2020).
Format | Author surname, initial. (Year) . Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year). |
Example | Google (2019) . Available at: https://policies.google.com/terms?hl=en-US (Accessed: 29 April 2020). |
Notes |
Format | Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , Date. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year). |
Example | Rakich, N. (2020) ‘How does Biden stack up to past Democratic nominees?’, , 28 April. Available at: https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-does-biden-stack-up-to-past-democratic-nominees/ (Accessed: 29 April 2020). |
Notes |
Format | Author surname, initial. [username] (Year) or text [Website name] Date. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year). |
Example | Dorsey, J. [@jack] (2018) We’re committing Twitter to help increase the collective health, openness, and civility of public conversation … [Twitter] 1 March. Available at: https://twitter.com/jack/status/969234275420655616 (Accessed: 29 April 2020). |
Notes |
Format | Author surname, initial. (Year) [Medium]. Institution, City or Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year). |
Example | Bosch, H. (1482) [Triptych]. Groeningemuseum, Bruges. |
Notes |
Format | Author surname, initial. (Year) . Date. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year). |
Example | Vox (2020) . 10 April. Available at: https://youtu.be/BE-cA4UK07c (Accessed: 29 April 2020). |
Notes |
Format | Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , date, p. page number. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year). |
Example | Butler, S. (2020) ‘Women’s fashion manufacturer to make reusable gowns for NHS’, , 28 April. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/apr/28/womens-fashion-manufacturer-to-make-reusable-gowns-for-nhs (Accessed: 29 April 2020). |
Notes |
Format | Author surname, initial. (Year) ‘Article title’, , Volume(Issue) or (Month) or (Season), pp. page range. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year). |
Example | Newman, J. (2020) ‘For autistic youths entering adulthood, a new world of challenges awaits’, , (May), pp. 20–24. |
Notes |
When a source has up to three authors, list all of them in the order their names appear on the source. If there are four or more, give only the first name followed by ‘ et al. ’:
Number of authors | Reference example |
---|---|
1 author | Davis, V. (2019) … |
2 authors | Davis, V. and Barrett, M. (2019) … |
3 authors | Davis, V., Barrett, M. and McLachlan, F. (2019) … |
4+ authors | Davis, V. (2019) … |
Sometimes a source won’t list all the information you need for your reference. Here’s what to do when you don’t know the publication date or author of a source.
Some online sources, as well as historical documents, may lack a clear publication date. In these cases, you can replace the date in the reference list entry with the words ‘no date’. With online sources, you still include an access date at the end:
When a source doesn’t list an author, you can often list a corporate source as an author instead, as with ‘Scribbr’ in the above example. When that’s not possible, begin the entry with the title instead of the author:
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Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:
In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’
In-text citation | Reference list | |
---|---|---|
1 author | (Smith, 2014) | Smith, T. (2014) … |
2 authors | (Smith and Jones, 2014) | Smith, T. and Jones, F. (2014) … |
3 authors | (Smith, Jones and Davies, 2014) | Smith, T., Jones, F. and Davies, S. (2014) … |
4+ authors | (Smith , 2014) | Smith, T. (2014) … |
In Harvard style referencing , to distinguish between two sources by the same author that were published in the same year, you add a different letter after the year for each source:
Add ‘a’ to the first one you cite, ‘b’ to the second, and so on. Do the same in your bibliography or reference list .
To create a hanging indent for your bibliography or reference list :
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.
Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 27 July 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-bibliography/
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Published on June 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on November 7, 2022.
A citation style is a set of guidelines on how to cite sources in your academic writing . You always need a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize a source to avoid plagiarism . How you present these citations depends on the style you follow. Scribbr’s citation generator can help!
Different styles are set by different universities, academic associations, and publishers, often published in an official handbook with in-depth instructions and examples.
There are many different citation styles, but they typically use one of three basic approaches: parenthetical citations , numerical citations, or note citations.
Parenthetical citations
Numerical citations
Note citations
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Types of citation: parenthetical, note, numerical, which citation style should i use, parenthetical citation styles, numerical citation styles, note citation styles, frequently asked questions about citation styles.
The clearest identifying characteristic of any citation style is how the citations in the text are presented. There are three main approaches:
Citation styles also differ in terms of how you format the reference list or bibliography entries themselves (e.g., capitalization, order of information, use of italics). And many style guides also provide guidance on more general issues like text formatting, punctuation, and numbers.
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In most cases, your university, department, or instructor will tell you which citation style you need to follow in your writing. If you’re not sure, it’s best to consult your institution’s guidelines or ask someone. If you’re submitting to a journal, they will usually require a specific style.
Sometimes, the choice of citation style may be left up to you. In those cases, you can base your decision on which citation styles are commonly used in your field. Try reading other articles from your discipline to see how they cite their sources, or consult the table below.
Discipline | Typical citation style(s) |
---|---|
Economics | |
Engineering & IT | |
Humanities | ; ; |
Law | ; |
Medicine | ; ; |
Political science | |
Psychology | |
Sciences | ; ; ; ; |
Social sciences | ; ; ; |
The American Anthropological Association (AAA) recommends citing your sources using Chicago author-date style . AAA style doesn’t have its own separate rules. This style is used in the field of anthropology.
AAA reference entry | Clarke, Kamari M. 2013. “Notes on Cultural Citizenship in the Black Atlantic World.” 28, no. 3 (August): 464–474. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43898483. |
AAA in-text citation | (Clarke 2013) |
APA Style is defined by the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . It was designed for use in psychology, but today it’s widely used across various disciplines, especially in the social sciences.
Wagemann, J. & Weger, U. (2021). Perceiving the other self: An experimental first-person account of nonverbal social interaction. , (4), 441–461. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.134.4.0441 | |
(Wagemann & Weger, 2021) |
The citation style of the American Political Science Association (APSA) is used mainly in the field of political science.
APSA reference entry | Ward, Lee. 2020. “Equity and Political Economy in Thomas Hobbes.” , 64 (4): 823–35. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12507. |
APSA in-text citation | (Ward 2020) |
The citation style of the American Sociological Association (ASA) is used primarily in the discipline of sociology.
ASA reference entry | Kootstra, Anouk. 2016. “Deserving and Undeserving Welfare Claimants in Britain and the Netherlands: Examining the Role of Ethnicity and Migration Status Using a Vignette Experiment.” 32(3): 325–338. doi:10.1093/esr/jcw010. |
ASA in-text citation | (Kootstra 2016) |
Chicago author-date style is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the sciences and social sciences.
Encarnação, João, and Gonçalo Calado. 2018. “Effects of Recreational Diving on Early Colonization Stages of an Artificial Reef in North-East Atlantic.” 22, no. 6 (December): 1209–1216. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45380397. | |
(Encarnação and Calado 2018) |
The citation style of the Council of Science Editors (CSE) is used in various scientific disciplines. It includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the name-year system.
CSE name-year reference entry | Graham JR. 2019. The structure and stratigraphical relations of the Lough Nafooey Group, South Mayo. Irish Journal of Earth Sciences. 37: 1–18. |
CSE name-year citation | (Graham 2019) |
Harvard style is often used in the field of economics. It is also very widely used across disciplines in UK universities. There are various versions of Harvard style defined by different universities—it’s not a style with one definitive style guide.
Hoffmann, M. (2016) ‘How is information valued? Evidence from framed field experiments’, , 126(595), pp. 1884–1911. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12401. | |
(Hoffmann, 2016) |
Check out Scribbr’s Harvard Reference Generator
MLA style is the official style of the Modern Language Association, defined in the MLA Handbook (9th edition). It’s widely used across various humanities disciplines. Unlike most parenthetical citation styles, it’s author-page rather than author-date.
Davidson, Clare. “Reading in Bed with .” , vol. 55, no. 2, Apr. 2020, pp. 147–170. https://doi.org/10.5325/chaucerrev.55.2.0147. | |
(Davidson 155) |
The American Chemical Society (ACS) provides guidelines for a citation style using numbers in superscript or italics in the text, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list at the end. It is used in chemistry.
ACS reference entry | 1. Hutchinson, G.; Alamillo-Ferrer, C.; Fernández-Pascual, M.; Burés, J. Organocatalytic Enantioselective α-Bromination of Aldehydes with -Bromosuccinimide. , 87, 7968–7974. |
The American Medical Association ( AMA ) provides guidelines for a numerical citation style using superscript numbers in the text, which correspond to entries in a numbered reference list. It is used in the field of medicine.
1. Jabro JD. Predicting saturated hydraulic conductivity from percolation test results in layered silt loam soils. . 2009;72(5):22–27. |
CSE style includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the citation-name and citation-sequence systems. Your references are listed alphabetically in the citation-name system; in the citation-sequence system, they appear in the order in which you cited them.
CSE citation-sequence or citation-name reference entry | 1. Nell CS, Mooney KA. Plant structural complexity mediates trade-off in direct and indirect plant defense by birds. Ecology. 2019;100(10):1–7. |
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) provides guidelines for citing your sources with IEEE in-text citations that consist of numbers enclosed in brackets, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list. This style is used in various engineering and IT disciplines.
IEEE reference entry | 1. J. Ive, A. Max, and F. Yvon, “Reassessing the proper place of man and machine in translation: A pre-translation scenario,” , vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 279–308, Dec. 2018, doi: 10.1007/s10590-018-9223-9. |
The National Library of Medicine (NLM) citation style is defined in Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (2nd edition).
NLM reference entry | 1. Hage J, Valadez JJ. Institutionalizing and sustaining social change in health systems: the case of Uganda. Health Policy Plan. 2017 Nov;32(9):1248–55. doi:10.1093/heapol/czx066. |
Vancouver style is also used in various medical disciplines. As with Harvard style, a lot of institutions and publications have their own versions of Vancouver—it doesn’t have one fixed style guide.
