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Nanotechnology: Applications and Implications Research Paper

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What is nanotechnology?

Applications of nanotechnology, concerns about nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology is an emerging technology which is developing at an exponential rate. The technology utilizes novel characteristics of materials that are exhibited only at nanoscale level. Although still in early stages, this technology has signaled potential and breakthroughs in many areas such as medicine, computer technology, food industry, building construction, environment protection to mention just a few.

The many exciting products it promises have served to draw a lot of attention to it. Many findings of nanotechnology are quickly being implemented in viable commercial products. This is in spite of insufficient toxicological data about the environmental and biological effects of such nanomaterials.

As nanotechnology gains widespread application in various disciplines, it is imperative to understand its potential effects. This is important for its long terms sustainability. It is also equally critical to set up necessary control legislations and benchmark standards to control research and commercial application of this emerging technology.

The last half of the last century witnessed the technological world going “micro” evidenced by microdevices and microparticles. However, from the start of 21 st century, the “micro” is poised to give way to the “Nano”. Nanotechnology is an emerging technology that is offering promises of breakthroughs cutting across multiple subjects such as medicine, food industry, energy sector and environmental remediation to mention a few.

The Potential of nanotechnology to solve hitherto “unsolvable” problems by conventional technologies has attracted the attention of government and commercial corporations with diverse interests. Billions of dollars for research and development continue to be channeled to nanotechnology projects all over the world. This paper presents the potential applications of nano-inventions in selected areas of medicine, pollution control, energy, construction, computer technology, and food sectors.

While the benefits of this emerging technology appear to be immense, its environmental and social effects also need to be given as much attention. Nanotechnology is a relatively nascent industry and its potential uses and effects need to be exhaustively established researched before mass production and commercialization. Nanotechnology is the most significant emerging technology today and will play a major role in social, economic, and environmental developments in this century.

Nanotechnology is the “creation of functional materials, devices, and systems through the manipulation of matter at a length of ~1-100 nm” (Srinivas, et al., 2010).

At such scale, matter exhibits new properties unlike those observed at larger scales (Wickson, Baun, & Grieger, 2010). This includes enhanced plasticity, change in thermal properties, enhanced reactivity and catalysis, negative refractivity, faster ion/electron transport and novel quantum mechanical properties (Vaddiraju, Tomazos, Burgess, Jain, & Papadimitrakopoulos, 2010).

The novel properties of matter at nanoscale has been explained by the presence of quantum effect, increase in surface area to volume ratio and alterations in atomic configurations (Wickson et al., 2010). The properties of nanomaterials may be characterized in terms of size, shape, crystallinity, light absorption and scattering, chemical composition, surface area, assembly structure, surface structure, as well as surface charge.

Some of the techniques used in nanoscience to study these properties include Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDX), Atomic Force Microscopy (ATM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), UV-Vis-nIR Spectroscopy, Extended X-ray Absorption Fine structure (EXAFS) , Photoluminescence Spectroscopy (XPS), Chemisorption among other new only developed ones.

The applications of nanotechnology are as a result of investigating and utilizing these properties (Wickson et al., 2010). There are a host of substances utilised in nanotechnology, the most researched ones are carbon, silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide (Robinson, 2010). Others are aluminum, zinc, silver, copper and gold (Robinson, 2010).

Nanotechnology projects continue to channel out a wide range of applications at a very high rate (Dang, Zhang, Fan, Chen, & C.Roco, 2010). This exponential growth rate is evident from the number of patent applications. Data by Dang and fellow researchers (2010) shows that patent application for nanotechnology inventions in developed countries increased from zero percent in 1991 to about 27 % in 2008 and that this growth is set to continue for the better part of this century.

Spurred by huge funding from government and commercial players, nanotechnology projects continue to release more and more potential innovations into the market. This may be an indication that nanotechnology will in future play a pivotal role in scientific and economic development (Dang et al., 2010). Nanotechnology may be a critical solution for companies seeking to stay ahead of competitors. The potential of nanotechnology appears limitless as can be shown by the number of areas where it is already being applied.

Nanomedicine

This field encompasses pharmaceutical and medical nanotechnology. It is one of the most active areas of nanotechnology due it promises of novel therapeutic applications in crucial areas such as cancer therapy, drug delivery, imaging, biosensors and diagnosis.

Nanoparticles have been cited as having great potential in vivo imaging applications (Solomon & D’Souza, 2011). Already, a surface functionalized iron oxide nanoparticle is being used in modern imaging technologies such as magnetomotive imaging. This type of imaging is comparatively powerful and is expected to improve disease diagnosis significantly.

Nanoparticles are also being engineered to be used to enhance drug biodistribution and delivery to target sites in the body. This approach seeks to deliver drug agents to affected sites without damaging the healthy cells. This has been promising in the case of solid tumors whereby a transferrin-modified cyclodextrin nanoparticle successfully delivered anti-tumor agents to the target tumor site in human subjects (Solomon & D’Souza, 2011).

