smartphone classification essay

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Cell Phone Users: A Classification, Essay Example

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Cell phones are (almost) standard issue to the people in our society, causing us to stop and ponder the question, “What did we ever do before they came along?” Just as there are varieties of phones, ranging from the ordinary to the extra terrestrial, so are there different types of cell phone users. The four most prominent ones are described in this brief essay.

First, there is the Inattentive User . The people in this group rarely use their cell phones. When it is not turned off it is missing somewhere. Since it is seldom used to make outgoing calls, it receives only a few wrong numbers from telemarketers. This group is represented by older people who cling to land line phones, lamenting modern conveniences in favor of days that were “good” and “old.”

The second group is the Intermittent User group. Its cell phone habits revolve around making, rather than receiving calls. When group members are out and about, they enjoy the expediency of phoning others. When it comes to receiving calls, whoever, the “Intermittents” would rather not answer. After all, they are probably driving and do not wish to be disturbed.

The third group is the Insouciant User Group. Itinerant cell phone people roam towns and country sides with cell phones that are every bit as ubiquitous as they. They would no more leave home without their cell phone than they would forsake their pocketbook or car keys. If their phone is not used for some purpose every 15 minutes, something is wrong. Their phone is with them. They are not alone.

The final group is the Invincible User cartel. This group would rather text than talk. They spend most of their waking moments staring into the abyss that is their phone screen. They are able to perform a variety of simultaneous functions, like texting, talking, reading, checking directions, driving, babysitting, and running through a drive-thru restaurant. Caution: People in this group may lose the ability to communicate in person.

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5.4 Classification

Learning objectives.

• Determine the purpose and structure of the classification essay.
• Understand how to write a classification essay.

The Purpose of Classification in Writing

The purpose of classification  is to break down broad subjects into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts. We classify things in our daily lives all the time, often without even thinking about it. Cell phones, for example, have now become part of a broad category. They can be classified as feature phones, media phones, and smartphones.

Smaller categories, and the way in which these categories are created, help us make sense of the world. Keep both of these elements in mind when writing a classification essay.

Choose topics that you know well when writing classification essays. The more you know about a topic, the more you can break it into smaller, more interesting parts. Adding interest and insight will enhance your classification essays.

On a separate sheet of paper, break the following categories into smaller classifications.

• The United States
• Colleges and universities

The Structure of a Classification Essay

The classification essay opens with an introductory paragraph that introduces the broader topic. The thesis should then explain how that topic is divided into subgroups and why. Take the following introductory paragraph, for example:

When people think of New York, they often think of only New York City. But New York is actually a diverse state with a full range of activities to do, sights to see, and cultures to explore. In order to better understand the diversity of New York state, it is helpful to break it into these five separate regions: Long Island, New York City, Western New York, Central New York, and Northern New York.

The underlined thesis explains not only the category and subcategory but also the rationale for breaking it into those categories. Through this classification essay, the writer hopes to show his or her readers a different way of considering the state.

Each body paragraph of a classification essay is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subcategories. In the previous example, then, each region of New York would have its own paragraph.

The conclusion should bring all the categories and subcategories back together again to show the reader the big picture. In the previous example, the conclusion might explain how the various sights and activities of each region of New York add to its diversity and complexity.

To avoid settling for an overly simplistic classification, make sure you break down any given topic at least three different ways. This will help you think outside the box and perhaps even learn something entirely new about a subject.

Using your classifications from Exercise 1 , write a brief paragraph explaining why you chose to organize each main category in the way that you did.

Writing a Classification Essay

Start with an engaging opening that will adequately introduce the general topic that you will be dividing into smaller subcategories. Your thesis should come at the end of your introduction. It should include the topic, your subtopics, and the reason you are choosing to break down the topic in the way that you are. Use the following classification thesis equation:

topic + subtopics + rationale for the subtopics = thesis.

The organizing strategy of a classification essay is dictated by the initial topic and the subsequent subtopics. Each body paragraph is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subtopics. In a way, coming up with a strong topic pays double rewards in a classification essay. Not only do you have a good topic, but you also have a solid organizational structure within which to write.

Be sure you use strong details and explanations for each subcategory paragraph that help explain and support your thesis. Also, be sure to give examples to illustrate your points. Finally, write a conclusion that links all the subgroups together again. The conclusion should successfully wrap up your essay by connecting it to your topic initially discussed in the introduction. See Appendix B: Examples of Essays  to read a sample classification essay.

Building on Exercise 1 and Exercise 2 , write a five-paragraph classification essay about one of the four original topics. In your thesis, make sure to include the topic, subtopics, and rationale for your breakdown. And make sure that your essay is organized into paragraphs that each describes a subtopic.

Key Takeaways

• The purpose of classification is to break a subject into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts.
• Smaller subcategories help us make sense of the world, and the way in which these subcategories are created also helps us make sense of the world.
• A classification essay is organized by its subcategories.

Putting the Pieces Together Copyright © 2020 by Andrew Stracuzzi and André Cormier is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Smartphone Essay

500 words essay on smartphone.

Smartphones have become a very important form of communication these days. It is impossible for a rational person to deny the advantages of smartphones as they are devices suitable for a wide variety of tasks. Let us try to understand smartphones along with their benefits with this smartphone essay.

                                                                                                                                    Smartphone Essay

Understanding the Smartphone

A smartphone is a mobile device that facilitates the combination of cellular and mobile computing functions into one single unit. Moreover, smartphones have stronger hardware capabilities and extensive mobile operating systems in comparison to feature phones.

The strong operating systems of smartphones make possible multimedia functionality, wider software, and the internet including web browsing. They also support core phone functions like text messaging and voice calls.

There are a number of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chips within a smartphone. Moreover, such chips include various sensors whose leveraging is possible by their software.

The marketing of early smartphones was primarily towards the enterprise market. Furthermore, the attempt of the smartphone manufacturers was to bridge the functionality of standalone personal digital assistant (PDA) devices along with support for cellular telephony. However, the early smartphones had problems of slow analogue cellular network, short battery life, and bulky size.

With the passage of time, experts were able to resolve these issues. Furthermore, this became possible with faster digital mobile data networks, miniaturization of MOS transistors down to sub-micron levels, and exponential scaling. Moreover, the development of more mature software platforms led to enhancement in the capability of smartphones.

Benefits of Smartphone

People can make use of smartphones to access the internet and find out information regarding almost anything. Furthermore, due to the portability of a smartphone, people can access the internet from any location, even while travelling.

Smartphones have greatly increased the rate of work. This is possible because smartphones facilitate a highly efficient and quick form of communication from anywhere. For example, a person can participate in an official business meeting, without wasting time, from the comfort of his home via a live video chat application of a smartphone.

Smartphones can also be of tremendous benefit to students in general. Furthermore, students can quickly resolve any issue related to studies by accessing the internet , using a calculator, reading a pdf file, or contacting a teacher. Most noteworthy, all of this is possible due to the smartphone.

People can get in touch with the larger global community by communicating and sharing their views via social media. Furthermore, this provides a suitable platform to express their views, conduct business with online transactions , or find new people or jobs. One can do all that from anywhere, thanks to the smartphone.

These were just a few benefits of smartphones. Overall, the total benefits of a smartphone are just too many to enumerate here. Most importantly, smartphones have made our lives more efficient as well as comfortable.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of Smartphone Essay

Smartphones have proven to be a revolution for human society. Furthermore, they have made the whole world united like never before. In spite of its demerits, there is no doubt that the smartphone is a tremendous blessing to mankind and it will continue to play a major role in its development.

FAQs For Smartphone Essay

Question 1: How is a smartphone different from a feature phone?

Answer 1: Smartphones have stronger hardware capabilities and extensive mobile operating systems when compared to feature phones. Furthermore, the smartphone can perform almost all computing functions that a feature phone can’t. The internet and camera capabilities of a feature phone are nowhere near as powerful as that of a smartphone.

Question 2: What is meant by a smartphone?

Answer 2: A smartphone refers to a handheld electronic device that facilitates a connection to a cellular network. Furthermore, smartphones let people access the internet, make phone calls, send text messages, along with a wide variety of functions that one can perform on a pc or a laptop. Overall, it is a fully functioning miniaturized computer.

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10.4 Classification

Learning objectives.

• Determine the purpose and structure of the classification essay.
• Understand how to write a classification essay.

The Purpose of Classification in Writing

The purpose of classification is to break down broad subjects into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts. We classify things in our daily lives all the time, often without even thinking about it. Cell phones, for example, have now become part of a broad category. They can be classified as feature phones, media phones, and smartphones.

Smaller categories, and the way in which these categories are created, help us make sense of the world. Keep both of these elements in mind when writing a classification essay.

Choose topics that you know well when writing classification essays. The more you know about a topic, the more you can break it into smaller, more interesting parts. Adding interest and insight will enhance your classification essays.

On a separate sheet of paper, break the following categories into smaller classifications.

• The United States
• Colleges and universities

The Structure of a Classification Essay

The classification essay opens with an introductory paragraph that introduces the broader topic. The thesis should then explain how that topic is divided into subgroups and why. Take the following introductory paragraph, for example:

When people think of New York, they often think of only New York City. But New York is actually a diverse state with a full range of activities to do, sights to see, and cultures to explore. In order to better understand the diversity of New York state, it is helpful to break it into these five separate regions: Long Island, New York City, Western New York, Central New York, and Northern New York.

The underlined thesis explains not only the category and subcategory but also the rationale for breaking it into those categories. Through this classification essay, the writer hopes to show his or her readers a different way of considering the state.

Each body paragraph of a classification essay is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subcategories. In the previous example, then, each region of New York would have its own paragraph.

The conclusion should bring all the categories and subcategories back together again to show the reader the big picture. In the previous example, the conclusion might explain how the various sights and activities of each region of New York add to its diversity and complexity.

To avoid settling for an overly simplistic classification, make sure you break down any given topic at least three different ways. This will help you think outside the box and perhaps even learn something entirely new about a subject.

Using your classifications from Note 10.43 “Exercise 1” , write a brief paragraph explaining why you chose to organize each main category in the way that you did.

Writing a Classification Essay

Start with an engaging opening that will adequately introduce the general topic that you will be dividing into smaller subcategories. Your thesis should come at the end of your introduction. It should include the topic, your subtopics, and the reason you are choosing to break down the topic in the way that you are. Use the following classification thesis equation:

topic + subtopics + rationale for the subtopics = thesis.

The organizing strategy of a classification essay is dictated by the initial topic and the subsequent subtopics. Each body paragraph is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subtopics. In a way, coming up with a strong topic pays double rewards in a classification essay. Not only do you have a good topic, but you also have a solid organizational structure within which to write.

Be sure you use strong details and explanations for each subcategory paragraph that help explain and support your thesis. Also, be sure to give examples to illustrate your points. Finally, write a conclusion that links all the subgroups together again. The conclusion should successfully wrap up your essay by connecting it to your topic initially discussed in the introduction. See Chapter 15 “Readings: Examples of Essays” to read a sample classification essay.

Building on Note 10.43 “Exercise 1” and Note 10.46 “Exercise 2” , write a five-paragraph classification essay about one of the four original topics. In your thesis, make sure to include the topic, subtopics, and rationale for your breakdown. And make sure that your essay is organized into paragraphs that each describes a subtopic.

Key Takeaways

• The purpose of classification is to break a subject into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts.
• Smaller subcategories help us make sense of the world, and the way in which these subcategories are created also helps us make sense of the world.
• A classification essay is organized by its subcategories.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Problematic Mobile Phone and Smartphone Use Scales: A Systematic Review

Bethany harris.

1 Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States

Timothy Regan

Jordan schueler, sherecce a. fields.

2 Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States

The popularity of smartphones is undeniable in nearly all facets of society. Despite the many benefits attributed to the technology, concern has grown over the potential for excessive smartphone use to become problematic in nature. Due to the growing concerns surrounding the recognized and unrecognized implications of smartphone use, great efforts have been made through research to evaluate, label and identify problematic smartphone use mostly through the development and administration of scales assessing the behavior. This study examines 78 existing validated scales that have been developed over the past 13 years to measure, identify or characterize excessive or problematic smartphone use by evaluating their theoretical foundations and their psychometric properties. Our review determined that, despite an abundance of self-report scales examining the construct, many published scales lack sufficient internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Additionally, there is a lack of research supporting the theoretical foundation of many of the scales evaluated. Future research is needed to better characterize problematic smartphone use so that assessment tools can be more efficiently developed to evaluate the behavior in order to avoid the excessive publication of seemingly redundant assessment tools.

Introduction

Smartphone ownership has become increasingly more prevalent over the past decade since Apple’s first iPhone smartphone device was launched in 2007 ( Apple Inc, 2007 ). In 2018, the Consumer Technology Association (CTA) revealed that smartphones were owned in 87% of United States homes and predicted that smartphone ownership could reach household TV ownership rates (96%) within 5 years ( Twice Staff, 2018 ). However, in the fields of psychology and cognition, it is not the mere ownership of the technological devices that is causing increased concern. It is, instead, the potential for dysfunction associated with smartphone use that is leading researchers to stress the importance of investigating the behavior. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is 3-fold. First, we review literature examining psychological and behavioral dysfunctions related to smartphone use as well as probe the potential role problematic smartphone usage may occupy within the realm of addiction research. Second, we present an exhaustive review of assessment scales that measure problematic smartphone or mobile phone use including an overview of reliability (i.e., internal consistency and test-retest reliability) and criterion-related validity by each scale. Third, we will provide specific recommendations for moving the field forward including furthering research in order to standardize conceptualization of the behavior.