Vancouver reference entry | 1. Bute M. A backstage sociologist: Autoethnography and a populist vision. Am Soc. 2016 Mar 23; 47(4):499–515. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12108-016-9307-z doi:10.1007/s12108-016-9307-z |
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The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is the main style guide for legal citations in the US. It’s widely used in law, and also when legal materials need to be cited in other disciplines.
Bluebook footnote citation | David E. Pozen, , 165, U. P🇦. L. R🇪🇻. 1097, 1115 (2017). |
Chicago notes and bibliography is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the humanities.
Best, Jeremy. “Godly, International, and Independent: German Protestant Missionary Loyalties before World War I.” 47, no. 3 (September 2014): 585–611. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938914001654. | |
1. Jeremy Best, “Godly, International, and Independent: German Protestant Missionary Loyalties before World War I,” 47, no. 3 (September 2014): 599. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938914001654. |
The Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities ( OSCOLA ) is the main legal citation style in the UK (similar to Bluebook for the US).
OSCOLA footnote citation | 1. Chris Thornhill, ‘The Mutation of International Law in Contemporary Constitutions: Thinking Sociologically about Political Constitutionalism’ [2016] MLR 207. |
There are many different citation styles used across different academic disciplines, but they fall into three basic approaches to citation:
Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.
Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.
The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.
A scientific citation style is a system of source citation that is used in scientific disciplines. Some commonly used scientific citation styles are:
APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.
Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.
MLA Style is the second most used citation style (after APA ). It is mainly used by students and researchers in humanities fields such as literature, languages, and philosophy.
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Citation Styles Guide | Examples for All Major Styles. Scribbr. Retrieved July 27, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/citation-styles/
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A bibliography is a fundamental component of academic research and writing that serves as a comprehensive list of sources consulted and referenced in a particular work. It plays a crucial role in validating the credibility and reliability of the information presented by providing readers with the necessary information to locate and explore the cited sources. A well-constructed bibliography not only demonstrates the depth and breadth of research undertaken but also acknowledges the intellectual contributions of others, ensuring transparency and promoting the integrity of scholarly work. By including a bibliography, writers enable readers to delve further into the subject matter, engage in critical analysis, and build upon existing knowledge.
A bibliography is a compilation of sources that have been utilized in the process of researching and writing a piece of work. It serves as a comprehensive list of references, providing information about the various sources consulted, such as books, articles, websites, and other materials. The purpose of a bibliography is twofold: to give credit to the original authors or creators of the sources used and to allow readers to locate and access those sources for further study or verification. A well-crafted bibliography includes essential details about each source, including the author’s name, the title of the work, publication date, and publication information. By having a bibliography, writers demonstrate the extent of their research, provide a foundation for their arguments, and enhance the credibility and reliability of their work.
The bibliography is a multifaceted discipline encompassing different types, each designed to serve specific research purposes and requirements. These various types of bibliographies provide valuable tools for researchers, scholars, and readers to navigate the vast realm of literature and sources available. From comprehensive overviews to specialized focuses, the types of bibliographies offer distinct approaches to organizing, categorizing, and presenting information. Whether compiling an exhaustive list of sources, providing critical evaluations, or focusing on specific subjects or industries, these types of bibliographies play a vital role in facilitating the exploration, understanding, and dissemination of knowledge in diverse academic and intellectual domains.
As a discipline, a bibliography encompasses various types that cater to different research needs and contexts. The two main categories of bibliographies are
1. General bibliography, and 2. Special bibliography.
A general bibliography is a comprehensive compilation of sources covering a wide range of subjects, disciplines, and formats. It aims to provide a broad overview of published materials, encompassing books, articles, journals, websites, and other relevant resources. A general bibliography typically includes works from various authors, covering diverse topics and spanning different periods. It is a valuable tool for researchers, students, and readers seeking a comprehensive collection of literature within a specific field or across multiple disciplines. General bibliographies play a crucial role in guiding individuals in exploring a subject, facilitating the discovery of relevant sources, and establishing a foundation for further research and academic pursuits.
The general bibliography encompasses various subcategories that comprehensively cover global, linguistic, national, and regional sources. These subcategories are as follows:
Special bibliography refers to a type of bibliography that focuses on specific subjects, themes, or niche areas within a broader field of study. It aims to provide a comprehensive and in-depth compilation of sources specifically relevant to the chosen topic. Special bibliographies are tailored to meet the research needs of scholars, researchers, and enthusiasts seeking specialized information and resources.
Special bibliographies can cover a wide range of subjects, including but not limited to specific disciplines, subfields, historical periods, geographical regions, industries, or even specific authors or works. They are designed to gather and present a curated selection of sources considered important, authoritative, or influential within the chosen subject area.
Special bibliography encompasses several subcategories that focus on specific subjects, authors, forms of literature, periods, categories of literature, and types of materials. These subcategories include:
A bibliography serves several important functions in academic research, writing, and knowledge dissemination. Here are some key functions:
A bibliography serves the important functions of documenting sources, crediting original authors, verifying information, guiding further reading, preserving knowledge, and fostering intellectual dialogue. It plays a crucial role in maintaining academic research’s integrity, transparency, and quality and ensures that scholarly work is built upon a solid foundation of evidence and ideas.
Bibliographic services are crucial in academia, research, and information management. They are a fundamental tool for organizing, accessing, and preserving knowledge . From facilitating efficient research to ensuring the integrity and credibility of scholarly work, bibliographic services hold immense importance in various domains.
Bibliographic services are vital for researchers and scholars. These services provide comprehensive and reliable access to various resources, such as books, journals, articles, and other scholarly materials. By organizing these resources in a structured manner, bibliographic services make it easier for researchers to locate relevant information for their studies. Researchers can explore bibliographic databases, catalogues, and indexes to identify appropriate sources, saving them valuable time and effort. This accessibility enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of research, enabling scholars to stay up-to-date with the latest developments in their fields.
Bibliographic services also aid in the process of citation and referencing. Proper citation is an essential aspect of academic integrity and intellectual honesty. Bibliographic services assist researchers in accurately citing the sources they have used in their work, ensuring that credit is given where it is due. This not only acknowledges the original authors and their contributions but also strengthens the credibility and authenticity of the research. By providing citation guidelines, formatting styles, and citation management tools, bibliographic services simplify the citation process, making it more manageable for researchers.
Another crucial aspect of bibliographic services is their role in preserving and archiving knowledge. Libraries and institutions that provide bibliographic services serve as custodians of valuable information. They collect, organize, and preserve various physical and digital resources for future generations. This preservation ensures that knowledge is not lost or forgotten over time. Bibliographic services enable researchers, students, and the general public to access historical and scholarly materials, fostering continuous learning and intellectual growth.
Bibliographic services contribute to the dissemination of research and scholarly works. They provide platforms and databases for publishing and sharing academic outputs. By cataloguing and indexing research articles, journals, and conference proceedings, bibliographic services enhance the discoverability and visibility of scholarly work. This facilitates knowledge exchange, collaboration, and innovation within academic communities. Researchers can rely on bibliographic services to share their findings with a broader audience, fostering intellectual dialogue and advancing their respective fields.
In Summary, bibliographic services are immensely important in academia, research, and information management. They facilitate efficient analysis, aid in proper citation and referencing, preserve knowledge for future generations, and contribute to the dissemination of research. These services form the backbone of scholarly pursuits, enabling researchers, students, and professionals to access, utilize, and contribute to the vast wealth of knowledge available. As we continue to rely on information and research to drive progress and innovation, the significance of bibliographic services will only grow, making them indispensable resources in pursuing knowledge.
References:
Give credit where credit is due.
Writing a research paper involves a lot of work. Students need to consult a variety of sources to gather reliable information and ensure their points are well supported. Research papers include a bibliography, which can be a little tricky for students. Learn how to write a bibliography in multiple styles and find basic examples below.
Plus grab our printable Bibliography Guide for Students with examples from all three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . Just fill out the form on this page to get the free guide.
IMPORTANT: Each style guide has its own very specific rules, and they often conflict with one another. Additionally, each type of reference material has many possible formats, depending on a variety of factors. The overviews shown here are meant to guide students in writing basic bibliographies, but this information is by no means complete. Students should always refer directly to the preferred style guide to ensure they’re using the most up-to-date formats and styles.
When you’re researching a paper, you’ll likely consult a wide variety of sources. You may quote some of these directly in your work, summarize some of the points they make, or simply use them to further the knowledge you need to write your paper. Since these ideas are not your own, it’s vital to give credit to the authors who originally wrote them. This list of sources, organized alphabetically, is called a bibliography.
A bibliography should include all the materials you consulted in your research, even if you don’t quote directly from them in your paper. These resources could include (but aren’t limited to):
These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but they actually have different meanings. As noted above, a bibliography includes all the materials you used while researching your paper, whether or not you quote from them or refer to them directly in your writing.
A list of references only includes the materials you cite throughout your work. You might use direct quotes or summarize the information for the reader. Either way, you must ensure you give credit to the original author or document. This section can be titled “List of Works Cited” or simply “References.”
Your teacher may specify whether you should include a bibliography or a reference list. If they don’t, consider choosing a bibliography to show all the works you used in researching your paper. This can help the reader see that your points are well supported and allow them to do further reading on their own if they’re interested.
Citations refer to direct quotations from a text that are woven into your own writing. There are a variety of ways to write citations, including footnotes and endnotes. These are generally shorter than the entries in a reference list or bibliography. Learn more about writing citations here.
Depending on the reference material, bibliography entries include a variety of information intended to help a reader locate the material if they want to refer to it themselves. These entries are listed in alphabetical order and may include:
These entries don’t generally need to include specific page numbers or locations within the work (except for print magazine or journal articles). That type of information is usually only needed in a footnote or endnote citation.
