example of qualitative research about food

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“It’s a feeling that one is not worth food”: a qualitative study exploring the psychosocial experience and academic consequences of food insecurity among college students

Anthony meza.

1 School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley

Emily Altman

Suzanna martinez.

2 Nutrition Policy Institute, University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources

Cindy W. Leung

3 Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan (At the time of the study, Dr. Leung was at the Center for Health and Community, University of California, San Francisco.)

Author contributions : A.M. contributed in formulating the research question, designing the study, collecting and analyzing the data, and writing the first draft of the manuscript. E.A. contributed in collecting and analyzing the data, and critically revising the manuscript. S.M. contributed in designing the study and critically revising the manuscript. C.W.L. contributed in formulating the research question, designing the study, supervising data collection, analyzing the data, and critically revising the manuscript. All authors reviewed and commented on subsequent drafts of the manuscript.

Associated Data

Background:.

The issue of food insecurity is one of growing concern among institutions of higher learning in the United States. In addition to understanding the prevalence and risk factors, research is needed to better understand the mechanisms by which food insecurity affects their health and well-being

To critically explore the experience of food insecurity among college students and its impact on psychosocial health and academic performance

In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with college students to better understand the mechanisms by which food insecurity affects their psychosocial health and academic performance

PARTICIPANTS/ SETTING:

25 undergraduate students from a large public university in California who were recruited from a campus food pantry

Students discussed several themes related to the psychosocial effects of food insecurity: the stress of food insecurity interfering with daily life, a fear of disappointing family, resentment of students in more stable food and financial situations, an inability to develop meaningful social relationships, sadness from reflecting on food insecurity, feeling hopeless or undeserving of help, and frustration at the larger academic institution for not providing enough support. Students also discussed how food insecurity affected their academic performance through physical manifestations of hunger and the mental trade-off between focusing on food versus academics.

CONCLUSION:

These findings contribute to the understanding of what it means to experience food insecurity in higher education, and can inform how universities support students’ basic needs.

INTRODUCTION

Food insecurity is “the limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate, safe foods, or the inability to acquire personally acceptable food in socially acceptable ways.” 1 In 2016, 12% of American households experienced food insecurity. 1 Food insecurity is known to affect health outcomes of children and adults, including poor diet quality, 2 , 3 physical inactivity, 4 poor mental health, 5 , 6 depression, 7 - 9 and suicidal thoughts. 10 In recent years, studies have highlighted the issue of food insecurity among college students. One report across 34 colleges estimated that 48% of students experienced food insecurity. 11 Another recent report of 66 institutions estimated that 36% of college students were food insecure. 12 Levels of food insecurity among students are notably higher than the national average, and have been observed across different types of colleges (e.g. two-year vs. four-year, geographic location, and student body composition), highlighting the robustness of these data and the urgency in addressing this issue. 11 - 13

In 2015, a study conducted across the 10 University of California campuses reported that 42% of students experienced food insecurity, with 57% of those experiencing it for the first time. 14 College students may find themselves experiencing food insecurity due to a number of factors, including insufficient resources to purchase food, a lack of grocery stores on campus, inadequate transportation or cooking facilities, or lack of cooking skills. 14 - 17 Food insecurity is more prevalent among college students of under-represented backgrounds, making it harder for these students to succeed academically and ensure their future economic potential. 17 - 19 Thus, food insecurity is a critical issue for the long-term health and success of students. 12 , 13 , 20

Rigorous quantitative studies of food insecurity have utilized the USDA food insecurity module, which is the most valid measure of food insecurity for Americans. 21 This measure has been used to establish the prevalence of food insecurity for the college population, yet there are known issues that are specific to college students that remain unknown. 22 Furthermore, as colleges have devised their own strategies to address food insecurity on campus, 23 , 24 questions remain about how college students experience food insecurity differently from the general population and subsequently, how food insecurity affects their health and well-being. 13 , 25 - 27 These questions can be better understood by using qualitative research methods. Thus, this study aimed to critically explore the impact of food insecurity on college students’ psychosocial health and academic performance using in-depth interviews with students attending a large California public university.

