What Is Action Research, and Why Do We Do It?

Action research is any research into practice undertaken by those involved in that practice, with the primary goal of encouraging continued reflection and making improvement. It can be done in any professional field, including medicine, nursing, social work, psychology, and education. Action research is particularly popular in the field of education. When it comes to teaching, practitioners may be interested in trying out different teaching methods in the classroom, but are unsure of their effectiveness. Action research provides an opportunity to explore the effectiveness of a particular teaching practice, the development of a curriculum, or your students’ learning, hence making continual improvement possible. In other words, the use of an interactive action-and-research process enables practitioners to get an idea of what they and their learners really do inside of the classroom, not merely what they think they can do. By doing this, it is hoped that both the teaching and the learning occurring in the classroom can be better tailored to fit the learners’ needs.

You may be wondering how action research differs from traditional research. The term itself already suggests that it is concerned with both “action” and “research,” as well as the association between the two. Kurt Lewin (1890-1947), a famous psychologist who coined this term, believed that there was “no action without research; no research without action” (Marrow, 1969, p.163). It is certainly possible, and perhaps commonplace, for people to try to have one without the other, but the unique combination of the two is what distinguishes action research from most other forms of enquiry. Traditional research emphasizes the review of prior research, rigorous control of the research design, and generalizable and preferably statistically significant results, all of which help examine the theoretical significance of the issue. Action research, with its emphasis on the insider’s perspective and the practical significance of a current issue, may instead allow less representative sampling, looser procedures, and the presentation of raw data and statistically insignificant results.

What Should We Include in an Action Research Report?

The components put into an action research report largely coincide with the steps used in the action research process. This process usually starts with a question or an observation about a current problem. After identifying the problem area and narrowing it down to make it more manageable for research, the development process continues as you devise an action plan to investigate your question. This will involve gathering data and evidence to support your solution. Common data collection methods include observation of individual or group behavior, taking audio or video recordings, distributing questionnaires or surveys, conducting interviews, asking for peer observations and comments, taking field notes, writing journals, and studying the work samples of your own and your target participants. You may choose to use more than one of these data collection methods. After you have selected your method and are analyzing the data you have collected, you will also reflect upon your entire process of action research. You may have a better solution to your question now, due to the increase of your available evidence. You may also think about the steps you will try next, or decide that the practice needs to be observed again with modifications. If so, the whole action research process starts all over again.

In brief, action research is more like a cyclical process, with the reflection upon your action and research findings affecting changes in your practice, which may lead to extended questions and further action. This brings us back to the essential steps of action research: identifying the problem, devising an action plan, implementing the plan, and finally, observing and reflecting upon the process. Your action research report should comprise all of these essential steps. Feldman and Weiss (n.d.) summarized them as five structural elements, which do not have to be written in a particular order. Your report should:

• Describe the context where the action research takes place. This could be, for example, the school in which you teach. Both features of the school and the population associated with it (e.g., students and parents) would be illustrated as well.
• Contain a statement of your research focus. This would explain where your research questions come from, the problem you intend to investigate, and the goals you want to achieve. You may also mention prior research studies you have read that are related to your action research study.
• Detail the method(s) used. This part includes the procedures you used to collect data, types of data in your report, and justification of your used strategies.
• Highlight the research findings. This is the part in which you observe and reflect upon your practice. By analyzing the evidence you have gathered, you will come to understand whether the initial problem has been solved or not, and what research you have yet to accomplish.
• Suggest implications. You may discuss how the findings of your research will affect your future practice, or explain any new research plans you have that have been inspired by this report’s action research.

The overall structure of your paper will actually look more or less the same as what we commonly see in traditional research papers.

What Else Do We Need to Pay Attention to?

We discussed the major differences between action research and traditional research in the beginning of this article. Due to the difference in the focus of an action research report, the language style used may not be the same as what we normally see or use in a standard research report. Although both kinds of research, both action and traditional, can be published in academic journals, action research may also be published and delivered in brief reports or on websites for a broader, non-academic audience. Instead of using the formal style of scientific research, you may find it more suitable to write in the first person and use a narrative style while documenting your details of the research process.

However, this does not forbid using an academic writing style, which undeniably enhances the credibility of a report. According to Johnson (2002), even though personal thoughts and observations are valued and recorded along the way, an action research report should not be written in a highly subjective manner. A personal, reflective writing style does not necessarily mean that descriptions are unfair or dishonest, but statements with value judgments, highly charged language, and emotional buzzwords are best avoided.