Associated Dysfunction

It is important to note that a standard cut-off point to determine when smartphone use becomes problematic has yet to be established. Due to insufficient research investigating problematic smartphone use in order to effectively and consistently characterize it, it is currently unclear whether “problematic use” ought to be defined by use quantity, patterns of use, or by the negative consequences of the use. Billieux (2012) conducted a frequently cited literature review of dysfunctional mobile phone use and defined the problematic use of mobile phones as “an inability to regulate one’s use of the mobile phone, which eventually involves negative consequences in daily life” (pg. 1). Numerous research studies indicating that smartphone use is related to various facets of dysfunction support Billieux’s (2012) conceptualization of problematic use being contingent upon negative consequences associated with the use. Evidence has accumulated showing strong links between smartphone use and social, interpersonal, mental health, cognition and academic dysfunction, suggesting that smartphone use can result in significant negative consequences for some individuals (see review, Billieux, 2012 ).

For example, although smartphones provide unique opportunities for social interaction, Scott et al. (2016) found that problematic attachment to technology such as smartphone devices was associated with lowered social skills, emotional intelligence and empathy, as well as increased conflict with others. Additionally, Laramie (2007) identified social anxiety and loneliness as being associated with heavy use of and reliance upon mobile phones, suggesting smartphone overuse may result in interpersonal dysfunction. Relatedly, self-reported subjective smartphone addiction has been shown to be negatively correlated with psychological well-being ( Kumcagiz and Gündüz, 2016 ). Several studies have revealed evidence that low self-esteem ( Bianchi and Phillips, 2005 ; Hong et al., 2012 ). and depression and anxiety ( De-Sola et al., 2017b ; Elhai et al., 2017 ; Matar Boumosleh and Jaalouk, 2017 ) are associated with problematic smartphone use, especially in populations of adolescents and young adults. The results of these studies present rationale for a justified concern surrounding potential negative psychological consequences of smartphone overuse.

Similarly, concern has grown over the potential negative impacts smartphone use might have on users’ behavior and cognitive abilities. Research has shown that problematic smartphone use is related to impulsivity ( Contractor et al., 2017 ; De-Sola et al., 2017b ; Hadar et al., 2017 ), impaired attention ( Roberts et al., 2015 ; Hadar et al., 2017 ), and compromised inhibitory control ( Chen et al., 2016 ). These associated cognitive deficits have spurred researchers to investigate the potential for dysfunction in academic performance, as well. Smartphone use has been shown to negatively correlate with academic progress and success ( Alosaimi et al., 2016 ; Hawi and Samaha, 2016 ; Samaha and Hawi, 2016 ). Findings from these studies suggest the cognitive dysfunction associated with smartphone overuse may result in real-world consequences for some individuals.

To reiterate, despite research efforts characterizing associated dysfunction, a standardized conceptualization of problematic smartphone use has yet to be established in the field. However, the previously described areas of dysfunction (e.g., social, interpersonal, mental health, cognition, and academia) found to be associated with smartphone use support Billieux’s (2012) conceptualization of problematic smartphone use being contingent upon negative consequences associated with the use. As such, many assessment tools for problematic use tap into these types of negative life consequences as they are likely to identify individuals for which excessive smartphone use is especially harmful.

Is Smartphone Addiction a Real Concept?

The American Psychiatric Association (APA) broadly defines addiction as “a complex condition, a brain disease that is manifested by compulsive substance use despite harmful consequences” (pg. 1; American Psychiatric Association, 2017 ). In this definition, the use of substances is a requirement of the condition in that, to be “addicted,” one must have a substance to which to be addicted. But, what about behavioral addictions? Both the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11; World Health Organization [WHO], 2018 ) have grouped behavioral addictions within their respective substance dependence categories. Re-categorization of addictions was seen in the DSM-5 resulting in gambling disorder being recognized as a non-substance-related addictive disorder ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). Additionally, Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) is included in the DSM-5 as a condition for further study ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). Finally, both gambling disorder and gaming disorder are grouped together in the ICD-11 ( World Health Organization [WHO], 2018 ), suggesting behavioral addictions share some common ground with substance use disorders (SUD).

Despite this conceptual similarity, Billieux et al. (2015) argue that, while addictive behaviors like problematic smartphone use is associated with several types of associated dysfunction, research in this arena is inconsistent in documenting significant behavioral and neurobiological similarities and correlates with more widely recognized substance addictions. For example, there are many features of substance addiction that do not appear to be present when considering excessive smartphone use. Very little research has documented the presence of loss of control (i.e., trouble consciously limiting one’s smartphone use), tolerance (i.e., increasing smartphone use to achieve satisfaction), and withdrawal (i.e., negative symptoms that occur after smartphone use discontinuation; Billieux et al., 2015 ). Also, dependence symptoms such as tolerance and withdrawal, theoretically based in physiological adaptation to increasing amounts of a drug, are often absent in behavioral addictions. In their review for IGD, Kaptsis et al. (2016) did not find consistent answers to questions inquiring about withdrawal symptoms, such as effects on mood (i.e., feeling “irritable,” “dissatisfied,” or “moody” when unable to play a game) for IGD. Similarly, physiological and neurobiological adaptations to increasing amounts of smartphone use have yet to be documented, suggesting researchers may need to use other criterion to define problematic smartphone use. Some researchers have argued that “borrowing” such criteria from more recognized addictive behaviors, like substance abuse or problematic gambling, might not fit for certain problematic or excessive behaviors ( Starcevic, 2016 ). Thus, although sharing common ground, problematic smartphone use may substantially differ from substance addiction in regards to loss of control, tolerance, and withdrawal.

Some other criteria for addiction map on better. Aforementioned associated life dysfunction is becoming increasingly documented, meaning the problematic use of smartphone devices has real-world negative consequences for some individuals. Compulsive use has been documented: Parasuraman et al. (2017) found that over 50% of participants would not quit using their smartphones even though their daily lifestyles were being negatively affected by their excessive use. This irresistible impulse to use one’s smartphone despite wanting to stop is reminiscent of individuals with SUDs, in which the drive to use drugs overrides other executive control processes. Six symptom criteria were even proposed to diagnose smartphone “addiction” and related functional impairment, which were based on guidelines for SUDs and IGD. Lin et al. (2016) dropped tolerance from their final criterion, due to low diagnostic accuracy. However, they included withdrawal, as subjects who used their smartphones excessively enough to be considered “addicted” displayed feelings of dysphoria, anxiety, and/or irritability after a period without their smartphones.

Dependency appears, to some extent, in excess smartphone users, although again this is based on subjective self-report. In a study conducted by Parasuraman et al. (2017) analyzing smartphone use behavior, almost 75% of smartphone users reported feeling dependent upon smartphone devices and 58% of users felt as though they were “unable to withstand” not having their smartphone with them. Additionally, over 70% of participants indicated that they use their smartphone longer than they intended. Similarly, results from a research study released by The Sun newspaper in March of 2013 indicated that one in ten college students say that they are “addicted” to their smartphones ( Hope, 2013 ). Upon surveying 2,000 college students, 85% of the students endorsed the question about constantly checking their smartphones to figure out what time it is and 75% of the students responded that they sleep with their smartphones lying beside them. These data indicate, when used excessively, smartphones can become problematic and users report feeling as though they have an addiction to them.

Laws have even been enacted in many states to combat problematic use. Phone use while driving a vehicle has become a major concern and it has been shown that it is the anticipation of incoming calls, messages and notifications that directly correlates with greater in-vehicle phone use ( O’Connor et al., 2013 , 2017 ). Additionally, recently, the city of Honolulu, Hawaii has even gone so far as to enact a law making it illegal for pedestrians to use their phones when crossing a street or highway (Honolulu, Hawaii, Ordinance 17-39, Bill 6, 2017) due to the significant increase in pedestrian fatalities in the city partially attributed to smartphone distraction ( Ellis, 2017 ). Thus, more and more individuals are using their smartphones in risky and physically hazardous situations. This is conceptually similar to some more recognized addiction criteria for SUDs in DSM-5.

DSM-5 Criteria and Considerations

As reviewed, problematic smartphone use shares some conceptual similarities with more typically recognized addictions, including excessive use, failure of impulse control, feelings of dependency, use in risky and/or physically hazardous situations, and potential for negative affect when not using one’s smartphone. The term “addiction” is typically characterized by these criterion, but the question of whether “behavioral addictions” must contain all of these same criterion to be considered a true “addiction” is still under debate.

Starcevic (2013) suggested behavioral addictions are characterized by salient behaviors which promote craving and neglect of other life activity, loss of control, tolerance and withdrawal manifestations, and negative consequences from overuse. Gambling disorder, considered an impulse control disorder in the DSM-IV ( American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ), is now characterized and grouped with SUDs in the most recent DSM-5 ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ) in a new category of psychopathology entitled “Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders.” This transition was the result of a wide body of research demonstrating clinical, phenomenological, genetic, neurobiological, and other similarities between gambling disorder and SUDs ( Potenza, 2014 ). While gambling disorder is currently the only representative member of the “Non-Substance-Related Disorders” subsection, this transition was an important shift for the recognition of “behavioral addictions” more broadly. Many researchers now advocate for the similar recognition of problematic smartphone use (e.g., Potenza et al., 2018 ).

Support for recognition of problematic smartphone use has also been motivated by the growing body of research literature on Internet addiction seen since the late 1990s. Kimberly Young is considered to be the “founder” of the concept of Internet addiction due to her publication of a case study in 1996 involving a 43-year-old female with no addiction or psychiatric history who abused the Internet causing significant impairment ( Young, 1996 ). This led to her development and validation of the Young Internet Addiction Scale (Y-Scale; Young, 1998 ) assessing self-reported preoccupation with the Internet, need to use the Internet with increasing amounts of time, unsuccessful efforts to stop use, restlessness associated with decreased use, longer than intended use, associated life impairments, concealment of involvement, and use of the Internet to relieve a dysphoric mood. The scale’s items were derived from the DSM-IV’s criteria for Pathological Gambling ( American Psychiatric Association, 1995 ) due to her conceptualization of the behavior as being similar to other impulse-control disorders. It seems likely that the development of this scale and the subsequent research that has been conducted on Internet addiction have greatly influenced the investigation of problematic smartphone use as a similar disorder.

In light of growing concerns surrounding the known and unknown implications of smartphone use as well as these recent changes in the conceptualization of non-substance-related addictions, great efforts have been made through research to identify, label and evaluate problematic smartphone use mostly through the development and administration of scales measuring and characterizing the behavior. Researchers within the past 13 years have set out to develop assessment tools based upon varying diagnostic criteria for officially recognized disorders and addictions such as SUDs and gambling disorder as well as unofficial criteria associated with Internet addiction. The aim of the present review is to examine existing validated scales that have been developed to measure, identify or characterize problematic smartphone use by evaluating their theoretical foundations and their psychometric properties.

Literature Collection

All studies (published between January 1994 and May 2019) validating standardized measures of varying forms of problematic smartphone use were identified by searching two databases (PsycINFO and MEDLINE Complete) through EBSCOhost. The date range was decided upon after conducting a preemptive literature search utilizing the search terms listed in Appendix A and concluding that the earliest study was published in 1994 ( Clifford et al., 1994 ). For the EBSCOhost literature collection, language was limited to English. Further studies, including those in other languages, were identified by reviewing the bibliographies of relevant studies and reviews.

Search Terms

Due to inconsistencies in the field regarding the conceptualization of the technology being used and the use of the technology, various terms were used in order to ensure that all relevant studies would be identified and reviewed. In addition to searching for studies identifying problematic use of smartphones, terms such as “smart phone,” “cellular phone,” “cell phone,” “mobile device,” and “mobile phone” were used. Additionally, because of the conceptualization of the problematic use has also been shown to be inconsistently described in research studies, terms such as “dependence,” “dependency,” “overuse,” “nomophobia,” “attachment,” and “compulsive” were used during the literature collection process. Finally, terms such as “questionnaire,” “scale,” “inventory,” measurement,” and “validation” were used to ensure all studies validating measurement scales were identified. The full search strategy is presented in Appendix A .

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

Scales were selected for inclusion if: (a) their development and validation were investigated in the identified study, or (b) they were described in the methods section of a research study as being used to identify or evaluate the behavior. Scales were excluded from the systematic review when they were used to measure behavior not specific to smartphone or cellular phone problematic use.

Data Extraction

Once a measurement scale was identified through the review of a study, a structured process was used to extract data on the scale (title, abbreviation, and the author(s) of original development/validation study), items (total number, format, and scale range), sample and norms (validation study participant count and descriptions), reliability (internal consistency and temporal stability), validity (content domains and criterion-related validity), and construct being measured. If a scale was mentioned in a research study as being used to measure the behavior, the study used to validate the scale and discuss its development was found in the study’s references and used to extract these data.

Format of the scale items was identified and described as either Likert scale (range of potential responses on a continuum) or dichotomous (yes or no response options). Internal consistency (the degree of the interrelatedness among the items; Mokkink et al., 2013 ) was assessed and the Cronbach’s alpha (α) value was recorded for each scale if provided in the validation study. Reported temporal stability, or test-retest reliability, measuring the stability of the responses to items over time was assessed and were recorded for each scale, as well. Content domains were often identified by using the factors listed by the author indicated through factor analysis of their scale’s items. The content domains often reflected similar criteria used to assess disorders or conditions claimed by the researchers to be similar in nature to the problematic behavior being assessed. The criterion-related validity (the degree to which the scores of the instrument are an adequate reflection of a “gold standard;” Mokkink et al., 2013 ) of each scale was identified by assessing the scales and criteria used by the researchers to validate their instruments. Finally, the purported construct being measured by each scale was typically identified by evaluating the title assigned to the scale by the researchers and their description of the purpose of developing the scale.

