sports and doping essay

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• v.8(4); 2018 Nov

Doping in Sports, a Never-Ending Story?

Robert alexandru vlad.

1 Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Tîrgu MureŞ, Romania.

Gabriel Hancu

2 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy from Tîrgu MureŞ, Tîrgu MureŞ, Romania.

Gabriel Cosmin Popescu

3 SC Sandoz SRL, Tîrgu MureŞ, Romania.

Ioana Andreea Lungu

4 Cluj Municipal Clinical Hospital, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.

Through doping, we understand the use by athletes of substances prohibited by the antidoping agencies in order to gain a competitive advantage. Since sport plays an important role in physical and mental education and in promoting international understanding and cooperation, the widespread use of doping products and methods has consequences not only on health of the athletes, but also upon the image of sport. Thus, doping in sports is forbidden for both ethical and medical reasons.

Narcotics and analgesics, anabolic steroids, hormones, selective androgen receptor modulators are among the most frequently utilized substances.

Although antidoping controls are becoming more rigorous, doping and, very importantly, masking doping methods are also advancing, and these are usually one step ahead of doping detection techniques.

Depending on the sport practiced and the physical attributes it requires, the athletes will look for one or more of the following benefits of doping: recovering from an injury, increasing body recovery capacity after training, increasing muscle mass and strength, decreasing fat tissue, increasing endurance.

Finally, when we look once again at a doping scandal, amazed at how much animosity against those caught can exist; the question is: is it really such a disaster as presented by the media or a silent truth under our eyes, but which many of us have refused to accept?

Introduction

Doping has become a key and complex issue in the sports world, which deserves serious consideration, as specialists are still striving to understand how and why it happens, and how to prevent it. "Sensational" revelations in the press reflect the gravity of a worrying situation resonating in most sports disciplines. 1

Cases of doping compromise the credibility of performance in sport, the mediatized victories of some "arena heroes" becoming questionable and disputable. Nowadays some sporting disciplines seem to have managed to surpass the human limits and sometimes even the legal limits. The financial interests, the pressure to obtain better results, the media coverage of sports competitions and, last but not least, the human nature can explain this phenomenon. 2

It is clear that in some disciplines such as athletics or cycling, human performance cannot improve endlessly. Nowadays, sports are no longer just sports; as sport become an industry, a business, a reason for political or national pride, and these facts can only lead to breaking any rules to win. Sometimes, consciously, camouflaged, with a network of specialists behind or on their own, some athletes think "maybe they won’t catch me"; because today sports mean sponsors, advertising contracts and money and for that some believe that any risk is worth taking. Even risks to their own health (often with huge and irreversible consequences) no longer matter. 3

How does an athlete win a lot of money? From an important race and from sponsors. Where do organizers of sporting events have substantial prize money? From sponsors. Why do sponsors give substantial amounts of prizes? For publicity and to be associated with a first class sporting event where the best athletes participate. Who is watching a first class sports event? Everyone. The same people that will no longer watch the event when the athletes no longer offer the necessary show. The athletes today can be associated to the gladiators from Ancient Rome who were providing The commercial side of a sporting event is also an important matter. If people like the event in the modern arena, then the commercial success of the sporting event is assured and the sponsors are satisfied and will finance future events, thus providing funds for the organizers to give substantial prizes for the athletes. 4

The doping phenomenon in sports is increasing and diversifying, as are the drugs used for doping. There is a permanent race among those who invent new doping methods and sports ethics organizations that are searching for more performant methods to detect them. Unfortunately, most of the times, those in the first category are always one step ahead. 5

Improving scientific procedures used to detect prohibited substances is of course a necessity and also a challenge. Stricter legislation with the involvement of authorities is required to prevent the spread, marketing and use of such substances. Resolute action is required to restore fair-play throughout the sports industry and last but not least, the ethics and fair-play education of young athletes. 6

The aim of this review is to gather and critically analyze recent developments and information regarding this sensitive issue, in order to offer a better understanding towards its foundation provided by previous research and to help develop practical strategies to effectively combat doping in sports.

Doping from the beginning to the present day

Over time, there have been several definitions of doping. Beckmann's sports dictionary describes doping as the use of performance-increasing substances, which would place the athlete on a superior position than that he would normally have obtained. 7

The first official definition of doping dates from 1963 and it was issued by the European Committee Council: "Doping represents the use of substances or physiological mediators, which are not normally present in the human body, introduced as an external aid to increase the athletes’ performance during a competition". 8

According to the Anti-doping Convention of the European Council - "Doping in sports" means the administration or use of doping agents or doping methods by athletes. The doping agents or methods referred to are those doping agents which have been banned by the Anti-Doping Agency and which appear on a list of ineligible substances. "Athletes" are those persons normally participating in organized sports activities. 8

Doping is not a modern term; in Norwegian mythology the use of performance/strength-increasing substances has been reported; as bufotenin, a substance known to increase the physical performance obtained from frogs skin or from Amanita mushrooms species. 9

In ancient Greece, the use of prohibited substances was not discouraged, as specialists offered athletes various ingredients in order to increase physical performance; and this was considered absolutely normal, those who offered such substances being considered medical specialists in sports. 9

Doping methods were used also in the Roman Empire, where racing horses were doped with various blends of substances aimed to increase their speed and stamina; also gladiators have been mentioned as users of strength-increasing agents. 9

Doping was described in modern sports in the second half of the XIX century. During the Saint Louis marathon in 1904, Tom Hicks died as a result of using a mixture of cognac and strychnine. After multiple incidents in competitions, in 1928, the International Athletics Federation (IAF) became the first international federation to ban doping in athletic competitions; 32 years later anti-doping testing was implemented. 9

Regarding the Olympics, the first official controls took place at the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich for conventional substances. Anabolic steroids were the first substances controlled at the 1976 Olympics in Montreal and as a consequence many athletes were disqualified and lost their medals. This lead to a decision by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which stated that the results of doping tests should be made public within the competition. 10

That was the beginning of an open fight that begins in the 1980s between those seeking and finding new doping substances that are not yet on the antidoping list and the authorities that try to detect these substances. It is clear, however, that between these two sides there is a gap in favor of those interested in cheating. Introducing anti-doping controls outside competitions was a new milestone in the anti-doping campaign in 1989. 11

In modern professional sports, many athletes have been tested positive with forbidden substances, perhaps the most publicized case being that of canadian Ben Johnson, the famous 100 meters runner for the use of anabolic steroids. It was the first doping scandal in the history of the Olympic Games, which led to Johnson’s suspension for two years and then for life, because he tested positive again in 1993. 12

After the fall of the Iron Curtain, information about industrial, systematic and scientific doping from the former German Democratic Republic and in general from the comunist states started appearing, with dozens of athletes experimenting the side-effects after the end of their career. This information revealed a negative aspect of sports history, unscrupulously used as a propaganda tool to demonstrate the superiority of the socialist society in which the athlete and his health represented nothing. 13

Currently, doping is considered as any violation of the following rules: the use or attempt to use a forbidden substance or a prohibited method, refusal for sampling after receiving an invitation to doping control in accordance with anti-doping rules, avoidance of sampling, falsification or attempt to falsify any part of the doping control, possession of prohibited substances and / or methods, trafficking or attempted trafficking of any prohibited substance and / or methods. 14

Doping today

Depending on the country's legislation, doping substances can be bought from pharmacies / supplement stores or, most commonly, from the black market. For a substance or performance improvement method to be classified as doping, it must meet at least two of the following three criteria: to improve performance, to present a hazard to the health of the athlete and to violate the spirit of sport. Other methods of improving performance such as blood transfusions are also included in the doping category.

The number of doping substances is very high, and their individual cataloging is not the purpose of this article. Instead, we can make a general classification according to how they act. A classification from S0 to S9 ( Table 1 ) for prohibited substances and from M1 to M3 ( Table 2 ) for prohibited methods has been developed.

Since 2004, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has annually updated their Code and related documents that outline the official international anti-doping standards.

Substances which are not on the list of prohibited substances with possible doping effect

One of the substances that are currently extensively studied for doping potential is paracetamol, a substance commonly used as an analgesic and antipyretic. It has been noticed that in the case of cyclists, the athletes performances have been improved. So if in the case of cyclists it can increase performance, by lowering body temperature; why couldn’t it be used for athletes practicing marathon, or athletes who run the 5000 and 10000 meters distances ? 16

Some herbal extracts were suspected to have doping effects, so the ginseng root was tested to detect possible performance enhancing effects, but according to studies conducted on athletes under the supervision of the IOC, no positive tests were observed. However, it is specified that due to contamination with other doping substances, the tests could be positive, due to which the nutraceuticals should be carefully checked prior to use, in order to prevent possible disqualification from competitions. 17

Studies have also been conducted to see whether NSAIDs, diclofenac and ibuprofen, both being non-selective COX non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, could have an effect on the testosterone / glucuronidated epitestosterone ratio, but the results did not reveal any modification. 18

Substances that are not forbidden but can increase the performance of the athlete

L-carnitine is an endogenous compound, an aminoacid synthesized in the liver and kidneys from lysine and methionine, two essential amino acids. It can be found especially in food of animal origin, but also in plants such as soy beans, although in much smaller quantities. L-carnitine administration increases the HDL cholesterol fraction, and has neuroprotective properties in Alzheimer's disease. For athletes, the use of L-carnitine is based on the release of energy from lipids, saving a part of the glycogen from the muscles. 19

Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid that could be used to increase performance, because of NO (nitrogen monoxide) release and the formation of citrulline, NO having a vasodilatory effect. Athletes can use arginine to increase physical performance, muscle mass and also their resistance in high effort. 20

Hydroxycitric acid is a substance often found in food supplements and it can be extracted from species such as Hibiscus sabdariffa or Garcinia cambodgia. It was reported to be used for weight loss, but according to clinical trials, it does not have lipolysis effects. 19

Tyrosine is an essential amino acid that cannot be synthesized by the body and should be obtained through careful nutrition. It can also be used by athletes, with many beneficial effects such as reducing fat, controlling appetite. However, it is a dopamine precursor and so people with mental disorders or hyperthyroidism should not use it, as well as people with high risk of skin cancer because this amino acid leads to increased melatonin secretion. Another aspect to be considered is the period of the day when it is administered, because it is a precursor of adrenaline and noradrenaline that can cause stimulation of the nervous system. 21

Other amino acids or derivatives used to increase muscle strength and endurance are: carnozine, citrulline, glutamine, glycine and taurine. Taurine and carnosine have particular effects, being used as energizing substances.

Substances that are dopant only if certain doses are exceeded

There are some pharmacological classes of substances that have a quantitative upper limit, so can be used only in very small amounts, as: central nervous system stimulants such as caffeine and beta 2 selectives such as salbutamol or fenoterol.

Caffeine can be considered as a dopant substance due to its effects: slight bronchodilatation, which is beneficial for athletes participating in endurance races, and also increases the diuresis which can be beneficial if an athlete is doped and wants to rapidly eliminate the other drug in their body. Other effects of caffeine are: cerebral vasoconstrictor, increases gastric acidity and also the appetite. An athlete is considered doped when the urine concentration of caffeine is above 12 μg/mL. 22

Most beta 2 selective substances are banned from competitions, but there are exceptions such as salbutamol, which has a maximum inhalation dose of 1.6 mg/24h. If salbutamol is present in a concentration higher than 1000 ng/mL in urine the athlete can be considered as doped. Formoterol is a substance used in asthma and it is in the same category as salbutamol. The dose of inhaled formoterol is 54 μg/ 4h, and urine concentration should not exceed 40 ng/mL, otherwise the athlete is sanctioned according to the rules. 18

Specific central nervous system stimulants are substances that also have thresholds, ephedrine and methylefedrine are prohibited when the concentration reaches values higher than 10 μg/mL, pseudoephedrine is prohibited when concentrations are greater than 150 μg/mL. Adrenaline is not forbidden when used locally in nasal or ophthalmic administration. 23

Other substances that have a superior limit, that can lead to the elimination of the athlete from the competition are: bupropion, nicotine, pipradol, phenylephrine and phenylpropanolamine.