Furthermore, documenting every detail used in the process of research does not necessitate writing a lengthy report. The purpose of giving sufficient details is to let other practitioners trace your train of thought, learn from your examples, and possibly be able to duplicate your steps of research. This is why writing a clear report that does not bore or confuse your readers is essential.

Lastly, You May Ask, Why Do We Bother to Even Write an Action Research Report?

It sounds paradoxical that while practitioners tend to have a great deal of knowledge at their disposal, often they do not communicate their insights to others. Take education as an example: It is both regrettable and regressive if every teacher, no matter how professional he or she might be, only teaches in the way they were taught and fails to understand what their peer teachers know about their practice. Writing an action research report provides you with the chance to reflect upon your own practice, make substantiated claims linking research to action, and document action and ideas as they take place. The results can then be kept, both for the sake of your own future reference, and to also make the most of your insights through the act of sharing with your professional peers.

Feldman, A., & Weiss, T. (n.d.). Suggestions for writing the action research report . Retrieved from http://people.umass.edu/~afeldman/ARreadingmaterials/WritingARReport.html

Johnson, A. P. (2002). A short guide to action research . Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Marrow, A. J. (1969). The practical theorist: The life and work of Kurt Lewin . New York, NY: Basic Books.

Tiffany Ip is a lecturer at Hong Kong Baptist University. She gained a PhD in neurolinguistics after completing her Bachelor’s degree in psychology and linguistics. She strives to utilize her knowledge to translate brain research findings into practical classroom instruction.

Action Research vs. Case Study — What's the Difference?

Difference Between Action Research and Case Study

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• What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples

What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples

Published on 27 January 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on 21 April 2023.

Table of contents

Types of action research, action research models, examples of action research, action research vs. traditional research, advantages and disadvantages of action research, frequently asked questions about action research.

There are 2 common types of action research: participatory action research and practical action research.

• Participatory action research emphasises that participants should be members of the community being studied, empowering those directly affected by outcomes of said research. In this method, participants are effectively co-researchers, with their lived experiences considered formative to the research process.
• Practical action research focuses more on how research is conducted and is designed to address and solve specific issues.

Both types of action research are more focused on increasing the capacity and ability of future practitioners than contributing to a theoretical body of knowledge.

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Action research is often reflected in 3 action research models: operational (sometimes called technical), collaboration, and critical reflection.

• Operational (or technical) action research is usually visualised like a spiral following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”
• Collaboration action research is more community-based, focused on building a network of similar individuals (e.g., college professors in a given geographic area) and compiling learnings from iterated feedback cycles.
• Critical reflection action research serves to contextualise systemic processes that are already ongoing (e.g., working retroactively to analyse existing school systems by questioning why certain practices were put into place and developed the way they did).

Action research is often used in fields like education because of its iterative and flexible style.

After the information was collected, the students were asked where they thought ramps or other accessibility measures would be best utilised, and the suggestions were sent to school administrators. Example: Practical action research Science teachers at your city’s high school have been witnessing a year-over-year decline in standardised test scores in chemistry. In seeking the source of this issue, they studied how concepts are taught in depth, focusing on the methods, tools, and approaches used by each teacher.

Action research differs sharply from other types of research in that it seeks to produce actionable processes over the course of the research rather than contributing to existing knowledge or drawing conclusions from datasets. In this way, action research is formative , not summative , and is conducted in an ongoing, iterative way.

As such, action research is different in purpose, context, and significance and is a good fit for those seeking to implement systemic change.

Action research comes with advantages and disadvantages.

• Action research is highly adaptable , allowing researchers to mould their analysis to their individual needs and implement practical individual-level changes.
• Action research provides an immediate and actionable path forward for solving entrenched issues, rather than suggesting complicated, longer-term solutions rooted in complex data.
• Done correctly, action research can be very empowering , informing social change and allowing participants to effect that change in ways meaningful to their communities.

Disadvantages

• Due to their flexibility, action research studies are plagued by very limited generalisability  and are very difficult to replicate . They are often not considered theoretically rigorous due to the power the researcher holds in drawing conclusions.
• Action research can be complicated to structure in an ethical manner . Participants may feel pressured to participate or to participate in a certain way.
• Action research is at high risk for research biases such as selection bias , social desirability bias , or other types of cognitive biases .

Action research is conducted in order to solve a particular issue immediately, while case studies are often conducted over a longer period of time and focus more on observing and analyzing a particular ongoing phenomenon.