Nanoparticles have also displayed the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, a major impediment to drug delivery to the brain, thus offering hope of improving the efficacy of some drugs. It has also been reported that nanoparticles conjugated to model antigens have been able to stimulate immunity in mice (Solomon & D’Souza, 2011). This indicates potential for application in improving vaccine therapy.

Elsewhere, nanoparticles have been used to engineer self-assembled tissue capable of repairing damaged tissues in rats though this is yet to be replicated in humans. Another area that has generated much interest is in production of microscopic and highly sensitive in vitro and in vivo biosensors. This application holds the promise of increasing portability and lowering the cost of such devices.

Nanoparticles are increasingly gaining application in cancer therapy. Nanoparticles are for this purpose is characterized by surface modifications that enable them interact with receptors of target cells. This makes it possible to develop therapies targeting cancerous cells only while leaving out healthy cells.

Free radical such as superoxide, hydroxides and peroxides has been known to produce disease initiating changes in cells. To counter this adverse effect, neuroprotective compound is being developed using carbon-60 fullerene (Silva, 2010). In terms of detection of biochemical compounds carbon nanotubes have been used for detection DNA and proteins in serum samples.

Nanotechnology has opened up new possibilities in regard to medical application. The technology has potential to alter medical therapy in many ways.

Pollution control

Waste disposal remains a challenging task for many industries. Current waste disposal technologies are expensive and require a lot of time to render the waste less harmful. In addition, current processes such as air stripping, carbon adsorption, biological reactors or chemical precipitation produce highly toxic wastes that require further disposal (Karn, Kuiken, & Otto, 2009).

Nanoremediation is a new form of waste disposal mechanism that utilizes nanoparticles to detoxify pollutants. nZVI, a nanoscale zero-valent iron has gained widespread use in this area and has been applied in remediating polluted in situ groundwater. This technology has been cited as cost-effective and faster compared to traditional pump-and-treat methods (Karn et al., 2009).

Other forms of pollution solutions employ the use of nanocatalysts. Just like biological and chemical catalysts, nanocatalysts speed up chemical reaction leading to decomposition of the reactive species. This is already being used to detoxify harmful vapor in cars and industrial machinery. Notable ongoing projects in pollution control include research on the recycling greenhouse gas emissions using carbon nanotubes (CNT) (Zhao, 2009).

For his effort, the researcher for this “green” solution received an $ 85,000 Foundation Research Excellence Award (Zhao, 2009). Nanoparticles have also been used to treat highly polluted industrial waste (Zhao, 2009). Nanotechnology is also aiding in improving current water purification technologies. The technology has made it possible to decrease the membrane pores to nanoscale levels leading to greater filtration power.

Energy applications

Nanotechnology has offered promises and potential for development of efficient and long-lasting energy devices. Nanofabricated energy storage compounds have been cited as potentially beneficial as they may serve as replacement for traditional environmentally harmful fossil fuels.

It is expected that nanoscience for energy application will transfer the nano-scale effects of energy carriers such as photons, phonons, electrons, and molecules to conventional photovoltaic, photochemical solar cells, thermoelectric, fuel cells and batteries. This is expected to greatly enhance the capacity, life, and efficiency of such energy producers. Laboratory tests have already shown that the nanomaterials-based electrodes enhance the charge storage capacity and reaction rates in fuel cells.

Also, nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and carbon nanohorns are proving useful in energy application due to their ability to provide excellent conductivity for charge transport (Yimin, 2011). Some nanomaterials e.g., PbTe-based quantum dot superlattice system, have demonstrated improved energy conversion efficiency. This property has been suggested to be replicated to produce more energy-efficient thermoelectric devices used to convert waste heat energy into electricity (Yimin, 2011).

This is necessary as the energy efficiency of most thermoelectric devices is very low. In terms of energy conservation, semiconductor nanostructures are actively being explored for the development of highly luminous and efficient light-emitting diodes (LED). This can have a significant impact in energy conservation as lighting uses about 20% of the total electric power generated (Yimin, 2011). Nanostructures are also gaining application in solar energy technologies.

Nonastructured photovoltaic materials have been cited as potentially significant in improving the efficiency of solar energy-based devices. To this end, nanomaterials, such as quantum dots and dye-sensitized semiconductors, are being tested for the possible production of next-generation solar devices projects (Yimin, 2011).

Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize man-made energy. Although still, in early phases, nanomaterials have the potential to deliver efficient, high capacity, clean and more durable energy solutions. The challenge, perhaps, remains the development of controlled large scale manufacturing approaches that will ensure greater realization of the powers of these promising materials.

Food nanotechnology

Application of nanoscience in food industry has opened up numerous new possibilities for the food sector. Areas that have gained prominence in this area include food packaging and preservation. Attention to this sector has been contributed by projections of enormous economic gains it offers. Data shows that sales of nanotechnology products to food and beverage packaging sector is expected to surpass US $20.4 billion beyond 2010 (Sozer & Kokini, 2008).