Substances subject to a monitoring program

There are three classes of substances part of a monitoring program: central nervous system stimulants such as bupropion, nicotine, phenylephrine, phenylpropanolamine, sinephrine and pipradrol; narcotics: hydrocodone, tramadol, talpentadol; and glucocorticoids, banned in competition through all ways of administration. Also, telmisartan, a angiotensin II antagonist class on AT1 receptors and meldonium substance used in angina pectoris, can be included in the same category. Central nervous system stimulants as well as narcotics will not be used in competitions, while glucocorticoids, meldonium and telmisartan are banned both outside and in competitions. 23

Due to the fact that methylmorphine (codeine) converts approximately 10% into morphine, the codeine/morphine ratio should also be checked and is only monitored in competitions. 19

The fight against doping continues, but anti-doping agencies will always be one step behind manufacturers of new undetectable substances with pharmacological properties similar to those already available on the market.

Much of the substances used today can be easily detected, but the development of new, cheaper and faster methods could help the Anti-Doping Federation.

The existence of rules and Codes, as well as Anti-Doping Procedures and Biological Passports make doping more and more difficult to achieve.

Another major factor that can lead to doping is the financial side, good results get sponsors and publicity, for some athletes being more than enough motivation for doping.

Injuries are another reason why many athletes endanger their "clean" athletes' status, their will to return to competition can lead to compromises that can end their career.

Coaches have an important role in athlets’ doping, most of the time, they are responsible for the illegal actions of athletes by offering them the forbidden substances or by acquainting them with people who are involved in doping. There are also athletes who do not know the utility of a substance or if it is on the forbidden list and with their doctor’s recommendation they use the substance which may be on the forbidden list. Another interesting case is that of food supplements purchased from unauthorized sites on the Internet. By having good ads with a convincing message, these supplements can be bought by an athlete. Unfortunately there is no organization to determine the composition of these food supplements, so when an athlete decides to use them, he is taking the risk of potential doping.

It is important to note that from the legal point of view, the athlete is 100% responsible for the substances that enter his body. Thus, if the athlete ingests accidentally an forbidden substance, he is still responsible for it.

Carrying out anti-doping controls both in and out of competitions is a benefit for athletes who do not use banned substances, the number of athletes who have been positively detected outside competitions is much higher than those who are found doped in competitions.

Physicians should pay attention when prescribing different substances, as well as pharmacists who release the medication. By releasing a drug on the list of prohibited substances, the athlete may be disqualified, so the regulations and the list of prohibited substances should be carefully studied before prescribing a medicinal product.

The effects it has on the body is also an important topic when discussing about doping. For example, artificial testosterone leads to stopping endogenous production of natural testosterone in the body. The difference is that today's doping substances are safer than they were 40-50 years ago, when some athletes died because of them. In fact, many steroids are of medical use today and are administered to patients who have undergone difficult operations and need faster recovery.

Athletes who use different medication and have the consent of physicians should be careful to declare the use of such substances so that if the athlete is positively detected with it, the authorities know that the substance is needed to improve their health condition.

Current legislation is not very severe, perhaps if the repercursions of being positive with illegal substances were higher, violation of rules would not be so common. Athletes should be educated about doping, and about the side and adverse effects of the use of the various prohibited substances, with the aim of educating athletes to prevent the doping phenomenon.

To minimize the phenomenon of doping, information and prevention programs, starting with athletes at a young age, and involving other stakeholders (e.g. the athletes’ doctors, coaches or family), are necessary to establish and maintain correct attitudes and behaviors.

Finally, we can conclude that taking into account the human nature and the social and economic implications of professional sports, the end of doping in sports is most likely an unrealistic term.

Ethical Issues

Not applicable.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Essay on Doping in Sports

Introduction

The word doping is used to refer to the use of disallowed or prohibited drugs, medication or treatment which is intended to improve the performance of an individual athletically. The use of performance enhancement drugs is unethical and is not allowed by most international organizations that govern sports like the international Olympic committee. This practice has been carried out for centuries. however, high profile doping cases being covered by the media in the recent past has resulted in increased attention towards doping.

The most important reason for doping control is the is the health risk involved with this practice. Most of the substances used to enhance performance have a lot of long-lasting and harmful side effects that may include cardiovascular issues like elevated blood pressure and heart attacks, central nervous system side effects which may include anxiousness, psychosis, depression, and addiction. Other side effects of performance enhancement drugs include hormonal problems like low sex drive and infertility.

Another reason for doping control is that it is used to achieve an unjust advantage in sports. According to anti-doping organizations, performance enhancement significantly reduces the spirit of the competition. A drug-free competition provides equality in opportunities for all athletes and therefore the need for anti-doping campaigns.

There are various testing methods in doping which include urine tests, blood tests, and gas chromatography-combustion-IRMS. The urine test involves acquiring a sample of urine from an athlete which is then divided into samples A and B each in a sealed container that has a designation and a number that uniquely identifies the sample. When sample A tests positive for a disallowed substance, a test on sample B is requested to confirm the result. If this sample still tests positive, then the athlete is considered to have tested positive for the use prohibited substance. The process of confirmation is necessary for the safety of the athlete.

The blood test is used to illegal drugs used t enhance performance by measuring indicators that change when recombinant human erythropoietin is used. These indicators include hematocrit, levels of iron, and reticulocytes. When prohibited substances like erythropoietin are used, transport of oxygen gas into the muscles is enhanced through increasing the haemoglobin mass (blood volume and concentration of haemoglobin) which in turn leads to enhanced performance.

Another testing method involves the use of gas chromatography. This method is used to find isotopic variations in the composition of an organic substance when compared to a standard. When used, this technique can determine whether synthetic testosterone was used which in turn could lead to an increased and levels of testosterone that are not within the normal ranges. This method assumes that in nature, the majority of carbon atoms are carbon -12 while the remaining 1.1% are carbon-13. Therefore, the lower the ratio of the carbon -13 to carbon-12 the higher the probability that synthetic testosterone was used.

Other testing methods involve retesting samples and the use of athlete biological passport. Article 6.5 of the world Ant-Doping Code says that samples can be retested later for up to eight years. This allows the agency to take advantage of the new testing methods for detecting prohibited substances. Athlete biological passport on the other hand is a method that is used to trace locations of an athlete to control doping by monitoring the athletes and testing them for drugs wherever they are and comparing these results to previous tests that have already been done on them in the past.

Conclusion .

Many types of drugs have been used for enhancing performance by athletes. Despite doping being practised for many centuries, it is harmful to an athlete’s overall health to some extent and is also harmful to the spirit of the sport. The involvement of anti-doping agencies like the World Anti-Doping Agency, through their various doping testing methods, is important in combating this practice in the world of sport.

American College of Medical Toxicology. (January 25, 2017). What is “doping” and Athletes do this?

https://www.acmt.net/cgi/page.cgi/_zine.html/Ask_A_Toxicologist/What_is_doping_and_why_do_athletes_do_this_

McKennan J., Thurston M., Jonathan T. (2021). Doping. American Medical Society for Sports Medicine.

https://www.sportsmedtoday.com/doping-va-119.htm

World Anti-Doping Agency. (2015). World Anti-Doping Code

https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/wada-2015-world-anti-doping-code.pdf

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How to argue about doping in sport

Associate Professor, Centre for Cultural Diversity and Wellbeing, Victoria University

Disclosure statement

Craig Fry has received funding from the NHMRC, ARC, and Victoria University. He leads the Culture and Values in Health research program at the Centre for Cultural Diversity and Wellbeing, Victoria University. He is a Research Associate of the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living, Victoria University. Craig also writes cycling history articles in an unpaid capacity for Cycling Tips.

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There has been a huge amount of academic, policy, and public debate over the years about doping in sport (i.e. the use of banned performance enhancing substances or drugs and other prohibited practices), and significant resources devoted to addressing it.

Doping is a complex issue – we are still striving to understand how and why it happens, and how to prevent it. But despite the attention doping in sport has received, there is still significant public disagreement about how best to respond to this problem.

Public discussions on doping usually break down - sometimes because of the way we argue about such issues, and often due to inconsistent reasoning. If you want evidence of this take a look at the online comments pages on sports doping articles, or start your own debate with friends and see how far it goes.

Greater clarity is needed on how people think and argue about doping in sport. In this piece I look at the common positions people take on doping, what these commit us to, and the consequences of mixed messages going unchallenged.

Why people dope

Assuming you care about doping in the first place (some people don’t), a key issue to clarify is your theory about why people dope. Your position here is important for discussing the doping issue because, whether you realise it or not, this informs your views on what should be done about it.

Some people believe the doping decision simply comes down to the individual’s desire to win or gain advantages of some type. To them, doping is mostly determined by individual psychological factors , and should therefore be addressed as an issue of personal responsibility and culpability.

Others believe doping choices are driven by a mix of psychological, social, cultural, and systemic factors , rather than individual traits alone. In this view, doping occurs due to the interaction of individual factors (e.g. the desire for winning, improvement, pain management, recovery, career longevity, economic gains, and belonging), and wider socio-cultural and systemic factors (e.g. social background and experiences, team/club/sport culture, sport governance systems, perceived efficacy of anti-doping system, and so on).

Against doping in sport

The question of whether you are for or against doping in sport is also clearly important. If you are against doping in sport, as most people are, there are a number of arguments you might run here.

For example, you may think doping is wrong because:

• It is against the defined rules and laws governing sport.
• It is unfair and goes against the level playing field ideal.
• It represents a health risk and is harmful to the individual.
• It harms the athletes who choose not to dope (e.g. they exit sport early, or their career is impacted from being cheated out of results and earnings).
• It contravenes other values defined as the ‘spirit of sport’ (e.g. fair play and honesty; health; character and education; fun and joy; teamwork; respect for self and others; courage; community and solidarity).
• It sends an unacceptable message about the place and impact of sport in society.

The important thing to note here is that anti-doping advocates vary in their relative emphasis on the above arguments. For some, it is all about the rules of sport, and related ethics and integrity requirements. While for others, the health risk and harm issue is paramount.

For doping in sport

Some people in academic circles argue that doping should be permitted in sport – either in an open free for all as it used to be, under medical supervision, or under the framework of regulated decriminalisation.

The proponents of these more liberal positions on doping commonly argue the following:

• The level playing field ideal is a myth - there are numerous legal performance enhancing strategies that are unequally available across sports and countries (e.g. expensive training facilities and programs, technologically superior equipment, nutritional, medicinal and other aids etc).
• Current banned drugs and substances are not inherently harmful, nor the biggest sources of risk and harm when you consider injury rates and long-term physical outcomes in some sport.
• The true spirit of elite sporting competition is closer to the Athenian ideal of superhuman effort at any cost (including risks and injuries), and doping is consistent with that.
• Supervised regulated use of performance enhancing drugs and substances, and other banned practices (e.g. blood transfusions) would reduce health risks and harms.
• Prohibition policies and punitive measures create hidden, uninformed, and riskier doping which exacerbates health and other harms.

Again, people who argue for doping in sport may place different weight on some of the above arguments over others. Further, belief in one or other of these arguments doesn’t commit you to all of them.

Doping prevention approaches

If you are opposed to doping, you should also have a position on how to prevent or reduce it – your discussions on the topic won’t get far if you’re against doping but have nothing to say on what to do about it.

On doping prevention you could take a zero tolerance stance , where you favour restrictive surveillance and testing protocols, and punitive responses for even minor doping transgressions. Implicit in this stance is the belief that because the individual chooses to break known rules by doping, they should take responsibility and be punished accordingly if caught or if they confess, or make later admissions.

Zero tolerance advocates might also believe that doping in sport can ultimately be eradicated. But this is not a necessary belief for this position - for example zero tolerance proponents might simply favour the strong public message in sports doping policy that includes punitive responses.

Alternatively, you could adopt a prevention stance based on harm minimisation principles. Implicit in this position is the belief that doping will always exist in sport, and so the pragmatic aim of prevention is to reduce doping harm (to dopers, other athletes, spectators, sport generally), rather than total eradication of the behaviour.

