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Glossary of research terms.

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
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• Bibliography

This glossary is intended to assist you in understanding commonly used terms and concepts when reading, interpreting, and evaluating scholarly research. Also included are common words and phrases defined within the context of how they apply to research in the social and behavioral sciences.

• Acculturation -- refers to the process of adapting to another culture, particularly in reference to blending in with the majority population [e.g., an immigrant adopting American customs]. However, acculturation also implies that both cultures add something to one another, but still remain distinct groups unto themselves.
• Accuracy -- a term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target population and the sample.
• Affective Measures -- procedures or devices used to obtain quantified descriptions of an individual's feelings, emotional states, or dispositions.
• Aggregate -- a total created from smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is an aggregate of the populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that comprise the county. As a verb, it refers to total data from smaller units into a large unit.
• Anonymity -- a research condition in which no one, including the researcher, knows the identities of research participants.
• Baseline -- a control measurement carried out before an experimental treatment.
• Behaviorism -- school of psychological thought concerned with the observable, tangible, objective facts of behavior, rather than with subjective phenomena such as thoughts, emotions, or impulses. Contemporary behaviorism also emphasizes the study of mental states such as feelings and fantasies to the extent that they can be directly observed and measured.
• Beliefs -- ideas, doctrines, tenets, etc. that are accepted as true on grounds which are not immediately susceptible to rigorous proof.
• Benchmarking -- systematically measuring and comparing the operations and outcomes of organizations, systems, processes, etc., against agreed upon "best-in-class" frames of reference.
• Bias -- a loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear in research via the sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can also occur at other stages in research, such as while interviewing, in the design of questions, or in the way data are analyzed and presented. Bias means that the research findings will not be representative of, or generalizable to, a wider population.
• Case Study -- the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including data derived from the subjects themselves.
• Causal Hypothesis -- a statement hypothesizing that the independent variable affects the dependent variable in some way.
• Causal Relationship -- the relationship established that shows that an independent variable, and nothing else, causes a change in a dependent variable. It also establishes how much of a change is shown in the dependent variable.
• Causality -- the relation between cause and effect.
• Central Tendency -- any way of describing or characterizing typical, average, or common values in some distribution.
• Chi-square Analysis -- a common non-parametric statistical test which compares an expected proportion or ratio to an actual proportion or ratio.
• Claim -- a statement, similar to a hypothesis, which is made in response to the research question and that is affirmed with evidence based on research.
• Classification -- ordering of related phenomena into categories, groups, or systems according to characteristics or attributes.
• Cluster Analysis -- a method of statistical analysis where data that share a common trait are grouped together. The data is collected in a way that allows the data collector to group data according to certain characteristics.
• Cohort Analysis -- group by group analytic treatment of individuals having a statistical factor in common to each group. Group members share a particular characteristic [e.g., born in a given year] or a common experience [e.g., entering a college at a given time].
• Confidentiality -- a research condition in which no one except the researcher(s) knows the identities of the participants in a study. It refers to the treatment of information that a participant has disclosed to the researcher in a relationship of trust and with the expectation that it will not be revealed to others in ways that violate the original consent agreement, unless permission is granted by the participant.
• Confirmability Objectivity -- the findings of the study could be confirmed by another person conducting the same study.
• Construct -- refers to any of the following: something that exists theoretically but is not directly observable; a concept developed [constructed] for describing relations among phenomena or for other research purposes; or, a theoretical definition in which concepts are defined in terms of other concepts. For example, intelligence cannot be directly observed or measured; it is a construct.
• Construct Validity -- seeks an agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific measuring device, such as observation.
• Constructivism -- the idea that reality is socially constructed. It is the view that reality cannot be understood outside of the way humans interact and that the idea that knowledge is constructed, not discovered. Constructivists believe that learning is more active and self-directed than either behaviorism or cognitive theory would postulate.
• Content Analysis -- the systematic, objective, and quantitative description of the manifest or latent content of print or nonprint communications.
• Context Sensitivity -- awareness by a qualitative researcher of factors such as values and beliefs that influence cultural behaviors.
• Control Group -- the group in an experimental design that receives either no treatment or a different treatment from the experimental group. This group can thus be compared to the experimental group.
• Controlled Experiment -- an experimental design with two or more randomly selected groups [an experimental group and control group] in which the researcher controls or introduces the independent variable and measures the dependent variable at least two times [pre- and post-test measurements].
• Correlation -- a common statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r, that measures the degree of relationship between pairs of interval variables in a sample. The range of correlation is from -1.00 to zero to +1.00. Also, a non-cause and effect relationship between two variables.
• Covariate -- a product of the correlation of two related variables times their standard deviations. Used in true experiments to measure the difference of treatment between them.
• Credibility -- a researcher's ability to demonstrate that the object of a study is accurately identified and described based on the way in which the study was conducted.
• Critical Theory -- an evaluative approach to social science research, associated with Germany's neo-Marxist “Frankfurt School,” that aims to criticize as well as analyze society, opposing the political orthodoxy of modern communism. Its goal is to promote human emancipatory forces and to expose ideas and systems that impede them.
• Data -- factual information [as measurements or statistics] used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation.
• Data Mining -- the process of analyzing data from different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information, often to discover patterns and/or systematic relationships among variables.
• Data Quality -- this is the degree to which the collected data [results of measurement or observation] meet the standards of quality to be considered valid [trustworthy] and  reliable [dependable].
• Deductive -- a form of reasoning in which conclusions are formulated about particulars from general or universal premises.
• Dependability -- being able to account for changes in the design of the study and the changing conditions surrounding what was studied.
• Dependent Variable -- a variable that varies due, at least in part, to the impact of the independent variable. In other words, its value “depends” on the value of the independent variable. For example, in the variables “gender” and “academic major,” academic major is the dependent variable, meaning that your major cannot determine whether you are male or female, but your gender might indirectly lead you to favor one major over another.
• Deviation -- the distance between the mean and a particular data point in a given distribution.
• Discourse Community -- a community of scholars and researchers in a given field who respond to and communicate to each other through published articles in the community's journals and presentations at conventions. All members of the discourse community adhere to certain conventions for the presentation of their theories and research.