Identification of Measurement Scales

The process for the identification and selection of the problematic smartphone use scales is displayed in the flow diagram (see Figure 1 ). The combined search strategy using PsycINFO and MEDLINE Complete databases and the search terms displayed in Appendix A yielded 2452 potentially relevant articles. From them, 379 duplicate articles were excluded leaving 2073 remaining articles identified as being unique. By screening the titles of the articles, 1567 articles were excluded leaving 506 articles identified as being potentially relevant. Next, through an abstract screening process, a single, broad exclusion criteria was utilized to evaluate article relevance and inclusion. Articles were eliminated if there was no mention of either development and/or validation or utilization of assessment tools examining use of smartphone or mobile phone devices in their abstract. For example, articles were eliminated if researchers utilized smartphone devices to administer assessments of unrelated constructs (e.g., depression, anxiety). This resulted in the removal of 40 articles. The remaining 466 articles were identified as being eligible studies requiring further examination in order to identify applicable measures. Finally, through an in-depth examination process, 78 total scales were identified as being unique and relevant. These scales are organized by purpose and can be found in Table 1 (Problematic Smartphone Use Measurement Scales; 70 scales), Table 2 (Smartphone Use Frequency Scales; 3 scales), and Table 3 (Smartphone Use Motivations and Attitudes Scales; 6 scales), with one scale (MTUAS; Rosen et al., 2013 ) appearing in both Tables 2 , ​ ,3 3 due to overlapping constructs being measured.

Study flow diagram showing review process on measures of problematic smartphone use.

Problematic smartphone use measurement scales.

Smartphone use frequency scales.

Smartphone use motivations and attitudes scales.

Description of Measurement Scales

Following the development of the first mobile phone use measurement scales ( Toda et al., 2004 ), mobile phone ownership began decreasing as smartphones became increasingly more popular. However, during this transition from mobile phone use to the “smartphone era,” the terms “mobile phone” and “smartphone” were used interchangeably across studies and, often, within studies. Because smartphones have significantly more components and capabilities than mobile phones and the problematic use of the two different forms of technology should be viewed differently, comparisons of published scales should be made in light of the distinctive differences between the two types of technology. The scales are arranged based upon the date that they were published within each of the three tables starting with the first developed scale in 2004 to the most recently published scales in 2019. Thus, it is likely that the more recently developed scales involved specific analyses of smartphone use and behavior as opposed to that of more contemporary mobile phone devices.

Scales included in Table 1 are those that were specifically developed and validated to identify problematic smartphone or mobile phone use or to diagnose individuals with smartphone addiction, overuse, dependency, attachment, etc. [e.g., Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS; Kwon et al., 2013b ); Smartphone Addiction Inventory (SPAI; Lin et al., 2014 )]. Although the construct being claimed to be measured by each of these individual scales may differ, many of them are similar in their theoretical foundations and even item content. For example, while Kwon et al. (2013b) utilized DSM-IV criteria for substance dependence to develop the item content for the SAS with the goal of assessing “addiction,” Merlo et al. (2013) utilized the same criteria to develop the Problematic Use of Mobile Phones (PUMP) scale. In Table 1 , validated shortened versions of originally validated scales were included in the review if identified in the literature review. Table 1 includes the majority of the scales identified in the review (70 of the 78).

Table 2 , on the other hand, contains three scales. This table includes scales assessing smartphone use frequency as opposed to general problematic smartphone use behavior. It is important to note the differences between these two constructs. As described earlier, smartphone use frequency can be very heterogeneous due to differing motivations and purposes for use ( Elhai et al., 2018 ). Higher frequency of smartphone use may not indicate the presence of problematic smartphone use if, for example, associated life dysfunction is not identified ( Billieux, 2012 ). Scales included in this table include: the Media and Technology Usage and Attitudes Scale (MTUAS; Rosen et al., 2013 ) which assesses both use of technological devices – including smartphones – and attitudes surrounding technology use (see Table 3 ); the Smartphone Use Frequency (SUF; Elhai et al., 2016 ) assessing use of smartphone devices in areas such as calling, messaging, emailing, etc.; and the Mobile Usage Scale (MUS; Konok et al., 2016 ) examining differences in use of smartphones and traditional mobile phones. These scales were included in the review so as to provide researchers with options for examining problematic smartphone use and/or smartphone use frequency.

Finally, additional scales assessing motivations for as well as attitudes surrounding use of smartphone devices are included in Table 3 . For example, the MTUAS ( Rosen et al., 2013 ) is included in both Tables 2 , ​ ,3 3 because, although it assesses frequency of smartphone and technology usage, it also examines attitudes associated with this usage. Additionally, the Process vs Social Smartphone Usage Scale (PSSU; van Deursen et al., 2015 ) was included in Table 3 due to its examination of motivations for use of smartphone devices. Finally, a third example of a scale included in Table 3 is the Mobile Phone Affinity Scale (MPAS; Bock et al., 2016 ) which evaluates motivations of smartphone use, including connectedness, productivity, empowerment, etc. It was important to include these six scales in Table 3 because their inclusion further exemplifies the robust nature of the research and development of measurement scales focusing on smartphone use. The inclusion of each of these three domains makes this review a useful tool for researchers studying smartphone use behavior – problematic or otherwise – as well as associated benefits and dysfunction.

Psychometric Characteristics

Elements of criterion-related validity, content domains, internal consistency, temporal stability, and purported construct were listed or briefly described for each of the scales in Tables 1 – 3 . Because of this, these tables can be used to compare the individual scales. Additionally, in the following analysis, the psychometric properties and conceptual foundations of the scales included in this review will be further dissected. This analysis will help researchers and practitioners alike to consider the psychometric properties and theoretical foundations of potential assessment tools before deciding which scale should be utilized in their research or practice.

The term “addiction” was used frequently when naming many of the problematic smartphone use scales. This is due to the choice of framework and criterion-related validity used when developing and validating the scales. Many scale developers used either the DSM-IV or DSM-5 criteria for substance use to examine criterion-related validity during development. Others chose to use Griffiths’ (2005) components descriptive model of addiction, which includes the following core components: salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict and relapse. Similarly, Internet addiction was frequently used to establish criterion-related validity. Before the release of the first smartphone, problematic Internet use was being observed, identified, and subsequently labeled as Internet addiction. Addiction scales were quickly developed to assist identifying this behavior such as Young’s Internet Addiction Test (IAT or Y-Scale; Young, 1998 ). Once smartphones were developed and made available to the public, problematic smartphone use similarly became a concern. Many researchers utilized various Internet addiction scales to validate their scales (e.g., SMS-PUDQ; ECPUS; MPAI; SAPS).

One of the final ways that scale developers established criterion-related validity was by utilizing quantified smartphone use as a criterion to determine whether the scales could be used to identify smartphone addiction. However, most of these scale development processes involved self-reported and self-estimated smartphone use. Because they were unable to utilize concrete and exact documentation of participants’ smartphone use time, they relied upon estimation which can be unreliable ( Andrews et al., 2015 ) and, therefore, should not be considered to be a practical or accurate means of validating a scale.

Even if accurate data were being obtained from participants concerning time spent using their phones, there is no established cut-off point that can be used to validate accuracy of a scale in indicating dependency, problematic use or addiction based upon extensiveness of use alone since it has not been determined at what point phone use becomes problematic. It is likely that a cut-off point for quantitative smartphone use may not be feasible. Elhai et al. (2018) explains that smartphone use frequency can be very heterogeneous due to differing motivations and purposes for use. They describe how a high frequency of smartphone use can be functional for some (e.g., productive smartphone use for purposes of work or school) and dysfunctional for others (e.g., excessive gaming and social media use).

Additionally, a significant number of scales described in Tables 1 – 3 relied upon existing measurement scales for problematic phone use in order to establish concurrent validity for the scale they were developing. This is due to the recognized issue of currently not having a gold standard for criterion-related validity for problematic phone use or addiction. However, this is concerning considering the existing assessments used to validate the new scale likely also used problematic criteria to establish criterion-related validity. For example, when developing the Smartphone Impact Scale (SIS), Pancani et al. (2019) included the widely used Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS; Kwon et al., 2013b ) in their study to validate the SIS with an Italian adult sample. This could be problematic for two reasons. Firstly, to our knowledge, the SAS has yet to be validated for use with Italian adults as it was developed using a population of Korean adults. Secondly, to our knowledge, the temporal stability of the SAS has yet to be investigated.

Selection of content domains by the researchers in their validation studies stemmed from their conceptual foundation for the scale’s development and their criterion-related validity. For example, regarding the scales in Table 1 , DSM-IV pathological gambling criteria or DSM-5 gambling disorder criteria were used to establish criterion-related validity for seven of the scales (COS, MPAI, CERM, KBUTK, MAT, AMPUH, and ATeMo). Therefore, these scales’ content domains were shown to reflect the diagnostic criteria associated with problematic gambling disorder. The DSM-5 indicates that, to be diagnosed with gambling disorder, an individual must exhibit four or more of the following symptoms: tolerance; withdrawal; lack of control; preoccupation; escape from problems; “chasing” losses; deception; and associated life dysfunction in areas such as relationships, job, education, or finances ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). Excluding “chasing” losses, these factors were shown to be consistently reflected across those seven scales in terms of their established content domains. DSM-IV, DSM-IV-TR or DSM-5 criteria for SUDs were frequently used to validate these problematic smartphone use scales, and their diagnostic criteria were similarly, reflected in the content domains established in the validation studies (e.g., CERM, PCPU-Q, and SAS).

Internal consistency is the degree of interrelatedness among scale items ( Mokkink et al., 2013 ). This measure of reliability was reported for most of the scales in the form of a Cronbach’s α value. However, despite its importance in scale development, an internal consistency value was not reported for seven of the scales in their validation studies (STDS, DENA, MPIQ, MAT, MP-UQ, MIUI, and SAMI). The Cronbach’s α values that were reported ranged from 0.53 (MPUS) to 0.97 (PMUM, MTUAS, and SAS). Although there is inconsistency in the field regarding at what point Cronbach’s α values should be considered to be adequate or acceptable, acceptable values of alpha have been reported to range from 0.70 to 0.95 ( Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994 ; Bland and Altman, 1997 ; DeVellis, 2016 ). Using the lowest value reported as being acceptable or adequate as a cutoff, four of the scales identified in this review (PMPUQ, IMAT, MPUS, and MTUAS) would not meet that standard.

Although internal consistency is important in scale development, most of the scale developers failed to account for temporal stability in guaranteeing reliability. Upon analyzing the psychometric properties of the various scales, it was discovered that only in the scale development of ten scales were test-retest reliability coefficients provided to indicate that the scales have temporal stability. This is a cause for concern because even some of the most frequently used scales have failed to ensure temporal stability in their development (e.g., SAS, NMP-Q, and SABAS).

This review is the first to identify and report the method of development for all problematic smartphone use scales as well as those developed to assess smartphone use frequency, motivations, and attitudes. After conducting a systematic search and identifying all relevant measures, we analyzed the psychometric properties and criterion-related validity of each scale. However, despite identifying 78 validated scales, we were not able to fully determine the most efficient scales for measuring problematic phone usage due to several issues: (1) most of the scales established criterion validity using DSM-IV or DSM-5 criteria for gambling disorder or substance-use disorders, even though there is still considerable controversy over whether problematic smartphone use should be considered an “addiction”; (2) test-retest reliability coefficients were not reported in the development articles for 68 of the 78 scales, and both internal consistency and test-retest reliability were not available for seven of the scales, which causes concern for future analyses that attempt to identify the most efficient scale(s); (3) the gold-standard criteria and cut-off scores for problematic smartphone use has yet to be established; in other words, these scales cannot accurately be compared and contrasted since there is no validated, gold-standard criteria to which they can strive to incorporate. Therefore, we will primarily discuss practical ideas and recommendations for future research.

Scale Content

The addition of gambling disorder to the substance-related and addictive disorders section of the DSM-5 as a non-substance-related addictive disorder has subsequently opened the door for other behaviors to be researched, evaluated, and identified through developed and validated scales. Another example of this would be the behavioral condition known as internet gaming disorder (IGD). While this area of research warrants further study according to the DSM-5 ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), the proposed criteria for IGD as a behavioral addiction involving the problematic use of video game technology closely resembles the criteria for SUD and are very similar to how researchers are conceptualizing problematic smartphone use ( Lin et al., 2016 ). Further, based on the development methods of the majority of the reviewed scales, many researchers feel as though it could be time to start assessing smartphone use with an addictive framework in mind, arguably with the exception of “tolerance” symptoms ( Lin et al., 2016 , 2017 ). This may in part be due to a belief that problematic smartphone use, as well as potentially other problematic behaviors, should be similarly characterized and defined as diagnosable behavioral or non-substance-related addictions. The majority of reviewed scales reflect this viewpoint. The content domain of most scales (see Table 1 ) are related to dependence-related concepts including craving, tolerance, withdrawal, excessive time spent using, and negative life consequences.