Harm reduction proponents emphasise an athlete health and welfare focus over harsh punitive measures (i.e. criminalisation specifically). People here are less concerned with upholding individual responsibility as far as punishment goes. They believe doping prevention is better achieved through a focus on broader social, cultural, and systemic factors (e.g. team/club/sport culture, sport governance systems, ethics and integrity culture and systems, etc) rather than individual factors alone.

Punishing dopers doesn’t work

People who argue for harm minimisation approaches believe punitive measures alone will be ineffective in reducing or preventing doping in sport. As above, one reason for this is they believe doping behaviour is driven by a range of factors, and so doping prevention too must take a broad focus (beyond individual behaviour and psychology) to achieve widespread and lasting change.

Another claim made here is that penalties for doping such as fines, suspensions, and even lifetime bans are unlikely to deter doping, and will not eradicate it. The analogy often cited here this is the case of death penalties for murder not halting murder rates, or harsh criminal penalties for illicit drug possession, supply and use failing to reduce or eliminate those proscribed behaviours.

People who are unconvinced about the effect of punitive measures might also point out that even the severest doping penalties are unlikely to work in most cases, because under the current system athletes would challenge such penalties legally to uphold their right to compete, or preserve their rights for future earnings.

Finally, many people against punitive responses to sports doping also place a high value on forgiveness and redemption – a chance to start again with a clean slate. What often comes with this position is the view that the punishment and public humiliations suffered by some dopers (and their families) can be wrongly disproportionate to their original doping offence.

Punitive measures have a place

Supporters of punitive measures do not accept the analogy made between doping and criminal behaviour. They would argue the social, cultural and individual factors (including psychological determinants) of doping in sport are very different to those for murder and illicit drug use. As such, they also claim the thinking behind doping prevention approaches, including the expected impact of severe sanctions (not necessarily criminal), should be different too.

Zero tolerance advocates believe that, if applied appropriately, punitive measures can achieve desired sports doping prevention outcomes (i.e. reduced doping behaviour, reduced harm, or complete eradication). The view here is if doping policy is to include punitive measures (as per the current anti-doping framework), then these should be implemented competently and consistently in accordance with the defined policy aims and processes; and with clear and consistent public messages from sports governing bodies giving unambiguous support.

Supporters of punitive measures might also argue that it is not the current anti-doping policy framework that has failed, but rather the inadequate implementation of this framework by sports governing bodies and systems weakened by inconsistent practices, ineffective leadership, and ambiguous public messages about high profile doping cases.

Middle ground or mixed messages?

Doping in sport debates are often framed around the two ‘sides’ of harm minimisation and zero tolerance. At first glance, such positions appear distinct. In reality, people commonly shift between positions or argue a mix of both.

For example, you might believe that doping requires social determinants focused education and prevention programs (including capacity building in ethics and integrity, athlete culture and health and welfare and so on), AND progressively severe punitive measures in certain circumstances (e.g. for repeat doping offences, systematic team-based doping, related fraud and criminal activity).

A significant challenge for the doping in sport debate is predicting how people will think about and respond to doping cases. Ideally, careful reasoning based on the types of beliefs and positions summarised in this article would lead us to consistent responses, but that is not what often happens.

We see this with the sport of cycling - for example, compare most people’s strident opinions and responses about the Lance Armstrong case, to the relatively muted reactions about other cyclists who have doped (e.g. David Millar, Jan Ullrich, Erik Zabel, George Hincapie, Tyler Hamilton, Stuart O'Grady, Matt White, Neil Stephens, Alberto Contador, Alejandro Valverde, Danilo Di Luca etc).

We also see this in the responses from governments, sports governing bodies, and the sport itself. Again, the official reactions to the above cases in cycling have been markedly different - take a moment to reflect on where each of these riders are currently.

Most sports governing bodies and officials would claim they occupy a middle position between ‘crime and punishment’ and ‘education and prevention’ thinking and approaches. At face value, this seems like a sensible space for doping policy - the best of both worlds. However, this middle space can also be a fertile ground for mixed public messages and inconsistencies on doping that can undermine prevention efforts - as I have argued before in this Column ( here and here ).

By trying to occupy the middle ground on doping between zero tolerance and harm minimisation - trying to have it both ways - sports governing bodies run the risk of subsequently failing to implement either aspect of their doping prevention policies competently and consistently. Again, take a look at the recent criticisms made about the International Cycling Union.

Doping prevention efforts in all sports are undermined when mixed messages emerge from inconsistent thinking and action around doping policy - and especially when they continue unchallenged in public discussion and debates (e.g. ‘say no to doping’ but ‘say yes to ex-dopers in coaching positions’; ‘our sport is anti-doping’ but ‘ex-dopers manage our pro teams’; ‘strong doping prevention messages are needed’ but ‘ex-dopers are sponsoring elite teams, sports blogs, and working in sports media’).

What does your position on doping in sport commit you to? What should be done to prevent doping? What should we say about the mixed messages that exist about doping in sport?

Further reading: There is of a large academic literature, and a growing research evidence base, underpinning many of the points made in this article. If you are interested in further reading, a reasonable coverage of the issues can be seen at the Wikipedia doping in sport site , and Routledge have published a number of excellent academic books on this topic by some of the leading thinkers in this area.

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The Effects of Doping in Sports

Updated 19 September 2023

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Category Sports

Athletes engage in doping by using performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) to improve their performances in sporting events. Doping first originated from the term ‘dop’ which is a stimulant drink that was used in the tribal ceremonies in South Africa. It is described in the dictionary as a narcotic substance which aids in decreasing the performance of racehorses. However, there is a long history of doping in sports, and it all began in Greco Roman times when substances such as bland chemicals, ergogenic products, and other animal extracts were used in enhancing human performances. The ergogenic content was used by the athletes to improve physical strength, body weight, mental concentration, aggressiveness and the general performance in athletic competitions.

Recently there have been attempts to manipulate the performance of the athletes by the introduction of genetic, synthetic molecules and recombinant hormones. According to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), there are several definitions given to the term doping and such may include an administration of a prohibited substance to an athlete with the intent of aiding him or her to win an athletic competition. It is as well the use of a banned substance in athletic competition to enhance performance. The most common drugs used are the androgenic agents such as the anabolic steroids which have more significant effects on the athletes such as enabling them to build muscles, recover very fast and train harder. However, they have several side effects such as low sperm count for men and a deepened voice for the women.

            Other substances may include, stimulants which help in overcoming the effects of fatigue hence increasing the blood flow. It also enables the athletes to be more alert. Also, there are the masking agents and diuretics which helps in the removal of fluid from the body and is often used in horse race and boxing. The substances mentioned above have had several negative impacts on the athletes and therefore doping is prohibited for several reasons which have been discussed in the paper as below. Different research methods are used to understand the effect of doping in athletics

Literature Review

Effects of Doping on Sports

The sporting activities were designed to be recreational and competitive with the intent of gaining exercise. However, with the introduction of PEDs in sports, there has been a disruption that ruins the sporting activities. Sports was not developed to include drug abuse. Several effects are attributed to the use of the drugs in games such as low stamina, speed and muscle strength (Leuenberger et al., 2011). According to the scientific studies, the use of drugs has led to the impairment of coordination abilities of athletes, and this has, in turn, affected the performance. The increased use of drugs has been widely contributed to the heightened expectations of the athletes' coaches, friends, family and even teammates forcing them to use drugs to enhance their performance.

            Doping has ruined sports by making the playing field unequal for the athletes since some of them take advantage of others with the intent of winning the competition (Schumacher et al., 2010). Besides, it has affected the sporting activity by causing the athletes to have a cost mentality which involves taking drugs at the expense of adverse effects to win every competition, and this tends to result in unfairness in the competition (Morente-Sánchez " Zabala, 2013). Doping is also against the spirit of sport which includes health, respect for self and other participants, fun and joy, excellence in performance, teamwork, ethics, honesty and fair play and the respect for laws and rules. The non-adherence to the above spirit has ruined the sporting activity and athletic competition in general.

The sporting activities have become events of testing the rivals’ access to pharmaceutical knowledge and technology instead of being a competition based on natural skills and abilities. With such a mindset, the sport has been ruined with a shift in focus to drug use (Petróczi, Mazanov, " Naughton, 2011).

Doping Affects Fair Play Ethos of Sports.

A good sports contest is one where all participants have equal ability, and this should be based on the previous performance. Also, the players must play well to find a winner and a loser. All the rules and regulations must be adhered to by all the participants. In regards to formal fair play, it is expressed based on adhering to the standards of a game (Fitch, 2012). On the other hand, the informal fair game revolves around respect for the other opponents. Fair play, therefore, incorporates both the formal and informal dimensions. It typically revolves around the spirit of a game, and this is precisely on the rules of the game (Fitch, 2012). However, with the use of drugs in sports, the aspect of fair play is not followed since doping is prohibited and it is against the rules of a game.

Ethos relies on the attitude and conduct of the athletes during the sporting competition (Gucciardi, Jalleh, " Donovan, 2010). All the athletes are expected to adhere to the norms and ethics of a game such as fair competition, respect for self and other participants, respect for laws and rules and honesty. On the contrary, doping contributes to the non-adherence to the expected conduct of the athletes during competition and thus render the games useless and irrelevant. Based on the logistics, it can be concluded that doping is against fair play ethos of sports (Hoberman, 2014).

Doping is a Bad Influences on Athletes and Society.

According to Dimeo and Hunt (2012), the use of drugs by the athletes has had a variety of influence on both the society and the athletes. For instance, the athletes have gained the belief that they cannot win any particular competition without supplementing with substances which enhances their performances and this is a bad influence even on the upcoming athletes. Most of the athletes have therefore resorted to using of shortcuts to attain their end goal which is winning the competition instead of displaying their real skills and abilities.

Doping has also influenced the society. For example, the application of doping has shifted to the recreational sport and fitness. It has become a practice by both the middle and young aged people who seem to be unhappy with their physical body shape and image (Bloodworth, " McNamee, 2010). They have resorted to the use of anabolic steroids which enhances muscle strength. The use of such illegal substances has become a common practice in most of the society, and this was attributed to the issue of doping which traditionally had no place in the public domain (Tscholl et al., 2010).

Research Methods

In researching on the doping tendency of athletes, reference was given to more than five research methods. The methods include, Quantitative and qualitative, correlational, theoretical, experimental, and descriptive (Gliner, Morgan, " Leech, 2011).   

Engelberg, Moston and Skinner (2011) conducted quantitative research which showed that more than 98 percent of the athletes’ coaches were in support of strategies for resolving the doping menace. An online survey was used to collect the quantitative data. Topics such as sports where drug use is frequent, incidences of drug use in athletics, government response to the doping issue, and anti-doping issues were covered by the survey. Besides, direct recruitment of sporting personalities (coaches and athletes) were used to retrieve quantitative data. The research involved 600 participants.

The findings of the research affirmed that most of the coaches and athletes believe there is adverse effect brought by PEDs and that doping is a serious problem. In addition, the anti-doping efforts were found to be fruitful to some extent in controlling drug abuse. The research found that drug use is common among athletes (mainly rugby) than any other sporting groups. In many places, PEDs have been banned (Engelberg, Moston, and Skinner, 2011). However, some athletes have always reacted such an act of cruelty, but still more than half of them believe that the use of the drugs should be criminalised.

Reardon and Creado (2014) conducted qualitative research to determine the effects of the doping substances on the athletes and how the anti-doping agencies perform their duties. In the study, a sample of 35 research terms was used. It as well involved retrieval of papers that address doping in athletics. After reviewing all the materials, it was presumed that the doping agents encounter short-term and long-term side effects. The research as well showed that many people abuse drugs for different reasons. Some use drugs for self-treatment, stress relief and physical pain relief. The study found these reasons to be appropriate. However, the approach that is taken to deal with the problems (PEDs) except is wrong (Houlihan, 2004). The training coaches are advised to use safe alternatives and evidence-based products that can help athletes. They are prohibited from allowing the athletes to use the performance enhancing drugs (PED). Techniques such as psychological approaches, weightlifting, and optimal nutrition are recommended by the research to help stop the use of PEDs. 