• Discrete Variable -- a variable that is measured solely in whole units, such as, gender and number of siblings.
• Distribution -- the range of values of a particular variable.
• Effect Size -- the amount of change in a dependent variable that can be attributed to manipulations of the independent variable. A large effect size exists when the value of the dependent variable is strongly influenced by the independent variable. It is the mean difference on a variable between experimental and control groups divided by the standard deviation on that variable of the pooled groups or of the control group alone.
• Emancipatory Research -- research is conducted on and with people from marginalized groups or communities. It is led by a researcher or research team who is either an indigenous or external insider; is interpreted within intellectual frameworks of that group; and, is conducted largely for the purpose of empowering members of that community and improving services for them. It also engages members of the community as co-constructors or validators of knowledge.
• Empirical Research -- the process of developing systematized knowledge gained from observations that are formulated to support insights and generalizations about the phenomena being researched.
• Epistemology -- concerns knowledge construction; asks what constitutes knowledge and how knowledge is validated.
• Ethnography -- method to study groups and/or cultures over a period of time. The goal of this type of research is to comprehend the particular group/culture through immersion into the culture or group. Research is completed through various methods but, since the researcher is immersed within the group for an extended period of time, more detailed information is usually collected during the research.
• Expectancy Effect -- any unconscious or conscious cues that convey to the participant in a study how the researcher wants them to respond. Expecting someone to behave in a particular way has been shown to promote the expected behavior. Expectancy effects can be minimized by using standardized interactions with subjects, automated data-gathering methods, and double blind protocols.
• External Validity -- the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable.
• Factor Analysis -- a statistical test that explores relationships among data. The test explores which variables in a data set are most related to each other. In a carefully constructed survey, for example, factor analysis can yield information on patterns of responses, not simply data on a single response. Larger tendencies may then be interpreted, indicating behavior trends rather than simply responses to specific questions.
• Field Studies -- academic or other investigative studies undertaken in a natural setting, rather than in laboratories, classrooms, or other structured environments.
• Focus Groups -- small, roundtable discussion groups charged with examining specific topics or problems, including possible options or solutions. Focus groups usually consist of 4-12 participants, guided by moderators to keep the discussion flowing and to collect and report the results.
• Framework -- the structure and support that may be used as both the launching point and the on-going guidelines for investigating a research problem.
• Generalizability -- the extent to which research findings and conclusions conducted on a specific study to groups or situations can be applied to the population at large.
• Grey Literature -- research produced by organizations outside of commercial and academic publishing that publish materials, such as, working papers, research reports, and briefing papers.
• Grounded Theory -- practice of developing other theories that emerge from observing a group. Theories are grounded in the group's observable experiences, but researchers add their own insight into why those experiences exist.
• Group Behavior -- behaviors of a group as a whole, as well as the behavior of an individual as influenced by his or her membership in a group.
• Hypothesis -- a tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship between variables.
• Independent Variable -- the conditions of an experiment that are systematically manipulated by the researcher. A variable that is not impacted by the dependent variable, and that itself impacts the dependent variable. In the earlier example of "gender" and "academic major," (see Dependent Variable) gender is the independent variable.
• Individualism -- a theory or policy having primary regard for the liberty, rights, or independent actions of individuals.
• Inductive -- a form of reasoning in which a generalized conclusion is formulated from particular instances.
• Inductive Analysis -- a form of analysis based on inductive reasoning; a researcher using inductive analysis starts with answers, but formulates questions throughout the research process.
• Insiderness -- a concept in qualitative research that refers to the degree to which a researcher has access to and an understanding of persons, places, or things within a group or community based on being a member of that group or community.
• Internal Consistency -- the extent to which all questions or items assess the same characteristic, skill, or quality.
• Internal Validity -- the rigor with which the study was conducted [e.g., the study's design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning what was and was not measured]. It is also the extent to which the designers of a study have taken into account alternative explanations for any causal relationships they explore. In studies that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of these definitions should be considered when assessing internal validity.
• Life History -- a record of an event/events in a respondent's life told [written down, but increasingly audio or video recorded] by the respondent from his/her own perspective in his/her own words. A life history is different from a "research story" in that it covers a longer time span, perhaps a complete life, or a significant period in a life.
• Margin of Error -- the permittable or acceptable deviation from the target or a specific value. The allowance for slight error or miscalculation or changing circumstances in a study.
• Measurement -- process of obtaining a numerical description of the extent to which persons, organizations, or things possess specified characteristics.
• Meta-Analysis -- an analysis combining the results of several studies that address a set of related hypotheses.
• Methodology -- a theory or analysis of how research does and should proceed.
• Methods -- systematic approaches to the conduct of an operation or process. It includes steps of procedure, application of techniques, systems of reasoning or analysis, and the modes of inquiry employed by a discipline.
• Mixed-Methods -- a research approach that uses two or more methods from both the quantitative and qualitative research categories. It is also referred to as blended methods, combined methods, or methodological triangulation.
• Modeling -- the creation of a physical or computer analogy to understand a particular phenomenon. Modeling helps in estimating the relative magnitude of various factors involved in a phenomenon. A successful model can be shown to account for unexpected behavior that has been observed, to predict certain behaviors, which can then be tested experimentally, and to demonstrate that a given theory cannot account for certain phenomenon.
• Models -- representations of objects, principles, processes, or ideas often used for imitation or emulation.
• Naturalistic Observation -- observation of behaviors and events in natural settings without experimental manipulation or other forms of interference.
• Norm -- the norm in statistics is the average or usual performance. For example, students usually complete their high school graduation requirements when they are 18 years old. Even though some students graduate when they are younger or older, the norm is that any given student will graduate when he or she is 18 years old.
• Null Hypothesis -- the proposition, to be tested statistically, that the experimental intervention has "no effect," meaning that the treatment and control groups will not differ as a result of the intervention. Investigators usually hope that the data will demonstrate some effect from the intervention, thus allowing the investigator to reject the null hypothesis.
• Ontology -- a discipline of philosophy that explores the science of what is, the kinds and structures of objects, properties, events, processes, and relations in every area of reality.
• Panel Study -- a longitudinal study in which a group of individuals is interviewed at intervals over a period of time.