Action research is focused on solving a problem or informing individual and community-based knowledge in a way that impacts teaching, learning, and other related processes. It is less focused on contributing theoretical input, instead producing actionable input.

Action research is particularly popular with educators as a form of systematic inquiry because it prioritizes reflection and bridges the gap between theory and practice. Educators are able to simultaneously investigate an issue as they solve it, and the method is very iterative and flexible.

A cycle of inquiry is another name for action research . It is usually visualized in a spiral shape following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”

Sources for this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

George, T. (2023, April 21). What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 15 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/action-research-cycle/

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2017). Research methods in education (8th edition). Routledge.

Naughton, G. M. (2001).  Action research (1st edition). Routledge.

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Action Research vs Case Study : Know the Key Difference Between Two Qualitative Research Methods

A research method is nothing but a technique of inquiry which proceeds from the underlying philosophical assumptions to research design and data collection. Specific research methods imply various assumptions, skills, research practices and the choice of research approach influences the manner in which the data is collected. 

Among various research methods, the most popular and widely used design is qualitative research. This design consists of many philosophical perspectives and various research methods, of which includes  action research and case study research.

Action Research

Action research is a type of qualitative research, which is adopted by the researcher in order to solve the immediate problem arisen during the particular course of time. It is a way which bridges the gap between educational theory and professional practice by improvising their current practices. This type of research helps the researcher to improvise its current practices and is applied for researching into issues.

The main purpose of action research is to learn through action leading to personal or professional development. It enables researchers not only to suggest appropriate lines of action but also to investigate the actual effects of such actions. Further, this type of research is situation based, is useful in problem-solving and deals with individuals or groups with a common purpose of improving practice.

Action research is conducted in classrooms and organisations, where the practitioner will observe what happens and then identify an issue or problem that they need to address. Further according to the issues, ways to solve the problems are identified and applied by the practitioner in their practices. This approach is applied using qualitative designs to explain what is happening and to understand the effects of some educational intervention. 

Further, this research helps in addressing practical problems and in generating knowledge to produce change.

Methods used in collecting data in action research are:

• Observing individuals or groups
• Using audio and videotape recording
• Using structured or semi-structured interviews
• Taking field notes
• Conducting surveys or questionnaires

Case study research is more of a qualitative method of research where there is an in-depth study of an individual or a group of individuals. It explores a contemporary prodigy within its real-life context and provides an organised way of observing the events, collecting data, analysing information, and reporting the results.

Further, the case study method focuses on the description or exploration of a particular phenomenon, rather than identifying the cause and effect. This method includes both quantitative and qualitative data and allow the researchers to see beyond statistical results and understand human conditions like illiteracy, poverty, etc. 

Case studies is categorised in 3 ways: exploratory, explanatory and descriptive.

Exploratory case studies explore any event in the data which serves as a point of interest to the researcher. For example, a researcher conducting an exploratory case study on an individual’s learning process may ask questions, such as, “Does a student use any strategies when he learns a text?” This type of question results in further examination of the phenomenon. 

On the other hand, the explanatory case study examines the data carefully and explains the phenomenon occurred in the data.

Descriptive case studies describe the natural phenomena which occur within the data. For example, what are the strategies used by the learner?, etc. 

Case studies are useful as they help the researcher to analyse the data at a small level but there is a  tendency for the researcher to be biased at the time of interpreting the data. 

Methods used in collecting the data in the case study method are:

• Interviews, transcript analyses or protocol 
• An exploration of artifacts.
• A review of documents and archived record
• Direct participant observations
• Field studies

Difference between action research and case study

At times people confuse the action research method with that of case study as both are a little bit similar to each other. But in real-time, they are quite different.

• Action research focuses on solving the immediate problem whereas, case studies focus on a particular phenomenon for a longer period of time.
• Action research method emphasis on solving the problem whereas case study method emphasis on observing, analysing and interpreting a particular phenomenon or scenario.
• Researcher at times can also be the part of the action research whereas in case study researcher don’t take part in the research.

Now that you know the difference between the two approaches, choose the method accordingly and accomplish your research.

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Difference between Case Study and Action research

1. Action Research : Action Research is a type of qualitative research. As the name suggests it is more action oriented in order to solve an immediate problem. Action research helps the researcher to improvise its current practices and is applied for researching into issues. It aims to learn through action leading to personal or professional development means focuses on improving and/or refining actions. This type research generally used in field of education to bridge the gap between educational theory and professional practice by improvising their current practices. This helps in observing the problem and identifying the cause and then addressing the issue so mainly it is more focused on immediate addressing to practical problems and in generating knowledge to produce change.