Geeraets (2017) express correlational research on the impact of rules and regulations of drug abuse between athletes and musicians. The study shows that classical musicians use drugs to control blood pressure and heart rate. Additionally, it is proved that the musicians perform better after taking the PEDs. The effects of these PEDs on musicians are similar to their impacts on athletes as there is no difference in stigma created by the use of the PEDs by both groups. The research is trying to make the justification that if the drugs are not viewed harmful in the case of musicians then why should athletes be prohibited from using the drugs (Quora, 2017). Therefore, the research suggests that athletes should be allowed to use drugs as long as it does not pose excessive risk.

Theoretical research by Welch (2001) uses a case study to address the doping issue. It talks about Ian Botham who had been banned from playing cricket after a medical test confirmed the presence of a PED in his system in 1986. Use of recreational drugs by athletes has been in the public domain for years now, and the research shows that there are changing patterns in the use of PEDs on the basis of general mood and behaviour. The case of Botham shows that consumption of PEDs should be decriminalised in case someone uses them for personal reasons. The PED that was found in Botham was not going to affect his performance in the game. The research shows that not all PEDs should be prohibited since the main reason for banning them in the sports is to promote the health and moral lifestyle of the athletes and not to help build the reputation of the games.

Butch (2014) analyses the experimental approach on doping by looking into the roles of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). The agency has 32 laboratories worldwide, which research on the PEDs that should be prohibited. Besides, they design the anti-doping code. In the laboratories, drug tests are conducted on athletes through urine collection. In the urine experiment, urine is placed in two bottles (A and B). The leakages tampering and abnormal clarity and colour of the urine are tested (Butch, 2014). It is important to note that only certified athletes are put through these tests and only the approved drugs are tested.

In descriptive research by Schneider (2011) athletes were interviewed relying on the “Goldman’s dilemma,” which refers to the primary question used. The question was whether the athletes use PEDs as long as it improves their performance without considering the health effects. Fifty percent of the athletes interviewed in the research said they would take drugs just to better their performance (Sharma " Chalmers, 2016). The study as well affirmed that 40 percent of gym goers in the United States of America (USA) abuse anabolic steroids. These steroids are commonly used by weight lifters, body builders, and sprinters. The research shows that there are hidden problems besides the enhancements brought by the PEDs. For instance, the anabolic steroid can affect the liver and cardiovascular system. Such effects are fatal as they could cause death.

The research on doping has never been a priority in the public domain until recently. Many studies are today carried out with the aim of analyzing the effects of this menace. In doing this, various research methods are applied. The magnitude and accuracy of these approaches depend on their processes. The most effective methods include Quantitative and qualitative, correlational, theoretical, experimental, and descriptive. The five have been used in researching doping by athletes. Quantitative approach relied on numerical data and numbers to describe the inferiors and other issues on doping. A qualitative study was a swell used to analyse the theoretical evidence surrounding doping relying on feelings, and emotions. The two (quantitative and qualitative) are used together because they are interdependent. On the other hand, correlational research relied on psychology and was less practical as there is no inclusion of experiments. Theoretical approach analyzes concepts on the basis of existing theories and involves logical explanation of the resulting data. The fourth research method used was the experimental approach which is scientific as it entails controlled testing such as urine tests to understand various conditions. Finally, descriptive research was based on survey and observation to group the subjects accurately. These research methods can be used to study different factors, and in this case, they were used to carry out a study on doping in athletics.

Bloodworth, A., " McNamee, M. (2010). Clean Olympians? Doping and anti-doping: The views of talented young British athletes. International journal of drug policy, 21(4), 276-282.

Butch, A. W. (2014). Drug Testing Laboratories and Sports Doping: An Inside Look. Critical Values, 7(4), 20-23.

Dimeo, P., " Hunt, T. M. (2012). The doping of athletes in the former East Germany: A critical assessment of comparisons with Nazi medical experiments. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 47(5), 581-593.

Engelberg, T., Moston, S., " Skinner, J. (2011). Athletes' and coaches' attitudes towards drugs in sport. Available at: https://www.easm.net/download/2011/9a9fe4fbd5e51a5e1f80868895469b3c.pdf, (Accessed 2 May 2018).

Fitch, K. (2012). Proscribed drugs at the Olympic Games: permitted use and misuse (doping) by athletes. Clinical Medicine, 12(3), 257-260.

Geeraets, V. (2017). Ideology, Doping and the Spirit of Sport. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 1-17. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17511321.2017.1351483, (Accessed 2 May 2018).

Gliner, J. A., Morgan, G. A., " Leech, N. L. (2011). Research methods in applied settings: An integrated approach to design and analysis. Routledge.

Gucciardi, D. F., Jalleh, G., " Donovan, R. J. (2010). Does social desirability influence the relationship between doping attitudes and doping susceptibility in athletes? Psychology of sport and exercise, 11(6), 479-486.

Hoberman, J. (2014). Physicians and the sports doping epidemic. Virtual Mentor, 16(7), 573.

Houlihan, B. (2004). Civil rights, doping control and the world anti-doping code. Sport in society, 7(3), 420-437.

Leuenberger, N., Lamon, S., Robinson, N., Giraud, S., " Saugy, M. (2011). How to confirm CERA doping in athletes’ blood? Forensic science international, 213(1-3), 101-103.

Morente-Sánchez, J., " Zabala, M. (2013). Doping in sport: a review of elite athletes’ attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge. Sports Medicine, 43(6), 395-411.

Petróczi, A., Mazanov, J., " Naughton, D. P. (2011). Inside athletes' minds: preliminary results from a pilot study on mental representation of doping and potential implications for anti-doping. Substance abuse treatment, prevention, and policy, 6(1), 10.

Quora (2017) What is the Difference Between Theoretical and Empirical Reseach?, Available at: https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-theoretical-and-empirical-research, (Accessed 2 May 2018).

Reardon, C. L., " Creado, S. (2014). Drug abuse in athletes. Substance abuse and rehabilitation, 5, 95. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4140700/, (Accessed 2 May 2018).

Schneider, A. (2011). Privacy Rights, Gene Doping, and Ethics. Doping and Anti-Doping Policy in Sport: Policy in Sport, ed. Mike McNamee and Verner Moller, 111-25.

Schumacher, Y. O., Wenning, M., Robinson, N., Sottas, P. E., Ruecker, G., " Pottgiesser, T. (2010). Diurnal and exercise-related variability of haemoglobin and reticulocytes in athletes. International journal of sports medicine, 31(04), 225-230.

Sharma, M. P., " Chalmers, A. (2016). Anaesthetic implications of performance-enhancing drugs. Bja Education, 16(7), 247-251.

Tscholl, P., Alonso, J. M., Dollé, G., Junge, A., " Dvorak, J. (2010). The use of drugs and nutritional supplements in top-level track and field athletes. The American journal of sports medicine, 38(1), 133-140.

Welch, R. (2001). A snort and a puff: recreational drugs and discipline in professional sport. In Drugs and doping in sport. Cavendish Publishing.

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The Consequences of Doping in Sports

Introduction, confirmation, works cited.

The utilization of substance that enhances performance in the field of sports has a long history, preceding the earliest Greek Olympiads. It is important to discuss doping in sports since in the 20 th century; issues concerned with this practice were reported. In addition, the use of steroids have several health effects in an individual, hence, steroids should not be allowed to be used in sports. Recently, sports athletes undergo quality and huge training in order to be well prepared appropriately to deal with the skyrocketing competitive pressure. Most of the participants in the many sports have identified their physical limitation (Stevens & Lowe 175). In addition, there are other factors that need the utilization of pharmacological substances or secure doping to make sure that the athletes are more productive. For example absence of vitamins in the athletes’ meals, requirement in having prophylactic and rehabilitation times, adaptation or adjustment of a creature to psycho-emotional stress and physical actions that is harsh and regular alterations of climatic conditions and period/time zones among others (Burns 6). In this response, this paper will address the issues of doping in sports and discuss why steroids should not be allowed in sports.

One of the cases that have been reported is as follows; during a semi-final match of the Regional Youth Championship everyone was encouraging their runners by cheering as the competitors were warming up. One of the competitors called Alex was totally concentrating on his race since through his eyes one could see that he was determined to perform and become the best in the 800m race. In this case all the competitors were ready to begin, and immediately after the sound of the gun, the young man Alex dashed and appeared among the group that was leading. His relaxing manner of competing or running perplexed most of the people. When the leading group reached 500m, Alex could not be seen anywhere among the runners until the group or runners passed the 500m that when Alex was seen lying on the ground. Looking at him there was a dreadful expression on his face, struggling from pain due to stomach ache. Therefore, health care providers hurried to him and took him to the hospital. After Alex was diagnosed he was found to be suffering from liver mal-functioning.

What had contributed to the Alex’s liver malfunctioning was due to the doping he had been using daily as he had been advised by his instructor. According to his instructor, the doping was indented to improve the performance of Alex and advance his energy or stamina. Therefore, looking at the Alex’s case, it is clear that the use of doping has adverse effects to the health of an individual. The initial reason why the Alex’s instructor had advised him to take doping (steroids) was to enhance his performance and so that he could emerge as the best competitor. In addition, when a student becomes a winner in a race, the coach is also acknowledged or offered some credit. Hence, personal benefits like self-satisfaction, fame, recognition and financial gain of main sports athletes is as a result of ingesting steroids that are offered to the sport athletes. Thus, doping issue is turning to be the most common problem in the field of sports and hence, it requires a close attention and immediate remedies should be implemented.

This paper will address issues regarding doping in sports and later focus on the use of steroids. Firstly, in sports where the size and features of the body are significant like the body shape and building of the body can be manipulated or modified by using hormonal manipulations. Several drugs are utilized to overcome stress, enhance sleep, and maintain good body shape. Such drugs include cannabinoids, beta-blockers derivatives of amphetamines and benzodiazepine and alcohol (Department of life sciences par.2).

As a result of the increasing financial skates and the pressure imposed by the competition for identification and reputation, sports athletes and their couches or associates attempt to look for convectional methods on how they can enhance their performance including ways or techniques that do not obey the sporting rules and regulations. Recently, technology has established very efficient drugs in order to improve athletes’ performance and speed up the recovery process of athletes experiencing rising constraints. Most of the richer or wealthier sports athletes utilize the drugs under proper supervision of skilled expertise or professionals. On the other hand, others who are not able to hire a skilled supervisor practice self-medication depending on the information received from their advisers or information gathered in stadiums without knowing the consequences associated with the practice (Synthetic report par.9).

There are several suggestions regarding the establishment of the term doping. For example, it is said to have originated from dop which was an alcoholic beverage utilized in ceremonial dances as a stimulus in Southern Africa in the 18 th century. Secondly, it is thought to have originated from the word doop, a term from Dutch where it was introduced into American jargon to explain how thieves or robbers bewildered sufferers by combining tobacco with datura stramonium seeds referred to as jimsonweed (Clarke 6). This combination contained several tropane alkaloids that resulted to hallucinations, perplexity and sedation. By the year 1889, dope was utilized together with the formulation of a thick viscous substance of smoking opium. By the year 1900, dope was prepared and used as a drug that could enhance the performance of the racehorse (Barnhart 8).

Information dating back to ancient times proposes that most of men always search for a method to perform better and harder. When the fittest and energetic men of a country were chosen as combatants or athletes, all of them were fed with meals or food and offered medications that were termed to be of benefit to them. For instance some participants after eating some roots or leaves before engaging into competitions labored vigorously through out the day without experiencing thirst, hunger or feeling tired and at the end of the day they were cheerful and happy. One the athletes participating in a race in the Britain in the year 1807 stated that he had previous utilized opium or laudanum in order that he could be awake for 24 hours when competing with his colleagues (Shermer par.3).

The utilization of drugs like steroids to enhance performance in the sports athletes is referred to as doping and it is not permitted by anti-doping norms or sporting rules because it might pose a great health risk to the life of some individuals. Some of the illegal drugs that have been banned or prohibited by the organization known as World Anti-doping Agency consist of the following groups; narcotics, mimetics, analogs, diuretics, stimulants, anti-estrogenic agents and anabolic agents. Exercise is the most effective hypertrophic stimulus for cardiac. Meanwhile, sports athletes predispose themselves to supra-physiological drugs of steroids like anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) in order to enhance strength impacts or effects and skeletal muscle weight. These steroids assist them to create the foundation for their management to improve the sports athletes’ performance (Hassan, Salem & Sayed 174).