Other scales have moved away from this content domain in their development and have attempted to measure more specific and different aspects of problematic smartphone use. For example, The Mobile Phone Involvement Questionnaire ( Walsh et al., 2010 ) and the Media and Technology Usage and Attitudes Scale ( Rosen et al., 2013 ) examine smartphone use involvement through items assessing euphoria, salience, and overall usage. This perhaps reflects the rationale that smartphones may be especially cognitively and behaviorally salient to some, resulting in more usage, but without this usage necessarily being pathological, uncontrollable, or addictive in nature. Such scales perhaps measure the construct of “liking,” or the pleasurable impact of habitual smartphone use, compared to other scales measuring the construct of “wanting,” or the compulsive motivation to engage in smartphone use resulting in negative life consequences. This reflects an important distinction considering the behavioral addiction framework: more and more in today’s society, smartphones are linked with several forms of reward and social value. It makes sense people would “like” smartphones, feel they are important, and use them many times a day. This does not necessarily reflect addiction to them, despite individual’s tendency to self-report this. Some of the reviewed scales perhaps are better conceptualized as a measuring maladaptive smartphone use, rather than addictive use, as endorsements such behaviors perhaps do not rise to the severity levels of addiction ( Panova and Carbonell, 2018 ).

In a similar vein, some scales appear to measure the degree to which individuals report salient emotional connections to their smartphone. The Young Adult Attachment to Phone Scale ( Trub and Barbot, 2016 ) and the Adolescent Preoccupations with Screens Scale ( Hunter et al., 2017 ) share item content related to feelings of safety with and feelings of anxiety when without one’s phone. Such scales measure attachment styles, in that an individual’s mood state can shift depending on the smartphone device’s proximity. The relative convenience of smartphone functions in daily life can mean that feelings of irritation or concern are likely to present when one does not have immediate access to it. Relatedly, scales like the Mobile Attachment Scale ( Konok et al., 2016 ) and the Mobile Phone Affinity Scale ( Bock et al., 2016 ) have items which measure a preference for mobile communication, resulting in strong preferences for having one’s smartphone device instantly accessible. This emotional attachment resulting in dysphoria can mimic addiction withdrawal symptoms in this way. Problematic smartphone use often co-occurs with depression and anxiety as a means of experiential avoidance ( Elhai et al., 2017 ). But, these scales and criteria may simply be reflecting a strong “liking” for the ease of communication to others via calling/texting, can result in different emotional reactions depending on whether the device is accessible or not. Future research should examine how endorsement of particular problematic smartphone use behaviors perhaps better explained by general psychopathology like depression and anxiety, rather than addiction.

Numerous researchers have published scales purportedly assessing “smartphone addiction” or “phone addiction.” However, some researchers feel as though we do not currently have the necessary evidence supported by research to accurately conceptualize smartphone use as having the capability of developing into an addictive behavior. Griffiths (2013) argues that “we are not yet in a position to confirm the existence of a serious and persistent psychopathological addictive disorder related to mobile phone addiction on the basis of population survey data alone” (p. 77). Perhaps this is the reason that a standard cut-off point to determine when smartphone use becomes problematic has yet to be established. Similarly, the Internet addiction framework was frequently used by the developers of several of the reviewed problematic smartphone use scales to establish criterion-related validity. However, Internet addiction is not currently recognized by the DSM-5 as a non-substance related addictive disorder due to the lack of research indicating similarity in manifestation or dysfunction with addictive disorders recognized by the DSM-5.

Additionally, there is a lack of sufficient research investigating how to effectively characterize problematic smartphone use, and it is currently unclear whether “problematic” ought to be defined by the quantity of use, patterns of use, or by the negative consequences or marked distress as a result of usage. If researchers intend to define problematic smartphone use as an “addiction” similar to a substance-use disorder, all three of those criteria, among others (e.g., “recurrent use in situations in which it is physically hazardous” or “continued use despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused by or exacerbated by use”), would need to be present in order to diagnose dysfunctional or problematic smartphone use as an addiction ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). This should be reflected in the self-report scales researchers are developing, testing, and validating.

Panova and Carbonell (2018) support Griffiths’ (2013) previously described argument in that they similarly suggest moving away from the addiction framework when considering problematic behaviors such as the problematic use of smartphone or other technological devices. They reference a pattern of weak study designs in the smartphone literature, such as full reliance on correlational studies, or a lack of longitudinal and experimental studies that examine associated cognitive, psychological or behavior dysfunction. They also strongly advocate for the use of terms such as “problematic use” over “addiction” when describing these behaviors. They noted that it is imperative that a research-supported criterion for problematic smartphone use be identified before using officially recognized addictive disorders to establish criterion-related validity.

Limitations of Reviewed Scales

In addition, there were many fundamental limitations to the development and intended uses of the reviewed scales. For instance, all of the reviewed scales that assessed phone use were self-report, and, therefore, cannot reliably measure actual phone usage. This is a limitation in this particular field of research that needs to be addressed. Further, when developing these new scales, many of the researchers’ hypotheses for creating these scales were that problematic phone use would correlate not with actual use, but, instead, with associated personality traits including self-esteem and impulsivity (e.g., Bianchi and Phillips, 2005 ; Billieux et al., 2008 ; Leung, 2008 ). Future research may aim to develop or modify an existing scale or consider running an experimental study in which they actively measure phone usage among individuals that includes a method to separate “normal” and “problematic” use. Interestingly, global researchers ( Monge Roffarello and De Russis, 2019 ), as well as Google (2019) , have recently created smartphone applications (e.g., “Socialize” and “Digital Wellbeing”) that can track phone usage among other features and even provide an intervention for excessive use (e.g., allowing users to set limits for amount of time allotted for specific application usage per week or per day). These applications are excellent examples for researchers to consider using as an alternative to self-report scales in measuring smartphone usage.

In a research setting, these applications would provide investigators with the opportunity to gather objective data on smartphone use from smartphone-using participants following the instruction of having the application downloaded on participants’ phones for a specific period of time. Future research ought to also investigate the effectiveness of these applications as intervention tools for problematic smartphone use. However, to reiterate, due to the heterogeneity of smartphone use frequency (i.e., functional versus dysfunctional) described by Elhai et al. (2018) , researchers should recognize that objective smartphone use data collected through use of these applications or other methods is a measure of smartphone use frequency, not necessarily problematic smartphone use. Additionally, necessary steps ought to be taken to safeguard ethical considerations and minimize risks associated with instructing participants to download applications on their smartphone devices with the inherent function of tracking their activity (e.g., protection of privacy).

Secondly, the majority of the development articles for the reviewed scales reported only internal consistency as a means of establishing reliability for their scale. Internal consistency is widely used in scale development, and the coefficient is based off of the interrelatedness of the items within the scale. However, this does not mean that the items as a whole are necessarily related to the intended construct or possess established validity. If we were going to rank scales as the most reliable based solely off of their internal consistency coefficients, the PMUM, MTUAS, and SAS (α = 0.97) would have been at the top of the list. However, researchers such as Thompson (2003) have called the use of internal consistency as the sole measure of reliability “sloppy” and not representative of the quality of the scale. While a higher Cronbach’s alpha may demonstrate the consistency of the items in the measure, the items may not be accurately capturing problematic phone usage. If there had been other reliability and validity statistics offered in the development articles of the reviewed scales, perhaps specific scales could have been recommended with confidence in this review for future use.

Thirdly, there was a large amount of variability in the types of samples studied in these development articles, which makes it difficult to compare the utility of each scale. The following should be interpreted not as limitations, but, instead, as interesting findings about the diverse origin of subjects studied in each scale’s development. For instance, a small percentage (16/84) of the studies were conducted with participants in the United States, with many of the scales having been written in languages besides English. For example, as many as six scales were developed in Chinese (WEUS, PSUMS, MPAI, SAS-C, SQAPMPU, and MPATS), four in Turkish (MAS, PMPUS, PS, and PMPUS), and seven in Korean (ECPUS, CPAS, SAPS, SAI, SAS, SAS-SV, and SOS-Q). Based on research conducted by the Pew Research Center (2018), South Korea has the largest percentage of smartphone owners. Therefore, the large number of scales that have been developed for and within that population is understandable. Yet, there were also several scales that were developed in English-speaking areas outside of the United States, such as in Australia (MMPUS, IMAT, APSS, and MPIQ) and the United Kingdom (PMPUQ-R). All of this information can be viewed in Tables 1 – 3 and Appendix A .

Lastly, the intended use of the reviewed scales varied depending on the theoretical models or criteria upon which they were based. Most of the scales were intended to measure problematic use, addiction, dependence, and excessive use of mobile phones. For instance, Leung (2008) , one of the earliest developers of a mobile phone index used to measure “addiction” symptoms demonstrated by mobile users, based her construction of the MPAI off of the idea that adolescents had started excessively using mobile phones during their leisure time as a way of counteracting boredom due to too much time with not enough to do; further, this type of activity, labeled as “leisure boredom,” had been shown to be associated with deviant activity and negative affect. Interestingly, there was a large percentage (38%) of scales purportedly assessing smartphone or mobile phone “addiction,” which is surprising given the aforementioned literature that has been opposed to labeling problematic smartphone use as an “addiction” ( Griffiths, 2013 ; Panova and Carbonell, 2018 ). Additionally, while several of these scales were developed with the hopes of being used in the future for clinical purposes (e.g., diagnosis of problematic smartphone use), since there is no mention of problematic smartphone use as a disorder an addiction in the DSM-IV or DSM-5 or ICD-11, it seems as though authors must become content with their scales being confined for research purposes only. This further indicates a need for additional research on the conceptualization and demonstrated severity of problematic smartphone use, and whether it should be given consideration for a place in the next edition of the DSM or ICD. Until then, we are unable to recommend the use of a specific scale or specific scales to assess this behavior due to a lack of sufficient research on the construct.

Limitations of the Current Study

This review is not without limitations. First, the only databases used in the systematic search were PsycINFO (EBSOhost) and MEDLINE Complete (EBSCOhost). PsycINFO was utilized due to being a specialized database that can provide unique search results specific to topics of psychology; additionally, it has been used in several largely cited systematic reviews ( Bramer et al., 2017 ; Elhai et al., 2017 ). We also utilized the MEDLINE Complete database rather than the PubMed interface due to the convenience of access through EBSOhost. Secondly, many reliability coefficients were not able to be listed due to many of the articles being published solely in a foreign language and, therefore, we were unable to identify and/or interpret the coefficients; the articles being inaccessible; or simply because the coefficients were not reported in the articles. That last point may also be expressed as a limitation of the scales themselves.

Future Directions

Future research must be conducted in order to further identify potential cognitive, neurological, physical, behavioral or social dysfunction related to smartphone use. Currently, no causal relationships between smartphone use and dysfunction in these previously listed areas have been established. Until then, conceptualizing smartphone use in such a way as to assert that the behavior can become problematic or clinical in nature should be done with caution. Additionally, a standard cut-off point at which smartphone use becomes dysfunctional ought to be investigated. With more evidence of causal relationships between smartphone use and dysfunction as well as a more formulated and standardized conceptualization of the behavior, researchers will be able to construct more accurate and specific scales for identifying problematic use.

This review serves as an opportunity to compare and contrast the numerous scales that have been published in the past 13 years and to analyze the psychometric properties of each of the individual scales in order to determine which, if any, of the included scales should be considered to be adequate tools for assessing problematic smartphone use or smartphone addiction. However, it is recommended that further research be conducted to sufficiently conceptualize the behavior and its development, manifestation, and associated dysfunction. In order to best develop tools to assess the behavior, we must first understand smartphone use with an increased focus on contexts, functions, and motivations for use, rather than simply borrowing item criteria from assessment scales of more established substance or behavioral addictions. Currently, there is still much to learn about smartphone use and at what point and for whom the use becomes problematic.

Author Contributions

BH and SF conceived the study, interpreted the data, and participated in drafting the manuscript. TR and JS participated in drafting the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

EBSCOhost Search Strategy

(smartphone[tiab] OR smart phone[tiab] OR cellular phone[tiab] OR cell phone[tiab] OR cell-phone[tiab] OR mobile device[tiab] OR mobile phone[tiab])

(problematic[tiab] OR problem[tiab] OR dependence[tiab] OR dependency[tiab] OR overuse[tiab] OR addiction[tiab] OR nomophobia[tiab] OR attachment[tiab] OR excessive[tiab] OR compulsive[tiab])

(questionnaire[tiab] OR scale[tiab] OR index[tiab] OR test[tiab] OR inventory[tiab] OR index[tiab] OR instrument[tiab] OR assessment[tiab] OR measurement[tiab] OR survey[tiab] OR psychometric ∗ [tiab] OR validation[tiab] OR development[tiab])

(“1990”[PDAT]: “2019”[PDAT]).

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Macdonald DeWitt Library at SUNY Ulster

Eng 101 oer: classification.

• Reading to Write
• Why We Write
• Rhetorical Context
• Brainstorming
• Proofreading & Editing
• Paragraph Development
• Thesis Statements
• Introductions
• Conclusions
• Transitions & Phrases
• Peer Reviews
• Exemplification
• Classification
• Cause/Effect
• Grammar Resources

Learning Objectives

• Determine the purpose and structure of the classification essay.
• Understand how to write a classification essay.

The Purpose of Dividing & Classifying

The purpose of  classification  is to break down broad subjects into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts. We classify things in our daily lives all the time, often without even thinking about it. Cell phones, for example, have now become part of a broad category. They can be classified as feature phones, media phones, and smartphones.

Smaller categories, and the way in which these categories are created, help us make sense of the world. Keep both of these elements in mind when writing a classification essay.