Already, bionanocomposites, which are nanostructures with enhanced mechanical, thermal, and porosity properties, are being used in food packaging. Additional benefits of bionanocomposites include being environmentally friendly as are they are biodegradable as well as increasing the food shelf life (Sozer & Kokini, 2008). Bioactive packaging materials made of nanomaterials have been used in controlling oxidation of foodstuffs and formation of undesirable textures and flavors (Sozer & Kokini, 2008).

One of the nanomaterials with high potential here is carbon nanotube. Apart from offering enhanced mechanical properties to food packaging materials, it has been discovered that the same tube could be possessing effective antimicrobial effects.

This is due to the fact that Escherichia coli bacteria have been found to immediately die upon coming in contact with aggregated nanotubes (Sekhon, 2010). Another area being explored is the fortification of food packaging with nano active additives that would allow controlled release of nutrient into the stored food.

Nanomaterials have also been said to have potential application in food preservation. Nanosensors made to fluoresce in different colors when in contact with food spoilage microorganisms, have been selected as a possible solution. This may reduce the time it takes to detect food spoilage and thus lessen cases of food poisoning.

Examples are nanosilica, already used in food packaging and nanoselenium, which has been added into some beverage and said to enhance uptake of selenium. Nano-iron is also available and is used as a health supplement, although it can also be used in the treatment of contaminated water. Said to be still under development, nanosalt has to be cited as having the benefit of enabling reduction in dietary salt intake.

Another nanoagent, nanoemulsion is already being used to add nanoemulfied bioctives and flavors to beverages (Sekhon, 2010). Nanoemulsions have also proved effective against gram-negative bacteria, a major food pathogen (Sekhon, 2010). Elsewhere scientists have also reported improved bioavailability and color changes brought about by iron/zinc-containing nanostructures.

Other areas being explored include probiotics and edible nanocoatings. Probiotics will entail using nanofabrications to deliver beneficial bacterial cells to the gut system while edible nanocoatings will be in the form of edible coatings to provide barrier to moisture, gas exchange, and deliver food enhancement additives.

It is clear that nanotechnology presents unlimited opportunities to the food industry. However, just like the controversy that followed GMOs food, foodstuffs bearing nano components are surely bound to generate a prolonged public debate. This is because the effects of such miniscule particles in the consumer body remain unclear. Nevertheless, given the nascent nature of nanotechnology, such opposition is expected.

Computer technology

Nanotechnology is expected to revolutionize computer architecture technologies. Current processors have an unofficial limit of 4 GHz. This year a synthetic material capable of replacing silicon, the long-standing semiconductor of choice in the 20th century, and attaining a clock speed of 6 GHz was unveiled (Partyka & Mazur, 2012).

This is because nanotechnology presents the possibility of adding even more transistors per a nanometric length than what is possible through current microprocessor development technologies.

What is even more interesting is that this development could not have come at a more opportune time as silicon processors are expected to have attained their maximum performance by 2020 (Partyka & Mazur, 2012). This year scientists have also announced the successful development of a Nano transistor “based on single molecules of a chemical compound” (Partyka & Mazur, 2012, n.p).

Application of nanotechnology in construction

Nanotechnology portends immense benefits for the future of the construction sector. From the amazing self-cleaning window to the “smog-eating” concrete, this technology has the capability of transforming building materials to new levels in terms of energy, light, strength, security, beauty and intelligence (Halicioglu, 2009).

The development of super-strength plastics has a possible application in diverse areas such as in cars, trucks, and planes where it can serve to replace heavy metals leading to significant energy savings (Zhao, 2009). Nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes have been found to possess strength and flexibility on a much larger scale compared known strong materials such as steel. Nanocoatings have been suggested as possible solutions to insulation, microbial activity, and mildew growth in buildings (Halicioglu, 2009).

Nanotechnology is expected to produce unique bio-products characterized by hyper-performance and superior serviceability (Halicioglu, 2009).

Notable nanoparticles already in use in construction are titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) and carbon nanotubes (CNT’s). Titanium dioxide is being used in degrading pollutants in buildings while carbon nanotubes have been applied in strengthening and monitoring concrete (Halicioglu, 2009).

Just like other applications of nanotechnology, nanomaterials are used in construction sector yet their environmental, health effect, and other risks remain unclear. However, despite this drawback, nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize building design and construction in the near future.

Concerns have been raised about nanotechnology. Nanoparticles have been said to be potentially unsafe for the biological system (Vishwakarma, Samal, & N.Manoharan, 2010). Owing to their small size, these particles can gain entry into the body easily through the skin, mucosal membranes of nose or lungs through inhalation. Their catalytic properties are likely to produce dangerous reactive radicals such as hyper-reactive oxygen with much toxic effects.