Study Population and Data Collection

This study was conducted at the University of California (UC), Berkeley. Participants were recruited from the UC Berkeley Food Pantry, an emergency food provider launched in 2013 to address growing concerns of campus food insecurity. Students were eligible if they were: 1) ≥18 years of age; 2) enrolled as a student (undergraduate or graduate); and 3) a recipient of food or resources from the pantry in the past year. Students were recruited through posted fliers, social media, and snowball sampling. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. The study’s methodology was approved by the University of California, San Francisco.

An open-ended interview question guide was developed by the entire project team through a review of the college food insecurity literature and in consultation with key food insecurity and public health experts in the field. The final interview guide consisted of questions that examined students’ struggles of food insecurity, their thoughts and emotions about food insecurity, and how food insecurity affected their psychosocial health and academic performance ( Supplemental Table 1 ).

Prior to each interview, participants completed a survey about their demographics and food security status. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were used to explore the experiences of 25 undergraduate students and were conducted by two trained interviewers between January and May of 2017. The interviews lasted approximately 20-25 minutes and were conducted in a private location on campus. Participant recruitment was stopped when data saturation had been reached, that is when the content from student interviews began to sound repetitive and the emergent themes overlapped with those raised in prior interviews.

Data Analysis

Interviews were transcribed verbatim from audio recordings and checked for errors. Transcriptions of the interviews were analyzed for thematic content using a general inductive approach. 28 A coding scheme of emergent themes was developed from the interviews. Three project team researchers independently reviewed each transcript and applied relevant codes. The project team met regularly to resolve discrepancies and achieve consensus. The transcripts were coded based on categories of themes in the interview guide and other topics that were consistently discussed. The final transcripts were entered into NVivo (QSR International Pty Ltd, version 11) to assist in organizing the themes and examine whether any patterns emerged by participants’ responses.

The mean age of participants was 22.9 years; 16 students (64%) were female ( Table 1 ). Two students (8%) identified as White, 12 (48%) as Asian, and 11 (44%) as Latino. While most students (88%) received financial aid, only 4 students (16%) had a campus meal plan and 3 students (12%) received CalFresh benefits. Three students (12%) had high or marginal food security, 7 students (28%) had low food security, and 15 students (60%) had very low food security. Student interviews revealed several overarching themes regarding the psychosocial and academic effects of food insecurity.

Sociodemographic and health characteristics of 25 students recruited from the University of California, Berkeley

Psychosocial effects of food insecurity

Students discussed seven themes related to the psychosocial effects of food insecurity ( Table 2 ): 1) the stress of food insecurity interfering with daily life, 2) fear of disappointing their family, 3) jealousy or resentment of students in more stable food and financial situations, 4) inability to develop meaningful social relationships, 5) sadness from reflecting on food insecurity, 6) feeling hopeless or undeserving of help, and 7) the frustration and anger they felt at the larger academic institution for not providing enough resources to support students. There was overlap among some themes, due to the similarities of some psychological elements discussed.

Emerging themes and sample quotes relating to the psychosocial effects of food insecurity discussed by students recruited from the University of California, Berkeley

Stress of food insecurity

Most students described feeling anxious, worried, or stressed about their food and financial situation, and that this affected their academic performance and daily life. Some students discussed the stress of constantly having to keep track of their food resources, or navigating events on campus providing free food. One male student described the stress of eating “trans-fat and unhealthy food” as a result of not being able to afford a more healthful diet, which affected his physical health and further aggravated his anxiety. Another female student described the challenge of recovering from an eating disorder while experiencing food insecurity. For her, it was a constant internal struggle between knowing that she should eat and wanting to save the food for a later time.

Other students described the stress of food insecurity as a barrier to thinking clearly and planning for the future. One female student said, “When you’re so stressed about food all the time, that takes a lot of mental power. You need room for creativity, you need room to do certain things. But, if all that’s in your head is cluttered, everything becomes blurry, you‘re not focusing on the bigger picture, you‘re only focused on what’s happening next.”

Fear of disappointing family

While the fear of not having enough food was tied to the experience of food insecurity, some students also expressed fear of disappointing their family as a result of their food insecurity. As one male student described, “I was scared to let my parents know what was going on. I don’t want them to worry too much because they’re pretty old now. If they knew that [I didn’t have enough money for food], they would work even harder. I don’t want them to do that. My parents have a lot of hope in me because they were new to this country and I’m the only one going to college. I don’t want them to feel like a failure because I can’t eat here.”