The Structure of a Division/Classification Essay

The classification essay opens with an introductory paragraph that introduces the broader topic. The thesis should then explain how that topic is divided into subgroups and why. Take the following introductory paragraph, for example:

When people think of New York, they often think of only New York City. But New York is

actually a diverse state with a full range of activities to do, sights to see, and cultures to

explore.  In order to better understand the diversity of New York state, it is helpful to

break it into these five separate regions: Long Island, New York City, Western New York,

Central New York, and Northern New York.

The thesis explains not only the category and subcategory but also the rationale for breaking it into those categories. Through this classification essay, the writer hopes to show his or her readers a different way of considering the state.

Each body paragraph of a classification essay is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subcategories. In the previous example, then, each region of New York would have its own paragraph.

The conclusion should bring all the categories and subcategories back together again to show the reader the big picture. In the previous example, the conclusion might explain how the various sights and activities of each region of New York add to its diversity and complexity.

Writing a Division/Classification Essay

Start with an engaging opening that will adequately introduce the general topic that you will be dividing into smaller subcategories. Your thesis should come at the end of your introduction. It should include the topic, your subtopics, and the reason you are choosing to break down the topic in the way that you are. Use the following classification thesis equation:

topic + subtopics + rationale for the subtopics = thesis.

The organizing strategy of a classification essay is dictated by the initial topic and the subsequent subtopics. Each body paragraph is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subtopics. In a way, coming up with a strong topic pays double rewards in a classification essay. Not only do you have a good topic, but you also have a solid organizational structure within which to write.

Be sure you use strong details and explanations for each subcategory paragraph that help explain and support your thesis. Also, be sure to give examples to illustrate your points. Finally, write a conclusion that links all the subgroups together again. The conclusion should successfully wrap up your essay by connecting it to your topic initially discussed in the introduction. 

Classification Essays

Amy Tan describes relationship with her heritage, her mother, and her languages in  Mother Tongue :

• http://www.scribd.com/doc/13297165/Mother-Tongue-By-Amy-Tan-I-Am-Not-A
• http://learning.swc.hccs.edu/members/donna.gordon/sum-2010-engl-1301-5-wk-crn-33454/1301-reading-block-crn-33454/Tan_Mother%20Tongue.pdf
• http://teachers.sduhsd.k12.ca.us/mcunningham/grapes/mother%20tounge.pdf

Jonathan Koppell discusses anonymity, your name, and how the Internet has changed in  On the Internet, There’s No Place to Hide :

• http://www.newamerica.net/publications/articles/2000/on_the_internet_theres_no_place_to_hide

Student Sample Essay

Types of Higher Education Programs

Today’s students have many choices when it comes to pursuing a degree: four-year programs, two-year programs, large or small classroom settings, and even daytime or evening classes. With all the different options to consider, potential students should learn about the different types of colleges so they can find a school that best fits their personality, budget, and educational goals.

One type of higher education program for students to consider is a liberal arts college. These schools tend to be small in size and offer a range of undergraduate degrees in subjects like English, history, psychology, and education. Students may choose a liberal arts college if they want a more intimate classroom setting rather than large lecture-style classes. Students may also consider a liberal arts college if they want to gain knowledge from a variety of disciplines, rather than focus on a single area of study. Many liberal arts schools are privately owned, and some have religious affiliations. Liberal arts schools can come with a hefty price tag, and their high cost presents an obstacle for students on a tight budget; moreover, while some students might appreciate a liberal arts school’s intimate atmosphere, others might encounter a lack of diversity in the student body. Still, students seeking a well-rounded education in the humanities will find liberal arts colleges to be one option.

Universities, another type of higher education program, offer both undergraduate and graduate degrees. Usually universities are larger than colleges and can accommodate tens of thousands of students in many different majors and areas of study. A large student body means that class sizes are often larger, and some classes may be taught by graduate students rather than professors. Students will feel at home at a university if they want a focused academic program and state-of-the-art research facilities. While some universities are private, many are public, which means they receive funding from the government, so tuition is more affordable and some even offer discounted in-state tuition for state residents. Also, universities attract many international students, so those looking for a variety of campus cultural groups and clubs will appreciate a greater sense of diversity among the student body. Universities can be overwhelming for some, but they are the right fit for students who seek research opportunities and academic studies, especially in the fields of mathematics and science.

Community college is a type of higher education program popular with students on a limited budget who want to take college courses but may not know what they want to major in. Most schools offer degrees after two years of study, usually an associate’s degree that prepares students to enter the work force; many students choose to study at a community college for two years and then transfer to a four-year college to complete their undergraduate degree. Like liberal arts schools, classes are small and allow instructors to pay more attention to their students. Community college allows students to live at home rather than in a dormitory, which also keeps costs down. While some young people might not like the idea of living at home for school, many adults choose to attend community college so they can advance their education while working and living with their families.

Online universities are another type of higher education program that are gaining popularity as technology improves. These schools offer many of the same degree programs as traditional liberal arts colleges and universities. Unlike traditional programs, which require students to attend classes and lectures, online universities offer greater academic flexibility and are a great option for students wishing to pursue a degree while still working full time. At online universities, students access course materials, such as video lectures and assessments, remotely using a personal computer and are able to speed up or slow down their progress to complete their degree at their own pace. Students may attend classes in the comfort of their own home or a local library, but students hoping for the social community of higher education might not enjoy this aspect of higher education.

With so many colleges and universities to choose from, it may be difficult for a student to narrow down his or her selection, but once a student knows what he or she is looking for, the process may become much easier. It is very important for students to learn about the different types of higher education programs available before making their selections.

Key Takeaways

• The purpose of classification is to break a subject into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts.
• Smaller subcategories help us make sense of the world, and the way in which these subcategories are created also helps us make sense of the world.
• A classification essay is organized by its subcategories.

This is a derivative of  WRITING FOR SUCCESS  by a publisher who has requested that they and the original author not receive attribution, originally released and is used under CC BY-NC-SA. This work, unless otherwise expressly stated, is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .

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11.1: The Purpose of Classification in Writing

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The purpose of classification is to break down broad subjects into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts. We classify things in our daily lives all the time, often without even thinking about it. Cell phones, for example, have now become part of a broad category. They can be classified as feature phones, media phones, and smartphones.

Smaller categories, and the way in which these categories are created, help us make sense of the world. Keep both of these elements in mind when writing a classification essay.

Choose topics that you know well when writing classification essays. The more you know about a topic, the more you can break it into smaller, more interesting parts. Adding interest and insight will enhance your classification essays.

Classification of Smartphone Users Based on Demographic and Technological Properties

• Conference paper
• First Online: 10 September 2021
• Cite this conference paper

• Rajitha Manellanga   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5838-2043 13 &
• Erunika Dayaratna   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2045-4600 13  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ((LNNS,volume 216))

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Smartphones have become extremely popular regardless of any demographic factor. Users download different kinds of apps of a wide scope of categories, including finance, social networking, games, etc. The growth of smartphone usage generates valuable information for service providing companies. Service providers can analyze customer behaviors through smartphone usage data. However, most such data are not available to the public due to privacy. This study proposes a classification model to predict the gender and age of a smartphone user, based on usage of mobile applications, phone brand, and the location based on the AdaBoost algorithm, which is an ensemble learning method to build classification models. This model infers the demographics and technological properties from the dataset provided by TalkingData company. The outcomes show a promising accuracy of 97% for gender classification and a 0.89 coefficient of determination for predicting age. The proposed approach is eligible to profile smartphone users without disclosing privacy. Therefore, it is applicable to promote business services for targeted groups and individuals.

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Manellanga, R., Dayaratna, E. (2022). Classification of Smartphone Users Based on Demographic and Technological Properties. In: Yang, XS., Sherratt, S., Dey, N., Joshi, A. (eds) Proceedings of Sixth International Congress on Information and Communication Technology. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol 216. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1781-2_85

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103 Smartphone Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

In today's digital age, smartphones have become an essential part of our daily lives. From communication to entertainment, these devices have revolutionized the way we interact with the world around us. With so many different aspects of smartphones to explore, there are countless essay topics that can be written about this versatile technology. Here are 103 smartphone essay topic ideas and examples to get you started:

• The impact of smartphones on society
• The evolution of smartphone technology
• The role of smartphones in education
• The effects of smartphone addiction
• How smartphones have changed the way we communicate
• The benefits of using smartphones for productivity
• The dangers of distracted driving due to smartphone use
• Smartphone privacy concerns and data security
• The influence of smartphones on mental health
• The future of smartphone technology
• The importance of smartphone accessibility for people with disabilities
• The use of smartphones in healthcare
• The role of smartphones in disaster response and recovery
• The impact of smartphone use on relationships
• The rise of mobile gaming on smartphones
• The environmental impact of smartphone production and disposal
• The influence of smartphone advertising on consumer behavior
• Smartphone tracking and surveillance
• The globalization of smartphone technology
• The role of smartphones in social activism
• The effects of smartphone use on sleep patterns
• The impact of smartphones on children's development
• The use of smartphones in journalism and citizen reporting
• The influence of smartphones on fashion and design
• The benefits of using smartphones for travel and navigation
• The role of smartphones in political campaigns
• The effects of smartphone use on memory and cognitive function
• The use of smartphones in emergency response situations
• The influence of smartphones on language and communication skills
• The ethical implications of smartphone technology
• The impact of smartphones on the music industry
• The benefits of using smartphones for remote work
• The effects of smartphone use on physical health
• The role of smartphones in e-commerce and online shopping
• The influence of smartphones on cultural trends
• The use of smartphones in disaster preparedness and response
• The impact of smartphones on the environment
• The benefits of using smartphones for fitness and health tracking
• The effects of smartphone use on socialization and relationships
• The role of smartphones in urban planning and development
• The influence of smartphones on fashion and beauty trends
• The use of smartphones in public transportation and urban mobility
• The benefits of using smartphones for language learning
• The effects of smartphone use on attention span and focus
• The role of smartphones in virtual reality and augmented reality experiences
• The influence of smartphones on social media and online communities
• The use of smartphones in disaster response and recovery efforts
• The impact of smartphones on job creation and economic development
• The benefits of using smartphones for remote learning and education
• The effects of smartphone use on creativity and innovation
• The role of smartphones in political activism and advocacy
• The influence of smartphones on cultural diversity and inclusion
• The use of smartphones in wildlife conservation and environmental protection
• The impact of smartphones on journalism and media reporting
• The benefits of using smartphones for financial management and budgeting
• The effects of smartphone use on mental health and well-being
• The role of smartphones in public safety and emergency response
• The influence of smartphones on art and creative expression
• The impact of smartphones on travel and tourism industries
• The benefits of using smartphones for language translation
• The effects of smartphone use on social interactions and relationships
• The role of smartphones in healthcare and telemedicine
• The influence of smartphones on political participation and civic engagement
• The use of smartphones in wildlife conservation and environmental protection efforts
• The impact of smartphones on global trade and commerce
• The benefits of using smartphones for environmental monitoring and research
• The effects of smartphone use on physical health and well-being
• The role of smartphones in disaster response and recovery efforts

As you can see, there are a wide variety of essay topics that can be explored when it comes to smartphones. Whether you're interested in the social, economic, environmental, or technological aspects of this technology, there is sure to be a topic that piques your interest. So go ahead and start writing about the fascinating world of smartphones!

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How to Develop and Organize a Classification Essay

Basic Approaches to Drafting a Five-Paragraph Essay

• Writing Essays
• Writing Research Papers
• English Grammar
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Classification is a method of developing an essay by arranging people, objects, or ideas with shared characteristics into particular classes or groups. After you have settled on a topic for a classification essay * and explored it through various prewriting strategies, you should be ready to attempt a first draft . Here is how to develop and organize a five-paragraph classification essay .

Introductory Paragraph

In your introduction , clearly identify your subject — in this case, the group you are classifying. If you have narrowed your subject in any way (for example, types of bad drivers, rock guitarists, or annoying moviegoers), make this clear from the start.

You may also want to provide some specific descriptive or informative details to attract the interest of your readers and suggest the purpose of the essay .

Finally, include a thesis sentence (usually at the end of the introduction) that briefly identifies the main types or approaches that you're about to examine. 

Intro Paragraph Example: Baseball Fans

Here's an example of a short but effective introductory paragraph to a classification essay:

It's a warm evening in July, and all across the country Americans are gathering to watch a game of professional baseball. Armed with hot dogs and cold drinks, they stroll to their seats, some in grand stadiums, others in cozy minor-league parks. But no matter where the game is played, you will find the same three types of baseball fan: the Party Rooter, the Sunshine Supporter, and the Diehard Fan.

Notice how this introduction creates certain expectations. The specific details provide a setting (a ballpark on "a warm evening in July") in which we expect to see the various fans described. In addition, the labels assigned to these fans (the Party Rooter , the Sunshine Supporter , and the Diehard Fan ) lead us to expect descriptions of each type in the order they're given. A good writer will go on to fulfill these expectations in the body of the essay.

Body Paragraphs

Begin each body paragraph with a topic sentence that identifies a particular type of approach. Then  illustrate each type with specific details.

Arrange your body paragraphs in whatever order strikes you as clear and logical — say, from the least effective approach to the most effective, or from the most common type to the least familiar (or the other way around). Just make sure that the order of your body paragraphs matches the arrangement promised in your thesis sentence.

Body Paragraphs Example: Types of Fans

Here, in the body of the essay on baseball fans, you can see that the writer has fulfilled the expectations set up in the introduction. (In each body paragraph, the topic sentence is in italics.)