These reactive radicals have been linked to chronic diseases such as cancer. Once inside the body, nanoparticles may reach the brain or liver. This is because nanoparticles are able to cross the blood-brain barrier. Their effects on these organs are yet to be established. The nature of their toxicity remains a speculation, but the disruption in the body chemistry cannot be ignored.

The Royal Society of UK’s National Science Academy has reported that nanotube can cause lung fibrosis when inhaled in large amount over long periods (Vishwakarma et al., 2010). Early research has also shown that some types of nanoparticles could cause lung damage in rats (Vishwakarma et al., 2010).

Possible environmental effects of nanoparticles have also been documented. Because they are easily airborne, and adhesive, it is claimed nanoparticles may enter the food chain with profound undesirable changes on the ecosystem.

Currently, there are no standard techniques for assessing nanocompounds hazards. This, together with the unique features of nanomaterials – large surface area, multi forms, makes risk assessment difficult (Williams, Kulinowski, White, & Louis, 2010). Quality control for nanomaterials manufacturing, terminology as well as nomenclature standards are also lacking.

Additionally, it is alarming that currently there is no data on potential hazards, dose-response relationships and exposure levels of nanomaterials used in numerous applications (Musee, Brent, & Asthton, 2010). It is also worth stating that much of current funding on nanotechnology is directed toward potentially viable commercial projects while little is channeled towards risk assessment initiatives (Musee et al., 2010). This needs to be reversed.

Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize our lives. This is because it presents almost unlimited potential to make remarkable changes in virtually all fields ranging from medicine, computer technology, construction, environmental remediation, food industry, to new energy sources.

Despite presenting many potential benefits in many areas, nanotechnology of today is still in its infancy as just a few projects have been commercialized. Many are yet to undergo full lifecycle assessment. The number of nanotechnology innovations continues to rise. However, the same cannot be said of research about their potential effects on environment and biological systems.

As the world readily adapts to this new technology wave, concomitant effort should be directed to the understanding of their possible impacts. This is essential to ensure that nanomaterials do not become the new hazard of 21 st century. The long-long term sustainability of this new technology may depend on the establishment of its risks.

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Triennial Review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative (2016)

Chapter: 6 summary and conclusion, 6 summary and conclusion.

The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) comprises the collective activities and investments of the participating agencies, coordinated through the efforts of the interagency Nanoscale Science, Engineering and Technology Subcommittee and with the support of the National Nanotechnology Coordination Office (NNCO). Since its inception in 2001, the number of participating agencies has grown to include 27 agencies with missions spanning from support for basic research to regulation of commercial products and activities. Today, the NNI participating agencies altogether invest ~$1.5 billion per year. The bulk of spending is in support of fundamental and applied research, including a number of shared use facilities.

As noted by the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) in 2014, 1 the NNI not only needs to invest in research and discovery, it needs to focus on translating research results into commercial products. This study assesses NNI mechanisms to advance focused areas of nanotechnology toward advanced development and commercialization, with particular attention to advancing nanomanufacturing ( Chapters 2 and 3 ) and the adequacy of the physical and human infrastructure ( Chapters 4 and 5 ) to support not only research but also private sector innovation.

Nanotechnology, which encompasses nanoscale science, engineering, and technology, is multidisciplinary and has potential to improve existing products

___________________

1 President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, 2014, Report to the President and Congress on the Fifth Assessment of the National Nanotechnology Initiative , Executive Office of the President, October, https://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/ostp/pcast/docsreports .

or enable new ones in many sectors, including information and communication technology, energy, and medicine. The innovation process by which the results of NNI research transition into practical application is complex, involving numerous actors from the public and private spheres.

Finding 2.1: The federal government plays a significant role in discovery, applied research, and early-stage development; the private sector plays a dominant role in product development and commercialization. A challenge for nanotechnology, like other emerging technologies, is to bridge from research to practical application. There are federal programs that provide support for advancing ideas to a level that is more likely to attract private investment.

Recommendation 2.1: The Nanotechnology Innovation and Commercialization Ecosystem Working Group should identify federal programs that assist with transitioning early-stage concepts to more advanced technology readiness. The Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Subcommittee, with support from the National Nanotechnology Coordination Office, should inform the basic research community about these programs and also communicate to federal program managers about how investment in advancement of nano-enabled technologies can provide opportunities for achieving their program and agency missions.

The NNI established Nanotechnology Signature Initiatives (NSIs) starting in fiscal year (FY) 2013 with the goal of focusing on technology areas of national importance that may be more rapidly advanced through enhanced interagency coordination and collaboration. There are currently five NSIs, including one announced in 2016—Water Sustainability through Nanotechnology. The NSI statements of need and opportunity make clear the potential benefits from advances in nanotechnology in each area. The roles and responsibilities of the NNI participating agencies in achieving the stated NSI objectives are not as clear.

Finding 2.2: Without a plan that has clear targets, goals, and metrics to measure progress, as well as indication of responsible agencies, funding for NSI topics will be more difficult to secure within the NNI agencies and advances will be more serendipitous and less assured.