In most cases, writers use one of three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . There are many others as well, but these three are the most common choices for K–12 students.
Many teachers will state their preference for one style guide over another. If they don’t, you can choose your own preferred style. However, you should also use that guide for your entire paper, following their recommendations for punctuation, grammar, and more. This will ensure you are consistent throughout.
Below, you’ll learn how to write a simple bibliography using each of the three major style guides. We’ve included details for books and e-books, periodicals, and electronic sources like websites and videos. If the reference material type you need to include isn’t shown here, refer directly to the style guide you’re using.
Technically, APA style calls for a list of references instead of a bibliography. If your teacher requires you to use the APA style guide , you can limit your reference list to only items you cite throughout your work.
Here are some general notes on writing an APA reference list:
For books, APA reference list entries use this format (only include the publisher’s website for e-books):
Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title with only first word capitalized (unless there’s a proper name/noun) . Publisher. Publisher’s website
For journal or magazine articles, use the following format. If you viewed the article online, include the URL at the end of the citation.
Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title of article. Magazine or Journal Title (Volume number) Issue number, page numbers. URL
Here’s the format for newspapers. For print editions, include the page number/s. For online articles, include the full URL:
Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date) Title of article. Newspaper title. Page number/s. URL
For articles with a specific author on a website, use this format:
Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date). Title . Site name. URL
When an online article doesn’t include a specific author or date, list it like this:
Title . (Year, Month Date). Site name. Retrieved Month Date, Year, from URL
When you need to list a YouTube video, use the name of the account that uploaded the video, and format it like this:
Name of Account. (Upload year, month day). Title [Video]. YouTube. URL
For more information on writing APA bibliographies, see the APA Style Guide website.
MLA style calls for a Works Cited section, which includes all materials quoted or referred to in your paper. You may also include a Works Consulted section, including other reference sources you reviewed but didn’t directly cite. Together, these constitute a bibliography. If your teacher requests an MLA Style Guide bibliography, ask if you should include Works Consulted as well as Works Cited.
For both MLA Works Cited and Works Consulted sections, use these general guidelines:
For books, MLA reference list entries use the following format. Add the URL at the end for e-books.
Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . Publisher, Date. URL
Here’s the MLA-style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing:
For magazines and journals:
Last Name, First Name. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, First Page Number–Last Page Number.
When citing newspapers, include the page number/s for print editions or the URL for online articles:
Last Name, First Name. “Title of article.” Newspaper title. Page number/s. Year, month day. Page number or URL
Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title.” Month Day, Year published. URL
Website. n.d. “Title.” Accessed Day Month Year. URL.
Here’s how to list YouTube and other online videos:
Creator, if available. “Title of Video.” Website. Uploaded by Username, Day Month Year. URL.
For more information on writing MLA-style bibliographies, see the MLA Style website.
The Chicago Manual of Style (sometimes called “Turabian”) actually has two options for citing reference material: Notes and Bibliography and Author-Date. Regardless of which you use, you’ll need a complete detailed list of reference items at the end of your paper. The examples below demonstrate how to write that list.
Here are some general notes on writing a Chicago -style bibliography:
For books, Chicago -style reference list entries use the following format. (For print books, leave off the information about how the book was accessed.)
Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . City of Publication: Publisher, Date. How e-book was accessed.
Here’s the style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing.
For journal and magazine articles, use this format:
Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , Volume Number, issue number, First Page Number–Last Page Number. URL.
When citing newspapers, include the URL for online articles:
Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Newspaper , Month day, year. URL.
Last Name, First Name Middle Name. “Title.” Site Name . Year, Month Day. URL.
“Title.” Site Name . URL. Accessed Month Day, Year.
Creator or Username. “Title of Video.” Website video, length. Month Day, Year. URL.
For more information on writing Chicago -style bibliographies, see the Chicago Manual of Style website.
Just fill out the form on this page to grab our printable Bibliography Guide for Students with examples from all three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style .
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Bibliographies are the backbone of academic research, providing a roadmap to the citing sources that shape scholarly discourse. Assembled with precision, and care, they not only acknowledge intellectual debts, but also offer pathways for further exploration. In this article, we delve into the significance of bibliography, exploring its role in guiding researchers through the labyrinth of knowledge.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
A bibliography is an alphabetically organized list of sources, that you need to reference when writing scholarly articles, books, or research papers to avoid plagiarism.
A bibliography is a comprehensive list of sources , such as books and websites, that have been consulted or cited in a particular work. It serves as a reference list , providing readers with information about the sources used by the author, and allowing them to locate and verify those sources. Typically, they include detailed information for each source, such as the author’s name, title, publication date, publisher, and page numbers.
There are three major style guides, when it comes to citation: the APA citation style (American Psychological Association), MLA citation style (Modern Language Association), and Chicago style of citation. These include analytical bibliographies, enumerative bibliographies, and lastly, annotated bibliographies.
The term “bibliography” is generally used for any list of sources cited at the of an academic work. Some style guides refer to them using particular terminology . MLA format refers to it as a Works Cited page. Whereas, the American Psychological Association refers to it as an APA Reference page .
Entries for each source cited or consulted, are listed in alphabetical order. Each entry includes essential bibliographic details such as:
There are three common kinds of bibliography, each serving different purposes and focusing on various aspects of research and scholarship:
Analytical bibliographies go beyond simple description to analyze the content and structure of works. They include variations between different editions , each work’s number of pages , information concerning the booksellers and printers, paper and binding descriptions, and any insights that unfold as a book evolved from a manuscript to a published book. They are used by researchers interested in the history of books and printing.
Annotated bibliographies include brief summaries or annotations of each source listed alphabetically, in addition to bibliographic information. This type provides an outline of the content and quality of the source, helping researchers evaluate its relevance for their own work.
Students writing research papers commonly use enumerative bibliography. It is the most basic type, where the writer lists all sources used, providing bibliographic details for each work. Those sources share common characteristics such as language, topic, or period of time. Information concerning the source is then given by the writer to provide directions to the readers towards the source.
There are several distinctions for the analytical type. Three of them will be explained below.
Descriptive analytical, historical analytical.
Critical analytical bibliographies analyze the significance and meaning of textual variations . They may examine the implications of editorial decisions or printing errors on the interpretation and reception of a work. They often engage with literary theory, textual criticism, and scholarly debates. By critically examining the production history of a work, critical analytical bibliographies aim to shed light on the intentions of authors and editors, as well as the cultural and social contexts in which works were produced.
This analysis includes the following features:
Focus on providing detailed descriptions of the physical characteristics of books and printed materials. They aim to analyze aspects such as typography, binding, paper quality, illustrations, and textual variations. By documenting these features, descriptive analytical bibliographies facilitate the identification of different versions of a work, helping others trace the history of printing and publishing processes.
This analysis includes elements such as:
Historical analysis examines the production history and reception of relevant materials within their context. This involves studying factors such as printing technology, publishing practices, censorship, and readership. It aims to uncover the cultural, political, and intellectual significance of printed materials, shedding light on their roles in shaping historical developments and cultural movements.
This analysis generally outlines:
There are a few distinctions for the annotated bibliography type. Three of them will be explained in the following paragraph.
Descriptive annotated, informative annotated.
Critical annotations evaluate the strengths , weaknesses , and overall significance of the source, considering factors such as methodology , empirical evidence, authority, and bias. Critical annotations may include both positive and negative comments , and provide readers with insights into the credibility and usefulness of each source, helping them make informed decisions about its inclusion in their research.
This annotation may include the following elements:
These annotations provide a concise summary of the source’s content, focusing on key points and findings. Descriptive annotations aim to give readers a clear understanding of what the source covers without offering evaluation or critique. They are commonly used to provide basic information about each source listed in the annotated bibliography.
This annotation typically outlines:
Informative annotations serve as a hybrid between descriptive and critical ones, providing both a summary and evaluation of the source’s content. This type aims to inform readers about the key aspects, while also offering insights into its strengths and weaknesses. Overall, informative annotations aim to strike a balance between providing descriptive information and offering critical insights.
An informative annotation comprises the following aspects:
There are different types of the enumerative bibliography. Three of them will be explained down below.
Selective numerative, subject enumerative.
This type of bibliography aims to provide an exhaustive list of works on a particular subject without imposing strict selection criteria, offering researches a comprehensive overview of the literature available.
This specific type may include the following elements:
The selective enumerative type includes only a subset of the available literature on a topic. It focuses on key works, seminal text, or authoritative sources based on specific criteria, Unlike comprehensive ones, selective bibliographies prioritize quality over quantity , offering users a curated selection of the most important and influential works within the subject area.
It typically outlines these elements:
The subject-specific enumerative type focuses on compiling sources related to a specific subject , catering to the research needs of practitioners, students, and scholars within that domain. They are tailored to the needs and interests of users within a particular specialization .
A subject enumerative comprises the following aspects:
Bibliographies can be formatted in various styles, each with its own set of guidelines for organizing and presenting bibliographic information. In this format, we will provide you with the three most common formats, as well as examples for each.
When writing bibliographies (references) using the APA format, the following steps should be observed:
Smith, J. (2020). The Impact of Social Media on Adolescent Mental Health: A Comprehensive Analysis. Academic Press.
Last Name, First Name Middle Name. (Publication Date). Title . Publisher. URL.
The image below contains an example of an annotated bibliography in APA format.
When writing a bibliography (Works Cited) using MLA, it appears in this format:
Litfin, Karen. “Introduction to Political Economy.” Political Science 203. The University of Washington. Seattle, 2000.
Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . Publisher, Date. URL
The image below illustrates an example of an annotated bibliography in MLA format.