2. Case Study : Case study research refers to an in-depth examination of a particular event or individual or a group of individuals. It is more of a qualitative method of research where it understand complex issues by deeply observing and analyzing the event or situation by collecting and reporting the data related to the event or situation. Case study research is more towards description rather than immediate cause and effect finding. Case study is categorized into three ways i.e., exploratory, explanatory and descriptive based on research method. These studies involve both quantitative and qualitative data. This type of research can be used to address community-based problems like illiteracy, unemployment, poverty, and drug addiction.

Difference between Case study and Action Research :

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6 in 10 U.S. Catholics are in favor of abortion rights, Pew Research report finds

Jason DeRose

Pope Francis remains popular among U.S. Catholics, with 75% having favorable views of him, according to a Pew Research report. But many self-identified Catholics disagree with various teachings of their church. Andrew Medichini/AP hide caption

Pope Francis remains popular among U.S. Catholics, with 75% having favorable views of him, according to a Pew Research report. But many self-identified Catholics disagree with various teachings of their church.

Catholics in the U.S., one of the country's largest single Christian groups, hold far more diverse views on abortion rights than the official teaching of their church.

While the Catholic Church itself holds that abortion is wrong and should not be legal, 6 in 10 U.S. adult Catholics say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, according to a newly released profile of Catholicism by Pew Research .

Catholic opinion about abortion rights, according to the report, tends to align with political leanings: Fewer Catholic Republicans favor legal abortion than Catholic Democrats. And Pew says Hispanic Catholics, who make up one-third of the U.S. church, are slightly more in favor of legal abortion than white Catholics.

Despite church prohibitions, Catholics still choose IVF to have children

Pew found that 20% of the U.S. population identifies as Catholic, but only about 3 in 10 say they attend mass regularly. Opinions about abortion rights appear to be related to how often someone worships — just 34% of Catholics who attend mass weekly say abortion should be legal in all or most cases, whereas that number jumps to 68% among those who attend mass monthly or less.

Most U.S. Catholics are white (57%), but that number has dropped by 8 percentage points since 2007, according the new report. About 33% identify as Hispanic, 4% Asian, 2% Black, and 3% describe themselves as another race.

Pew Research also found that as of February, Pope Francis remains highly popular, with 75% of U.S. Catholics rating him favorably. However, there is a partisan divide, with Catholic Democrats more strongly supporting him.

About 4 in 10 U.S. Catholics view Francis as a major agent of change, with 3 in 10 saying he is a minor agent of change.

Catholic Church works to explain what same-sex blessings are and are not

Pew reports that many U.S. Catholics would welcome more change. Some 83% say they want the church to allow the use of contraception, 69% say priests should be allowed to get married, 64% say women should be allowed to become priests, and 54% say the Catholic Church should recognize same-sex marriage.

In December 2023, the Vatican issued guidance to priests that they may bless people in same-sex relationships. But the church insists those blessings not be construed in any way to be a form of marriage or even take place as part of a worship service.

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In Landmark Climate Ruling, European Court Faults Switzerland

Experts said it was the first time an international court determined that governments were legally obligated to meet their climate targets under human rights law.

By Isabella Kwai and Emma Bubola

Reporting from London

Europe’s top human rights court said on Tuesday that the Swiss government had violated its citizens’ human rights by not doing enough to stop climate change, a landmark ruling that experts said could bolster activists hoping to use human rights law to hold governments to account.

In the case, which was brought by a group called KlimaSeniorinnen, or Senior Women for Climate Protection, the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France, said that Switzerland had failed to meet its target in reducing carbon emissions and must act to address that shortcoming.

The women, age 64 and up, said that their health was at risk during heat waves related to global warming. They argued that the Swiss government, by not doing enough to mitigate against global warming, had violated their rights.

It is the latest decision in a broader wave of climate-related lawsuits that aim to push governments to act against global warming , and countries’ domestic courts have handled similar cases. But experts said it was the first instance of an international court determining that governments were legally obligated to meet their climate targets under human rights law.

“It is the first time that an international court has affirmed clearly that a climate crisis is a human rights crisis,” said Joie Chowdhury, a senior lawyer with the Center for International Environmental Law, an international group that voiced its support for KlimaSeniorinnen’s case.

Although the decision is legally binding, experts say that states are ultimately responsible for complying.