Lately, among the frequent documented or recognized hormonal or toxic impacts of AAS, interest has been emphasized strongly on the cardiovascular side effects of the drugs or doses. This is because they are related to detrimental or unfavorable cardiovascular impacts like increase on blood pressure, sudden cardiac death and high density lipoprotein depression (HDL). In addition, sometimes infarction has happened with no evident atherosclerosis or coronary thrombosis, resulting to the speculation that the drugs (like AAS) might provoke cardiac arrhythmias and coronary vasospasm in vulnerable people. Moreover, there are various cases that have been reported of increased risk of thrombo-embolic (Rubin 286).

The technology of doping tests as one of the enforcement techniques has naturally pulled behind the capability of the sport athletes to use substance that enhance performance with injustice. The International Olympic Committee

(IOC) forbade the use of performance-enhancing drugs in the year 1928. During this period there were no effective tests to confirm that the competitors were using illegal substances. In the year 1988, international humiliations like the positive test of steroid of 100-m sprint winner at the Seoul Olympics indicated clearly that doping mainly involved the utilization of steroids (Rubin 287).

There are different forms of drugs that are utilized by the sports athletes in order to enhance their performance but they are classified into two types; body modifications and blood doping. Some of these drugs are legally accepted while others are forbidden on prescription, though they are all banned by the rules and regulations of the sporting. Body modification drugs include stimulants like adrafinil and cocaine which are used since they boost the functions of the body like the activity of the brain and heart rate. In addition, there are anabolic steroids like tetrahydrogestinone and drostanolone which stimulate the growth and development of the muscles, thereby permitting the athlete to practice harder and recuperate faster. Body modification drugs also include narcotics like heroin and morphine, which are referred to as painkillers and are utilized in order to control pain that result from injuries and they also permit the athletes to practice better and for a longer time. In this class there are peptide hormones such as human growth hormones and insulin. These are substances that occur naturally and they flow in the blood, enhance the growth of muscles, raise the rate of red blood cells production that leads to increases in oxygen transportation and the alter the equilibrium of other hormones. Others include diuretics which are used to eliminate traces or shades of other drugs, increase urine production and contribute to water loss hence loss of body weight (BBC par.3-5).

Secondly, the other type of doping includes blood doping. This is the procedure of raising the level of blood cells concentration artificially in the blood. As a result there is increased oxygenated blood delivered into the muscles. There are two major ways of blood doping. These include injection of more red blood cells into the body harvested previously from oneself blood or from someone else blood. The second method include blood transfusion though this method is risky to use especially during competition since one encounters difficulties of smuggling particularly in medical materials and frozen blood when using then unsupervised (Krieg, Scharhag, Kindermann &Urhausen 18-22).

There are several consequences associated with doping. It does cause irreparable or irretrievable damage to all the sports athletes who use it as a means of performance-enhancer. The utilization of drugs which enhance performance diminishes behavior and ethical elements, which weaken sports. Doping damages good play and reasonable competition, damages athletes and harms the integrity of sports (Hartgens& Kuipers 522-527). Recently, doping has become dangerous and invasive. Athletes and their supporters have become progressively more complicated in their efforts to achieve all the benefits including the slightest advantages, frequently with dangerous negative health impacts. Misuse of methods or even substances has resulted to cardiovascular diseases, kidney and liver mal-functioning, physical or psychological reliance and the worst of it all death (Urhausen, Albers & Kindermann 498-499).

Doping consequences goes beyond the understanding and concern of the athletes or the sports itself. This is because the predicaments affect even the society at large since the benefits or achievements of the sports are not only limited to the playing fields. Sports are influential tools or vehicles that bring peace which form closer relationship, common esteem and comprehending between individuals. In addition, sports lead to growth and development that bring people together, offering resources and facilities, and access to the services within the community. Moreover, they promote togetherness and assist in strengthening social networks and relationships. Most likely, many young individuals learn and understand clearly the essential models and values of good character or conduct that are long lasting. Doping has the possibility of putting to an end all the above-mentioned benefits of sports. This is a great signal where everyone including the sports organizations, individuals, and communities should implement activities that will eliminate doping (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 1).

For instance, a black (African-American) man aged 37 years who had no medical or health history had been admitted in a health care system in the year 2003. After physical examination, the man presented with continues headache that had lasted for one day and distorted visualization in his left visual region. He said that he had experienced reduced practice permissiveness or tolerance and tremors over the last two weeks. Though he was energetic and fit, he denied or rejected the utilization of recommended treatments, illegal drugs, alcohol and tobacco. Moreover, the man had a past history of diseases like stroke and myocardial infarction though no dilated or enlarged cardiomyopathy. In addition, he presented with an increased heart beat of 76 beats per minutes. More examinations were conducted and infarction of the left pariental was recognized indicating source of embolic. In addition, there was reduced flow in the distal part of the brain (the middle cerebral artery) among others. This patient was treated as a non-cardioversion patient but few days later, he was re-admitted. During this time, he exposed that had been taking nutritional supplement called ephedra for over three years. Later he revealed that he had utilized nandrolone one year prior to the start of the symptoms. His recovery became complicated by the occurrence of more infarcts of the left cerebellar and after ten days he was discharged though he was not well. All these medical problems were as a result or consequences of the drugs he had been using and had denied to have been using them (Libman, Menna & Gulati 522-3).

According to the sports athletes instructors, doping in sports, personal benefits like self-satisfaction, fame, recognition and financial gain of main sports athletes is as a result of ingesting steroids that are offered to the sport athletes. For instance, the initial reason why the Alex’s instructor had advised him to take doping (steroids) was to enhance his performance and so that he could emerge as the best competitor. In addition, when a student becomes a winner in a race, the coach is also acknowledged or offered some credit.

However, health consequences as a result of using doping in sports like steroids are more than the benefits. Studies carried out to investigate the health consequences related with the use of steroids indicated the following health risks testicular atrophy, psychological interruption, increased mortality rate, hepatic cellular destruction, musculo-skeletal effects and cardiovascular illness. Cardiovascular impacts involve increased blood pressure, reduced erythrocytosis, arrhythmia, myocardial hypertrophy, thrombosis and high-density lipoprotein (Furlanello, Bentivegna, Cappato & Ambroggi 832). In addition, reproductive-endocrine impacts includes reduced luteinizing hormone, changes in libido, reduced follicle stimulating hormone, increased sexual desires and aggressiveness, sometimes resulting in abnormal sexual and illegal character. Some effects in men include enlargement of breast, premature baldness, testicular atrophy, enlargement of prostatic and decline in sperm generation. On the other hand, some effects in women include clitoris enlargement, menstrual cycles that are unusual, breast size reduce, too much hair grow on the body and face and their voices deepen. Behavioral or psychological effects include disorders like mania, withdrawal, mood swings, aggression, dependence and depression (Yuol 2-9).

Therefore, identifying the importance of the drugs in the field of sport, as well as recognizing the adverse consequences associated with unqualified, illegal and unregulated utilization, it is clear that steroids should not be allowed in the field of sports. This is because the negative consequences that result from doping are very detrimental to the health of the athletes. Therefore, there ought not to be any sporting rule that support or permit doping. This will lead to athletes being considered as role models to the young people who have dreams or vision of becoming champions in the field of sports.

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Libman, B., Menna, L., & Gulati, S. Case Report Consequences of ephedra use in an athlete. Department of Neurology Lancet .2005.

Rubin, E. Pathology of the myocardial infarction in essential pathology . 3rd ed. Lippincott Wiliams & Wilkins. 2001.

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Urhausen, A, Albers, T, Kindermann, W. Are the cardiac effects of anabolic steroid abuse in strength athletes reversible. Heart , 90: 496–501. 2004.

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'Ban them all.' With Paris Games looming, Chinese doping scandal rocks Olympic sport

Yufei Zhang of Team China competing during the Tokyo Olympics in 2021. Zhang won four medals in Tokyo including two gold and now is among 23 Chinese swimmers embroiled in a doping scandal. Tom Pennington/Getty Images hide caption

Yufei Zhang of Team China competing during the Tokyo Olympics in 2021. Zhang won four medals in Tokyo including two gold and now is among 23 Chinese swimmers embroiled in a doping scandal.

Officials with the world's leading sports anti-doping agency scrambled on Monday to contain a scandal involving 23 elite and Olympic swimmers from China who tested positive for a performance-enhancing drug.

The scandal, which comes less than a hundred days before the Paris Summer Games , is linked to positive doping tests collected in 2021 that the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and Chinese officials never publicly disclosed.

"We had no evidence of wrongdoing," said WADA President Witold Banka during a press conference with reporters that often turned combative.

Live Updates: The Tokyo Olympics

U.s., u.k. swimmers bemoan doping after russian takes gold in men's backstroke event.

"At every stage WADA followed all due processes and diligently investigated. If we had it over again, we would do exactly the same thing."

Banka went on to describe China's athletes as "innocent" and "not a doping case involving cheaters."

He said WADA had no obligation to suspend them from competition or report the case to sports officials from other countries.

Critics, however, said the scandal suggests a "potential cover-up" and raises troubling questions about the integrity of the international testing regime meant to keep Olympic sport clean .

"It's crushing to see that 23 Chinese swimmers had positive tests for a potent performance-enhancing drug on the eve of the 2021 Olympic Games [in Tokyo]," said Travis Tygart, head of the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency , known as USADA.

"We had no evidence of wrongdoing," said World Anti-Doping Agency President Witold Banka. "At every stage WADA followed all due processes and diligently investigated. If we had it over again, we would do exactly the same thing." Fabrice Coffrini/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

"We had no evidence of wrongdoing," said World Anti-Doping Agency President Witold Banka. "At every stage WADA followed all due processes and diligently investigated. If we had it over again, we would do exactly the same thing."

"It's even more devastating to learn the World Anti-Doping Agency and the Chinese Anti-Doping Agency secretly, until now, swept these positives under the carpet," Tygart added in a statement .

WADA now acknowledges learning of positive drug tests for nearly two dozen Chinese swimmers in June 2021 ahead of the Tokyo Games.

During Monday's press conference, WADA officials said the 60 urine samples were actually conducted by Chinese sports officials months earlier at a swimming competition in January 2021.

After months of delay, the Chinese presented a theory to WADA that the athletes were accidentally contaminated by a potent performance-enhancing drug called trimetazidine, known as TMZ .

Chinese officials say TMZ was allegedly found in trace amounts in the kitchen of a hotel where the swimmers were staying.

China's explanation draws skepticism

No explanation has been provided for how TMZ, a controlled substance, might have made its way into the kitchen or reached the athletes.

WADA officials also confirmed Monday that they conducted no independent on-the-ground investigation and instead carried out their review using samples and data provided by China.

They eventually accepted China's explanation that no deliberate wrong-doing occurred. In addition, WADA said the COVID pandemic complicated efforts to enter China for a fuller investigation.

"The feedback from WADA's science department was that the [accidental] contamination scenario was not only plausible, but there was no concrete element to call it into question," said Ross Wenzel, WADA's lead attorney, during the press conference.

China's Wang Shun celebrates after winning gold in the final of the men's 200m individual medley swimming event during the Tokyo Olympic Games on July 30, 2021. His name is on a list of athletes who allegedly tested positive for a performance enhancing drug. Oli Scarff/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

China's Wang Shun celebrates after winning gold in the final of the men's 200m individual medley swimming event during the Tokyo Olympic Games on July 30, 2021. His name is on a list of athletes who allegedly tested positive for a performance enhancing drug.

WADA officials say given the circumstances of the case, international doping rules did not require them to alert other competitors about the tests and investigations, nor were they required to suspend the Chinese athletes.

Despite those explanations, the case has sparked growing outrage around the world.

In a statement posted on social media, British swimmer James Guy , who won two gold medals in Tokyo and who will compete again in Paris, blasted the Chinese athletes who tested positive.