Here are some general notes on writing a Chicago Style bibliography:
Wynn, Stephen. 2020. City of London at War 1939–45 . Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military.
Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Date. Title . City of Publication: Publisher. URL
The image below serves as an example of an annotated bibliography in Chicago format.
A bibliography generally entails the listing of books, articles, websites, and other study materials used to compose a piece of academic writing or literary work. It typically appears at the end of the document and provides readers with detailed information about each source, allowing them to locate and verify the information used by the author.
A bibliography should include
“Works Cited” is a specific term used in MLA citation to refer to a list of sources cited directly in the text, whereas a bibliography includes sources that were consulted, but not directly cited.
The exact method and formatting required, will depend on the referencing style that your institution uses.
APA: Last Name, First Name Middle Name. (Publication Date). Title . Publisher. URL.
MLA: Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . Publisher, Date. URL
Chicago: Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Date. Title . City of Publication: Publisher. URL
There are three main types of bibliographies. Check with your institution which method you’re required to use. This may depend on the referencing and citation style you’re using, as well as your field of research.
Analytical: Includes information and new insights that come to light as the book or research paper progresses.
Annotated: Outlines the research that was conducted and provides feedback on specific sources.
Enumerative: A list of sources in a particular order.
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When you are talking about styles for a bibliography page, there are a lot of them out there. Each different style has its own look and feel. They are also designed for a different type of work, whether it be a business thesis or a humanities essay.
Citing your work can come in all different forms. You can cite only the works that you specifically reference in a essay or you can cite everything that you used to create a thesis. What you are citing is what makes one a bibliography and one a works cited.
Simply put, a bibliography is all the works that you used to created your thesis or essay. This can be a professional paper used in a scholarly journal or an essay for your high school humanities class. Either way, the bibliography offers insight into where your sources and statistics came from. This isn’t just what you cited either; it is every single piece of scholarly information that you used to create your work. To really understand the creation of a bibliography and the style, it’s important to discuss some examples.
When creating a bibliography, there are several different styles that you can use. Each style has different formatting for citations and set up. Each style also has different citation formats for different sources, including but not limited too, books, magazines, websites and blogs. The core styles that you can use are:
American Psychological Association Modern Language Association Harvard Referencing Chicago Manual of Style
When it comes to writing styles, there are a lot of them. Whether you’re writing a biology, communications, theology or philosophy research paper or essay, there is a writing style for you. Learn about the different styles for formatting your paper, as well as how the reference and bibliography styles differ between them. What’s in a Name? In the world of writing, there are bibliographies...
Research papers take a lot of different steps to format your outline and discuss where your sources came from. Every paper ends with a citation page or bibliography. The type of bibliography that you use will depend on your research and subject matter. Bibliography Uncovered Before you can even get into the steps of creating your bibliography, you need to understand specifically what a...
You’ve been looking over the different writing styles and noticed that MLA and APA are similar. Staring at the citation page, you really can’t see a difference between the two. While MLA and APA do have a lot of similarities in the citation pages, there are a few distinct differences that you’ll notice if you really look at them. MLA vs. APA If you are comparing MLA and APA citation styles...
Your professor required that you create endnotes for your in-text citation. You’ve composed your endnote page beautifully. Now, you’re looking at creating the bibliography. But why? Didn’t you already cover everything in your endnotes? Learn about the differences and similarities between a bibliography and endnotes. Find out when you’ll use each and why. Endnotes, Bibliography or Both...
Your eyes are crossed. You haven’t showered in three days, but your paper is done. Pushing away from your computer, you breathe a much needed sigh of relief. That is until you realize that you haven’t created your bibliography. What’s your style again? How do you create it? Don’t worry, your guide to bibliography rules is right here, ready to help. Not All Bibliographies Are Equal In the...
Your professor has told you to write your paper in Turabian style, but you’re clueless. You keep seeing this style and Chicago combined. Now you are really confused. Find your answers to what Turabian is and how it’s created. What Is Turabian Style? Turabian is a style covered under the Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS). The difference in these styles is who they are created for...
Is your head spinning over the difference? Don’t let the terminology get to you. In their most basic form, references, works cited and a bibliography are all essentially the same thing. They’re a page (or pages) at the end of your paper where you cite the sources you used to form your essay. Learn when to use a list of references, a bibliography or a works cited list, along with how they’re...
References and citations are the apples and oranges of the writing world. While it might seem like these two words are interchangeable. They are distinctly different within a scholarly writing piece. Learn what they are and how to use each one. Citations or References No matter what writing style that you use, you’ll come across the reference or citation dilemma, especially if you’re a...
Is your professor asking you to write an annotated bibliography? Are you clueless? You’ve come to the right place. The world of bibliographies can be a difficult web to weave, especially when you are talking about annotated bibliographies. Take a deep breath and get ready. You’re going to learn everything you need to know to make an annotated bibliography in MLA style. What Is an Annotated...
Figuring out how to format your work with just one author was hard enough. Now, you have a book that has three different authors and one with eleven different authors. You know all those names are just going to clutter up your APA essay. Learn the right way to source multiple authors in the APA style. Creating a Parenthetical Citation Whether you have a book or magazine with multiple sources, the...
Images add diversity and visual information that sometimes just isn’t possible with words alone. But, how do you cite a picture and add it to your MLA works cited list? Learn the ins and outs of citing a picture in your work and a little about the legalities. Adding a Reproduced Image in Text Sometimes, it makes sense to reference images visually to prove a point. This is especially true if you...
You think citing quotes in your APA paper is going to be simple. But, suddenly you have one book with multiple authors and another book with no date. You’re trying to add a citation for a website quote with no author or date. Plus, you have an interview. Simple citations have become a mess. Break down citations for books, websites and even interviews in even the most difficult of situations...
Bibliography.
In addition to the sources cited in the individual text boxes of this writing guide, listed below are books about how to effectively write and organize a college-level research paper or dissertation [which frequently have good advice on writing, regardless of their purpose]. Enter the title of the book in the USC Libraries' search engine to check the availability of these or any other books on college-level writing and research. If the library does not own a particular title, you can request to borrow the book free of charge from the USC Libraries' interlibrary loan department .
Carter, Caron, editor. Successful Dissertations: The Complete Guide for Education, Childhood and Early Childhood Studies Students . New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2018.
Floyd, Randy G., editor. Publishing in School Psychology and Related Fields: An Insider's Guide . New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, 2018.
Graff, Gerald and Cathy Birkenstein. "They Say / I Say": The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2017.
Writing Guides
A bibliography is a comprehensive list of sources that were consulted or referenced in the process of researching and writing a scholarly work. These sources can include books, articles, websites, and other materials. The bibliography provides readers with the information needed to locate the original sources and gives credit to the authors whose works have contributed to the research.
Table of Contents
Below are some common types of bibliography:
An annotated bibliography includes a brief summary or evaluation of each source. The annotation can provide a summary of the content, an evaluation of the source’s reliability, and its relevance to the research topic. It typically follows one of the standard citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
A working bibliography is a preliminary list of sources that you might use in your research. It is not as formal or complete as a final bibliography and can be modified as the research progresses. It helps in keeping track of potential references.
An enumerative bibliography lists sources according to a specific criterion, such as author, subject, or date of publication. It provides a systematic overview of a body of literature and is often used in academic research.
Descriptive bibliography provides detailed information about the physical characteristics of books and other printed materials, such as the format, paper, binding, and typographical details. It is commonly used in the field of rare books and manuscripts.
Analytical bibliography examines the history and methods of book production, including the printing process, textual variations, and publishing practices. It focuses on the physical creation of the book and the text’s transmission over time.
A subject bibliography lists sources related to a specific subject or field. It helps researchers find relevant literature in a particular area of study. Subject bibliographies can be found in libraries and databases.
Period bibliography covers works published during a specific time period. It is useful for historical research and understanding the literature of a particular era.
A national bibliography lists all the publications produced in a particular country. It is usually compiled by a national library or bibliographic agency and helps preserve the country’s literary heritage.
A personal bibliography is a compilation of works by a specific author. It includes all the known publications of the author, providing a comprehensive view of their contributions.
A universal bibliography aims to list all the books and publications available worldwide. While achieving this is practically impossible, attempts are made through international cooperation and cataloging efforts.
The format for a bibliography can vary depending on the citation style you are using. Here are examples of bibliography formats for some of the most common citation styles: APA, MLA, and Chicago.
The American Psychological Association (APA) style is commonly used in the social sciences.
Books: Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Publisher.
Example: Smith, J. A. (2020). Understanding psychology: Basics and applications. Psychology Press.
Journal Articles: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue number), page range. https://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyy
Example: Doe, J. (2019). Cognitive development in children. Journal of Child Psychology, 45(3), 234-245. https://doi.org/10.1234/jcp.2019.4567
The Modern Language Association (MLA) style is often used in the humanities.
Books: Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year of Publication.
Example: Smith, John. Understanding Psychology: Basics and Applications. Psychology Press, 2020.
Journal Articles: Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, vol. number, no. number, Year, pages. DOI or URL (if applicable).
Example: Doe, Jane. “Cognitive Development in Children.” Journal of Child Psychology, vol. 45, no. 3, 2019, pp. 234-245. https://doi.org/10.1234/jcp.2019.4567
The Chicago Manual of Style offers two systems: Notes and Bibliography, and Author-Date. Below is the Bibliography style.
Books: Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year.
Example: Smith, John. Understanding Psychology: Basics and Applications. New York: Psychology Press, 2020.
Journal Articles: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Year): page range. DOI or URL (if applicable).