Resentment of other students

Resentment and/or jealousy of students in more stable food and financial situations were prominent themes across several interviews. Students discussed feeling resentful of classmates who always had the luxury of eating at restaurants, who could focus on their schoolwork without worrying about their basic needs, and who lacked an understanding of situations that were different from their own upbringing or current situation. One female student said, “I have quite a few friends who just don’t understand. They say, ‘You can do it, you can rise out of this.’ Well, [they] don’t understand. I’m doing all that I can. That’s the difference in my friends - some people acknowledge that it’s larger than the individual, and [some]people don’t.”

Inability to develop meaningful social relationships

Students experiencing food insecurity often felt left out or were unable to participate in important social gatherings involving food and thus, missed a critical piece of the college experience. Situations where other students would offer to pay for them reinforced their embarrassment, leading some students to stop attending social activities. One male student described lying to his friends about why he couldn’t eat with them, but worried that over time, his friends would grow suspicious of his situation: “When you aren’t able to afford food, you have to lie and say, “I’ve already eaten” or “I’m not hungry.” Then, you have to keep [lying]. There’s going to be suspicion on the other side and that suspicion is going to strain the relationship that you form. If you are a little bolder [and] if this person is compassionate, you might ask [them to cover you]. That could turn into resentment. Food insecurity, it really affects everything. I try not to feel embarrassed, but it happens. It really hits home with relationships with other people.”

Sadness from reflecting on food insecurity

Several students expressed sadness as a result of experiencing food insecurity. For some students, sadness was experienced in response to interacting with more affluent students on a day-to-day basis, such as their roommates or classmates, around not being able to go out to eat or spend money on food. In other cases, students experienced sadness from the realization that they didn’t have enough resources to support their daily food requirements. As described by one female student, “I’ve heard of people [who] didn’t have enough money or resources to have a meal every day. It started happening to me and I was like, ‘oh, I guess I fit in that category.’ It was sad. It was really depressing. I’ve been in denial about where I stand in that hierarchy, because I’m a person of color and first generation. It really put things into perspective when I [was losing] weight because I wasn’t eating as much as I should.”

Feeling hopeless or undeserving of help

Some students felt hopeless between trying to balance working for pay and studying for school, or the future risk of taking out unsubsidized loans to pay for their short-term needs. Others felt undeserving of help from others because they didn’t consider their situation to be severe enough to merit external help, particularly when compared to other individuals in the community. One female student commented, “Being in Berkeley and surrounded by homeless individuals, I felt like [I] shouldn’t complain about anything. I have food for the week - just not at the standard that I think a student would need. I felt like talking about my issues were not valid because there are people in worse situations in close proximity to me.”

Frustration and anger at the academic institution

As a result of experiencing food insecurity, students felt angry and frustrated about their situation. Some students directed their anger towards the larger academic institution for not providing sufficient resources for students. A male student discussed the range of negative emotions he felt as a result of his situation: “When one isn′t able to afford a meal, it makes you frustrated and angry - angry with the institution that you’re part of. It makes you frustrated at the macrocosmic institution of society that should be offering food - healthy food, good food - and a sustainable conduit through which food can be provided to people who need it more than others. Anger and frustration are certainly there. Then what comes from that is a sense of regret, sadness. It’s a feeling that one is not worth food.”

Academic consequences of food insecurity

Across all interviews, participants described how food insecurity presented a significant challenge to their academic success due to the physical manifestations of food insecurity and the mental trade-off between focusing on food versus academics ( Table 3 ).

Emerging themes and sample quotes relating to the academic consequences of food insecurity discussed by students recruited from the University of California, Berkeley

Physical manifestations of food insecurity

Many students discussed feeling tired and lacking energy to perform well in school. One male student said, “If you don’t have enough food, you don’t have the energy to study. [Food insecurity] affects all aspects of your life. You just feel worse about yourself.” For certain students, the decline in grades and academic consequences of food insecurity were so severe that they contemplated changing majors or dropping out of school. Another male student commented, “I didn’t have the stamina so that almost made me quit science. I just felt weak most of the time. I felt like I couldn’t continue with the STEM field because I didn’t have the energy.” While several students worked to pay for living expenses, they sometimes found their income wasn’t enough to pay for food after rent, utilities, and tuition. This led to students working more hours to earn more money, resulting in fewer hours for studying.