Recommendation 2.2: Agencies participating in each Nanotechnology Signature Initiative (NSI) should develop a joint strategic plan with roadmaps and interim and end-result goals. The plans should include goals related to facilitating commercialization of research related to the topic of the NSI.

Nanotechnology-inspired grand challenges are a newer mechanism being employed by the NNI to focus on areas of high impact and technical opportunity. As noted in the announcement of the Grand Challenge for Future Computing, 2 achieving the grand challenge will depend on advancements in areas other than nanotechnology and in other government initiatives. Conversely, progress toward the grand challenge also supports advances toward the objectives of those other initiatives. This interdependency applies to the NNI as a whole.

Finding 2.3: The NNI is investing in technology areas that are critical to the goals of other federal initiatives and vice versa. The various initiative leaders and managers both inside and outside of the NNI may not have the entire expertise or programmatic influence or control to efficiently achieve their respective initiative goals.

Recommendation 2.3: The Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Subcommittee should strengthen engagement with the leadership of other high-priority initiatives in order to determine critical nano-enabled technological dependencies. The subcommittee then should focus NNI efforts to address those dependencies.

There are additional mechanisms for focusing efforts that are available to the NNI. Innovation incentive prizes are an approach that can draw attention to a technical challenge and tap into a community of innovators who may not currently be participating in addressing problems of interest to the federal government.

Finding 2.4: XPrize, InnoCentive, and other organizations have well-developed, proven strategies for managing innovation incentive prize competitions using cash awards and well-defined procedures to engage a diverse array of people and organizations, stimulate additional spending, and produce results.

Recommendation 2.4: NNI agencies should use innovation incentive prizes to engage a broader community to solve technical problems, particularly those underlying grand challenges and other national initiatives. NNI agencies can offer prizes directly, or work through existing organizations.

Transitioning nanotechnology research results into commercial products requires the ability to reliably manufacture with nanoscale precision and control

2 L. Whitman, R. Bryant, and T. Kalil, 2015, “A Nanotechnology-Inspired Grand Challenge for Future Computing,” blog, Office of Science and Technology Policy, October 20, https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2015/10/15/nanotechnology-inspired-grand-challenge-future-computing .

and at an acceptable cost. Since the NNI was established, nanomanufacturing has been recognized as essential to realizing economic benefits from the investment in nanotechnology research and development. Given its importance, the committee felt it was a focus area that warranted closer study.

Finding 3.1: Budget figures in support of nanomanufacturing as reported in the NNI supplements to the President’s budget have been inconsistent, and progress made toward recommendations of the 2007 National Science and Technology Council report Manufacturing at the Nanoscale: Report of the NNI Workshops 2002-2004 3 is not clear.

Recommendation 3.1: The Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Subcommittee should prepare a report that provides a self-consistent record of the NNI nanomanufacturing program, the status relative to the recommendations of the 2007 National Science and Technology Council report Manufacturing at the Nanoscale: Report of the NNI Workshops 2002-2004 , and the NNI plans to move forward.

Finding 3.2: Basic research programs focused on nanomanufacturing have been a strength of the NNI. NSF centers focused on nanomanufacturing have more adequate budgets for facilities and education than do single investigators who have smaller awards. Ending support for nanomanufacturing centers will lead to a decrease in coordinated education and facility efforts.

Recommendation 3.2: The National Science Foundation should find ways to continue some nanomanufacturing center-scale efforts. Such centers might be explicitly tasked to pursue early-stage research in support of advanced manufacturing programs, such as the Manufacturing Innovation Institutes.

The federal government has launched a substantial effort aimed at stimulating and supporting advanced manufacturing. A number of Manufacturing Innovation Institutes (MIIs) focused on various sectors have been established. In addition, the National Institute of Standards and Technology’s Advanced Manufacturing Consortia Program (AMTech) is funding planning activities to establish new, or strengthen existing, industry-driven consortia that address high-priority research challenges impeding the growth of advanced manufacturing. The MIIs are focused primarily at bridging the gap between research and commercialization. Connections

3 National Science and Technology Council, 2007, Manufacturing at the Nanoscale: Report of the NNI Workshops 2002-2004 , Arlington, Va., http://www.nano.gov/node/246 .

between the NNI and advanced manufacturing programs such as the MII program and AMTech can accelerate progress toward the goals of those programs.

Finding 3.3: In many cases, progress or success in the MIIs and in implementation of the roadmaps developed under the AMTech program will require advances in nanomanufacturing.

Recommendation 3.3a: NNI-participating agencies should explicitly support the early-stage (technology readiness level 1-3) nanomanufacturing research needed to enable the roadmaps and goals of current advanced manufacturing programs, in particular the existing Manufacturing Innovation Institutes.

Recommendation 3.3b: The Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Subcommittee should form a nanomanufacturing working group to identify nanoscale research needs of advanced manufacturing, coordinate efforts between the NNI and the federal programs focused on advanced manufacture, and foster greater investment by those programs in nano-enabled technologies.