Example: Doe, Jane. “Cognitive Development in Children.” Journal of Child Psychology 45, no. 3 (2019): 234-245. https://doi.org/10.1234/jcp.2019.4567
Writing a bibliography involves compiling a list of sources you have referenced in your work. The format and style of a bibliography can vary depending on the citation style you are required to use. Here are the general steps to create a bibliography.
A bibliography and footnotes are both methods of citing sources in academic writing, but they serve different purposes and are formatted differently. Below are some major differences between bibliography and footnotes.
Academic integrity and documentation, explore more of umgc.
Types of Documentation
What is a bibliography.
A bibliography is a list of books and other source material that you have used in preparing a research paper. Sometimes these lists will include works that you consulted but did not cite specifically in your assignment. Consult the style guide required for your assignment to determine the specific title of your bibliography page as well as how to cite each source type. Bibliographies are usually placed at the end of your research paper.
A special kind of bibliography, the annotated bibliography, is often used to direct your readers to other books and resources on your topic. An instructor may ask you to prepare an annotated bibliography to help you narrow down a topic for your research assignment. Such bibliographies offer a few lines of information, typically 150-300 words, summarizing the content of the resource after the bibliographic entry.
Waddell, Marie L., Robert M. Esch, and Roberta R. Walker. The Art of Styling Sentences: 20 Patterns for Success. 3rd ed. New York: Barron’s, 1993. A comprehensive look at 20 sentence patterns and their variations to teach students how to write effective sentences by imitating good style.
Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.
Chapter 1: College Writing
How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?
What Is College Writing?
Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?
Chapter 2: The Writing Process
Doing Exploratory Research
Getting from Notes to Your Draft
Introduction
Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition
Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience
Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started
Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment
Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic
Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy
Rewriting: Getting Feedback
Rewriting: The Final Draft
Techniques to Get Started - Outlining
Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques
Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea
Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting
Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas
Writing: Outlining What You Will Write
Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies
A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone
A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction
Critical Strategies and Writing
Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis
Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation
Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion
Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis
Developing a Paper Using Strategies
Kinds of Assignments You Will Write
Patterns for Presenting Information
Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques
Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data
Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern
Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern
Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern
Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts
Supporting with Research and Examples
Writing Essay Examinations
Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete
Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing
Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question
Chapter 4: The Research Process
Planning and Writing a Research Paper
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature
Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing
Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources
Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?
Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?
Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources
Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources
Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure
Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure
The Nature of Research
The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?
The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?
The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?
Chapter 5: Academic Integrity
Academic Integrity
Giving Credit to Sources
Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws
Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation
Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides
Integrating Sources
Practicing Academic Integrity
Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records
Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material
Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source
Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source
Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources
Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists
Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style
Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style
Types of Documentation: Note Citations
Chapter 6: Using Library Resources
Finding Library Resources
Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing
How Is Writing Graded?
How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool
The Draft Stage
The Draft Stage: The First Draft
The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft
The Draft Stage: Using Feedback
The Research Stage
Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing
Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers
Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews
Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers
Writing Arguments
Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure
Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument
Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition
Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion
Writing Arguments: Types of Argument
Dictionaries
General Style Manuals
Researching on the Internet
Special Style Manuals
Writing Handbooks
Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project
Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report
Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve
Collaborative Writing: Methodology
Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation
Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members
Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan
General Introduction
Peer Reviewing
Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades
Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule
Reviewing Your Plan with Others
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A bibliography is a list of sources (books, journals, Web sites, periodicals, etc.) one has used for researching a topic. Bibliographies are sometimes called "References" or "Works Cited" depending on the style format you are using. A bibliography usually just includes the bibliographic information (i.e., the author, title, publisher, etc.).
An annotation is a summary and/or evaluation. Therefore, an annotated bibliography includes a summary and/or evaluation of each of the sources. Depending on your project or the assignment, your annotations may do one or more of the following.
For more help, see our handout on paraphrasing sources.
For more help, see our handouts on evaluating resources .
Your annotated bibliography may include some of these, all of these, or even others. If you're doing this for a class, you should get specific guidelines from your instructor.
To learn about your topic : Writing an annotated bibliography is excellent preparation for a research project. Just collecting sources for a bibliography is useful, but when you have to write annotations for each source, you're forced to read each source more carefully. You begin to read more critically instead of just collecting information. At the professional level, annotated bibliographies allow you to see what has been done in the literature and where your own research or scholarship can fit. To help you formulate a thesis: Every good research paper is an argument. The purpose of research is to state and support a thesis. So, a very important part of research is developing a thesis that is debatable, interesting, and current. Writing an annotated bibliography can help you gain a good perspective on what is being said about your topic. By reading and responding to a variety of sources on a topic, you'll start to see what the issues are, what people are arguing about, and you'll then be able to develop your own point of view.
To help other researchers : Extensive and scholarly annotated bibliographies are sometimes published. They provide a comprehensive overview of everything important that has been and is being said about that topic. You may not ever get your annotated bibliography published, but as a researcher, you might want to look for one that has been published about your topic.
The format of an annotated bibliography can vary, so if you're doing one for a class, it's important to ask for specific guidelines.
The bibliographic information : Generally, though, the bibliographic information of the source (the title, author, publisher, date, etc.) is written in either MLA or APA format. For more help with formatting, see our MLA handout . For APA, go here: APA handout .
The annotations: The annotations for each source are written in paragraph form. The lengths of the annotations can vary significantly from a couple of sentences to a couple of pages. The length will depend on the purpose. If you're just writing summaries of your sources, the annotations may not be very long. However, if you are writing an extensive analysis of each source, you'll need more space.
You can focus your annotations for your own needs. A few sentences of general summary followed by several sentences of how you can fit the work into your larger paper or project can serve you well when you go to draft.
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A bibliography is nothing more than a written list of your sources, outlining everything you used in the creation of the work, even if you didn’t cite it directly. This is something that almost all students will be asked to compile and add to their works at some point. Bibliographies are generally used in academic documents and from a student’s point of view they are most commonly used within your undergraduate or master’s dissertation. But what does a bibliography actually look like? When is a bibliography used? And how do you create a bibliography for your essay or research paper? Here’s everything you need to know about how to write a bibliography:
For many students creating a bibliography can be a daunting prospect, and part of the reason for this is that many students aren’t sure what a bibliography is. The good news is that a bibliography is much simpler than it sounds. A bibliography is nothing more than a list of all of the sources that you have used to help you write an essay or other extensive document. This includes not only the sources that you have directly quoted or referred to in your essay but also any works that you have read throughout your research for the piece. Even if a work is not cited directly, if you have read it as part of your essay preparation, or if your essay has otherwise been influenced by the work then it should be included and cited in your bibliography.
Bibliographies are commonly used in academic documents , such as at the end of an undergraduate or master’s level dissertation. But brief and less formal versions of bibliographies can also be used at the end of a journalistic piece, presentation, or video to lend them legitimacy and to visibly demonstrate that they have been well-researched. But academia is the main focus of the bibliography. So, if you’re thinking of pursuing further education and studying at degree level then it’s important that you understand what a bibliography is and how to create one. If an undergraduate essay or dissertation doesn’t include a properly cited and formatted bibliography, then it isn’t completed. As the way students access information has changed, so too has the information that you can include in your bibliography. Traditionally these were lists of books, essays and articles, but now websites, videos, and other multimedia sources should be cited in your bibliography too if they are accessed as part of your research.
There are many benefits of using a bibliography. These include:
We have established that bibliographic information is descriptive information about a piece of work. Now we need to assess when we will need this bibliographic information: when is a bibliography used? Bibliographies are generally used in a wide range of academic research projects and disciplines. Secondary school students, college students and distance learning students, university students and postgraduate students may all be required to create bibliographies in their academic works. The bibliography in a research paper or project is typically one of the last pages of the paper adding to the piece after your own content but before any appendices.
The terms bibliography, references and cited works are often used interchangeably, but these three are actually unique ways of referencing your work and your sources. A “Works Cited” list is an alphabetical list of works cited or sources you specifically called out while composing your paper. This differs from a bibliography because you don’t need to include any additional sources that you have read or that may have otherwise influenced your piece in a works cited list. As a general rule, this means that works cited lists are much shorter than bibliographies. Reference lists are very similar to works cited lists, but they are written in APA (American Psychological Association) format, whilst bibliographies often use the Harvard referencing system . Reference lists are arranged alphabetically by the author’s last name. Whilst cited works and reference lists are similar, bibliographies are very different. A bibliography should list all the material you have consulted in preparing your essay, whether you have actually referred to and cited the work or not. So even if you only read a page or two or a text, and don’t directly reference it in your work, it should still be included in your bibliography. For this reason, bibliographies include longer references and are significant blocks of text.
The sources that you will cite within your academic works fall into two main categories: primary sources and secondary sources. But students often have difficulty differentiating between the two. However, the differences between primary sources and secondary sources are easy to work out. If you are quoting a first-hand account of something, or an original work, then this is a primary source.
Some examples of primary sources include: news articles, photographs, autobiographies, novels and short stories, letters and diary entries, and original works of art. From a multimedia point of view, documentaries, radio broadcasts and podcasts, and recordings of music or speeches are also considered to be primary sources. Working with a primary source means that you examine the source material, analyse it, and then reach your own conclusions. If you read a novel and then write an essay about its themes, for example, then you are using the novel as your primary source and you draw your own conclusions from it. In science-based subjects, any research or data you gather for yourself, by conducting your own studies or research, is considered to be a primary source. But if you are analysing data that has been gathered by someone else then this is then considered to be a secondary source. This example is important because it demonstrates that primary sources don’t always have to be documents you have created yourself: if you’re taking raw data that has been produced by someone else then this is still considered a primary source.