The Party Rooter goes to games for the hot dogs, the gimmicks, the giveaways, and the companionship; he's not really that interested in the ballgame itself. The Party Rooter is the sort of fan who shows up on Buck-a-Brew Night, often with a gang of fellow partiers. He cracks jokes, hurls peanuts at the team mascot, applauds the exploding scoreboard, blasts an electronic horn whenever he pleases—and occasionally nudges a companion and asks, "Hey, who's winning?" The Party Rooter often wanders out of the park in the sixth or seventh inning to continue his celebrations in the car on the way home. The Sunshine Supporter, usually a more common type than the Party Rooter, goes to the park to cheer on a winning team and bask in its glory. When the home side is on a winning streak and still in contention for a playoff spot, the stadium will be packed with this sort of fan. As long as her team is winning, the Sunshine Supporter will be roaring at every play, waving her pennant and shouting out the names of her heroes. However, as the name implies, the Sunshine Supporter is a fickle fan, and her cheers quickly turn to boos when a hero strikes out or drops a line drive. She will stay around until the end of the game to celebrate a victory, but should her team fall a few runs behind, she's likely to slip out to the parking lot during the seventh-inning stretch.​ Diehard Fans are also strong supporters of the local team, but they go to the park to watch good baseball, not just to root for a winner.  More attentive to the game than other fans, Diehards will study the stance of a power hitter, note the finesse of a quick fielder, and anticipate the strategy of a pitcher who has fallen behind in the count. While the Party Rooter is chugging a beer or dropping wisecracks, Diehards may be filling in a scorecard or commenting on a player's RBI tally over the past few months. And when a Sunshine Supporter boos an opposing player for tagging out a local hero, Diehards may be quietly applauding the expert moves of this "enemy" infielder. No matter what the score is, Diehard Fans remain in their seats until the last batter is out, and they may still be talking about the game long after it's over.​

Comparisons Ensure Cohesion

Notice how the writer uses comparisons to ensure cohesion in the body of the essay. The topic sentence in both the second and third paragraphs refers to the preceding paragraph. Likewise, in the third body paragraph, the writer draws explicit contrasts between the Diehards and the other two types of baseball fans.

Such comparisons not only provide smooth transitions from one paragraph to the next but also reveal the sympathies of the writer. He begins with the type of fan he likes the least and ends with the one he most admires. We now expect the writer to justify his attitudes in the conclusion.

Concluding Paragraph

The concluding paragraph gives you an opportunity to draw together the various types and approaches you have been examining in the body of the essay. You may choose to offer a final brief comment on each one, summarizing its value or its limitations. Or you may want to recommend one approach over the others and explain why. In any case, make sure that your conclusion clearly emphasizes the purpose of your classification.

Concluding Paragraph: Only the Diehard Fans Remain

In the concluding paragraph to "Baseball Fans," consider whether the author has been successful in his effort to tie his observations together.

Professional baseball would have trouble surviving without all three types of fans. The Party Rooters provide much of the money that owners need to hire talented players. The Sunshine Supporters bring a stadium to life and help boost the morale of the home team. But only the Diehard Fans maintain their support all season long, year in and year out. By late September in most ballparks, enduring chilly winds, rain delays, and sometimes humiliating losses, only the Diehards remain.

Connecting the Conclusion to the Introduction

Notice how the writer hooks his conclusion back to the introduction by contrasting the chilly night in September with the warm evening in July. Connections such as this help to unify an essay and give it a sense of completeness.

As you develop and organize your draft , experiment with various strategies, but keep this basic format in mind: an introduction that identifies your subject and the different types of approaches; three (or more) body paragraphs that rely on specific details to describe or illustrate the types; and a conclusion that draws your points together and makes the overall purpose of the classification clear.

• Examples of Great Introductory Paragraphs
• How to Write a Good Descriptive Paragraph
• 100 Persuasive Essay Topics
• 50 Great Topics for a Process Analysis Essay
• Classification Paragraph, Essay, Speech, or Character Study: 50 Topics
• The Ultimate Guide to the 5-Paragraph Essay
• Understanding General-to-Specific Order in Composition
• What Is Expository Writing?
• How To Write an Essay
• Definition and Examples of Body Paragraphs in Composition
• What is Classification in Grammar?
• How to Structure an Essay
• How to Help Your 4th Grader Write a Biography
• Understanding Organization in Composition and Speech
• How to Write and Format an MBA Essay
• 3 Changes That Will Take Your Essay From Good To Great

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Classification Essay: A Quick Guide with Examples

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A classification essay is a type of academic essay that categorizes a topic into distinct groups based on shared characteristics or criteria. The writer's purpose is to create a clear organization of information. Classification should be logical, making it easier for readers to remember the information being presented.

Let us guess: your professor asked you to write a classification essay. But they didn't explain how to even write one, did they? They often drop students like that as a part of self-learning. That's exactly why you're here! Writing a classification essay requires research. And making sure you've got enough information, you must double check what you've already gathered. Besides, classifying may sound simple, but it takes discipline and logical thinking. Putting thoughts into words and all that… What a task! But we heard a little rumor that those who continue reading would master classification papers. It's time for you to see if this rumor is true!  

What Is a Classification Essay: Definition

Classification essay doesn’t want to hide its essence, considering its name. But the primary goal of this type of article is to classify. Now, what you want to rank is up to you or your professor. Your main goal is to select topics and later put them into categories. The primary purpose of this type of essay is to show your skills in categorisation and generalization. We can take food as a good and tasty example. For instance, apples and oranges belong to the fruit category, while cucumbers will definitely be vegetables. As for avocado, you have to do the research and classify this type of food. Nevertheless, you’ll definitely need to write one of those essays during your college. So to master academic and classification writing, keep reading!  

How to Write a Classification Essay

We will start by teaching you how to write a classification essay. In this case, preparation is our little saving grace. So before you begin the actual writing, typing, or scribbling, it’s a good idea to think about the overall essence of your article. For starters, here are several valuable tips worth remembering:

• Select a type of organization (you can use tables, documents, or anything that will help you in organizing your work).
• Choose your categories for classification.
• Make sure that each category is distinct and clear.
• Include different examples for visualization.

These several steps will be handy for writing a thesis and starting your introduction. Buy essay papers online once you want good results with as little time spent as possible.

Developing an Effective Classification Essay Thesis Statement

Like with other articles, the classification essay thesis is one of the most vital parts of your work. A good thing worth keeping in mind is that your thesis is the last statement of your introduction. It also determines whether your audience will continue reading your article. Here are several things you should follow to write a good thesis:

• Summarize your work.
• Identify your main topic, objective, or goal of your essay.
• Above all, make readers understand what point you’re making and what your paper is gonna be about.
• Mention the categories you have chosen.

If you can nail our list given above, congratulations, you’ve got yourself an outstanding thesis.

Classification Essay Outline

Creating a classification essay outline is one of the easiest ways to approach an excellent classification paper. It’s true that it requires a lot of research and remembering. You will not only have to write about a single subject but group topics into categories. In order to do it correctly and understandably for the reader, it’s best if you use an outline. First and foremost, your essay should follow a traditional five paragraph essay format structure. It should have a minimum of three paragraphs. But typically, professors prefer around five. So your introduction must initially include an introduction, several body paragraphs depending on the length of your article, and a conclusion. In your body paragraphs outline, it’s a good idea to describe the groups you will include in your article. So your first paragraph will group fruits according to their color, while the second one can use nutrition for a classification. This will help you to remember your points before writing.  

How to Start a Classification Essay: Introduction

Classification essay introduction is very similar to any other introduction you have probably written. You should never forget that you are writing for an audience. Doesn’t really matter if your reader is your professor or some person online. The rules of good writing apply to any kind of paper. The first thing worth doing is introducing your overall concept. There is no need to give all the information at once. Just start with something more general and narrow it down later to a thesis we’ve talked about. Make sure that you also include the relevant information. Using our previous metaphor, if you’re talking about fruits, maybe mentioning vegetables will not be a good idea. Besides, staying on one topic will help you to write more clearly. And that’s our final requirement for your introduction.  

Body Paragraphs of a Classification Essay

Classification essay's main body commonly has around 1-3 paragraphs. But don't forget to ask your professor about the length. The important thing to remember is that you are classifying items in your work. In order to achieve precise and successful organization, your body paragraphs must be concise. Each body paragraph should focus on a certain group. You're not making mashed potatoes. So stacking all of your ideas in one section would create a mess. Keep it simple in terms of structure:  

• Paragraph 1 — fruits organized by their color
• Paragraph 2 — fruits arranged by expert location
• Paragraph 3 — fruits ordered by size or shape

A simple and understandable organization will make your writing sharp. And your readers will definitely say thank you!

Classification Essay Conclusion

A classification essay conclusion is, just like always, crème de la crème of any article. At this point, your reader knows everything you were telling them. They know all your data, issues, and ideas. Thus, quickly summarizing what they’ve read in your body paragraphs will help a lot. But the last thing to do is organize your conclusion while leaving an impression. Now, their impressions can be different. However, your readers must think about your work for at least some time. So your conclusion must end with something intriguing like the possible future of your topic or piece of mind for the readers. Just don’t include any new information, and you’ll do fantastically!  

Classification Essay Writing: Useful Tips

Even with our help, classification essay writing is challenging. So we prepared for you several good tips that will help you improve and ease your academic life. Check them out:  

• Define the purpose of the article before you start writing.
• Avoid popular and often used topics.
• Write down a number of topics before picking one. (We have a list of classification essay topics at your disposal.)
• Choose a subject that will be personally interesting for you.
• Remember that you are also writing for someone else who might not know everything about your topic.
• Edit and proofread your work.
• Take a break from writing once in a while and come back with a fresh mind and new look.
• Don’t try writing about everything simultaneously. Instead, focus on one category and lead with it.

With these steps, we can definitely say that you’re ready.

Classification Essay Examples

How could we leave you without classification essay samples? You’re right; we couldn’t. Check out this example. Keep in mind that our examples always have characteristics that we talked about. So you can read the sample and return back for this article or do some revision. It will help you a lot. What are you waiting for? You can find the example right here. Or simply buy essay for college to avoid any hard work this evening. 

Classification Essay: Bottom Line

Who knew that  writing a classification essay  wasn’t that hard? We did, and now you know that, too. You have everything it takes to create an excellent paper. You know that:  

• Your thesis is the most essential part of the essay.
• The introduction must contain general information on the subject.
• Body paragraphs must be carefully organized.
• A conclusion should leave an impression without including new information.

But if you’re still looking for proficient help, our academic writing services got you covered. Our writers do excellent research before writing a paper and deliver high-quality results. We are also proud of our timely delivery of the papers.

FAQ about Classification Essays

1. what is the purpose of a classification essay.

The purpose of a classification essay is to organize and classify. In the beginning, you have several unique items. They indeed have some things in common. So your job is to identify in what categories they fit best. After doing the research and careful learning, you must put everything you have gathered into words. But still, keep in mind that the second purpose is to make your essay and classification clear to the reader.

2. How long is a classification essay?

There’s no right or wrong answer when it comes to classification essay length. Everything will depend on the guidelines. Usually, such articles are 3 to 5 paragraphs long. Their minimum is always an introduction, one body paragraph, and conclusion. However, professors definitely enjoy 5 paragraphs as a standard length. But you always need to remember that the essay should be long enough to provide necessary information for the reader. Or it must be short enough not to drag it out.

3. What is the difference between a division and classification essay?

Division and classification essays are only slightly different. The items you choose for classification essays must belong to strict and certain categories. They cannot overlap or belong to two different groups. On the other hand, division essays allow the subjects to move from one group to another. They might be divided into different groups or categories and thus overlap.

4. What are different types of classification?

There are several types of classification. Depending on the particular topic, you can choose a specific type that fits the best. Here’s what you can choose from:

• Spatial classification (location, place and so on).
• Chronological (you must take time and dates into consideration).
• Classification by attributes (qualitative).
• Classification by size (quantitative with numbers and statistics).

Daniel Howard is an Essay Writing guru. He helps students create essays that will strike a chord with the readers.

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138 Smartphone Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best smartphone topic ideas & essay examples, 💡 most interesting smartphone topics to write about, 🥇 good research topics about smartphone, 📌 list of topics to write about smartphone, ❓ smartphone related questions.