Students also discussed feeling embarrassed that classmates could hear their stomachs growling from hunger, leading some students to intentionally skip class and others to lose focus of the course content. Several students also reported sleeping long hours, either as a response to not eating sufficient food or as a coping strategy related to hunger. For other students, food insecurity led to sleep deprivation from being preoccupied with thoughts of food. Furthermore, it perpetuated a cyclical pattern of tiredness, inability to focus in class, thoughts about food, and sleep deprivation.

Mental trade-off between focusing on food versus academics

Students reported that their academic performance was negatively affected by food insecurity because they spent more time thinking about food than focusing on their studies. One female student described this as a trade-off between pursuing one’s basic needs and pursuing academic success. Another male student characterized this as a constant voice in his head that impaired his ability to concentrate on his classes: “When you’re reading a textbook and you haven’t eaten all day, hunger doesn’t care. Hunger doesn’t care about Napoleon Bonaparte or the built environment. Food insecurity causes a lot of academic difficulty because it reduces [your] concentration. Eventually it’s the voice that’s constantly shouting at you. You can’t yell at something that is able to yell at you far more than you will ever be able to yell at it.”

In the current study, students discussed the psychosocial impact of food insecurity and the physical and mental manifestations of food insecurity on their academic performance. This research builds on previous quantitative studies by providing context and explanations for the observed associations with mental health and academic performance among college students.

To our knowledge, only one study has examined the issue of food insecurity among college students using a qualitative approach. In 2017, Henry led a study at the University of North Texas (UNT) that consisted of interviews with 27 food insecure students and five focus groups with food secure students. 16 Although the study at UNT was conducted with different methodology, interview questions, and sampling techniques, several themes from our study were consistent with their results, including feeling stressed about not having enough food, the inclination to avoid social gatherings, food insecurity affecting one’s self-worth, embarrassment of being food insecure, not wanting to accept help or support from friends and family, and the inability to concentrate affecting their academic performance. The corroboration of these themes across two distinctly different institutions demonstrates the pervasiveness of the psychosocial effects of food insecurity in a college setting.

The association between food insecurity and emotional health has been well-established in studies of children and adults. Children in food-insecure households are more likely to demonstrate internalizing behaviors and externalizing behaviors, compared to children in food-secure households. 29 - 31 The themes in the present study are consistent with both patterns of internalizing (e.g. sadness and depression, low self-esteem, fear of disappointment, social withdrawal) and externalizing behaviors (e.g. anger, frustration). Results from one systematic narrative review discussed the potential of a bi-directional effect of food insecurity and emotional well-being, where food insecurity and depression both predict each other at subsequent time points. 26 In the present study, most students discussed the influence of food insecurity on their psychosocial health. However, it is possible that poor mental health could lead students to work fewer hours, thereby reducing their income and increasing the risk of food insecurity. As food insecure individuals can exhibit multiple indicators of poor emotional health, more research is needed to determine the driving factors, direction of causality, and interventions to simultaneously alleviate food insecurity and support mental health.

Food insecurity has important implications on academic performance, which has been shown repeatedly in studies of children 32 - 34 and college students. 13 , 14 , 20 , 27 , 35 In a study conducted at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, the top three academic experiences reported by food-insecure students were difficulty concentrating in class or on an exam (73%), inability to study for an exam (23%), and inability to complete an assignment (15%). 35 A survey at University of Massachusetts Boston found that students experiencing food insecurity were more likely to fail courses or refrain from registering in future courses. 36 In the previous survey from the 10 University of California campuses, food insecurity was associated with a 0.3-point lower grade point average, which was partially mediated by poor mental health. 14 , 37 As the previous University of California studies and the present study showed, the psychosocial and academic consequences of food insecurity are not mutually distinct - food insecurity can increase psychological distress and worsen mental health, which can directly and indirectly affect academic performance. In addition to the psychological mechanisms, this study further highlighted physical mechanisms by which food insecurity can affect academic performance, including a lack of energy due to not consuming enough or the right foods, the distraction of one’s stomach growling in a small classroom, and sleeping to cope with hunger. Further research is needed to better understand the physical and psychological mechanisms that affect multiple dimensions of academic performance, including concentration on schoolwork, grade point average, retention, and graduation.