Secondary sources differ from primary sources because they are further removed from them. If a piece of art is the primary source, for example, then an essay analysing that piece of art would be considered to be a secondary source. Other examples of secondary sources include: textbooks that discuss other concepts, theories, or source material, biographies written about other famous figures, works written by critics or other academics and key political commentary. In short, a primary source provides direct access to material which you can then discuss and analyse, whilst a secondary source requires you to look at the material through the lens of another person or another point of view. If you are reading another critic’s analysis of a work, then their perspective is likely to have some influence on your critical approach or opinion. For this reason, many academics believe primary sources to be more reliable than secondary sources. But that is a one-dimensional approach: working with secondary sources can be beneficial because it allows you to understand how others perceive the work you are discussing. It also provides a clear insight into the cultural perspective that surrounds the work.
There is no singular type of bibliography: different kinds of academic work require different kinds of bibliography, and they are each laid out and formatted slightly differently. Some of the main types of bibliography that you need to be aware of include:
All of the bibliographic material that you will need from print sources can be found on their title page. The information that you will need to include in your citation will depend on the type of bibliography that you are compiling, but regardless of what citation style is being used, there are key pieces of information that you will always need to collect in order to create the citation in a bibliography. This information is:
The way in which you will cite a website or other web sources differs from the way in which you would cite a traditional printed text. The way in which you will cite a web source will depend on whether you are citing an online article or a web page. In the case of a web article, you will need to share:
Essential skills every babysitter should master.
What this handout is about.
This handout will explain why annotated bibliographies are useful for researchers, provide an explanation of what constitutes an annotation, describe various types of annotations and styles for writing them, and offer multiple examples of annotated bibliographies in the MLA, APA, and CBE/CSE styles of citation.
Welcome to the wonderful world of annotated bibliographies! You’re probably already familiar with the need to provide bibliographies, reference pages, and works cited lists to credit your sources when you do a research paper. An annotated bibliography includes descriptions and explanations of your listed sources beyond the basic citation information you usually provide.
One of the reasons behind citing sources and compiling a general bibliography is so that you can prove you have done some valid research to back up your argument and claims. Readers can refer to a citation in your bibliography and then go look up the material themselves. When inspired by your text or your argument, interested researchers can access your resources. They may wish to double check a claim or interpretation you’ve made, or they may simply wish to continue researching according to their interests. But think about it: even though a bibliography provides a list of research sources of all types that includes publishing information, how much does that really tell a researcher or reader about the sources themselves?
An annotated bibliography provides specific information about each source you have used. As a researcher, you have become an expert on your topic: you have the ability to explain the content of your sources, assess their usefulness, and share this information with others who may be less familiar with them. Think of your paper as part of a conversation with people interested in the same things you are; the annotated bibliography allows you to tell readers what to check out, what might be worth checking out in some situations, and what might not be worth spending the time on. It’s kind of like providing a list of good movies for your classmates to watch and then going over the list with them, telling them why this movie is better than that one or why one student in your class might like a particular movie better than another student would. You want to give your audience enough information to understand basically what the movies are about and to make an informed decision about where to spend their money based on their interests.
A good annotated bibliography:
The first four elements above are usually a necessary part of the annotated bibliography. Points 5 and 6 may involve a little more analysis of the source, but you may include them in other kinds of annotations besides evaluative ones. Depending on the type of annotation you use, which this handout will address in the next section, there may be additional kinds of information that you will need to include.
For more extensive research papers (probably ten pages or more), you often see resource materials grouped into sub-headed sections based on content, but this probably will not be necessary for the kinds of assignments you’ll be working on. For longer papers, ask your instructor about their preferences concerning annotated bibliographies.
Decisions, decisions.
As you go through this handout, you’ll see that, before you start, you’ll need to make several decisions about your annotations: citation format, type of annotation, and writing style for the annotation.
First of all, you’ll need to decide which kind of citation format is appropriate to the paper and its sources, for instance, MLA or APA. This may influence the format of the annotations and bibliography. Typically, bibliographies should be double-spaced and use normal margins (you may want to check with your instructor, since they may have a different style they want you to follow).
See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial for basic MLA bibliography formatting and rules.
See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial for basic APA bibliography formatting and rules.
See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial for basic CBE/CSE bibliography formatting and rules.
After choosing a documentation format, you’ll choose from a variety of annotation categories presented in the following section. Each type of annotation highlights a particular approach to presenting a source to a reader. For instance, an annotation could provide a summary of the source only, or it could also provide some additional evaluation of that material.
In addition to making choices related to the content of the annotation, you’ll also need to choose a style of writing—for instance, telescopic versus paragraph form. Your writing style isn’t dictated by the content of your annotation. Writing style simply refers to the way you’ve chosen to convey written information. A discussion of writing style follows the section on annotation types.
As you now know, one annotation does not fit all purposes! There are different kinds of annotations, depending on what might be most important for your reader to learn about a source. Your assignments will usually make it clear which citation format you need to use, but they may not always specify which type of annotation to employ. In that case, you’ll either need to pick your instructor’s brain a little to see what they want or use clue words from the assignment itself to make a decision. For instance, the assignment may tell you that your annotative bibliography should give evidence proving an analytical understanding of the sources you’ve used. The word analytical clues you in to the idea that you must evaluate the sources you’re working with and provide some kind of critique.
There are two kinds of summarizing annotations, informative and indicative.
Summarizing annotations in general have a couple of defining features:
Informative annotations sometimes read like straight summaries of the source material, but they often spend a little more time summarizing relevant information about the author or the work itself.
Indicative annotation is the second type of summary annotation, but it does not attempt to include actual information from the argument itself. Instead, it gives general information about what kinds of questions or issues are addressed by the work. This sometimes includes the use of chapter titles.
Evaluative annotations don’t just summarize. In addition to tackling the points addressed in summary annotations, evaluative annotations:
An annotated bibliography may combine elements of all the types. In fact, most of them fall into this category: a little summarizing and describing, a little evaluation.
Ok, next! So what does it mean to use different writing styles as opposed to different kinds of content? Content is what belongs in the annotation, and style is the way you write it up. First, choose which content type you need to compose, and then choose the style you’re going to use to write it
This kind of annotated bibliography is a study in succinctness. It uses a minimalist treatment of both information and sentence structure, without sacrificing clarity. Warning: this kind of writing can be harder than you might think.
Don’t skimp on this kind of annotated bibliography. If your instructor has asked for paragraph form, it likely means that you’ll need to include several elements in the annotation, or that they expect a more in-depth description or evaluation, for instance. Make sure to provide a full paragraph of discussion for each work.
As you can see now, bibliographies and annotations are really a series of organized steps. They require meticulous attention, but in the end, you’ve got an entire testimony to all the research and work you’ve done. At the end of this handout you’ll find examples of informative, indicative, evaluative, combination, telescopic, and paragraph annotated bibliography entries in MLA, APA, and CBE formats. Use these examples as your guide to creating an annotated bibliography that makes you look like the expert you are!
MLA Example
APA Example
CBE Example
We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.
American Psychological Association. 2010. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Bell, I. F., and J. Gallup. 1971. A Reference Guide to English, American, and Canadian Literature . Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
Bizzell, Patricia, and Bruce Herzburg. 1991. Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing , 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books.
Center for Information on Language Teaching, and The English Teaching Information Center of the British Council. 1968. Language-Teaching Bibliography . Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Engle, Michael, Amy Blumenthal, and Tony Cosgrave. 2012. “How to Prepare an Annotated Bibliography.” Olin & Uris Libraries. Cornell University. Last updated September 25, 2012. https://olinuris.library.cornell.edu/content/how-prepare-annotated-bibliography.
Gibaldi, Joseph. 2009. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers , 7th ed. New York: The Modern Language Association of America.
Huth, Edward. 1994. Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers . New York: University of Cambridge.
Kilborn, Judith. 2004. “MLA Documentation.” LEO: Literacy Education Online. Last updated March 16, 2004. https://leo.stcloudstate.edu/research/mla.html.
Spatt, Brenda. 1991. Writing from Sources , 3rd ed. New York: St. Martin’s.
University of Kansas. 2018. “Bibliographies.” KU Writing Center. Last updated April 2018. http://writing.ku.edu/bibliographies .
University of Wisconsin-Madison. 2019. “Annotated Bibliography.” The Writing Center. Accessed June 14, 2019. https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/annotatedbibliography/ .
You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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A bibliography gives credit to all the author’s hard work that was consulted in someone’s research. This list is usually found on the last portion or on the last page of books and/or magazines, most of which can be academic.
Sustainable development bibliography.
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Study links irregular sleep patterns with higher disease risk
BWH Communications
Getting consistent sleep could help stave off Type 2 diabetes, new research suggests.
A team led by investigators at Brigham and Women’s Hospital analyzed the sleep patterns of study participants over seven nights and then followed them for more than seven years. The researchers found those with the most irregular sleep patterns had a 34 percent higher chance of developing diabetes. The findings were published in Diabetes Care .
“Our study identified a modifiable lifestyle factor that can help lower the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes,” said lead author Sina Kianersi , a research fellow in the Channing Division of Network Medicine at Brigham and Women’s Hospital.
Type 2 diabetes affects close to half a billion people worldwide and is one of the top 10 leading causes of death and disability. The number of people with the disease is expected to more than double to 1.3 billion by 2050.
1.3 billion People worldwide are expected to have Type 2 diabetes by 2050
The new study analyzed accelerometry data from more than 84,000 participants in the U.K. Biobank Study. Participants were an average age of 62 years (57 percent female, 97 percent white) and were initially free of diabetes. They wore accelerometers — devices like watches that monitor 7½ years, tracking diabetes development mostly through medical records.
The study set out to investigate two key questions: first, to discover whether irregular sleep durations may promote diabetes development through circadian disruption and sleep disturbances; second, to explore whether this association varies across genetic predispositions to the condition.