• Participant -- individuals whose physiological and/or behavioral characteristics and responses are the object of study in a research project.
• Peer-Review -- the process in which the author of a book, article, or other type of publication submits his or her work to experts in the field for critical evaluation, usually prior to publication. This is standard procedure in publishing scholarly research.
• Phenomenology -- a qualitative research approach concerned with understanding certain group behaviors from that group's point of view.
• Philosophy -- critical examination of the grounds for fundamental beliefs and analysis of the basic concepts, doctrines, or practices that express such beliefs.
• Phonology -- the study of the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in language.
• Policy -- governing principles that serve as guidelines or rules for decision making and action in a given area.
• Policy Analysis -- systematic study of the nature, rationale, cost, impact, effectiveness, implications, etc., of existing or alternative policies, using the theories and methodologies of relevant social science disciplines.
• Population -- the target group under investigation. The population is the entire set under consideration. Samples are drawn from populations.
• Position Papers -- statements of official or organizational viewpoints, often recommending a particular course of action or response to a situation.
• Positivism -- a doctrine in the philosophy of science, positivism argues that science can only deal with observable entities known directly to experience. The positivist aims to construct general laws, or theories, which express relationships between phenomena. Observation and experiment is used to show whether the phenomena fit the theory.
• Predictive Measurement -- use of tests, inventories, or other measures to determine or estimate future events, conditions, outcomes, or trends.
• Principal Investigator -- the scientist or scholar with primary responsibility for the design and conduct of a research project.
• Probability -- the chance that a phenomenon will occur randomly. As a statistical measure, it is shown as p [the "p" factor].
• Questionnaire -- structured sets of questions on specified subjects that are used to gather information, attitudes, or opinions.
• Random Sampling -- a process used in research to draw a sample of a population strictly by chance, yielding no discernible pattern beyond chance. Random sampling can be accomplished by first numbering the population, then selecting the sample according to a table of random numbers or using a random-number computer generator. The sample is said to be random because there is no regular or discernible pattern or order. Random sample selection is used under the assumption that sufficiently large samples assigned randomly will exhibit a distribution comparable to that of the population from which the sample is drawn. The random assignment of participants increases the probability that differences observed between participant groups are the result of the experimental intervention.
• Reliability -- the degree to which a measure yields consistent results. If the measuring instrument [e.g., survey] is reliable, then administering it to similar groups would yield similar results. Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. An unreliable indicator cannot produce trustworthy results.
• Representative Sample -- sample in which the participants closely match the characteristics of the population, and thus, all segments of the population are represented in the sample. A representative sample allows results to be generalized from the sample to the population.
• Rigor -- degree to which research methods are scrupulously and meticulously carried out in order to recognize important influences occurring in an experimental study.
• Sample -- the population researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts are made to select a "sample population" that is considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred. In studies that use inferential statistics to analyze results or which are designed to be generalizable, sample size is critical, generally the larger the number in the sample, the higher the likelihood of a representative distribution of the population.
• Sampling Error -- the degree to which the results from the sample deviate from those that would be obtained from the entire population, because of random error in the selection of respondent and the corresponding reduction in reliability.
• Saturation -- a situation in which data analysis begins to reveal repetition and redundancy and when new data tend to confirm existing findings rather than expand upon them.
• Semantics -- the relationship between symbols and meaning in a linguistic system. Also, the cuing system that connects what is written in the text to what is stored in the reader's prior knowledge.
• Social Theories -- theories about the structure, organization, and functioning of human societies.
• Sociolinguistics -- the study of language in society and, more specifically, the study of language varieties, their functions, and their speakers.
• Standard Deviation -- a measure of variation that indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution and the mean; it is determined by taking the square root of the average of the squared deviations in a given distribution. It can be used to indicate the proportion of data within certain ranges of scale values when the distribution conforms closely to the normal curve.
• Statistical Analysis -- application of statistical processes and theory to the compilation, presentation, discussion, and interpretation of numerical data.
• Statistical Bias -- characteristics of an experimental or sampling design, or the mathematical treatment of data, that systematically affects the results of a study so as to produce incorrect, unjustified, or inappropriate inferences or conclusions.
• Statistical Significance -- the probability that the difference between the outcomes of the control and experimental group are great enough that it is unlikely due solely to chance. The probability that the null hypothesis can be rejected at a predetermined significance level [0.05 or 0.01].
• Statistical Tests -- researchers use statistical tests to make quantitative decisions about whether a study's data indicate a significant effect from the intervention and allow the researcher to reject the null hypothesis. That is, statistical tests show whether the differences between the outcomes of the control and experimental groups are great enough to be statistically significant. If differences are found to be statistically significant, it means that the probability [likelihood] that these differences occurred solely due to chance is relatively low. Most researchers agree that a significance value of .05 or less [i.e., there is a 95% probability that the differences are real] sufficiently determines significance.
• Subcultures -- ethnic, regional, economic, or social groups exhibiting characteristic patterns of behavior sufficient to distinguish them from the larger society to which they belong.
• Testing -- the act of gathering and processing information about individuals' ability, skill, understanding, or knowledge under controlled conditions.
• Theory -- a general explanation about a specific behavior or set of events that is based on known principles and serves to organize related events in a meaningful way. A theory is not as specific as a hypothesis.
• Treatment -- the stimulus given to a dependent variable.
• Trend Samples -- method of sampling different groups of people at different points in time from the same population.
• Triangulation -- a multi-method or pluralistic approach, using different methods in order to focus on the research topic from different viewpoints and to produce a multi-faceted set of data. Also used to check the validity of findings from any one method.
• Unit of Analysis -- the basic observable entity or phenomenon being analyzed by a study and for which data are collected in the form of variables.
• Validity -- the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. A method can be reliable, consistently measuring the same thing, but not valid.
• Variable -- any characteristic or trait that can vary from one person to another [race, gender, academic major] or for one person over time [age, political beliefs].
• Weighted Scores -- scores in which the components are modified by different multipliers to reflect their relative importance.
• White Paper -- an authoritative report that often states the position or philosophy about a social, political, or other subject, or a general explanation of an architecture, framework, or product technology written by a group of researchers. A white paper seeks to contain unbiased information and analysis regarding a business or policy problem that the researchers may be facing.