Report: Russia Used 'Mouse Hole' To Swap Urine Samples Of Olympic Athletes

"Ban them all and never compete again," Guy wrote on X .

The head of the U.S. Olympic and Paralympic Committee, meanwhile, said in a statement the timing of these latest revelations is disastrous for athletes.

"The recent allegations of doping cast a shadow of uncertainty as we head into the [Paris] Olympic and Paralympic cycle, challenging the very foundation of what fair competition stands for," said USOPC CEO Sarah Hirshland.

In an interview with NPR, USADA's Tygart questioned the plausibility of China's explanation that the positive TMZ tests were the result of an accidental exposure.

"Maybe part of the rationale [for a cover-up] was 'Nobody's going to believe this contamination theory, so we can't follow the rules because it's a crazy theory and no one would believe it,'" Tygart said.

Another Olympics, another high-profile doping scandal

Trimetazidine used by Russian figure skater Kamila Valieva ahead of the 2022 Winter Games in Beijing, a violation that ultimately led to Valieva receiving a four-year ban from international competition.

That case, too, involved a controversial delay in notification about Valieva's positive drug test, and threw the Beijing Games into turmoil.

Nine U.S. skaters were belatedly granted gold medals . Two years later they are still awaiting their formal award ceremony.

Kamila Valieva doping scandal that rocked the Beijing Olympics may finally be settled

Critics now say WADA and the Chinese should have made the swimmers' tests known immediately to sports officials from other countries.

The behind-the-scenes investigation was first made public by the New York Times and a German news organization ARD, which aired a German-language television documentary about the case , and published a full list of Chinese athletes who allegedly tested positive.

The list includes star swimmers Zhang Yufei and Wang Shun, who went on to win gold medals in Tokyo. Both are expected to compete again in Paris Olympic Games this summer.

In an interview with the German news agency DPA , Germany's Interior Minister Nancy Faeser called for an investigation of the case.

"If confirmed that Chinese swimmers were able to become Olympic champions in Tokyo despite previous evidence of doping, that would be a disaster for world sport," Faeser said.

"This case is a slap in the face of all innocent and honest athletes."

In the countdown to Paris, disarray among drug testers

The Chinese Anti-Doping Agency, known as CHADA, also pushed back over the weekend against growing claims of wrongdoing.

In a statement published by the Chinese-government's Xinhua news agency, CHADA officials said their investigation found "extremely low" amounts of TMZ in Chinese swimmers.

"WADA agreed with our conclusion after thorough review," the organization said.

Once Again, Banned Russians Raise Questions About Doping At The Olympics

WADA, meanwhile, condemned its critics in a fiercely worded statement threatening legal action, calling accusations of wrong-doing "outrageous, completely false and defamatory."

"At all times, WADA acted in good faith, according to due process and following advice from external counsel," the organization said.

Tygart, with the United States Anti-Doping Agency, punched back on social media , saying it is "disappointing to see WADA stoop to threats and scare tactics when confronted with a blatant violation of the rules governing anti-doping."

New scandal, old suspicions

This scandal revives questions about international sport's ability to cope with countries accused of using performance-enhancing drugs systematically to gain unfair advantages at the Olympics and in other major competitions.

The International Olympic Committee has drawn criticism for allowing Russian athletes to continue competing at the Winter and Summer Games, albeit as neutrals without flying Russia's flag or playing the national anthem, despite evidence of systemic doping.

Also at the Tokyo Games, questions were raised about Russian swimmer Evgeny Rylov, who won gold in the men's 200-meter backstroke.

Russian gold medalist Evgeny Rylov, wearing a face covering, poses with his medal after the men's 200m backstroke during the Tokyo Olympic Games in 2021. His challengers questioned whether he competed with the aid of performance enhancing drugs. Oli Scarff/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

Russian gold medalist Evgeny Rylov, wearing a face covering, poses with his medal after the men's 200m backstroke during the Tokyo Olympic Games in 2021. His challengers questioned whether he competed with the aid of performance enhancing drugs.

"I don't know if [the race] was 100 percent clean," said U.S. swimmer Ryan Murphy, the silver medal winner, at a press conference afterwards in 2021 , "and that's because of things that happened over the past."

China, too, has faced on-going questions about whether its teams use performance enhancing drugs systematically.

At the 2012 Summer Games in London, then-16-year-old swimmer Ye Shiwen of China obliterated the competition on the final lap of the women's 400m individual medley race.

Her final 50m was faster than American star Ryan Lochte's final 50m in the men's version of that same race, raising doubts about whether the performance could have been achieved without the aid of drugs.

• 2021 Tokyo Olympics
• World Anti-Doping Agency
• U.S. Anti-Doping Agency

PERSPECTIVE article

The purpose of doping testing in sport and measures of its effectiveness provisionally accepted.

• 1 Anti-Doping Norway, Norway

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

Maintaining an effective testing program is critical to the success and credibility of the anti-doping movement. However, a low detection ratio compared to the assumed real prevalence of sport doping has led some to question and criticize the effectiveness of the current testing system. In this perspective article, we review the results of the global testing program, discuss the purpose of testing, and compare benefits and limitations of performance indicators commonly used to evaluate testing efforts. We suggest that an effective testing program should distinguish between preventive testing and testing aimed at detecting the use of prohibited substances and prohibited methods. In case of preventive testing, the volume of the test program in terms of number of samples, tests and analyzes is likely to be positively related to the extent of the deterrent effect achieved. However, there is a lack of literature on how the deterrent effect works in the practical context of doping testing. If the primary goal is to detect doping, the testing must be risk-and intelligence-based, and quality in test planning is more important than quantity in sample collection. The detection ratio can be a useful tool for evaluating the effectiveness of doping testing, but for the calculation one should take into account the number of athletes tested and not just the number of collected samples, as the former would provide a more precise measure of the tests´ ability to detect doping among athletes.

Keywords: Anti-doping, doping control, Athlete, Clean sport, aaf, ADRV, World anti-doping agency, WADA

Received: 15 Feb 2024; Accepted: 23 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Lauritzen and Solheim. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Mx. Fredrik Lauritzen, Anti-Doping Norway, Oslo, Norway

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Inside anti-doping’s civil war: anger and suspicion spill into the open

Doping case with Chinese swimmers has brought years of pent-up feeling into public domain – and shows no sign of stopping

A t its glitzy 25th anniversary gala in Lausanne last month, the World Anti-Doping Agency screened a slick montage highlighting how it had changed sport for the better. There were images of Muhammad Ali defying Parkinson’s to light the Olympic flame and Pelé lifting the World Cup, before a history lesson – and a promise. “Today Wada is a more representative, accountable and transparent organisation,” explained its director general, Olivier Niggli , “that truly has athletes at the heart of everything we do.”

Not everyone in the room was buying it – one source felt it was too PR-focused, while another raised their eyebrows when Thomas Bach – the president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) – and the former Wada president Sir Craig Reedie picked up awards. However, frustrations with Wada were largely limited to corridor conversations. It turned out to be the relative calm before the thermonuclear storm.

Everything then changed last Saturday when an ARD/New York Times investigation revealed that 23 Chinese swimmers had tested positive for the banned heart drug trimetazidine (TMZ) before the Tokyo Olympics – only to be quietly cleared after the Chinese Anti-Doping Agency found their hotel kitchen had been contaminated. If that wasn’t explosive enough, the chief executive of US Anti-Doping, Travis Tygart, then turned the finger of blame on Wada and Chinada for having “swept those positives under the carpet by failing to fairly and evenly follow the global rules that apply to everyone else in the world”.

Tygart has form for speaking his mind – most notably on Russia – and Wada has tended to ignore him or issue an anodyne response. Not this time. Instead it retaliated by accusing Tygart of “outrageous, completely false and defamatory remarks”.

And with that, years of pent-up frustrations, suspicion and anger – on both sides – spilled out into the open. A week on, anti-doping’s civil war is showing no sign of abating. And increasingly there is a sense that this row is not just about the fate of 23 Chinese swimmers, but the heart and soul of the anti-doping movement too.

First, though, those swimmers – and why Wada didn’t challenge the findings by the Chinese authorities. Here Wada’s position is clear but contested. It says it had “no evidence to challenge the environmental contamination scenario that led to Chinada closing these cases in June 2021” – and that it was advised by external counsel that it would lose any appeal at the court of arbitration for sport (Cas) based on such a challenge.

However, Tygart’s Usada and its allies argue that Wada is not being transparent and hasn’t shown enough investigative zeal, and question why it didn’t press the Chinese intelligence services over why it took two months to find TMZ in the hotel kitchen. As Rob Koehler, the chief executive of the pressure group Global Athlete, puts it: “The athletes I speak to are severely pissed off, they’re disheartened, and they want accountability and answers. Athletes feel that down because once again, they feel like they’re held to a higher standard than powerful countries.”

Richard Ings, the former chair of the Australian Anti-Doping Agency, dismisses any notion of severe wrongdoing by Wada. “I don’t believe that an organisation like Wada would be covering up doping cases in China,” he says. “Wada got burnt pretty badly with Russia . I think they are unlikely to be caught unawares again with another country. What makes the most sense is that Wada got a report from Chinada and with the limitations with travel in Covid, they sought further legal advice and decided any challenge would not prevail in Cas.

“I think it’s important to remember that World Aquatics had the same brief and the same right of appeal and they also did not do so.”

So what does the case say about the wider anti-doping system? To answer that, the Observer spoke to more than a dozen senior anti-doping executives, lawyers and officials, most of them on a confidential basis. While there was little consensus, some trends did emerge.

The first was a general sense that Wada was shouting less about going after cheats than previously. As one senior figure put it: “Wada is not talking about kicking down the doors of dirty athletes. From a generous perspective, it is instead trying to establish a compliance regime that actually gives them a sense of who the bad people are.”

That, they conceded, wasn’t necessarily a bad thing. “But,” they added, “is Wada any good? I’m not convinced. I think there are some good people there. I like Günter Younger , from intelligence and investigations. But, aside from that, there seems to be a sense of plodding along.”

In a statement, Wada rejected the suggestion that it was focused too much on compliance rather than catching cheats: “It is not a case of one or the other.”

Second, as many pointed out, it is worth remembering that Tygart and Wada have history. The American was the most vocal critic of Wada during the Russian doping scandal, when he accused it of being too slow to investigate the allegations of state-sponsored doping, questioned its closeness with the IOC and condemned it for not doing enough to protect clean athletes.

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Yes, he upset a lot of people in Wada and the IOC. But Tygart was proved correct. So can you really blame him for raising the alarm here too? His detractors, however, believe his comments are part of a wider geopolitical conflict between the United States and China – and reject the notion that China is Russia mark II.

It is also worth reflecting that when the US government passed the Rodchenkov Anti-Doping Act in 2020, it further strained relations. The act allows the US to target doping networks – including doctors, coaches and drug suppliers – involved in international competitions where American athletes compete – encroaching into Wada’s territory.

A third trend: not everyone is happy with Witold Banka’s stewardship since he took charge of Wada in 2020. Some were surprised that he extended his initial presidential term from three years to six last year, with one source saying it has “super pissed people off”.

Others wondered whether the latest rows showed he lacked the savvy to keep figures such as Tygart, who has a track record of catching cheats, onside. As another source puts it: “The job is great for him. Is he great for the job? I don’t think so.”

Some also believe that Wada’s criticism of Tygart showed the organisation is less tolerant of dissent, but that was rejected by a spokesperson. “Wada is used to constructive criticism and reasonable comments,” they said. “However, when you are openly accused of bias towards a particular country and of covering up doping, without even a shred of supporting evidence, it ceases to be reasonable and we are duty-bound to defend ourselves against such attacks, many of which are politically motivated.”

For good measure, the spokesperson also rejected any suggestion that Wada lacked the appetite to go after powerful countries. “That couldn’t be further from the truth,” they added. “We always stand ready to confront and stop those who would cheat the system, no matter where they come from.”

Meanwhile don’t expect a detente any time soon. On Thursday Wada announced an independent investigation into its handling of the case of 23 Chinese swimmers. Usada’s response? To question whether it would be truly independent.