The investigators found that more irregular sleep duration was associated with higher diabetes risk after adjusting for a wide range of risk factors. This association was more pronounced in individuals with longer sleep duration and lower polygenic risk score for the disease.
The data revealed that compared with participants with regular sleep patterns, those with irregular sleep (where day-to-day sleep duration varied by more than 60 minutes on average) had a 34 percent higher risk of developing diabetes. The risk decreased, yet persisted, even after accounting for lifestyle, co-morbidities, family history of diabetes, and obesity indicators.
There were some study limitations. Certain lifestyle information used in the research was collected up to five years before the accelerometer study began. This might have affected the accuracy of the results. Also, the assessment of sleep duration based on seven days may not capture long-term sleep patterns. Lastly, study participants were mainly healthy, older, and white, and may not represent outcomes for more diverse populations.
The researchers plan to study participants from younger age groups and with diverse racial backgrounds. They are also interested in exploring the biological reasons why sleep irregularity increases the risk of diabetes.
“Our findings have the potential to improve diabetes prevention on multiple levels,” said Kianersi. “Clinically, they might inform better patient care and treatment plans. Public health guidelines could promote regular sleep patterns. However, more research is needed to fully understand the mechanism and confirm the results in other populations.”
Authorship: In addition to Kianersi, Brigham authors include Heming Wang, Tamar Sofer, and Susan Redline. Additional authors include Raymond Noordam, Andrew Phillips, Martin K. Rutter, and Tianyi Huang (formerly at Brigham and Women’s).
Disclosures: Phillips has received research funding from Versalux and Delos, and he is a director and founder of Circadian Health Innovations PTY LTD.
Funding: This study was supported by the National Institutes of Health (grant number R01HL155395) and the UKB project 85501. Kianersi was supported by the American Heart Association Postdoctoral Fellowship (grant number: 24POST1188091).
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There are many drugs that anesthesiologists can use to induce unconsciousness in patients. Exactly how these drugs cause the brain to lose consciousness has been a longstanding question, but MIT neuroscientists have now answered that question for one commonly used anesthesia drug.
Using a novel technique for analyzing neuron activity, the researchers discovered that the drug propofol induces unconsciousness by disrupting the brain’s normal balance between stability and excitability. The drug causes brain activity to become increasingly unstable, until the brain loses consciousness.
“The brain has to operate on this knife’s edge between excitability and chaos. It’s got to be excitable enough for its neurons to influence one another, but if it gets too excitable, it spins off into chaos. Propofol seems to disrupt the mechanisms that keep the brain in that narrow operating range,” says Earl K. Miller, the Picower Professor of Neuroscience and a member of MIT’s Picower Institute for Learning and Memory.
The new findings, reported today in Neuron , could help researchers develop better tools for monitoring patients as they undergo general anesthesia.
Miller and Ila Fiete, a professor of brain and cognitive sciences, the director of the K. Lisa Yang Integrative Computational Neuroscience Center (ICoN), and a member of MIT’s McGovern Institute for Brain Research, are the senior authors of the new study. MIT graduate student Adam Eisen and MIT postdoc Leo Kozachkov are the lead authors of the paper.
Losing consciousness
Propofol is a drug that binds to GABA receptors in the brain, inhibiting neurons that have those receptors. Other anesthesia drugs act on different types of receptors, and the mechanism for how all of these drugs produce unconsciousness is not fully understood.
Miller, Fiete, and their students hypothesized that propofol, and possibly other anesthesia drugs, interfere with a brain state known as “dynamic stability.” In this state, neurons have enough excitability to respond to new input, but the brain is able to quickly regain control and prevent them from becoming overly excited.
Previous studies of how anesthesia drugs affect this balance have found conflicting results: Some suggested that during anesthesia, the brain shifts toward becoming too stable and unresponsive, which leads to loss of consciousness. Others found that the brain becomes too excitable, leading to a chaotic state that results in unconsciousness.
Part of the reason for these conflicting results is that it has been difficult to accurately measure dynamic stability in the brain. Measuring dynamic stability as consciousness is lost would help researchers determine if unconsciousness results from too much stability or too little stability.
In this study, the researchers analyzed electrical recordings made in the brains of animals that received propofol over an hour-long period, during which they gradually lost consciousness. The recordings were made in four areas of the brain that are involved in vision, sound processing, spatial awareness, and executive function.
These recordings covered only a tiny fraction of the brain’s overall activity, so to overcome that, the researchers used a technique called delay embedding. This technique allows researchers to characterize dynamical systems from limited measurements by augmenting each measurement with measurements that were recorded previously.
Using this method, the researchers were able to quantify how the brain responds to sensory inputs, such as sounds, or to spontaneous perturbations of neural activity.
In the normal, awake state, neural activity spikes after any input, then returns to its baseline activity level. However, once propofol dosing began, the brain started taking longer to return to its baseline after these inputs, remaining in an overly excited state. This effect became more and more pronounced until the animals lost consciousness.
This suggests that propofol’s inhibition of neuron activity leads to escalating instability, which causes the brain to lose consciousness, the researchers say.
Better anesthesia control
To see if they could replicate this effect in a computational model, the researchers created a simple neural network. When they increased the inhibition of certain nodes in the network, as propofol does in the brain, network activity became destabilized, similar to the unstable activity the researchers saw in the brains of animals that received propofol.
“We looked at a simple circuit model of interconnected neurons, and when we turned up inhibition in that, we saw a destabilization. So, one of the things we’re suggesting is that an increase in inhibition can generate instability, and that is subsequently tied to loss of consciousness,” Eisen says.
As Fiete explains, “This paradoxical effect, in which boosting inhibition destabilizes the network rather than silencing or stabilizing it, occurs because of disinhibition. When propofol boosts the inhibitory drive, this drive inhibits other inhibitory neurons, and the result is an overall increase in brain activity.”
The researchers suspect that other anesthetic drugs, which act on different types of neurons and receptors, may converge on the same effect through different mechanisms — a possibility that they are now exploring.
If this turns out to be true, it could be helpful to the researchers’ ongoing efforts to develop ways to more precisely control the level of anesthesia that a patient is experiencing. These systems, which Miller is working on with Emery Brown, the Edward Hood Taplin Professor of Medical Engineering at MIT, work by measuring the brain’s dynamics and then adjusting drug dosages accordingly, in real-time.
“If you find common mechanisms at work across different anesthetics, you can make them all safer by tweaking a few knobs, instead of having to develop safety protocols for all the different anesthetics one at a time,” Miller says. “You don’t want a different system for every anesthetic they’re going to use in the operating room. You want one that’ll do it all.”
The researchers also plan to apply their technique for measuring dynamic stability to other brain states, including neuropsychiatric disorders.
“This method is pretty powerful, and I think it’s going to be very exciting to apply it to different brain states, different types of anesthetics, and also other neuropsychiatric conditions like depression and schizophrenia,” Fiete says.
The research was funded by the Office of Naval Research, the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, the National Science Foundation Directorate for Computer and Information Science and Engineering, the Simons Center for the Social Brain, the Simons Collaboration on the Global Brain, the JPB Foundation, the McGovern Institute, and the Picower Institute.
Press mentions.
MIT scientists have discovered how propofol, a commonly used anesthetic, induces unconsciousness, reports Adam Kovac for Gizmodo . “The new research indicates that [propofol] works by interfering with a brain’s ‘dynamic stability’ – a state where neurons can respond to input, but the brain is able to keep them from getting too excited,” explains Kovac.
MIT researchers have discovered how propofol, a commonly used anesthetic, works on the brain, reports Francesca Benson for IFL Science . The research studied “the differences between an awake brain and one under anesthesia by looking at the stability of the brain’s activity,” writes Bensen.
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Genomics and lab studies reveal numerous findings, including a key role for Reelin amid neuronal vulnerability, and for choline and antioxidants in sustaining cognition
An MIT study published today in Nature provides new evidence for how specific cells and circuits become vulnerable in Alzheimer’s disease, and hones in on other factors that may help some people show resilience to cognitive decline, even amid clear signs of disease pathology. To highlight potential targets for interventions to sustain cognition and memory, the authors engaged in a novel comparison of gene expression across multiple brain regions in people with or without Alzheimer’s disease, and conducted lab experiments to test and validate their major findings.
Brain cells all have the same DNA but what makes them differ, both in their identity and their activity, are their patterns of how they express those genes. The new analysis measured gene expression differences in more than 1.3 million cells of more than 70 cell types in six brain regions from 48 tissue donors, 26 of whom died with an Alzheimer’s diagnosis and 22 of whom without. As such, the study provides a uniquely large, far-ranging and yet detailed accounting of how brain cell activity differs amid Alzheimer’s disease by cell type, by brain region, by disease pathology, and by each person’s cognitive assessment while still alive.
“Specific brain regions are vulnerable in Alzheimer’s and there is an important need to understand how these regions or particular cell types are vulnerable,” said co-senior author Li-Huei Tsai , Picower Professor of Neuroscience and director of The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory and the Aging Brain Initiative at MIT. “And the brain is not just neurons. It’s many other cell types. How these cell types may respond differently, depending on where they are, is something fascinating we are only at the beginning of looking at.”
Co-senior author Manolis Kellis , professor of computer science and head of MIT’s Computational Biology Group, likened the technique used to measure gene expression comparisons, single cell RNA profiling, to being a much more advanced “microscope” than the ones that first allowed Alois Alzheimer to characterize the disease’s pathology more than a century ago.