This study is limited by the small sample size. Students were recruited from the campus food pantry, which may exclude students who choose not to use campus food resources. However, there are few qualitative studies of food insecurity on college campuses, and these studies are needed to complement the quantitative studies of the predictors and risk factors of student food insecurity. More research, both qualitative and quantitative, is needed to further our understanding of the risk factors and consequences of food insecurity and the mechanisms by which these associations manifest among students across diverse institutions of higher education.

College students face important psychosocial, developmental, and economic challenges that can be exacerbated with food insecurity. Given the impact of food insecurity on physical, mental, and academic well-being, it is critical that institutional/systematic solutions are created not only to alleviate food insecurity, but to also promote holistic well-being in the higher education setting.

RESEARCH SNAPSHOT:

Research question:.

How does food insecurity affect the psychosocial health and academic performance of college students?

KEY FINDINGS:

In-depth interviews with college students revealed seven themes related to the psychosocial impact of food insecurity, including elements of stress, fear of disappointing family, resentment of other students, social isolation, hopelessness, and frustration. Food insecurity also affected students’ academic performance through physical manifestations of hunger and the mental tradeoff between focusing on food versus academics.

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgements:.

We would like to acknowledge Ruben Canedo and the UC Berkeley Food Pantry for their support of this study, Wendy Chu for assistance with interview transcriptions, and the study participants for their time. These individuals have provided permission to be named in this study.

Funding disclosures : This work was supported by grant R25A124043 from the National Institute on Aging. Dr. Leung was additionally supported by grant 5K99 HD084758 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute for Child Health and Human Development.

Conflicts of interest : No conflicts of interest.

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• Erin Cahill 1 ,
• Stacie R Schmidt 2 ,
• Tracey L Henry 2 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2791-9960 Gayathri Kumar 3 ,
• Sara Berney 4 ,
• Jada Bussey-Jones 2 and
• Amy Webb Girard 1
• 1 Emory University School of Public Health , Atlanta , Georgia , USA
• 2 Division of General Medicine and Geriatrics , Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta , Georgia , USA
• 3 Emory University School of Medicine , Atlanta , Georgia , USA
• 4 North Carolina State University School of Public and International Affairs , Raleigh , North Carolina , USA
• Correspondence to Tracey L Henry, General Medicine and Geriatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; henrytracey{at}hotmail.com

Background Some American households experience food insecurity, where access to adequate food is limited by lack of money and other resources. As such, we implemented a free 6-month Fruit and Vegetable Prescription Program within a large urban safety-net hospital .

Methods 32 participants completed a baseline and postintervention qualitative evaluation about food-related behaviour 6 months after study completion. Deductive codes were developed based on the key topics addressed in the interviews; inductive codes were identified from analytically reading the transcripts. Transcripts were coded in MAXQDA V.12 (Release 12.3.2).

Results The information collected in the qualitative interviews highlights the many factors that affect dietary habits, including the environmental and individual influences that play a role in food choices people make. Participants expressed very positive sentiments overall about their programme participation.

Conclusions A multifaceted intervention that targets individual behaviour change, enhances nutritional knowledge and skills, and reduces socioeconomic barriers to accessing fresh produce may enhance participant knowledge and self-efficacy around healthy eating. However, socioeconomic factors remain as continual barriers to sustaining healthy eating over the long term. Ongoing efforts that address social determinants of health may be necessary to promote sustainability of behaviour change.

• nutritional treatment
• nutrition assessment
• malnutrition

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjnph-2020-000064

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Introduction

Most US households have consistent, reliable access to enough food for active, healthy living. 1 Some American households, however, experience food insecurity, which is defined by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) as a lack of consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life. 1 In 2016, an estimated one in eight Americans were food insecure, equating to 42 million people. 1 Food insecurity can be influenced by a number of factors including income, employment and disability (Healthy People 2020). The prevalence of food insecurity varies across subgroups of the US population; some groups are more likely to be food insecure than others. The distribution of food insecurity across residence areas shows that the majority of food-insecure households are in metropolitan areas, with income as one of the primary characteristics associated with food insecurity. 2 Lower income households have a higher prevalence of food insecurity compared with higher income households. 2 Furthermore, food insecurity may increase the risk for obesity and chronic diseases. 3