Annalisa Savaresi, a professor of environmental law at the University of East Finland, said she expected the country to heed the court’s ruling. “Simply because Switzerland is Switzerland: It’s a rule-of-law state, it’s not a rogue state,” she said. “They are keen to be seen as doing the right thing.”

With many other countries failing to meet their climate targets, the ruling could also encourage more members of the public to sue, experts said.

“I expect we’re going to see a rash of lawsuits in other European countries, because most of them have done the same thing,” said Michael Gerrard, the director of the Sabin Center for Climate Change Law at Columbia University in New York. “They have failed to meet their climate goals, and failed to set climate targets that are adequate.”

Climate lawyers also hope that the ruling will inform other upcoming opinions by international courts , including the International Court of Justice .

The European ruling, Mr. Gerrard said, was unlikely to affect court decisions in the United States, where states, cities and counties are suing fossil fuel companies over the damages caused by climate change and young people are filing lawsuits over what they say is a failure by the state and federal governments to protect them from the effects of global warming.

But, Mr. Gerrard said, “the idea that climate change impaired fundamental rights resonated throughout the cases.”

The court’s ruling on Tuesday covered three cases in which members of the public argued that their governments, by not doing enough to mitigate against climate change, were violating the European Convention on Human Rights. It rejected as inadmissible two of the cases, which were brought by the former mayor of a coastal town in France and a group of young people in Portugal.

With heat waves sweeping Switzerland in recent summers, the litigants, who worked on the lawsuit for nearly a decade with Greenpeace and a team of lawyers, pointed to research showing that older women are particularly vulnerable to heat-related illnesses .

Four of the women said they had heart and respiratory diseases that put them at risk of death on very hot days. Many others in the group, who live across Switzerland, said they struggled with fatigue, lightheadedness and other symptoms because of the extreme heat.

Under its climate commitments, Switzerland had vowed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions 20 percent by 2020 compared with 1990 levels. But the ruling said that between 2013 and 2020, Switzerland had reduced its emissions levels only around 11 percent. In addition, it said, the country had failed to use tools that could quantify its efforts to limit emissions, such as a carbon budget.

By not acting “in good time and in an appropriate and consistent manner,” the ruling said, the Swiss government had failed to protect its citizens’ rights.

The court ordered Switzerland to put in place measures to address those shortcomings, and to pay the KlimaSeniorinnen 80,000 euros, about $87,000, to cover their costs and expenses.

The Swiss government had argued that human rights law does not apply to climate change, and that addressing it should be a political process. But Switzerland’s federal office of justice, which represents the country at the European court, said in a statement on Tuesday that the Swiss authorities would analyze the judgment and examine the measures the country needs to take.

The court said that given the complexity of the issues involved, the Swiss government was best placed to decide how to proceed. A committee of government representatives for the court’s member states will supervise Switzerland’s adoption of measures to address the ruling.

Rosmarie Wydler-Wälti, a co-president of the KlimaSeniorinnen, called the decision “a victory for all generations” in a statement on Tuesday.

A second case that the court considered focused on a complaint regarding Grande-Synthe, a French town on the coast of the English Channel that faces an increased flooding risk because of climate change. Damien Carême, who was the town’s mayor from 2001 to 2019, argued in the lawsuit that France had endangered Grande-Synthe by taking insufficient steps to prevent global warming.

The court ruled that his case was inadmissible, however, because Mr. Carême, who is now a member of the European Parliament, no longer lives in France and therefore no longer has a legally relevant link to the town.

The court also ruled inadmissible a lawsuit brought by six Portuguese young people against 33 Paris Climate Agreement signatory countries, including Portugal, for not complying with their commitments to reduce greenhouse emissions. The applicants argued that the current and future effects of climate change — including heat waves, wildfires and the smoke from those blazes — affected their lives, well-being and mental health.

The court ruled that the applicants had not exhausted all of the legal options in Portugal and that bringing a complaint against the other 32 countries would entail an “unlimited expansion” of the states’ jurisdiction.

David Gelles contributed reporting from New York.

Isabella Kwai is a Times reporter based in London, covering breaking news and other trends. More about Isabella Kwai

Emma Bubola is a Times reporter based in London, covering news across Europe and around the world. More about Emma Bubola

Learn More About Climate Change

Have questions about climate change? Our F.A.Q. will tackle your climate questions, big and small .

“Buying Time,” a new series from The New York Times, looks at the risky ways  humans are starting to manipulate nature  to fight climate change.

Big brands like Procter & Gamble and Nestlé say a new generation of recycling plants will help them meet environmental goals, but the technology is struggling to deliver .