Elliot, Mark, Fairweather, Ian, Olsen, Wendy Kay, and Pampaka, Maria. A Dictionary of Social Research Methods. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2016; Free Social Science Dictionary. Socialsciencedictionary.com [2008]. Glossary. Institutional Review Board. Colorado College; Glossary of Key Terms. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Glossary A-Z. Education.com; Glossary of Research Terms. Research Mindedness Virtual Learning Resource. Centre for Human Servive Technology. University of Southampton; Miller, Robert L. and Brewer, John D. The A-Z of Social Research: A Dictionary of Key Social Science Research Concepts London: SAGE, 2003; Jupp, Victor. The SAGE Dictionary of Social and Cultural Research Methods . London: Sage, 2006.

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Research Variables: Types, Uses and Definition of Terms

The purpose of research is to describe and explain variance in the world, that is, variance that occurs naturally in the world or change that we create due to manipulation. Variables are therefore the names that are given to the variance we wish to explain and it is very critical to the research because the way the researcher uses or handles them in the research process could determine the nature and direction of the research (Nwankwo and Emunemu, 2014). Closely related to the understanding of what a variable is, is the idea of definition of terms. This chapter explores the use of variables in research, types of variables and the definition of terms, so as to help some of the students who have a problem identifying and clarifying the variables they are working on in their project work.

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This book aims to help people analyze quantitative information. Before detailing the 'hands-on' analysis we will explore in later chapters, this introductory chapter will discuss some of the background conceptual issues that are precursors to statistical analysis. The chapter begins where most research in fact begins; with research questions. A research question states the aim of a research project in terms of cases of interest and the variables upon which these cases are thought to differ. A few examples of research questions are: 'What is the age distribution of the students in my statistics class?' 'Is there a relationship between the health status of my statistics students and their sex?' 'Is any relationship between the health status and the sex of students in my statistics class affected by the age of the students?' We begin with very clear, precisely stated research questions such as these that will guide the way we conduct research and ensure that we do not end up with a jumble of information that does not create any real knowledge. We need a clear research question (or questions) in mind before undertaking statistical analysis to avoid the situation where huge amounts of data are gathered unnecessarily, and which do not lead to any meaningful results. I suspect that a great deal of the confusion associated with statistical analysis actually arises from imprecision in the research questions that are meant to guide it. It is very difficult to select the relevant type of analysis to undertake, given the many possible analyses we could employ on a given set of data, if we are uncertain of our objectives. If we don't know why we are undertaking research in the first place, then it follows we will not know what to do with research data once we have gathered them. Conversely, if we are clear about the research question(s) we are addressing the statistical techniques to apply follow almost as a matter of course. We can see that each of the research questions above identifies the entities that I wish to investigate. In each question these entities are students in my statistics class, who are thus the units of analysis – the cases of interest – to my study.

Abimbola Awotedu

International Journal of Methodology

Akaawase Mchi

This paper discusses the importance of variable conceptualisation and measurement in environmental research. The paper explains how wrong application of concepts can mislead the researcher when conducting research, and the resultant effects on each stage of the environmental research process. The paper is motivated by the problems behind many research students pursuing their masters or doctoral degree programmes face, especially with change in dissertations or theses titles and methods to match the contents of their reports. In this paper, the authors demystify the challenges encountered by unskilful researchers and students when trying to make their readers have a clear understanding of their research reports (dissertations or theses). Therefore, the paper may serve as a guide in planning and conducting environmental research by university degree students and early career researchers.

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Santo Di Nuovo

The article deals with the use of variables in quantitative psychological research. Topics as the choice of variables, their measurement and statistical analysis, the deductions based on data, are briefly reviewed. All variables can be misleading if used in a misleading way, but the Author contends that the psychology based on the variables has not the possibility to represent selected samples of inner processes and contents. Quantitative analyses based on linear causality and probabilistic inference pose many problems, but some alternative approaches devised to cope with these problems are indicated. An hermeneutic approach aware of the constructivist ground of the scientific knowledge is proposed.

Rahul Pilani

Environmental Policy Convergence in Europe

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International Journal of Religion

José Mario Ochoa-Pachas , Luis Pajuelo , JOSE MARIO OCHOA PACHAS

It is common to use Bloom's taxonomy to write research objectives; however, it is often forgotten that this Bloomian classification corresponds to the teaching-learning process. Likewise, is not usual to include the levels or scope of research since so many classifications have been proposed, suggesting that science can be fragmented and that qualitative studies have nothing to do with quantitative studies and vice versa. Regardless of the coincidences and discrepancies that may exist, researchers require a guideline that is based on the principles of science to be able to organize and structure their studies and that allows for growth and development, removing biases and partialities from analysis. It is necessary to remember that a taxonomy is valid if it adheres to the criteria that scientific knowledge itself indicates. This research is an exploratory and observational study whose purpose is to identify its objectives according to its levels with their respective study variables.

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General Research Glossary

A-110 .  “Uniform Administrative Requirements for Grants and Agreements with Institutions of Higher Education, Hospitals, and Other Non-Profit Organizations,” an OMB circular covering the award of grants and contracts, post-award requirements, and property standards.

A-133 .  “Audits of States, Local Governments, and Non-Profit Organizations,” an OMB circular setting standards for obtaining consistency and uniformity among federal agencies for the audit of recipients of federal awards.