It is all a far cry from events at the 25th anniversary gala a month ago. That evening, Banka told delegates: “Together we are raising the game, ushering in the next quarter century with a single mission as one team.” Now, however, that team feels more split than ever.

• Drugs in sport
• The Observer
• Usada (United States Anti-Doping Agency)

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‘Team USA Was Cheated’: Chinese Doping Case Exposes Rift in Swimming

An American who won silver in Tokyo calls for an investigation. A British gold medalist demands bans. But the most bitter fight was between antidoping leaders.

By Jenny Vrentas ,  Tariq Panja and Michael S. Schmidt

The revelation that 23 Chinese swimmers tested positive for a banned drug seven months before the Tokyo Olympics but were secretly cleared and allowed to continue competing has exposed a bitter and at times deeply personal rift inside the sport, and brought new criticism of the global authority that oversees drug-testing.

A New York Times investigation uncovered previously unreported details of the 2021 episode, in which a contingent of Chinese swimmers, including nearly half of the team that China sent to the Tokyo Games, tested positive for a banned prescription heart medicine that can help athletes increase stamina and reduce recovery times.

Within hours, the disclosure of an incident that had been a secret for more than three years had drawn strong reactions from athletes, coaches and others in the fight to keep drugs out of elite sports.

An American Olympian who took home a silver medal from Tokyo said she felt her team had been “cheated” in a race won by China. A British gold medalist called for a lifetime ban for the swimmers involved. The sports minister in Germany, where a documentary on the case was broadcast Sunday, demanded an investigation . And a simmering feud between officials at the World Anti-Doping Agency, the global regulator known as WADA, and their U.S. counterparts burst into the open in a flurry of caustic statements and legal threats.

“Any time there’s a situation where positive tests aren’t clearly identified and gone through a proper process and protocol, it allows for doubt to creep into athletes’ minds who are competing clean,” said Greg Meehan, the Stanford University coach who led the U.S. women’s team at the Tokyo Games. “When they’re going into competitions, you can’t help but think, ‘Am I competing in a clean event?’”

The fallout comes less than 100 days before the opening ceremony of the Paris Olympics. That has created uncomfortable headlines both for the sport but also for the Games themselves, which depend on global antidoping regulators to ensure fair play and the integrity of the medals awarded — which can validate years of training, define athletes’ careers and confer pride on a nation.

China’s antidoping agency, known as Chinada, acknowledged the positive tests in a response to questions last week but said the swimmers had ingested the banned substance unwittingly and in tiny amounts, and that no action against them was warranted. WADA, saying it had no “credible evidence” to challenge China’s version of events, said it had declined to impose suspensions, disqualifications or even make any public announcement that they had tested positive.

In many ways, the fight over the Chinese positives is one about process. In all but the rarest circumstances, any athlete who tests positive for a powerful banned drug like the one in question, trimetazidine, is subject to at least a provisional suspension while an investigation takes place. There is no evidence that happened in the case of the Chinese athletes.

WADA and Chinada strongly disputed any assertion they had covered up the positive tests, saying they had abided by all applicable rules in investigating them. The director of WADA’s intelligence and investigations unit, Günter Younger, said it had “diligently investigated every lead and line of inquiry in this matter.”

“The data held by us clearly showed that there had been no attempt to hide the positive tests as they had been reported in the usual way by the Chinese authorities,” he said.

For those personally affected, though, the revelation was far more personal.

The Times identified five events at the Tokyo Games in which Chinese swimmers who had tested positive for a banned substance won medals, including three golds.

Paige Madden, a member of the U.S. 4x200 freestyle relay team that finished second to China with a time that was faster than the previous world record, said in a text message to The New York Times she hoped that the handling of the doping case would be investigated and a reallocation of medals considered.

“We had to applaud China’s efforts that day,” she said of being beaten by a faster team. “Today however, I feel that Team USA was cheated. We didn’t get to celebrate our world record, and we didn’t get our team moment to be on the top of the podium to watch our flag and sing the national anthem.”

In posts on X, the British Olympic swimmer Adam Peaty, a three-time gold medalist, criticized an uneven application of a system known as strict liability, a bedrock of international doping rules in which athletes are deemed responsible for any banned substance found in their body, irrespective how it got there, making the bar to avoid consequences extremely high. Peaty’s Olympic teammate James Guy, who won two golds from Tokyo, went further, writing: “ Ban them all and never compete again .”

The more ugly fight, though, was among the world’s leading antidoping officials.

Late Saturday, WADA threatened legal action against the chief executive of the United States Anti-Doping Agency, Travis T. Tygart, in an unusually personal news release that accused him of “undermining WADA’s work to protect clean sport around the world.”

Mr. Tygart, who had publicly criticized the handling of the China case, quickly fired back. “It is disappointing to see WADA stoop to threats and scare tactics when confronted with a blatant violation of the rules governing antidoping,” he said. “When you blow away their rhetoric, the facts remain as have been reported: WADA failed to provisionally suspend the athletes, disqualify results, and publicly disclose the positives. These are egregious failures.”

The back and forth brought a longstanding feud between world antidoping officials and their American counterparts into public view. In an interview in March, WADA’s director general, Olivier Niggli, had previously expressed annoyance with the U.S. antidoping agency, and Mr. Tygart.

“Everything we do they criticize,” Mr. Niggli said.

WADA said it had referred Mr. Tygart’s most recent comments to its legal department. But WADA and the Chinese antidoping agency also threatened legal action against news media outlets who reported information they characterized as “misleading.”

It is unclear, though, what can or will happen next. WADA is standing by its handling of the Chinese swimmers’ positive tests. World Aquatics, the organization that governs swimming internationally, told The Times that it believes the positive tests were handled “diligently and professionally, and in accordance with all applicable antidoping regulations.”

And on Sunday, China’s best swimmers contested the third day of the country’s Olympic trials. Some of the swimmers identified for testing positive in 2021 will again be front and center, including Zhang Yufei, who won four Olympic medals at the Tokyo Games, including two golds.

Jenny Vrentas is a Times reporter covering money, power and influence in sports. More about Jenny Vrentas

Tariq Panja is a global sports correspondent, focusing on stories where money, geopolitics and crime intersect with the sports world. More about Tariq Panja

Michael S. Schmidt is an investigative reporter for The Times covering Washington. His work focuses on tracking and explaining high-profile federal investigations. More about Michael S. Schmidt

Sports: Discrimination, Match-Fixing and Doping Essay

Introduction.

The sphere of physical culture and sport occupies an important place in the politics of many countries because many people are involved in this area, and a large amount of financial resources are invested. Nevertheless, in the process of organizing the management of physical culture, some controversial and sometimes even insoluble issues can arise. Supervisory boards face various ethical, psychological, and other problems that take place in the modern sports industry. The complexity of management problems that determine the nature of practical changes for the area under consideration at all the levels of the government require new approaches to improve the effectiveness of sports management. Therefore, it is essential to reflect some of the issues and trends that are typical for modern physical culture policies. Discrimination among athletes, match-fixing and bribery, doping scandals, and the abundance of advertising contracts are the examples of cases that have led to the need for analysis. A comprehensive assessment of these issues will help to identify which of them cause the greatest public outcry and deserve urgent measures to take.

Discrimination among Athletes

One of the problems that deserves discussion is the discrimination of athletes on different grounds – racial, gender, and others. This issue is particularly acute in those sports where the ethnic diversity of athletes is represented, which creates certain difficulties for the management of physical culture (Tainsky, Mills, & Winfree, 2015). Moreover, some cases of discrimination appear to cause a significant public outcry, and legal proceedings sometimes take place. One of the examples is the case in the hockey team of the University of Iowa where a senior lawyer won a case of racial and sexual discrimination (“Increased big ten money,” 2017). This issue requires consideration not only at the regional but also at the state level, and the government should pay attention to the cases of discrimination in order to prevent the emergence of ethical contradictions.

Managers Perspectives

From the point of view of the management, it is significant to ensure work in such a direction that athletes could refuse to humiliate opponents and one another on the basis of different prejudices. In case coaches and other representatives of the leadership ignore the cases of racism in sports, it can grow into a global trend, and physical culture will turn into a platform for insults. Modern politicians, however, pay attention to this issue. According to IOC President Thomas Bach, the promotion of non-discrimination is one of the goals in modern sports, and the absence of any violence is a priority (“Bach says Olympics would consider esports,” 2017). Therefore, if successful measures are taken, the management will not have to solve problems caused by racial, gender, and other disagreements.

Athlete Perspectives

For athletes, discrimination is a problem because it not only degrades the human dignity but also distracts from the set goals. According to the study by Paul, Weinbach, and Mattingly (2018), some cases of ethical controversy periodically arise in Major League Baseball (MLB), which adversely affects the attitudes of players and coaches. Therefore, athletes are also interested in the fact that no cases of prejudice against rivals could arise.

Influence on a Personal Career

The described problem can partially affect the personal career of each young specialist who wants to link his or her life with management in this area. If the incidents of discrimination are frequent, it will cause the need to search and punish the perpetrators, which will distract from the main activity and adversely affect the reputation. Therefore, in order to avoid possible difficulties, it is necessary to look for possible ways to prevent cases of insults and protect the interests of athletes.

Match-Fixing and Bribery

One of the primary advantages of sport as a sphere of public life is honesty in achieving results. Nevertheless, in some cases, these concepts are ignored, which is expressed in the form of match-fixing and bribery in order to predetermine the outcome of a particular duel. An obvious example is the scandal at the University of Louisville where the former coach of the local basketball team was dismissed because of the disclosure of the bribery case (“Louisville fires AD Tom Jurich with cause,” 2017). This case confirms that the issue of honesty and justice should still be controlled by the sports management. Otherwise, the area of physical culture area will become a commonplace business where a particular amount of money will decide the outcomes of games. Aquilina and Chetcuti (2014) also cite the example of Malta where match-fixing has become a problem, and many cases of corruption were made public. In order to avoid it, it is extremely important to ensure that the sporting interest holds a key position, and team leaders have their priorities on honest victories.

The role of managers in addressing the issue of bribery in sports is very important because these people are usually involved in criminal cases, organizing illegal deals with opponents. Masters (2015) introduces the concept of sports criminalization and claims that “public policy needs to grapple with what constitutes corruption in what has historically been a private market” (p. 111). If team leaders and other sports structures are not responsible for compliance with honest rules and the law, any competition will certainly lose interest in the audience. Therefore, the prospects for the development of sports as a fair sphere directly depend on managers.

In terms of prospects for athletes, match-fixing will probably be beneficial to them as a way of additional enrichment. Nevertheless, such dishonest attitude towards the audience can lead to the fact that athletes will lose their fans. Thus, Smith (2017) notes that the changes that are planned in college basketball will uniquely affect the issue of bribery and match-fixing. For athletes themselves, it will be a good motivation to work hard and achieve their goals through efforts but not money.

Linking the life to management in the field of sports, each person, sooner or later, may face the proposal of bribery or other financial fraud. However, such offerings should not be accepted since they can not only damage personal reputation but also completely destroy even a good career. Moreover, it is impossible to earn the trust of people by deception. It is essential to control any cases of bribery and not to allow sports competitions to turn into the subject of purchase. Therefore, such an issue as bribery in sport is unacceptable regardless of the position and role in this sphere.

Doping Scandals

Another problem that is largely discussed today is the use of illegal drugs. The issue of doping is very relevant in modern sports, and it can be seen from the regular news describing this or that case of exclusion of athletes from official competitions. This problem has a lot of negative consequences and is connected not only with the violation of established ethical standards about fair competition but also with other aspects, for example, the legislative sphere. The topic of doping in the sports movement of the 21st century has acquired a large scale. The duty of effective leadership is not just to prevent this phenomenon but to make the whole world reconsider views on such dishonest rivalries (“IOC in choosing Paris,” 2017). Using prohibited drugs in physical culture is unacceptable, and the leaders of sports communities should control this area.