Finding 3.4: Nanomedicine manufacturing is an essential step in realizing the benefits of the considerable investment in nanomedicine research under the NNI. Nanomedicine manufacturing poses a number of specific challenges that are not being met by other NNI manufacturing efforts. Two reports—the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Cancer Nanotechnology Plan 2015 and the PCAST Report to the President and Congress on the Fifth Assessment of the National Nanotechnology Initiative (Appendix II—Manufacturing Nanomedicine)—provide a sound basis for NNI focus on this topic.

Recommendation 3.4: The National Institutes of Health should lead the development of a roadmap, in collaboration with the nanomedicine industry, to identify technical barriers to scaling up the manufacture of nanomedicines, as well as areas in which research is needed to overcome those barriers.

Together the NNI agencies have created a geographically distributed set of user facilities that provides the broad nanoscale science and engineering community access to a range of characterization and synthesis tools and facilities. In addition, computational tools for nanoscale modeling and simulation have been developed and are made publicly available (e.g., via nanoHUB). The NNI investment in this physical infrastructure has been a cornerstone of supporting nanotechnology research and development in the United States. While the facilities serve thousands of users annually, there are many who could benefit but are not aware that this infrastructure can help address their needs.

Finding 4.1: The NNI agencies fund a substantial set of facilities that support experimental, computational, and educational activities and users from academia, industry, and government. While information about each facility or center is available on the NNI website, there is little evidence of coordination among the agencies to facilitate access and use by the community at large.

Recommendation 4.1: User facilities should strive to better serve the collective nanoscience research community by (1) sharing—perhaps via a central web-based portal—training materials and simulation and computational tools developed at the individual user facilities, and (2) creating a common proposal form and process that facilitate users moving between facilities to access the more expensive or specialized instrumentation.

The NNI investment in establishing this physical infrastructure has been substantial. However, there does not appear to be planning for sustainment.

Finding 4.2: There is a clear lack of identified funds for the development of new leading-edge instrumentation or recapitalization of commercial tools at NNI-sponsored user facilities, with the exception of the Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology. As a result, there is a real risk of obsolescence of the physical and computation infrastructure available to the nanoscience and technology research enterprise, and a corresponding decrease in the user value.

Recommendation 4.2: The National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy, in concert with other NNI agencies with instrumentation programs, should identify funding mechanisms for acquiring and maintaining state-of-the-art equipment and computational resources to sustain leading-edge capabilities at their nanoscale science and engineering user facilities.

Nanotechnology for medicine and other applications that involve contact with the body or the environment are increasing. The refreshed NSF network of user facilities, the National Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure, has expanded capabilities in support of nanobiology research. However, there is a growing need for tools and tests to characterize the safety of nanomaterials. The NCI Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory (NCL) is a successful model for the early assessment of nanomaterials.

Finding 4.3: The NCL serves as a trusted source of information on the safety of nanomaterials being developed for cancer and has facilitated Food and Drug Administration assessment. However, there is a lack of centralized facilities for addressing other areas of nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology.

Recommendation 4.3a: The National Institutes of Health (NIH) should assess what emerging medical applications, in addition to cancer diagnostics and treatment, rely on engineered nanomaterials. NIH should expand the Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory to address nanomaterials being developed for those other medical applications.

Recommendation 4.3b: The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, and the Environmental Protection Agency should join with the Consumer Product Safety Commission and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences to support development of centralized nanobiotechnological characterization facilities, at the Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory or elsewhere, to serve as a trusted source of information on potential environmental, health, and safety implications of nanomaterials.

Increasing the pipeline of undergraduates with science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education that includes nanoscale science/engineering is also important to the health of the nation’s high technology economy and is particularly vital to supporting the defense and government sectors.

Finding 5.1: There are existing programs at many of the NNI-participating agencies that support STEM undergraduate students. The NNI could take better advantage of these programs toward achieving the NNI Goal 3, thereby augmenting nanoscale science and engineering education without the need for additional resources.

Recommendation 5.1: The Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology Subcommittee, working with the National Nanotechnology Coordination Office, should gather from the NNI participating agencies information about their programs that support science, technology, engineering, and mathematics undergraduate students, identify opportunities for increasing the fraction of such program funds going to students engaged in nanotechnology-related activities, and publicize those programs on the NNI website.

As nanotechnology matures and at the same time is incorporated into traditional disciplines, the teaching of nano-related concepts will be incorporated into education at lower levels, including K-12. Development of education materials suited to younger students is the subject of a number of programs within and outside the NNI. In particular, the Commonwealth of Virginia has added nanotechnology to its standard K-12 curriculum.

Finding 5.2: A variety of approaches to incorporate nanoscale science and engineering in the K-12 education pipeline are being developed and implemented by entities both inside and outside the NNI. Educators and government education policy makers can learn from these programs and scale-up the more successful ones.