A-21 .  “Cost Principles for Educational Institutions,” an OMB circular describing financial management procedures relevant to federal agreements with academic institutions and represent the “Cost Accounting Standards” for federal awards.

AAALAC .  American Association for the Accreditation of Lab Animal Care :  an organization that accredits research animal facilities.

Advance spending .  Authorization to expend funds on a project prior to receipt of the sponsor’s notice of award, e.g., to hire staff and purchase materials required to perform the scope of work.

Agency .  Synonym for “sponsor.”

Allowable costs .  Costs that may be charged to a grant, such as salaries and equipment, that meet the requirements of being reasonable, allocable to the project, and treated consistently at the institution, and not excluded by Circular A-21.

Audit .  A formal examination of an organization’s or individual’s accounts, financial situation, or compliance with applicable terms, laws, and regulations.

Authorized signature .  Signature of the person authorized to commit funds and facilities on grants and contracts.

AUTM .  Association of University Technology Managers .  Its mission is “to promote, support and improve academic technology transfer worldwide and demonstrate its benefits globally through education, advocacy, networking and communication.”

Award .  Funds provided by a sponsor to support a particular project.

Bequest .  An award given with few or no conditions specified, for instance to establish an endowment or to provide direct support for existing programs.

Broad Agency Announcement (BAA) .  An announcement describing a federal agency’s general research interest, soliciting proposals, and specifying the criteria for selecting proposals.

Budget .  The detailed estimate of the expenditures to be made under a project’s scope of work.

Budget category .  A section of the budget that includes a defined type of expenditure (e.g., salaries, fringe benefits, travel, patient costs).

Budget justification .  A description of the individual cost elements that together comprise the budget and the estimation methods used in costing the project.

Budget period .  The interval of time into which the project period is divided for budgetary and funding purposes:  generally one year.

CAS .  See Cost Accounting Standards

CDC .  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (DHHS)

CFDA .  Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance , a listing of all programs available to state and local governments, organizations, individuals, etc.

CFR .  Code of Federal Regulations:  general and permanent rules established by the Executive branch of the Federal Government.

Change order .  A written order signed by the contracting officer, modifying contract clauses or scope of work without the consent of the contractor.

Classified research .   Research sponsored by the federal government involving restrictions on the distribution or publication of the research findings or results following completion.

Close-out .  Completion of internal procedures and sponsor requirements to terminate or complete a research project.

Cognizant audit agency .  The federal office that is designated to perform audits for sponsored projects at a university (at UVA, the Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS]).

COGR .   Council on Governmental Relations , an association of colleges and universities that advise the government on the impact of its regulations on their business practices.

Competing proposal .  A proposal (1) submitted for the first time, (2) that was unfunded but is being re-submitted, or (3) for an ongoing project after the term of the original award expired.

Compliances and certifications .  Federal and state rules and requirements concerning the responsible handling of research involving human subjects, vertebrate animal care, and hazardous substances, as well as other legal issues (such as conflict of interest, drug-free workplace, etc.). Administrative officers of an institution must regularly certify, by their signature, compliance with these rules and regulations; individual investigators must comply with institutional requirements and must sign to that effect on the proposal cover sheet.

Confidentiality agreement .  A legal agreement preventing one or both party from disclosing confidential information belonging to the other party.  Also called a nondisclosure agreement.

Conflict of commitment .  Any situation in which non-university activities are sufficiently demanding of time and attention that they interfere with assigned duties or with responsibilities to students or the university.

Conflict of interest .  Situations in which employees use their positions for purposes that are, or give the appearance of being, motivated by a desire for private gain for themselves or others, such as those with whom they have family, business or other ties.

Consideration .  Anything of value that changes hands between the parties of contract.

Consortium agreement .  A document formalizing the terms and conditions under which a group of collaborative investigators (i.e., a consortium) at different institutions collaborate on a project.

Consultant .  An individual whose expertise is required by the PI to perform the research project. Consultant may be a paid or unpaid.

Continuation project (non-competing) .  A subsequent award on a project after the previous budget period has expired, on multi-year projects.  These do not compete with other proposals:  rather, satisfactory progress is assessed in determining whether to provide the next period’s funding.

Contract .  Agreement to provide services that primarily benefit the sponsor. For an award to be considered a contract, it normally must contain all of the following: detailed financial and legal requirements; specific statement of work to be performed; deliverables and/or reports required by the sponsor; accounting procedures to be followed; legally binding contract clauses.

Contract/grant officer .  A sponsor’s designee who is responsible for the business management aspects of an award.  In general, this individual works with the project (scientific) officer.

Cooperative Agreement .  An award involving greater agency involvement than a grant, during proposal preparation or in carrying out the scope of work.

Co-Principal Investigator (Co-PI) .  An investigator sharing responsibility for the direction of a research program. PHS/NIH does not recognize the concept of co-principal investigator, but does recognize multiple-PI projects.

Copyright .  A government grant of exclusivity in reproduction and sale of creative (e.g., literary, artistic, computer programs) inventions.

Cost Accounting Standards (CAS) .  Federally mandated accounting standards intended to ensure uniformity in budgeting and spending funds.

Cost-reimbursement contract/grant.   A contract or grant for which the sponsor reimburses the actual allowable costs incurred during the conduct of the work.

Cost-sharing.   University and nonfederal sponsor resources provided in support of sponsored programs; includes contributed effort and matching funds.  Cost-sharing contributions must meet the following criteria:  verifiability in University records; contributions are allowable, allocable, reasonable, and necessary to accomplish the scope of work; shared costs are not also used for other projects; and shared costs are identifiable in the proposal budget or justification.

Cover sheet .  The first page of a proposal, often in a format supplied by an agency, showing summary data on the proposal and PI, plus all required compliance check-offs

CRADA or CRDA.   Cooperative Research and Development Agreement.  A document allowing government investigators to collaborate with non-government scientists on common research projects.