The Italian energy giant Eni sees future profits from collecting carbon dioxide and pumping it  into natural gas fields that have been exhausted.

New satellite-based research reveals how land along the East Coast is slumping into the ocean, compounding the danger from global sea level rise . A major culprit: the overpumping of groundwater.

Did you know the ♻ symbol doesn’t mean something is actually recyclable ? Read on about how we got here, and what can be done.

Evidence Review of the Adverse Effects of COVID-19 Vaccination and Intramuscular Vaccine Administration

Vaccines are a public health success story, as they have prevented or lessened the effects of many infectious diseases. To address concerns around potential vaccine injuries, the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) administers the Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) and the Countermeasures Injury Compensation Program (CICP), which provide compensation to those who assert that they were injured by routine vaccines or medical countermeasures, respectively. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine have contributed to the scientific basis for VICP compensation decisions for decades.

HRSA asked the National Academies to convene an expert committee to review the epidemiological, clinical, and biological evidence about the relationship between COVID-19 vaccines and specific adverse events, as well as intramuscular administration of vaccines and shoulder injuries. This report outlines the committee findings and conclusions.

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• Digital Resource: Evidence Review of the Adverse Effects of COVID-19 Vaccination
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Guidelines To Writing A Clinical Case Report

What is a clinical case report.

A case report is a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports usually describe an unusual or novel occurrence and as such, remain one of the cornerstones of medical progress and provide many new ideas in medicine. Some reports contain an extensive review of the relevant literature on the topic. The case report is a rapid short communication between busy clinicians who may not have time or resources to conduct large scale research.

WHAT ARE THE REASONS FOR PUBLISHING A CASE REPORT?

The most common reasons for publishing a case are the following: 1) an unexpected association between diseases or symptoms; 2) an unexpected event in the course observing or treating a patient; 3) findings that shed new light on the possible pathogenesis of a disease or an adverse effect; 4) unique or rare features of a disease; 5) unique therapeutic approaches; variation of anatomical structures.

Most journals publish case reports that deal with one or more of the following:

• Unusual observations
• Adverse response to therapies
• Unusual combination of conditions leading to confusion
• Illustration of a new theory
• Question regarding a current theory
• Personal impact.

STRUCTURE OF A CASE REPORT[ 1 , 2 ]

Different journals have slightly different formats for case reports. It is always a good idea to read some of the target jiurnals case reports to get a general idea of the sequence and format.

In general, all case reports include the following components: an abstract, an introduction, a case, and a discussion. Some journals might require literature review.

The abstract should summarize the case, the problem it addresses, and the message it conveys. Abstracts of case studies are usually very short, preferably not more than 150 words.

Introduction

The introduction gives a brief overview of the problem that the case addresses, citing relevant literature where necessary. The introduction generally ends with a single sentence describing the patient and the basic condition that he or she is suffering from.

This section provides the details of the case in the following order:

• Patient description
• Case history
• Physical examination results
• Results of pathological tests and other investigations
• Treatment plan
• Expected outcome of the treatment plan
• Actual outcome.

The author should ensure that all the relevant details are included and unnecessary ones excluded.

This is the most important part of the case report; the part that will convince the journal that the case is publication worthy. This section should start by expanding on what has been said in the introduction, focusing on why the case is noteworthy and the problem that it addresses.

This is followed by a summary of the existing literature on the topic. (If the journal specifies a separate section on literature review, it should be added before the Discussion). This part describes the existing theories and research findings on the key issue in the patient's condition. The review should narrow down to the source of confusion or the main challenge in the case.

Finally, the case report should be connected to the existing literature, mentioning the message that the case conveys. The author should explain whether this corroborates with or detracts from current beliefs about the problem and how this evidence can add value to future clinical practice.

A case report ends with a conclusion or with summary points, depending on the journal's specified format. This section should briefly give readers the key points covered in the case report. Here, the author can give suggestions and recommendations to clinicians, teachers, or researchers. Some journals do not want a separate section for the conclusion: it can then be the concluding paragraph of the Discussion section.

Notes on patient consent

Informed consent in an ethical requirement for most studies involving humans, so before you start writing your case report, take a written consent from the patient as all journals require that you provide it at the time of manuscript submission. In case the patient is a minor, parental consent is required. For adults who are unable to consent to investigation or treatment, consent of closest family members is required.

Patient anonymity is also an important requirement. Remember not to disclose any information that might reveal the identity of the patient. You need to be particularly careful with pictures, and ensure that pictures of the affected area do not reveal the identity of the patient.