• Smartphone Addiction Problem Statement Uncontrolled use of smartphone requires users to review the need to respond to smartphone alerts, deactivate the alerts, and consult their colleagues rather than the phone because such actions can reduce anxiety. Smartphone addiction is […]
• Apple Versus Samsung Smartphones With the introduction of the Samsung Galaxy S series smartphones, Samsung competes with Apple’s iPhone. The screen, look and feel of Samsung smartphones is strikingly similar to that of the iPhone.
• Using Smartphones in Learning The other purpose of the study is to understand the recent developments that have been made to the smartphones and how people are able to adopt the changes.
• Apple’s Competition in Chinese Smartphone Market The analysis will examine the following forces that affect the company: industry competition, the bargaining power of suppliers, the bargaining power of consumers, the threat of new entrants, and the threat of substitute products.
• The Impact of Smartphones on Young People’s Social Life On the one hand, a cellphone enables young people to call their parents when they are in trouble and need help.
• Smartphone Market’s Economic Analysis Thus, the purpose of the current exploration is associated with the analysis of the smartphone market, with the emphasis placed on Samsung and Apple, which are considered significant rivals in the industry.
• Smartphone-Related Cognitive and Ethical Issues The remarkable rise of smartphones and the rapid adoption of mobile computing are two of the most important developments in contemporary information and communication technology.
• New Product Feasibility: Tecno N7 Series Android Smartphone According to Abou-Moghli and Abdallah, product feasibility is one of the essential business marketing elements in the market analysis process, which is deemed as a scientific tool of obtaining relevant information pertinent to the provision […]
• Smartphones Affect and Change Modern Life Now, it is time to manage technological addiction and enhance the benefits of using smartphones for new creative designs and high-quality data exchange.
• Nokia Pure View Smartphone Marketing Strategy In order to achieve the above objectives, other key issues such as the geographical environment where the Nokia targets to market the phone, the target population and the competitors in the market will also have […]
• “Are Smartphones Really Destroying the Lives of Teenagers?” by Flora By showing the inconsistencies in research results, the author suggests that the use of smartphones on its own is not a dangerous behavior, but how teens use smartphones could play both a positive and a […]
• Smartphones Role in Lifestyles Changes The fast and quick connectivity of smartphones to the internet provides a wide spectrum of understanding issues that individuals face in their professional and social lives. Creativity and innovation that smartphones facilitate lead to enhanced […]
• Smartphone Technology: Apple, Samsung, and Nokia The iPhone 5 is a windows product that has proved to be among the best selling smart phone in the market.
• Social Issues: Smartphones’ Positive Impacts In the past, it is expensive to make calls. In the past, it is not convenient to make calls using payphones.
• Smartphones and Information Technology Systems Management Smartphones such as BlackBerry have applications that increase the accessibility of information, which is critical in enhancing the organisations’ effectiveness particularly in the management of tasks and projects.
• Factors Affecting Youth’s Behaviors Towards Purchasing a Smartphone Objectives Understand the background of the smartphone industry Analyze the smartphone market trends and the role played by the youths in this marekts Understand reasons why youths buy smartphones through a survey on 100 people […]
• Blackberry Smartphone Consumer Behavior Description of Internal Variables Consumer Personality: the personality of the consumer especially that of the middle class has a significant influence on the purchase decisions. With the brand and the specific outlet in mind, a […]
• Survival of the Fittest in the Smartphone Industry They strive to estimate the potential for Nokia’s revival in the technology industry, understand the factors that led to the company’s demise, evaluate the factors that led to the prosperity of its rivals and formulate […]
• Internet and Smartphone Effect In this essay, I analyze the arguments advanced by experts in five different publications in order to investigate the consequences of internet and smartphone use on human behavior and relationships during the COVID-19 epidemic.
• The Impact of Smartphones on Mental and Emotional Well-Being Twenge, the author argues that the widespread use of smartphones among teenagers and young adults has led to a decline in their mental and emotional well-being.
• Smartphones: Benefits and Side-Effects The findings have led to a greater understanding of smartphones’ influence on young people of school age, which lays the framework for minimizing the harmful effects of smartphone usage in children and adolescents.
• Smartphone Selection: Decision-Making Assistance For the front camera specifications, both iPhone 14 Pro Max and iPhone 14 have no significant differences. The price for both the Samsung Galaxy s22 and iPhone 14 is $799, but iPhone 14 Pro Max […]
• Smartphone Addiction in the United States With the advent of phones that have the function of many other gadgets, people began to move away from the real world into the virtual one. This paper examines the essence of the issue of […]
• Smartphones: Development and Popularity The claims that, in the future, smartphones will become the most important electronic devices are outdated by now: they already are.
• Exposure to Smartphones on Learning Development in Preschoolers Parents might allow their children to use smartphones not to be distracted during work, to put children to sleep or to make them eat during the appropriate time.
• Assessing Smartphone Brand Preferences or Use Thus, for other mobile manufacturers to get where the Apple brand is in terms of popularity and market shares, they need to develop revolutionary devices that change who people view and use mobile phones.
• Smartphone Technology and Its Brief History One of the ways that prove smartphone technology has impacted the global economy is the dramatic increase in the capacity to communicate and collaborate.
• How Smartphones Changed Society and the World Introduction of the smartphone to mass public Driven by iPhone created by Apple and Steve Jobs in 2007 Revolutionized the world of communications and information exchange Smartphone went from being a tool to the […]
• Smartphone Blackberry Company Another important feature of the smart phone is the QWERTY keyboard, which is the same as that of the normal computer.
• Smartphones and Generations: Hyper-Connected World First, it is social network, the essence of which is to communicate with other people and peers, as well as to show the details of their lives.
• US Smartphone Market and the Movie Industry In this work tables and other statistical graphics are used to plan, collect and prepare data on the US smartphone market and the movie industry.
• Privacy and Smartphone Apps: Documentary Review The documentary is about the privacy risks posed by the many apps that people are using on their smartphones. If a person is not ready to give access to the information the application wants, they […]
• Apple and Its Product Range in the UK Smartphone Market The history of Apple Inc.is closely tied to that of the technology industry, with the company being one of the best-recognized developers and sellers of smartphones, computers, and software.
• Nokia’s Lumia Smartphone’s Annual Marketing Plan The Nokia Corporation is hopeful of broadening the market of the Lumia series to attract new segments like the lower end of the market, traditionally the stronghold of Nokia with Symbian handsets and feature phones.
• Saudi Developers in Smartphone Applications There are many companies in the world involved in the development of the apps available in the market today. The above successes show the potential that Saudi Arabia has in the smart phone app development.
• Blackberry and iPhone: Exploits of Smartphones The trends in mobile technology changed the entire concept of mobile phones and different models are entering the market. Unauthorized calls from Blackberry and iPhones have, in many cases, caused threats to the security of […]
• Social Media, Smartphones and Confidentiality in the Healthcare System The purpose of the paper is to provide an in-depth understanding of the consequences of the breach of patients’ confidentiality with social media and cell phones, as well as of regulatory acts on the issue.
• Smartphone Market and Consumer Behavior The ability to improve communication, entertainment, and online education by using smartphones is a milestone in the development of the world.
• Smartphones for Work: Advantages and Disadvantages Employees are not bound to the office, and they can negotiate different working hours that are comfortable for them and their customers.
• Smartphone Store Commercial Website: Description Plan Considering the growth of the demand of the smartphone market, the present report provides a description plan for an online smartphone store, in which users will be able to purchase different brands of smartphones.
• Smartphones in Europe & Asia: Marketing Management Therefore, to market the organization producing smartphones for Europe and Asia, one will need to build the competitive advantage that will allow target audiences to pay closer attention to the brand in question. The key […]
• Smartphones and Mobile Applications in Business Given the high level of advancement in the field of information and technology, Atluri et al asserted that the tastes and preferences of consumers are likely to change as a result of their increased needs.
• Risky Business: Students and Smartphones The study builds upon the previous research, and it is made visible in the introduction where the authors referred to the findings of many different studies concerning the issues or mobile security, their prevalence, the […]
• Samsung Galaxy Note 7 Smartphone’s Security Issue The exploding smartphones have shown that, although the Samsung Company’s status and quality of products were supposed to be at the highest levels, they are not trustworthy from the consumers’ point of view.
• Steering Wheel and Smartphone: A Deadly Combination Moreover, being distracted by mobile devices can cause harm not only to their owners but also to total strangers who merely happen to be in the wrong place at the wrong time.
• Samsung Company Smartphone Marketing The article gives a summary of the Smartphone market controlled by Samsung and the ensuing advertising expenditure from mobile marketing and advertisements because of the strategy employed by Samsung.
• The Smartphone: Anatomy of an Industry The smartphones industry, which has phone makers like Apple, HTC, LG, Samsung, and Lenovo, falls under the Electronic Computer Manufacturing section of the NAICS, with code 33-4111.
• Smartphones for Children: Design and Usage To reduce the above challenges, the software should follow a design that enables the children to use them conveniently. Additionally, the software needs to have features that match the demand presented by the children.
• Technologies: Customized Smartphones for Children The rising demand for the Smartphone took place because of the benefits that it has for both the parents and the children.
• Smartphones and Dumb Behavior On the one hand, the use of smartphones negatively affects development of short-term memory in people. On the other hand, it is also found that the abundance of information negatively affects people.
• Smartphone Ownership in the World In regard with mobile phone technology, this paper examines the growing use of smart phones in the world, and the kind of impact these types of phones have on people’s lives.
• Mobile Application Software Pros & Cons It is the software installed in apple phones such as iphone, the iPod Touch, and the ipad. This is the latest operating system, and it has various advantages.
• Value of Smartphone Security The security standards include the use keystroke dynamics, monitoring the time of key holding, the flight time, multiplayer access regulations, priority regarding the application accessibility.
• Apple Inc. Smartphones Strategic Marketing Plan Within the market segment, the objectives of the marketing mix includes To ensure sales increase by 40% To ensure increase in the sales margin by more than 20% To ensure increase in the total Smartphones […]
• Social Networks Application in Smartphone With the emergence and widespread use social networks applications, the challenge of distance should no longer be a hindrance in a relationship, especially in the wake of Smartphones.
• Apple Inc. Smartphone Marketing Strategy Presentation The popularity of the brand has enabled the company to be successful and become the leader in Smartphones market under a highly competitive and volatile environment.
• Smartphone as a Communication Sector Revolution The Smartphone has done much to pull the world towards the core of digital database. The youth has exploited this utility to download music and movies from the world over and store it for their […]
• Characterizing Smartphone Usage: Diversity and End User Context
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• Consumer Preferences and Implicit Prices of Smartphone Characteristics
• Consequences of Late-Night Smartphone Use
• Competition between the Most Successful Smartphone Companies
• Brain Drain: The Mere Presence of One’s Own Smartphone Reduces Available Cognitive Capacity
• Employee Monitoring System Using Android Smartphone
• Gender and Income Effects of Smartphone Use
• The Areas of Usage of Smartphones
• What Age Should a Child Get a Smartphone: Pros and Cons of Early Phone Use
• Diagnostic Criteria for Smartphone Addiction
• The Impact of Smartphone Advertising on Consumer Purchase Intention
• Accessing the Smartphone from Remote Location Using Android Application
• Enhancing Patient-Caregivers Relationship: Innovative Use of Smartphone
• The Growth of the Application Market for Smartphones and Tablets
• Increasing Dependence on Computers and Smartphones
• New Trends in the Chinese Smartphone Market
• Barriers, Benefits, and Beliefs of Brain Training Smartphone Apps
• Essential Smartphone Filmmaking Accessories
• Smartphone Use Among Japanese Medical Students
• Changing the Competitive Landscape of the Smartphone Industry
• Fundamental Requirements for Smartphone Commercial Applications Development
• Australian Smartphone Industry Analysis
• Driving Forces for Smartphone Industry
• Focus, Mindfulness, and Using a Smartphone
• Global Mobile Gaming Market Growth Driven by Sprialing Smartphone Sales
• Evaluating the Security of Smartphone Messaging Applications
• History and Future Trends in Smartphone Technology
• The Effect of Frequent Smartphone Use on Social Skills
• Smartphone: Mobile Phone and Excellent Time Killer
• The Impact of Smartphones on Our Culture
• Modeling Habitual and Addictive Behavior With a Smartphone
• Intangible Assets and Value Capture in Global Value Chains: The Smartphone Industry
• Smartphone Addiction in Japanese Youth: Social Isolation and the Social Network
• Mobile Technology: Pros and Cons of California Smartphone Bill
• Oppose Arguing That Smartphone Helps Student on Learning
• Product Features Influencing Purchase Decisions for Smartphones
• The Impact of Smartphone Use by Parents on Their Children
• Product Life Cycles Analysis for Smartphone
• Relationship between Smartphone Usage in Young Adults and Depression
• Sedentary Behavior and Problematic Smartphone Use in Adolescents
• Smartphone Applications and Childhood Obesity
• Using Smartphone Apps for Cognitive Learning in Healthy Aging
• Smartphone Use and Academic Performance
• Social Media and Smartphone Habits
• The Advantages and Disadvantages of Having a Smartphone
• The Emergence, Opportunities, and Importance of Mobile E-Commerce Using Smartphones
• Smartphones and Its Integration into Our Daily Lives
• The Smartphone Revolution and Its Effects on Business
• Can Smartphone Apps That Use Biofeedback Help Reduce Stress?
• What Values and Motives Are the Drivers of Smartphone Use Activity?
• How Are Self-Esteem and Problematic Smartphone Use Among Adolescents Related?
• What Are the Pros and Cons of a Smartphone, Does It Help Our Lives?
• How Does Parents’ Use of Smartphones Affect Their Children?
• Does the Mere Presence of One’s Own Smartphone Reduce Available Cognitive Capacity?
• What Is the Relationship Between Smartphone Use and Sleep Quality in Chinese Students?
• How Does Smartphone Advertising Affect Consumers’ Willingness to Buy?
• What Factors Influence the Intention to Purchase a Smartphone?
• Is Prolonged Smartphone Use Before Bed Associated with Altered Resting-State Functional Connectivity of the Insula?
• What Are the Diagnostic Criteria for Smartphone Addiction?
• How Does Frequent Smartphone Use Affect Social Skills?
• Can Smartphone Applications Serve as Effective Cognitive Training Tools in Healthy Aging?
• What Is the Effect of Smartphone Use and Group Conversation on Pedestrian Speed?
• Should Children Own a Smartphone?
• What Product Features Influence Smartphone Purchase Decisions?
• How Are Young People’s Smartphone Use and Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Related?
• What Is the Percentage of Smartphone Users in the US?
• Does the Fingerprint Sensor Take Smartphone Security to a Whole New Level?
• How Are Emotional Intelligence, Self-Regulation, and Smartphone Addiction Related to Student Well-Being and Quality of Life?
• What Are the Barriers, Benefits, and Beliefs About Brain Training Apps for Smartphones?
• Could a Person’s Impaired Decision-Making Process Be a Consequence of Smartphone Addiction?
• What Is the Relationship Between Smartphone Application Use and Student Performance?
• How Does the Use of Smartphones Negatively Affect Society?
• What Are the Effects of Late-Night Smartphone Use on Sleep?
• Are Telecom Firms Under Pressure to Keep Up with Smartphone Obsession?
• What Are the Driving Forces for the Smartphone Industry?
• How Are Sedentary Lifestyles and Problematic Smartphone Use Related in Chinese Adolescents?
• Why Do Mobile Users Trust Smartphone Social Networking Services?
• Does Smartphone Use Affect Gender and Income?
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Smartphone Essay

A smartphone is a mobile gadget that makes it possible to combine cellular and mobile computing capabilities into a single device. People love to use smartphones because, compared to feature phones, smartphones offer more powerful hardware and robust mobile operating systems. Here are a few sample essays on ‘smartphones’.