CSR.   Center for Scientific Review (National Institutes of Health).  

DARPA.  Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency , the central R&D arm of the Department of Defense.

Data.  Recorded information, regardless of form or characteristic, describing the design or resulting from a scientific project.

Defense Acquisition Regulations (DAR) .  The regulations governing research projects sponsored by the Department of Defense.

Deficit.   Expenditures exceeding available funds.

Deliverable .  Items to be delivered to the sponsor, generally as required by contracts.  These might include technical reports, reagents, computer programs, etc.

DFARS.   Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement

DHHS.   Department of Health and Human Services

Direct costs.   Costs that are identified specifically with a sponsored project, such as salaries/fringe benefits, supplies, equipment, etc.

DOD.   Department of Defense (includes Air Force, Army, ARPA, and Navy)

Donation.   Transfer of equipment, money, goods, services, and property, much like a gift except often with more specific intent than the latter.

DRG .  Division of Research Grants (National Institutes of Health)

EDISON .   Interagency Extramural Invention Information Management System (for reporting of inventions created under federal funding)

Effort .  The amount of time (usually a percent of total professional effort) that individual expends on a project.

Effort report .   Periodic report of the time (as a percent of total) expended by an employee on sponsored projects and other professional activities.  The employee must sign the effort report, as required by law.

Effort, contributed .  Effort expended on a sponsored project that the sponsor does not compensate for; a form of cost sharing.

Encumbrance.   Funds set aside for a projected expense prior to their actual expenditure.

Endowment.   An income-generating fund usually provided as a gift in order to generate long-term support for faculty positions or research activities.

Equipment .  Property having a useful life of more than one year and an acquisition cost of more than $5,000 per unit on federal grants (exclusive of taxes and shipping).

Equipment, general purpose .  Equipment that can be utilized for activities other than the specific scope of work supported by a grant or contract (e.g., office equipment and furniture, computers, and photocopiers).

Equipment, government-furnished ,  Equipment provided to the university by the federal government or a government contractor; title may or may not remain with the government.

Equipment, special purpose .  Equipment that can be utilized only for research, medical, scientific, or technical activities.

Expanded authorities .  A policy of some federal granting agencies, which delegate prior approval authorities to awardees.

Expiration date.   The end of the performance period for a sponsored award.

Extension.   A delay of the expiration date by the sponsor to the awardee in order to complete the scope of work.  These generally are no-cost (no additional funds provided by the sponsor).

Facilities and Administrative (F&A) costs .  Also referred to as indirect costs, overhead, or administrative costs. These are incurred to conduct normal business activities of the organization receiving support that cannot be readily identified or directly charged to a particular project or activity (e.g., library, depreciation of facilities, heat).

Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR) .  The policies and procedures for acquisition by federal executive agencies.

FDA .  Food and Drug Administration

FDP .  A cooperative effort among several 10 federal agencies to reduce the administrative burdens associated with research grants and contracts.

Federal Commons .  An on-line grants management system offering grants processing to awardees.  Includes funding opportunities, proposal submission, and award management modules.

Fellowship .  An award directly to an individual rather than an institution.

FIC .  Fogarty International Center (NIH)

Final report.   The technical or financial report required by the sponsor to complete a research project.

Fiscal Year (FY) .  The period for which annual accounts are kept (UVA:  July 1 through June 30; federal government:  October 1 through September 30).

Fixed-price contract/grant.   A contract or grant for which payment is based on a predetermined price, regardless of actual costs.

FOIA .  Freedom of Information Act

Fringe benefits .  Employee benefits paid by the employer. (e.g., FICA, workers’ compensation, medical insurance).  UVA has a negotiated fringe benefits rate with the federal government.

Funding cycle .  Periodic deadlines and review and award dates, which may occur either cyclically or throughout the year.

GCP .  Good Clinical Practices.

Gift .  Awards given with no restrictions specified. Gifts allow the recipient can manage their use, are not associated with deliverables, and are not overseen by the donor.

GLP .  Good Laboratory Practices.

GMP .  Good Manufacturing Practices.

Goldenrod .  UVA’s internal proposal routing form documenting PI assurances and institutional approval.

Governing law .  UVA, as a Virginia state agency, cannot accept a contract governed by the laws of another state or other jurisdiction:  contracts must be governed by the laws of the Commonwealth of Virginia or silent on the governing law.

Grant .  A type of financial assistance awarded to an organization for the conduct of research or other program as specified in an approved proposal. A grant, as opposed to a cooperative agreement, is used whenever the agency anticipates no substantial programmatic involvement during the performance of the activities.

Grant/Contract Officer.   A sponsor’s designee who is responsible for the business management aspects of an award.  In general, this individual works with the project (scientific) officer.

Grantee .  The recipient of a grant.

GSA .  General Services Administration

IACUC (Animal Care and Use Committee) .  An institutional  committee that reviews and approves the use of animal subjects in all research projects. It also oversees institutional animal facilities.

IBC .  Institutional Biosafety Committee

IDC.   Indirect Costs (= F&A costs)

Incremental funding.   A method of funding contracts that by the agency provides specific spending limits below the total estimated cost of the project. These interim limits may be exceeded at the contractor’s own risk.

Indemnification .  An agreement to hold harmless the other party in a contract, from legal actions or claims for damages. State agencies such as UVA cannot indemnify other parties, but can offer insurance clauses.

Indirect cost rate .  The rate established by negotiation with the cognizant federal agency (DHHS for UVA) on the basis of the institution’s projected costs for the year and distributed as prescribed in OMB Circular A-21.  Various rates exist for sponsored research, service, other projects, and on- vs. off-site activities.

Indirect costs .  Also referred to as facilities and administrative costs, overhead, or administrative costs. These are incurred to conduct normal business activities of the organization receiving support that cannot be readily identified or directly charged to a particular project or activity (e.g., library, depreciation of facilities, heating).

In-kind .  Contributions other than money, such as equipment, materials, or services of recognized value.