Recommendation 5.2a: The National Nanotechnology Coordination Office, working with the Department of Education and the National Science Foundation, should engage with states that have incorporated nanotechnology into the K-12 curriculum to develop a document outlining the approaches taken and make it widely available, including to individuals or groups seeking to improve K-12 science education in other states.

Recommendation 5.2b: The National Science Foundation and the Department of Education should work with states that have incorporated nanotechnology into the K-12 curriculum to identify metrics and track the outcomes of the approach taken by those states to include nanotechnology in the K-12 curriculum.

Finding 5.3: The NNI has funded the development of a diversity of formal and informal educational materials suitable for various levels and ages. Nanotechnology-focused educational programs at universities around the country, some of which have received substantial state funding, also are developing materials for K-12 students and teachers.

Recommendation 5.3: NNI-funded researchers and others who have developed educational materials should be required to deposit the information content on the nanoHUB website, and to explore affordable commercial availability for laboratory and classroom demonstration materials.

In summary, the NNI, including the interagency bodies and the NNCO, continues to add value to the portfolio of activities across participating agencies. Looking ahead, the NNI can significantly increase that value by focusing on research that will enable progress and success in other advanced technology areas of priority, especially advanced manufacturing. At the same time, the NNI agencies are called on to sustain investment in and facilitate access to physical infrastructure and to take steps to realize the full value of educational materials and programs. In the course of identifying targeted areas in which to focus, NNI agencies have the opportunity to consider the goals of the initiative and the criteria for continuing to invest resources in its coordination and management.

Nanoscale science, engineering, and technology, often referred to simply as "nanotechnology," is the understanding, characterization, and control of matter at the scale of nanometers, the dimension of atoms and molecules. Advances in nanotechnology promise new materials and structures that are the basis of solutions, for example, for improving human health, optimizing available energy and water resources, supporting a vibrant economy, raising the standard of living, and increasing national security.

Established in 2001, the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) is a coordinated, multiagency effort with the mission to expedite the discovery, development, and deployment of nanoscale science and technology to serve the public good. This report is the latest triennial review of the NNI called for by the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act of 2003. It examines and comments on the mechanisms in use by the NNI to advance focused areas of nanotechnology towards advanced development and commercialization and on the physical and human infrastructure needs for successful realization in the United States of the benefits of nanotechnology development.

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Conclusion and Perspective

Affiliations.

1 Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea.
2 Division of Science Education, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea.
3 Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Hanbat National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.
4 School of International Engineering and Science, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju, Republic of Korea.
5 School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
6 Department of Chemistry Education, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
7 Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea. [email protected].
PMID: 33782878
DOI: 10.1007/978-981-33-6158-4_13

Nanotechnology is a rapidly growing area of development by numerous research groups across the world with its potential applications gaining recognition since the 1950s across various fields. During the last decade of the twentieth century, researchers have actively engaged in the synthesis of nanoparticles and investigation of their physicochemical properties. Advancing the research momentum forward at the beginning of the twenty-first century, rapid development of nanoscience allowed to demonstrate unprecedented advantages of the nanomaterials and its applications in a wide range of fields. The interdisciplinary nature of nanoscience and its expansion has led to establishment of new laboratories and research centers, with increasing needs on training and educating young scientists in advanced laboratory protocols. In addition, pedagogical demands in nanotechnology and nanomaterials have resulted an emergence of new dedicated curriculums at universities which has sped up the development of nanoscience and its contribution to the body of knowledge in natural science.

Keywords: Diagnosis; Environmental pollution; Nanobiotechnology; Nanomaterials; Nanotechnology; Therapeutics.

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J Cutan Aesthet Surg
v.3(1); Jan-Apr 2010

Nanotechnology: The Future Medicine

Rajiv saini.

Department of Periodontology and Oral Implantology, Rural Dental College - Loni, Maharashtra, India

Santosh Saini

1 Department of Microbiology, Oral Implantology, Rural Dental College - Loni, Maharashtra, India

Sugandha Sharma

2 Department of Prosthodontics, Oral Implantology, Rural Dental College - Loni, Maharashtra, India

Nanotechnology is an exciting new area in science, with many possible applications in medicine. This article seeks to outline the role of different areas such as diagnosis of diseases, drug delivery, imaging, and so on.

INTRODUCTION

Nanotechnology can be defined as the science and engineering involved in the design, synthesis, characterization, and application of materials and devices whose smallest functional organization, in at least one dimension, is on the nanometer scale or one billionth of a meter. At these scales, consideration of individual molecules and interacting groups of molecules in relation to the bulk macroscopic properties of the material or device becomes important, as it has a control over the fundamental molecular structure, which allows control over the macroscopic chemical and physical properties.[ 1 ] Nanotechnology has found many applications in medicine and this articles outlines some such applications.