100 Words Essay On Smartphone

Modern technological developments have made living simpler. Today, we can quickly call or video chat with anyone by moving our fingers when using a mobile phone. Mobile phones can be used for many different things today, including voice calling, video chatting, text messaging, multimedia messaging, internet browsing, email, video games, and photography. They come in a variety of sizes and shapes and with a variety of technical specifications. Thus, it is referred to as a "Smart Phone." Today you can see everyone's home with at least one smartphone. Even in rural areas where the rate of development isn't as high as that of a city, nearly every person can be seen using a smartphone.

200 Words Essay On Smartphone

With the help of mobile smartphones, life has become increasingly simple. When using a landline phone, calling someone was extremely difficult, expensive, and time-consuming while waiting for the call to connect to your loved ones.

However, a smartphone puts your loved ones within reach with a single click. No matter how far they are from you, whether they are living domestically or abroad, you may always talk to them whenever you want. You can call them via voice or even use the best smartphone technology, video calls. Through the video call feature on your smartphone, you can video chat with family members you can't see every day, but it's always excellent to see them every day.

Smartphones are now utilised for various things, including calling, video calling, texting, sending emails, playing games, and even taking good photos or selfies using the front and primary cameras.

Advantages Of Smartphone

Keeps us connected

Day-to-Day Communicating

Entertainment for All

Managing Office Work

Mobile Banking

Disadvantages Of Smartphones

Wasting Time

Making Us Non- communicable

Money Wastage

Loss of Privacy

Depending on how a user utilises a mobile phone, it could have both beneficial and harmful effects. We should use our mobile devices cautiously and follow best practices to live better, hassle-free lives rather than utilising them carelessly and turning them into life-threatening viruses.

500 Words Essay On Smartphone

In many aspects, smartphones are beneficial in our daily lives. The use of cell phones is essential to everyday life. The smartphone is an excellent improvement to our life. Our work has been made simpler and more convenient due to it. It has numerous uses, including a phone, camera, music player, and alarm clock. We can maintain contact with our friends and family members thanks to it.

Understanding The Smartphone

A smartphone is a mobile gadget that makes it possible to combine cellular and mobile computing capabilities into a single device. In addition, compared to feature phones, smartphones offer more powerful hardware and robust mobile operating systems. Smartphones' robust operating systems enable online browsing, software, and multimedia features. They also support standard phone features like voice calls and text messaging.

Importance Of Smartphones In Our Life

A smartphone is a mobile phone that provides more sophisticated networking and computational capabilities than a typical mobile phone. A touchscreen interface, an internet connection, and an operating system that can execute downloaded programmes are all standard features of a smartphone.

The Simon Personal Communicator, built in 1992, was the original smartphone. It incorporated functions from many devices, including a cell phone, pager, fax machine, and contact book. However, cell phones did not take off until the 2000s.

The ability to always be online is one of the key factors contributing to cell phones' immense popularity. This enables us to keep up with current events, check our email and social media accounts, and even conduct online shopping. We can communicate with our friends and family via smartphones. We can reach them whenever we want by phone, text, or video-chat.

Smartphone Use By Students

Students can benefit from smartphones. They can use them to look up material swiftly, take class notes, and maintain organisation. Nevertheless, there are several drawbacks to using a smartphone in class. A student may not be paying attention to the lecture and miss vital information if they are continually using their phone.

While some schools have outlawed cell phone use in the classroom, others have welcomed it and have even developed apps that can be used for learning. The best course of action for each school's children is up to them.

The excessive use of cell phones has some drawbacks. For instance, if we are always staring at our phones, we risk missing out on what is happening worldwide. We could also develop a phone addiction and use them excessively. This may result in issues like anxiousness and lack of sleep.

My Life Experiences

In my home, there are five smartphones, one for my father, one for my mother, one for my sister, one for my brother, and one for myself. We all use smartphones for personal work. Smartphones help us in many ways, depending on how we use them. A smartphone can affect us in both ways, negatively and positively, depending on how we use it. My father always told us to use mobile phones with a limit. We all have phone-free zones in our house where we are not allowed to use any devices and we spend that time bonding with each other or reading books.

Overall, smartphones have a lot of benefits and uses that make our life easier. However, to use them wisely, we should be aware of any potential drawbacks.

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June 18, 2024

Initiative announces awardees of AI-focused population health pilot projects

“The rapid advances we are seeing in technological innovation hold incredible promise for us to realize major progress in addressing some of the most pressing challenges to our health and well-being,” said Ali H. Mokdad, the university’s chief strategy officer for population health and professor of health metrics sciences. “We are delighted to be able to support these five project teams to test novel applications of large language models and generative AI in areas ranging from more effective diagnosis of tuberculosis to better assessment of brain health and pathology samples.”

The goal of this special funding call was to accelerate the application of large language models and generative AI to seemingly intractable grand challenges in population health. Details regarding the five funded projects, project teams and focus of each teams’ project can be found in the following tabs.

Customizing LLMs for Reliable Clinical Reasoning Support

Investigators Yulia Tsvetkov, Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering Pang Wei Koh, Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering Jonathan Ilgen, Department of Emergency Medicine

Project abstract Generative AI adapted to medical domains holds great promise for advancing the health and well-being of populations, including in languages and regions that have limited access to healthcare support. However, safety risks and the need for responsible data practices, as well as unrealistic assumptions made by existing approaches to automated clinical reasoning, hinder the development and deployment of models.

This proposal addresses three critical challenges towards creating large language models (LLMs) enhanced with medical knowledge and trained for clinical reasoning support by (1) synthesizing realistic data that can facilitate research and model development while improving model fairness and minimizing privacy violations, (2) incorporating uncertainty estimation mechanisms into LLMs to abstain from making low-confidence decisions for enhanced model safety, and (3) developing new methods to augment LLMs with external knowledge, for rapid customization to individual users and new knowledge domains. We propose to incorporate these innovations in a novel framework that simulates patient–expert interactions.

Ultimately, this project aims at developing a proof-of-concept prototype of reliable, interactive, knowledgeable, and socially-aware LLM assistants empowering patients from diverse populations, clinicians, and researchers on a wide range of clinical use cases.

PathFinder: A Multi-Modal Multi-Agent Framework for Diagnostic Decision-Making in Histopathology

Investigators Linda Shapiro, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering Ranjay Krishna, Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering Mehmet Saygin Seyfioglu, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Fatemeh Ghezloo, Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering Wisdom Ikezogwo, Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering

Project abstract Pathologists often detect diseases by examining histopathology whole-slide images (WSIs), which are digitally scanned human pathology samples of gigapixel size. In their analysis, pathologists traverse these extensive images, gathering evidence to support their diagnoses – a time-consuming process that becomes increasingly demanding as cancer cases rise with the aging global population.

AI technology can dramatically speed up the diagnostic process, enabling doctors to help more patients efficiently. However, existing computational solutions segment large WSIs into multiple small patches, which are analyzed independently. While somewhat effective, they lack efficiency, interpretability, and holistic diagnosis. We propose PathFinder, a multi-modal multi-agent framework that mimics the natural decision-making process of expert pathologists. PathFinder will contain three AI agents collaborating to simultaneously, navigate between WSI patches, gather evidence, and make a final diagnosis holistically. 1) The Navigation Agent will mimic a pathologist’s viewing behavior to find the most important regions within the WSI. 2) The Description Agent will then provide natural text descriptions of the regions of interest (ROIs) that the Navigation Agent identified. 3) Finally, the Diagnosis Agent will make a diagnosis based on the accumulated descriptions provided by the Description Agent.

Our method enhances efficiency by reducing the need to examine every section of the WSI and provides human-readable diagnostic decisions through natural language descriptions of ROIs. Our integrated system promises a more intuitive and precise diagnostic process, potentially adaptable to other types of medical imaging like ultrasound and MRI, making it a versatile tool in medical diagnostics.

Standalone Smartphone Pupillometry with Machine Learning and AI for Diagnosis of Neurological Disease

Investigators Michael R. Levitt, Department of Neurological Surgery Suman Jayadev, Department of Neurology Shwetak Patel, Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering Anthony Maxin, Department of Neurological Surgery

Project abstract The pupillary light reflex (PLR) is a non-invasive biomarker associated with brain health. It is altered in diseases and conditions such as traumatic brain injury and dementia. Most clinicians are forced to make a PLR assessment subjectively using a penlight and the naked eye – a technique known as manual pupillometry. While the literature has shown that this is unreliable, it is the only method available to the majority of first responders and clinicians in the USA and throughout the world. Quantitative pupillometry was developed in response to the inaccuracy of manual pupillometry and is a highly accurate method of assessing the PLR. Unfortunately, prevailing devices are fragile, cumbersome, and cost ~$9,000, not including repeat expenditures for disposable parts, making them unaffordable for most hospitals in the USA, let alone the rest of the world.

To address this need for a more affordable and accessible method of quantitative pupillometry, we have developed PupilScreen – a standalone smartphone application for reliable detection and quantification of the PLR using machine learning. In the proposed project, we will build upon the initial development and testing of this application to systematically generate pilot data on the reliability of measurements with this application and on the use of PLR to diagnose several high-impact neurological conditions (with assistance from machine learning) with the goal of using these preliminary data to pursue future funding.

Using AI for Tuberculosis Classification Using Wearable Data

Investigators Shwetak Patel, Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering David Horne, Department of Medicine Thomas R. Hawn, Department of Medicine

Project abstract According to the WHO, tuberculosis (TB) is the leading infectious disease-related cause of death, killing 1.5 million individuals each year and causing disease in 10 million. With the increasing ubiquity of connected technologies in developing countries there is an opportunity to use these tools to help diagnose and limit TB in a population.

We recently created a model that distinguishes TB from non-TB coughs from smartphone recordings. Although these results are promising, this study and others are done in controlled lab settings and conditions. While this is useful in comparing different model performance to this type of data, it does not address the many nuances of real world data that would be needed to deploy outside controlled situations. Wearables offer continuous unobtrusive monitoring and increased access to signals throughout the day, but come with additional signal noise.

We propose a pilot study that aims to use wearable sensors to classify TB infection based on cough characteristics in real-world settings. The primary aim will be to collect continuous data with lab test ground truth to create an ML model diagnosing TB infection that is robust across situationally diverse conditions. Secondarily we can explore the use of biometrics from Fitbit data, and the use of generative AI as ways to create a more robust classifier.

With a robust pipeline, our proof of concept will be a stepping stone towards real time community deployable models that can allow for early diagnosis and notification to decrease TB transmission events and address TB control.

AI-generated characterization of landscape risk for disease emergence Washington

Investigators Julianne Meisner, Department of Global Health Youngjun Choe, Department of Industrial & Systems Engineering Shwetak Patel, Allen School of Computer Science & Engineering Peter Rabinowitz, Department of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences Beth Lipton, Washington State Department of Health

Project abstract Over the last 50 years, new pathogens have emerged from wildlife and environments to cause human epidemics and pandemics at increasing frequency, with increasingly severe impacts. Enormous advances in computer science have also been achieved over this period, allowing zoonotic disease experts to use sophisticated modeling approaches to predict the sites of future emergence events, termed “hotspots.”

However, most of these efforts have produced hotspot maps that have low spatial resolution, meaning large areas of entire countries or even regions are flagged as hotspots, information which is not actionable. This limitation is due, in part, to the datasets used to fit the model, which are either low-resolution or poorly-suited for predicting zoonotic hotspots. For instance, many modeling efforts have treated all human-modified landscapes as risk factors for zoonotic emergence, ignoring important heterogeneities in how communities and settlements interface—or coexist—with ecosystems. Further, to our knowledge, there are no prior efforts to produce forecasted versions of these datasets, limiting hotspot mapping to current conditions.

In this project, a doctoral student in computer science will work with a multidisciplinary team of UW faculty mentors to create high-resolution and dynamic datasets of key risk factors for pandemic emergence in Washington state, validate them with members of the Washington State One Health Collaborative, and develop a computational framework for forecasting these datasets. This work will serve as key proof-of-principle for a larger grant submitted to NIH, NSF or ARPA-H for scale-up to global pandemic prediction.

More information about this funding opportunity can be found by visiting its funding page .

What is population health?

Population health is a broad concept encompassing not only the elimination of diseases and injuries, but also the intersecting and overlapping factors that influence health.

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