“Where Alzheimer saw amyloid protein plaques and phosphorylated tau tangles in his microscope, our single-cell ‘microscope’ tells us, cell by cell and gene by gene, about thousands of subtle yet important biological changes in response to pathology,” said Kellis. “Connecting this information with the cognitive state of patients reveals how cellular responses relate with cognitive loss or resilience, and can help propose new ways to treat cognitive loss. Pathology can precede cognitive symptoms by a decade or two before cognitive decline becomes diagnosed. If there’s not much we can do about the pathology at that stage, we can at least try to safeguard the cellular pathways that maintain cognitive function.”
Hansruedi Mathys, a former MIT postdoc in the Tsai Lab, who is now an assistant professor at the University of Pittsburgh, Carles Boix, a former graduate student in Kellis’s lab who is now a postdoc at Harvard Medical School, and Leyla Akay, a graduate student in Tsai’s lab, led the study analyzing the prefrontal cortex, entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, anterior thalamus, angular gyrus, and the midtemporal cortex. The brain samples came from the Religious Order Study and the Rush Memory and Aging Project at Rush University.
Some of the earliest signs of amyloid pathology and neuron loss in Alzheimer’s occurs in memory-focused regions called the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex. In those regions, and in other parts of the cerebral cortex, the researchers were able to pinpoint a potential reason why. One type of excitatory neuron in the hippocampus and four in the entorhinal cortex were significantly less abundant in people with Alzheimer’s than in people without. Individuals with depletion of those cells performed significantly worse on cognitive assessments. Moreover, many vulnerable neurons were interconnected in a common neuronal circuit. And just as importantly, several either directly expressed a protein called Reelin, or were directly affected by Reelin signaling. In all, therefore, the findings distinctly highlight especially vulnerable neurons, whose loss is associated with reduced cognition, that share a neuronal circuit and a molecular pathway.
Tsai noted that Reelin has become prominent in Alzheimer’s research because of a recent study of a man in Colombia. He had a rare mutation in the Reelin gene that caused the protein to be more active, and was able to stay cognitively healthy at an advanced age despite having a strong family predisposition to early-onset Alzheimer’s. The new study shows that loss of Reelin-producing neurons is associated with cognitive decline. Taken together it may mean that the brain benefits from Reelin, but that neurons that produce it may be lost in at least some Alzheimer’s patients.
“We can think of Reelin as having maybe some kind of protective or beneficial effect,” Akay said. “But we don’t yet know what it does or how it could confer resilience.”
In further analysis the researchers also found that specifically vulnerable inhibitory neuron subtypes identified in a previously study from this group in the prefrontal cortex also were involved in reelin signaling, further reinforcing the significance of the molecule and its signaling pathway.
To further check their results, the team directly examined the human brain tissue samples and the brains of two kinds of Alzheimer’s model mice. Sure enough, those experiments also showed a reduction in Reelin-positive neurons in the human and mouse entorhinal cortex.
To find factors that might preserve cognition, even amid pathology, the team examined which genes, in which cells, and in which regions, were most closely associated with cognitive resilience, which they defined as residual cognitive function, above the typical cognitive loss expected given the observed pathology.
Their analysis yielded a surprising and specific answer: across several brain regions astrocytes that expressed genes associated with antioxidant activity and with choline metabolism and polyamine biosynthesis were significantly associated with sustained cognition, even amid high levels of tau and amyloid. The results reinforced previous research findings led by Tsai and Susan Lundqvist in which they showed that dietary supplement of choline helped astrocytes cope with the dysregulation of lipids caused by the most significant Alzheimer’s risk gene, the APOE4 variant. The antioxidant findings also pointed to a molecule that can be found as a dietary supplement, spermidine, which may have anti-inflammatory properties, although such an association would need further work to be established causally.
As before, the team went beyond the predictions from the single-cell RNA expression analysis to make direct observations in the brain tissue of samples. Those that came from cognitively resilient individuals indeed showed increased expression of several of the astrocyte-expressed genes predicted to be associated with cognitive resilience.
New analysis method, open dataset
To analyze the mountains of single-cell data, the researchers developed a new robust methodology based on groups of coordinately-expressed genes (known as “gene modules”), thus exploiting the expression correlation patterns between functionally-related genes in the same module.
“In principle, the 1.3 million cells we surveyed could use their 20,000 genes in an astronomical number of different combinations,” explain Kellis. “In practice, however, we observe a much smaller subset of coordinated changes. Recognizing these coordinated patterns allow us to infer much more robust changes, because they are based on multiple genes in the same functionally-connected module.”
He offered this analogy: With many joints in their bodies, people could move in all kinds of crazy ways, but in practice they engage in many fewer coordinated movements like walking, running, or dancing. The new method enables scientists to identify such coordinated gene expression programs as a group.
While Kellis and Tsai’s labs already reported several noteworthy findings from the dataset, the researchers expect that many more possibly significant discoveries still wait to be found in the trove of data. To facilitate such discovery the team posted handy analytical and visualization tools along with the data on Kellis’s website at: https://compbio.mit.edu/ad_multiregion .
“The dataset is so immensely rich. We focused on only a few aspects that are salient that we believe are very, very interesting, but by no means have we exhausted what can be learned with this dataset,” Kellis said. “We expect many more discoveries ahead, and we hope that young researchers (of all ages) will dive right in and surprise us with many more insights.”
Going forward, Kellis said, the researchers are studying the control circuitry associated with the differentially expressed genes, to understand the genetic variants, the regulators, and other driver factors that can be modulated to reverse disease circuitry across brain regions, cell types, and different stages of the disease.
Additional authors of the study include Ziting Xia, Jose Davila Velderrain, Ayesha P. Ng, Xueqiao Jiang, Ghada Abdelhady, Kyriaki Galani, Julio Mantero, Neil Band, Benjamin T. James, Sudhagar Babu, Fabiola Galiana-Melendez, Kate Louderback, Dmitry Prokopenko, Rudolph E. Tanzi, and David A. Bennett.
Support for the research came from the National Institutes of Health, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, The JPB Foundation, the Cure Alzheimer’s Fund, The Robert A. and Renee E. Belfer Family Foundation, Eduardo Eurnekian, and Joseph DiSabato.
Related articles, fellowship supports student’s work to advance alzheimer’s research and equity.
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A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author's name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author's name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If you are working on a computer, put the book title in italicized type.
Formatting a Harvard style bibliography. Sources are alphabetised by author last name. The heading 'Reference list' or 'Bibliography' appears at the top. Each new source appears on a new line, and when an entry for a single source extends onto a second line, a hanging indent is used: Harvard bibliography example.
An annotated bibliography is a type of bibliography usually used early on in research projects. Annotated bibliographies have a list of sources to support a research project and brief "annotations ...
Now among citation pages, there are three different types: reference list, bibliography and works cited. A reference list and a works cited list only the ideas or quotes used in the body of the paper. A bibliography, on the other hand, will list all the sources used in the creation of the body of the paper, even if they weren't cited in the ...
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Different types of sources have different formatting in the bibliography. In American schools, the two most commonly used guidelines for this formatting are published by the MLA (Modern Language Association) and the APA (American Psychological Association). The MLA guidelines call for the bibliography to be called Works Cited.
The choice of the bibliography type depends on the nature of the research and the objectives of the bibliography; however, the basics are universal, and the bibliography is always arranged by the author's last name for each source. Some of the bibliography types commonly used in academic and research contexts are: Annotated Bibliography:
Title your bibliography section "References" and center the title on the top line of the page. Do not center your references; they should be left-aligned. For longer items, subsequent lines should use a hanging indent of 1/2 inch. Include all types of resources in the same list.
The type of bibliography formats you use depends on your research and subject matter. Bibliography Uncovered. Before you can even get into the steps of creating your bibliography, you need to understand specifically what a bibliography is and the best style bibliography formats to use for your paper. Simply put, a bibliography is a list of ...
Step 1. Develop an initial reference page. While accumulating data for research papers, establishing an initial bibliography can be advantageous. It simplifies the final stages of your work and aids in the organization of your ideas. When composing an initial draft, ensure to compile details: Author (s) and editor (s);
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Research papers take a lot of different steps to format your outline and discuss where your sources came from. Every paper ends with a citation page or bibliography. The type of bibliography that you use will depend on your research and subject matter.
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Bibliography Types: Below are some common types of bibliography: 1. Annotated Bibliography. An annotated bibliography includes a brief summary or evaluation of each source. The annotation can provide a summary of the content, an evaluation of the source's reliability, and its relevance to the research topic.
A special kind of bibliography, the annotated bibliography, is often used to direct your readers to other books and resources on your topic. An instructor may ask you to prepare an annotated bibliography to help you narrow down a topic for your research assignment. Such bibliographies offer a few lines of information, typically 150-300 words ...
Research papers take a lot of different steps to format your outline and discuss where your sources came from. Every paper ends with a citation page or bibliography. The type of bibliography formats you use depends on your research and subject matter.
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The bibliography in a research paper or project is typically one of the last pages of the paper adding to the piece after your own content but before any appendices. ... or hard-to-find works, then a personal bibliography is the best way to list these. This type of bibliography is best used for academic pieces that focus on multiple works by ...
What this handout is about. This handout will explain why annotated bibliographies are useful for researchers, provide an explanation of what constitutes an annotation, describe various types of annotations and styles for writing them, and offer multiple examples of annotated bibliographies in the MLA, APA, and CBE/CSE styles of citation.
A bibliography for students is a type of bibliography that's most commonly used by students for various academic projects such as research projects. When this type of bibliography is used for school projects, regardless of the style of citation, the sources need to be in alphabetical order, as is the case with all types of bibliographies.
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The new analysis measured gene expression differences in more than 1.3 million cells of more than 70 cell types in six brain regions from 48 tissue donors, 26 of whom died with an Alzheimer's diagnosis and 22 of whom without. As such, the study provides a uniquely large, far-ranging and yet detailed accounting of how brain cell activity ...
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