Food assistance programmes such as the Women, Infants and Children programme and the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) help address barriers to accessing healthy food and may reduce food insecurity. 4 5 Interventions implemented within healthcare settings—such as onsite food pantries and mobile food distributions—that serve food-insecure populations have also been effective. 3

Our hospital is a large, urban safety-net hospital in metro Atlanta that provides care to low income and other vulnerable populations. In 2015, an assessment of food insecurity was conducted in the hospital’s primary care centre, where 323 patients completed a questionnaire that included questions regarding age, sex, race, household income, number of people in the household, zip code, diabetes status, the USDA two-item food security screener and SNAP utilisation. The study revealed that 55% of low-income patients receiving outpatient care were food-insecure. 6 To address this issue, we implemented a free 6-month Fruit and Vegetable Prescription Program (FVRx) within a primary care clinic at the hospital in 2016.

Eligible participants had a Body Mass Index (BMI)>30 and at least one associated chronic condition, such as diabetes. Components of the FVRx programme included 4 weeks of fruit and vegetable prescriptions to be redeemed for fresh fruits and vegetables packaged locally, monthly interactive groups classes on nutrition, and monthly cooking classes providing evidence-based nutrition and cooking skills education.

On completion of the programme, we conducted a postintervention qualitative evaluation among participants of the FVRx programme to assess (1) constraints on programme participation, (2) barriers to maintaining a healthy diet among participants, (3) participant capacity to sustain behaviour change during and after completion of the programme, in an effort to identify strategies that could improve participant retention and satisfaction with future programmes. This paper describes the results of this evaluation.

This evaluation incorporated a qualitative research study design. A telephone interview script was used to ask questions about patients’ experience with the FVRx programme, grocery shopping habits and the patient’s current fruit and vegetable consumption (see online supplementary appendix A ). Interview questions were developed to address the main goals of the evaluation, which were to investigate constraints on programme participation, barriers to maintaining a healthy diet among participants postintervention and strategies to improve participant retention.

Supplemental material

Enrolment of the 32 patients into the FVRx study occurred in June 2016; participation in the FVRx programme by the 32 participants took place from July 2016 to December 2016. Participants were referred to the programme by their primary care provider if they had a BMI>30 and at least one diet-related illness. All 32 participants had access to a phone rather their own or a family member’s phone.

The first author contacted the original 32 patients who participated in the FVRx programme by phone in June 2017, approximately 6 months after completing the programme. Six of 32 participants did not answer but had a working voicemail, for which a maximum of two messages were left. Additionally, the team encountered the wrong number for three participants, and full mailboxes for two numbers. Two numbers went unanswered (no voicemail) and one number was disconnected. Thus, of the 32 participants, 18 were reached by phone and verbally consented to participate in follow-up evaluation. Seven participants completed the programme while 11 participants attended a few classes but dropped out. None of the FVRx participants contacted refused to be interviewed.

Interviews were recorded using the TapeACall app and transcribed verbatim. Four interviews were not recorded due to technical difficulties with the app. In these instances, detailed notes were taken and were used in analyses in lieu of verbatim transcripts. A codebook was developed consisting of deductive and inductive codes. Deductive codes were developed based on the key topics addressed in the interviews; inductive codes were identified from analytically reading the transcripts. Transcripts were uploaded to and coded in MAXQDA V.12 (Release 12.3.2). Constant comparative analysis was used to compare experiences and perspectives between those who graduated and those who dropped out. This comparison was undertaken to understand how capabilities, motivations and opportunities changed over the course of their participation, and how this ultimately influenced programme retention.

Participant data on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics were collected at baseline ( table 1 ).