POSSIBLE MECHANISMS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN RELATION TO MEDICINE

These materials and devices can be designed to interact with cells and tissues at a molecular (i.e., subcellular) level, for applications in medicine and physiology, with a high degree of functional specificity, thus allowing a degree of integration between technology and biological systems not previously attainable. It should be appreciated that nanotechnology is not in itself a single emerging scientific discipline, but rather, a meeting of different traditional sciences, such as, chemistry, physics, materials science and biology, to bring together the required collective expertise needed to develop these novel technologies.[ 1 ] The promise that nanotechnology brings is multifaceted, offering not only improvements to the current techniques, but also providing entirely new tools and capabilities.

By manipulating drugs and other materials at the nanometer scale, the fundamental properties and bioactivity of the materials can be altered. These tools can permit a control over the different characteristics of drugs or agents such as:[ 2 ]

alteration in solubility and blood pool retention time
controlled release over short or long durations
environmentally triggered controlled release or highly specific site-targeted delivery

APPLICATIONS OF NANOMATERIALS IN MEDICINE

These applications include fluorescent biological labels, drug and gene delivery, bio-detection of pathogens, detection of protein, probing of DNA structure, tissue engineering, tumor detection, separation and purification of biological molecules and cells, MRI contrast enhancement and phagokinetic studies.[ 3 ] The long-term goal of nanomedicine research is to characterize the quantitative molecular-scale components known as nanomachinery. Precise control and manipulation of nanomachinery in cells can lead to better understanding of the cellular mechanisms in living cells, and to the development of advanced technologies, for the early diagnosis and treatment of various diseases. The significance of this research lies in the development of a platform technology that will influence nanoscale imaging approaches designed to probe molecular mechanisms in living cells.[ 4 ] Molecular imaging has emerged as a powerful tool to visualize molecular events of an underlying disease, sometimes prior to its downstream manifestation. The merging of nanotechnology with molecular imaging provides a versatile platform for the novel design of nanoprobes that will have tremendous potential to enhance the sensitivity, specificity and signalling capabilities of various biomarkers in human diseases.[ 5 ]

Nanoparticle probes can endow imaging techniques with enhanced signal sensitivity, better spatial resolution and the ability to relay information on biological systems at molecular and cellular levels. Simple magnetic nanoparticles can function as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast enhancement probes. These magnetic nanoparticles can then serve as a core platform for the addition of other functional moieties including fluorescence tags, radionuclides and other biomolecules, for multimodal imaging, gene delivery and cellular trafficking. An (MRI) with hybrid probes of magnetic nanoparticles and adenovirus can detect target cells and monitor gene delivery and expression of green fluorescent proteins optically.[ 6 ] Nuclear techniques such as positron-emission tomography (PET) potentially provide detection sensitivities of higher magnitude, enabling the use of nanoparticles at lower concentrations than permitted by routine MRI. Furthermore, a combination of the high sensitivity of PET with the anatomical detail provided by computed tomography (CT) in hybrid imaging, has the potential to map signals to atherosclerotic vascular territories.[ 7 ] Molecular imaging always requires accumulation of the contrast agent in the target site, and this can be achieved more efficiently by steering nanoparticles containing the contrast agent into the target. This entails accessing target molecules hidden behind tissue barriers, necessitating the use of targeting groups. For imaging modalities with low sensitivity, nanoparticles bearing multiple contrast groups provide signal amplification. The same nanoparticles can, in principle, deliver both the contrast medium and the drug, allowing monitoring of the bio-distribution and therapeutic activity simultaneously (referred to as theranostics).[ 8 ] Such nanofiber-based scaffolds are available in a wide range of pore size distribution, high porosity and high surface area-to-volume ratio. Such a wide range of parameters are favourable for cell attachment, growth and proliferation, and also provide a basis for the future optimization of an electrospun nanofibrous scaffold in a tissue-engineering application.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, it is concluded that, nanotechnology or systems / device manufacture at the molecular level, is a multidisciplinary scientific field undergoing explosive development. The genesis of nanotechnology can be traced to the promise of revolutionary advances across medicine, communications, genomics and robotics.

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

Nanotechnology

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Home / Essay Samples / Information Science and Technology / Modern Technology / Nanotechnology

Essays on Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology and its remediation.

Nanotechnology is a rapidly advancing field that involves manipulating matter at the nanoscale level, typically within the range of 1 to 100 nanometers. At this size, materials exhibit unique properties and behaviors that can be harnessed for various applications. This essay explores the fascinating world...

Exploring Nanotechnology as a Promising Career Path

Nanotechnology is a rapidly growing and interdisciplinary field that offers exciting career opportunities for individuals interested in cutting-edge research and innovation. This essay explores the potential of nanotechnology as a career choice, the skills required, and the diverse applications of nanotechnology in various industries. Embarking...

Jeroen Van Den Hoven: Nanotechnology and Privacy

Jeroen van den Hoven is a prominent philosopher and ethicist known for his work on the ethical implications of emerging technologies, including nanotechnology. In particular, he has explored the complex relationship between nanotechnology and privacy, raising thought-provoking questions about the potential threats and safeguards associated...

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