Institutional Authorized Official .  An individuals authorized by the Board of Regents to sign grants, contracts, and agreements on behalf of The University of Virginia.

Intellectual property (IP) .  Creations of the mind that include inventions, know-how, copyrightable works, or creative or artistic works. Intellectual property may be protected legally via patents, copyrights, and so on, or protected as trade secrets.

Invention .  A process, machine, manufacture, composition of matter, or design, or any new or useful improvement thereof, and any variety of plant which is or may be patentable under the laws of the United States or any other country.

Investigator-initiated proposal.   A submitted proposal that is not in response to an RFP or RFA.

Intergovernmental Personnel Agreement (IPA) .  A mechanism by which state employees may be assigned to work for a federal agency, or vice-versa, while remaining on the payroll of the “home” agency. Often used for a temporary assignment of a faculty member to a federal agency, with the faculty retaining his/her university benefits.

IRB .  Institutional Review Board (charged with ethical review and oversight of human subjects research).

Key personnel.   The personnel considered to be of primary importance to the successful conduct of a research project. The term usually refers to doctoral-level contributors, but may also include other individuals with specialized expertise.  In contracts, replacement of key personnel may require approval of the funding agency.

Letter of intent .  A document advising a funding agency that an application will be submitted in response to a specific solicitation. These letters often are used to guide the creation of a peer review committee.

Limitation of cost (LOC) .  A mandatory clause for cost-reimbursement type contracts stating that the sponsor is not obligated to reimburse the contractor for costs in excess of the stated amount. Similarly, the contractor is not obligated to continue performance once expenses reach the stated amount.

Line item budget .  A budget that lists the cost of individual project personnel and itemizes the costs for all other budgeted categories such as travel, supplies, equipment, etc. Also known as a detailed budget.

Lobbying certification .  An assurance that no federal funds have been used to influence federal officials in the award of a grant or contract.

Matching funds .  Funds obligated by the institution that are required by the granting or contracting agency.

Matching grant.   A grant requiring that a portion of the cost be obtained from other sources.

Materials transfer agreement .  A legally binding document in which one party releases a proprietary reagent, organism, or other item to another party for the purposes of research. It defines the field of use by the recipient and describes the intellectual property rights of sending and receiving parties.

Misconduct in science.   Fabrication, plagiarism, or other practices that seriously deviate from those that are commonly accepted within the scientific community for proposing, conducting, or reporting research. It does not include honest error or honest differences in interpretations or judgments of data.

Modification .  A document changing an existing award, such as approvals to carry over funds among project periods, changes in funding levels or in key personnel, etc.

Modified Total Direct Costs (MTDC) .  For federal awards, these are a subset of direct costs, normally excluding equipment, patient care, space rental, alterations and renovations, and subcontract costs in excess of the first $25,000.  These are the base on which F&A (indirect) costs are calculated.

NACUBO .  National Association of College and University Business Officers

NASA .  National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NCI .  National Cancer Institute (NIH)

NCRR .   National Center for Research Resources (NIH)

NCURA .  National Council of University Research Administrators

NEI .  National Eye Institute (NIH)

New award .  A grant, cooperative agreement, or contract that had not previously been awarded.

New proposal .  Proposals that are submitted to a particular sponsor for the first time.

NHGRI .  National Human Genome Research Institute (NIH)

NHLBI .  National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NIH)

NIA .  National Institute on Aging (NIH)

NIAAA .  National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIH)

NIAID .  National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH)

NIAMS .  National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIH)

NICHD .  National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NIH)

NIDA .  National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIH)

NIDCD .  National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders (NIH)

NIDDK .  National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIH)

NIDR .  National Institute of Dental Research (NIH)

NIEHS .  National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIH)

NIGMS .  National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIH)

NIH .  National Institutes of Health

NIMH .  National Institute of Mental Health (NIH)

NINDS .  National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NIH)

NINR .  National Institute for Nursing Research (NIH)

NLM .  National Library of Medicine

No-cost extension .  An extension of the period of performance beyond the expiration data to accomplish the scope of work.  By definition, no additional costs are provided.

Non-competing continuation .  A report on project progress that requests continuation funding for the next portion of the project period.

Non-compliance .  Failure to adhere to applicable regulations, policies, procedures or special conditions related to the conduct of research. These might include unapproved changes in project work scope, use of animals without IACUC approval, and breaches of clinical protocol methodology.

Nondisclosure agreement .  A legal agreement preventing one or both party from disclosing confidential information belonging to the other party.  Also called a confidentiality agreement.

Notice of grant award .  Also called “Notice of award.”  The legally binding document that serves as a notification to the recipient that a grant or cooperative agreement has been made.  The document lists or references the terms of the award and obligates sponsor funds.

NSF .  National Science Foundation

Off-campus .  Sponsored activities, less than 50% of which are conducted on university property or which charge rent to the project as a direct cost.

OHRP .  Office for Human Research Protections (DHHS).  This unit oversees DHHS Regulations for the Protection of Human Subjects (45 CFR 46), and offers guidance on ethical issues in biomedical and behavioral research.

OMB .  Office of Management and Budget.  OMB establishes government grants management policies and guidelines through circulars and common rules.

OMB circulars .  See A-21, A-110, and A-133 above.

On-campus (also on-site) .  Sponsored activities conducted on university property.  In general, when over 50% of such activity takes place within the University, the on-campus F&A rate will be applied to the project.

ONR .  Office of Naval Research

ORI .  Office of Research Integrity (in DHHS).  This office promotes research integrity in projects supported by the PHS, monitors institutional investigations of research misconduct, and facilitates the responsible conduct of research (RCR) through educational, preventive, and regulatory activities.

Patent .  A government grant of the right to stop others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling an invention.

Patent infringement .  Violation of the rights covered by a patent.

Patent prosecution .   Filing of a patent application and the subsequent actions required in order to obtain a granted patent and the maintenance thereof after the award.

Peer review .  A process by which committees of researchers from several institutions review and recommend applications to the funding agency.