The more successful the work of managers is, the higher is the chance that the problem of doping will become less relevant. The spread of harmful and prohibited drugs, as Danylchuk, Stegink, and Lebel (2016) remark, is often carried out by trainers and supervisors, and in case of violations, leaders are also subject to punishment. There is an opinion that it is possible to equate doping with corruption and prosecute those who, contrary to the law, use illegal preparations (“Doping scandals,” 2016). Therefore, managers should stop using this practice and more closely control their wards.

Doping is certainly the violation of the established canons of fair competitions. As Savulescu (2016) remarks, banned drugs can not only destroy an athlete’s career but also entail serious health problems, causing hormonal failures and other problems. Furthermore, if athletes strive for victories with doping, physical culture will cease to be of interest and will not be able to deliver the same pleasure to spectators as the honest struggle of trained athletes. Therefore, the most successful and right perspective is to completely abandon illegal drugs.

In the process of career growth as a sports manager, it is necessary to carefully monitor the use of doping by athletes in order not to become a party in the scandal and not to lose the post. Even indirect participation in such a case can lead to a criminal case since modern judicial boards strictly fight any manifestations of the use of illegal drugs. Therefore, it is required to prevent such violations in to avoid criminal punishment and the violation of sports ethical norms.

The Abundance of Advertising Contracts

One more relevant issue is connected with modern marketing trends in the sphere of physical culture, in particular, excessive advertising. Its abundance is an integral component of modern sports. However, too much interest of many team representatives in contracts can negatively affect the overall impression of games and cause conflicts. For example, the case of Michael Phelps, the multiple Olympic champion, proves that there may be controversy over cooperation with different brands (“Phelps wears Nike gear,” 2016). According to Ratten (2017), classical marketing is no more typical for modern sports, and the primary role is played by rivalries among the representatives of large companies. As a consequence, the management has to monitor all contracts and monitor compliance with a variety of conventions.

If the leadership and the representatives of various teams will be irresponsible to signing contracts with sponsors, it can entail serious consequences. For instance, Cornwell (2014) claims that in case of failure to comply with any terms of agreements, the representatives of advertising companies may sue substantial sums of money. Also, the reputation of teams and individual players will be spoiled because of the violations of the agreements’ positions since such conflicts are often discussed in mass media. Therefore, the management needs to carefully think over any decisions regarding cooperation with sponsors.

Athlete Perspective

Certainly, sportsmen’s cooperation with advertising brands brings both sides significant income. Nevertheless, it is essential to understand the responsibility of signing such contracts; otherwise, sponsors may refuse to cooperate with those who violate signed agreements. Modern corporate marketing deals in college sports sometimes cause questions from the authorities, and athletes should be prepared to defend the interests of their partners (“Growing college marketing deals raise questions,” 2017). Therefore, special attention should be given to strict compliance with all the points of specific treaties to prevent conflicts.

As the representative of sports management, it is significant not to allow the cases of neglecting the terms of any agreements and to ensure that no violations occur. The sphere of marketing has tightly entered the modern physical culture, and instead of prohibiting the teams from signing desired agreements, it will be correct to help them in this matter and stop deception. If this system works reliably, there will be no lawsuits from dissatisfied parties, and no negative impact on sports events will occur.

Thus, the review of the problems encountered in modern sports allows concluding that some areas of physical culture deserve special attention. In particular, certain interventions should be carried out regarding the issue of athletes’ discrimination, and the facts of bribery. The impact of the discussed problems on personal careers can be serious if no measures are taken to address them. The participation of both senior and junior managers is relevant to improve the current situation. The sphere of sport can remain exciting and interesting for spectators, if both managers and athletes comply with ethical norms and will not violate any established rules.

Aquilina, D., & Chetcuti, A. (2014). Match-fixing: The case of Malta. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics , 6 (1), 107-128.

Bach says Olympics would consider esports, but only Games without violence. (2017). Sports Business Daily . Web.

Cornwell, T. B. (2014). Sponsorship in marketing: Effective communication through sports, arts and events . New York, NY: Routledge.

Danylchuk, K., Stegink, J., & Lebel, K. (2016). Doping scandals in professional cycling: Impact on primary team sponsor’s stock return. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship , 17 (1), 37-55.

Doping scandals, other issues facing tennis a hot topic of discussion during Wimbledon. (2016). Sports Business Daily . Web.

Growing college marketing deals raise questions over corporate influence. (2017). Sports Business Daily . Web.

Increased big ten money helps Iowa beat ’17 income projection by more than $2m. (2017). Sports Business Daily . Web.

IOC in choosing Paris, L.A. looks to inject stability, youth into Olympic movement. (2017). Sports Business Daily . Web.

Louisville fires AD Tom Jurich with cause; fans, department react with sympathy. (2017). Sports Business Daily . Web.

Masters, A. (2015). Corruption in sport: From the playing field to the field of policy. Policy and Society , 34 (2), 111-123.

Paul, R., Weinbach, A., & Mattingly, J. (2018). Tests of racial discrimination in a simple financial market: Managers in Major League Baseball. International Journal of Financial Studies , 6 (1), 24-33.

Phelps wears Nike gear on latest SI cover despite having deal with Under Armour. (2016). Sports Business Daily . Web.

Ratten, V. (2017). Sports innovation management . New York, NY: Routledge.

Savulescu, J. (2016). Doping scandals, Rio and the future of human enhancement. Bioethics , 30 (5), 300-303.

Smith, M. (2017). NCAA’s Mark Emmert believes that systemic change will come to college basketball. Sports Business Daily . Web.

Tainsky, S., Mills, B. M., & Winfree, J. A. (2015). Further examination of potential discrimination among MLB umpires. Journal of Sports Economics , 16 (4), 353-374.

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Doping — The Issue Of Legalization Of Doping In Sports

The Issue of Legalization of Doping in Sports

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Published: Oct 25, 2021

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WADA launches independent review of handling of Chinese swimmers' positive doping tests before Tokyo Olympics

Sport WADA launches independent review of handling of Chinese swimmers' positive doping tests before Tokyo Olympics

The under-fire World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has launched an independent review over its handling of a case that allowed 23 Chinese swimmers who tested positive for a banned substance to avoid punishment.

The investigation will be led by Swiss prosecutor Eric Cottier, who WADA said would have access to all files and documents related to the case and would be free to consult independent experts.

Cottier will begin his work in the coming days and is expected to deliver his findings within two months.

"WADA's integrity and reputation is under attack," WADA president Witold Banka said in a statement.

"In the past few days, WADA has been unfairly accused of bias in favour of China by not appealing the CHINADA case to the Court of Arbitration for Sport.

"We continue to reject the false accusations and we are pleased to be able to put these questions into the hands of an experienced, respected and independent prosecutor."

Calls for an independent investigation have grown since a New York Times report on Saturday said 23 Chinese swimmers had tested positive for the banned drug trimetazidine (TMZ) months before the COVID-delayed Tokyo Olympics in July 2021 .

The swimmers avoided sanctions after an investigation by Chinese authorities ruled the adverse analytical findings, or AAFs, were the result of being inadvertently exposed to the drug through contamination.

A report determined all the swimmers who tested positive were staying at the same hotel where traces of trimetazidine (TMZ), which is found in heart medication, were discovered in the kitchen.

WADA has defended its handling of the case , saying it had no evidence to challenge China's findings and that external counsel had advised against appealing.

Swimming Australia chief executive Rob Woodhouse said his organisation welcomed the independent review.

"While findings of this review will not be delivered for two months, Swimming Australia has additionally called for assurances and clarity from WADA around their processes performed in handling this case to restore faith in the global anti-doping system," he said.

"Swimming Australia is committed to clean sport and the strict enforcement of anti-doping rules – to be applied equitably — to maintain a level playing field without exception.

"Transparency and trust are the corner stones of the anti-doping system, and we hope the Independent Review provides further clarity on the processes involved in this instance."

Woodhouse said his statement welcoming the review did not indicate Swimming Australia believed any wrongdoing had taken place.

The United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) has led the call for an independent investigation, along with an overhaul of WADA to restore confidence in the global body ahead of the 2024 Paris Olympics.

USADA chief Travis Tygart has accused WADA of being involved in a "potential cover-up" and the global anti-doping body has responded by threatening legal action.

In addition to the independent prosecutor, WADA said it would send a compliance audit team to China to assess the state of its anti-doping program and will invite independent auditors from the broader anti-doping community to join the mission.

"While not one shred of evidence has been presented to support any of the allegations made against WADA, we wish to deal with the matter as quickly and as comprehensively as possible so that the matter is appropriately handled in advance of the upcoming Paris Olympic and Paralympic Games," WADA director-general Olivier Niggli said.

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Wada accepts chinese swimmers tested positive to banned substance due to contaminated kitchen.

Chinese swimming doping case sparks spat between global and US anti-doping agencies

WADA confirms 23 Chinese swimmers tested positive before Tokyo Games, accepted contamination finding

• Doping in Sports
• Summer Olympic Games
• Switzerland

Chinese doping case sparks unusually harsh spat between global and US drug-fighting agencies

DENVER — Revelations of positive doping tests for nearly two dozen Chinese swimmers that went unpunished sparked an intense flurry of accusations and legal threats between the World Anti-Doping Agency and the head of the U.S. drug-fighting organization, who has long been one of WADA’s fiercest critics.

WADA said Saturday it was turning to legal counsel to address a statement released by Travis Tygart, the CEO of the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency, who said WADA and anti-doping authorities in China swept positive tests “under the carpet by failing to fairly and evenly follow the global rules that apply to everyone else in the world.”

The allegation was made after WADA acknowledged it had cleared 23 Chinese swimmers who had tested positive for a banned heart medication to compete at the Tokyo Olympics in 2021 after agreeing with that country’s authorities that the samples had been contaminated.

WADA defended its process, and said it acted in good faith and according to due process when it decided not to challenge the Chinese explanation for the positives. It then turned its attention to Tygart, saying his comments were politically motivated and that it “is astonished by the outrageous, completely false and defamatory remarks” he made.

WADA pointed out that USADA has, several times over the years, accepted “similar conclusions of contamination involving a number of U.S. athletes” and that Tygart “should realize that it is not only American athletes who can fall victim to situations of no-fault contamination.”

Tygart came back with another statement, noting the difference between USADA’s handling of contamination cases and this one. The Chinese case involves a medication called trimetazidine (TMZ) that was also at the center of the case that led to the suspension of Russian figure skater Kamila Valieva at the Winter Olympics in Beijing in 2022.

TMZ is a well-known prescription medication for people with heart disease. It is known to help athletes improve stamina and decrease recovery times. Its use comes with the most stringent penalties under anti-doping rules.

Tygart said USADA’s previous contamination cases have not involved TMZ.

“And, most importantly, in all contamination cases that we have proven, we provisionally suspended the athlete, disqualified the results, found a violation, and issued an announcement as required by the rules,” he said.

None of that happened in the case of the Chinese swimmers, whose cases weren’t publicly revealed until reports by The New York Times and Daily Telegraph in Sydney surfaced Saturday.

In explaining its handling of the case, WADA conceded there were difficulties in conducting investigations in China because of restrictions there due to a COVID-19-related lockdown that was in place in early 2021 when the positive tests were uncovered. It said it consulted with lawyers who advised that appealing the case was not warranted.

The disagreement is the latest chapter in years of sparring between WADA and Tygart, who has long felt WADA did not go tough enough on Russia after its government-sponsored doping scheme at the Sochi Olympics in 2014 was uncovered.

Another undercurrent of this case is the chance it could wind up in American court. Under a U.S. law enacted in 2020 that was widely criticized by WADA , federal prosecutors can bring charges in doping cases that show a conspiracy to taint an international event involving U.S. athletes.

“All of those with dirty hands in burying positive tests and suppressing the voices of courageous whistleblowers must be held accountable to the fullest extent of the rules and law,” Tygart said.

But WADA was clearly thinking of different legal options when it shot back at Tygart.

“It should be noted that following Mr. Tygart’s false allegations, WADA has no choice but to refer this matter to its legal counsel for further action,” the WADA news release concluded, with the paragraph written in bold, black print.

AP Summer Olympics: https://apnews.com/hub/2024-paris-olympic-games