Per diem .  A daily allowance paid to personnel working on a sponsored project to cover meals and lodging while traveling.

PHS .  Public Health Service

PHS 2590 .  Application for Continuation of a PHS Grant (National Institutes of Health )

PHS 398 .  Application Form for a PHS Grant (NIH, in the process of being replaced by the SF 424).

PRDA .  Program Research and Development Announcement:  a competitive solicitation for research, development, and related projects in a specified area of interest.

Pre-proposal .  A preliminary proposal of a research project and its estimated budget.  Successful PIs are asked by the sponsor to submit full proposals.

Principal Investigator (PI) .  The individual responsible for the conduct of research or other activity described in a proposal for an award.  The PI has primary responsibility for technical compliance, completion of programmatic work, and fiscal stewardship of sponsor funds.

Prior approval .  The requirement for written sponsor permission for changes in the scope of work, key personnel, use of funds for a project, etc., beyond the original proposal/approval.

Priority score .  A numerical value representing the rating given a proposal by a review committee. Grants are ordered on the basis of their priority scores in order for funding decisions to be made.

Program Announcement.   Notification of a research opportunity that will be available for several years.  Renewed in 3 years at NIH.

Program income .  Gross income earned by the recipient for activities supported by an award.

Program/Project Officer.   A sponsor’s technical officially overseeing an award.  This person works with the Principal Investigator of the awardee and with the sponsor’s grant/contract officer in overseeing the project.

Progress report.   A periodic summary of research progress required by the sponsor.

Project period .  The total time for which support of a project has been approved by the sponsor.

Proposal.   An application for funding including the technical description of the project, personnel, available resources, and funds requested.

Proprietary research .  Sponsored research involving restrictions placed by the sponsor on the distribution or publication of the research findings.

Rebudget .  The movement of funds from one budget category to another.  May require approval of the sponsor’s grant/contract officer.

Regulations .  The contractual rules and procedures governing sponsored research projects.

Renewal .  A competitively reviewed grant and cooperative agreement proposal requesting additional funds extending the scope of work and project period.

Representations and certifications (Reps & Certs) .  Statements of policies, practices, and commitments (e.g., conflict of interest, misconduct in science, debarment/suspension, delinquent federal debt, drug-free workplace, assurances on lobbying) which must be signed as part of some proposals, and especially for federal contract proposals.

Request for Applications (RFA) .  Focused programmatic announcement of a grant opportunity, for a topic of specific interest to a sponsor.  Usually a one-time solicitation, as opposed to a program announcement.

Request for Proposal (RFP) .  Announcement of a contract opportunity that specifies the anticipated area of research, methods to be used, deliverables, and characteristics of allowable applicants (e.g., small business concerns).

Research .  Systematic investigation aimed at the discovery, interpretation, or revision of facts or accepted theories or to make practical applications with the help of such knowledge.

Research, applied .  The systemic, intensive study directed toward producing results that are applicable to a particular problem.

Research, basic .  A systemic, intensive study designed to increase the body of knowledge in a particular field, rather than to develop specific, practical applications.

Responsible conduct of research .  As described by the DHHS Office of Research Integrity, this is comprised of the following components:  honest in conveying information and keeping commitments; accuracy and precision in reporting findings; using resources wisely; avoiding improper bias.

Revised proposal .  A modified request for funding for a project that previously was not funded by the sponsor.

SBIR .  Small Business Innovative Research

Scope of work .  The description of the work to be performed on a research project.

SF 424 .    Standard Form 424 (R&R).

Site visit .  An agency-initiated review of a proposed project conducted at the applicant’s institution.

Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) .  A program under which a federal agency provides funds to small businesses.

Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) .  A federal program providing funds to small businesses that are “teamed” with research institutions.

Sole source acquisition .  A procurement that does not provide full and open competition, but rather because one source is available.

Sponsor .  The organization or agency funding research project.

Sponsored project .  A research, training, or service activity supported by an external agency by means of a grant or contract.

Sponsored research .  Research supported by outside sources that is conducted by University employees using any University space or facilities.

SRA .  Society of Research Administrators

Stipend .  A payment made to an individual under a fellowship or training grant in accordance with pre-established levels to provide for the individual’s living expenses during the period of training.  Such individuals are not University employees but are covered by University policies and regulations.

Subcontract, subgrant, or subagreement .  A contract issued under a prime contract, agreement, purchase order, or grant for the procurement of services or program-related tasks over $10,000.  Subcontracts must be consistent with the terms and conditions of the master award, transferring a portion of the research or substantive effort of the prime award to another institution or organization.

Supplemental proposal .  A request to the sponsor for additional funds for an existing project:  may result, for example, from increased costs or changes in project design.

Task order .  A contractual document authorizing work and appropriating funds in a supplement to an existing contract or master agreement.

Teaming agreement .  An agreement between two or more parties to participate in a research teaching activity.

Terms of award .  Requirements imposed by the sponsor on the recipient by policy, statute, or regulations.

Total Direct Costs (TDC) .  The total of all direct costs of a project.

Total project costs .  Also known as total costs.  The allowable direct and indirect costs to carry out an approved project.

Unallowable costs .  Specific expenditures that cannot be charged, directly or indirectly, to federally sponsored agreements.

Unrestricted funds .  Monies with no requirements as to their use or disposition.  Gifts represent such funds.

Unsolicited proposal .  Proposals submitted to a sponsor that are not in response to an RFP or RFA. (See also Investigator-Initiated Proposal.

• Post-award Administration
• Contracts and Clinical Trials Agreements
• Intellectual Property (IP) and Entrepreneurial Activities
• Getting Started in Clinical Research
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• Medical Student Research Programs at UVA
• Medical Student Research Symposium
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• Research: Financial Interest of Faculty
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• Unmatched MSSRP projects – 2024
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• For Research Administrators
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• NIH for new faculty
• School of Medicine surplus equipment site
• Forms and Documents
• FAQs – SOM offices supporting research
• 2024 Faculty Research Retreat
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