• View inline

Demographics of the FVRx participants*

Overall participant perspectives of the program

When asked about their main motivation for enrolling in the programme, most participants reported the desire to eat healthier and the desire to lose weight. ‘Motivation to enrol’ was one of the codes used in MAXQDA for the analysis, with subcodes of lose weight, eat healthy or doctor recommended. Of the 18 people interviewed, 8 or 44% mentioned enrolling in the programme to lose weight, and 11 or 61% mentioned enrolling to learn to eat healthy. When asked about the most useful thing they learnt in the programme, nearly all the respondents mentioned an improvement in their knowledge of nutrition, such as learning correct portion sizes or reading nutrition labels. Other participants reported enjoying meeting new people and having a sense of camaraderie and support from the group. Additionally, over half of the participants, including those who did not finish the classes, said they would like to enrol in the programme again if given the opportunity.

Participant capacity to sustain behaviour change

When asked about fruit and vegetable consumption since the programme ended, most respondents reported they continue to eat a good amount of fruits and vegetables ( Excerpts: ‘I’m beginning to start to like broccoli and been doing some kale’ and ‘Yes, I do a lot of salads and fruits…I am loving the fresh fruits’). The majority of participants reported that they continue to use the lessons they learnt in the healthy living and cooking classes when making food choices.

Of the 18, 15 or 83% respondents mentioned nutrition knowledge as a positive takeaway from the programme, and 15 of the 18 or 83% respondents also mentioned continuing to consume fruits and vegetables.

Constraints on program participation

Two participants mentioned that even though they were getting free food with the vouchers, it was still expensive ( Excerpt: ‘I had to pay a co-pay each time, and it just got too expensive…’). Others reported challenges in having transportation to attend the Healthy Living Classes ( Excerpt: ‘I wasn’t able at that time to have the transportation to go to all of them’). Another participant with mobility limitations had difficulty picking up their packaged fresh produce. Those who did not graduate cited their own or a family member’s poor health; out of pocket costs (ie, copays); lack of affordable transportation or parking; and/or inconvenient scheduling of the sessions. ‘Dropout/Missed Sessions Reasons’ code had a subcode of transportation/mobility, and four of the 18 or 22% of the respondents mentioned lack of transportation as their reason for not attending classes.

Barriers to maintaining a healthy diet among participants

When asked what they believe the biggest barrier to healthy eating is, the most commonly reported answer was cost (n=6) ( Excerpt: ‘…for people like me, that have so many medical bills…it’s easier to get the cheaper, unhealthy things…’). Another participant explained that her family often gets groceries from the food pantry, where the healthy options such as fresh produce are limited. Another reported barrier was finding the time to cook healthy meals, especially when working or caring for children. Over half of the respondents mentioned shopping at multiple stores in order to obtain the lowest prices ( Excerpt: ‘I shop at the cheapest store I can get it (fruits and vegetables) at’).

This evaluation reveals that most participants of the FVRx programme reported improved knowledge of nutrition and continue to consume fresh fruits and vegetables months after completion of the programme. However, FVRx participants continue to encounter barriers to maintaining a healthy diet with the most commonly reported barriers being the cost of fresh produce and competing priorities such as child care which prohibited time dedicated to healthy food preparation.

Lifestyle change interventions have been shown to be effective in the treatment and prevention of diet-related illnesses such as diabetes. 7 Similarly, other research has shown the use of goal setting and small groups to be promising tools in dietary behaviour modification, both of which are used in FVRx. 8 However, lifestyle change initiatives and health education may be ineffective in increasing healthy food consumption if they do not take into consideration other factors such as neighbourhood segregation, market strategies and poverty as important modifiers of accessibility. 9 In order to address the food insecurity in these low-income patients, we have to find ways to tackle the cost barriers they face when it comes to accessing healthier foods. Our FVRx programme attempts to integrate both health education and monetary incentives through vouchers, enabling improvement in participant knowledge of healthy eating and addressing any socioeconomic barriers to eating fresh fruits and vegetables during the intervention.

Without access to free fruits and vegetables through vouchers, consumption of fruits and vegetables continued to be met with challenges such as their cost and competing priorities that precluded time for healthy food preparation. This highlights the importance of incorporating strategies that equip participants with the knowledge and self-efficacy to continue healthy behaviours, even after the programme has ended. While the healthy living curriculum and cooking classes work to provide participants with those tools, conducting follow-up with participants at various intervals, via phone calls or hosting alumni events to serve as booster sessions, could be useful strategies to increase likelihood of continued behaviour.

There are a few limitations to this study. One limitation is that qualitative data were collected from a small sample of participants of the programme. However, this study was intended to be an evaluation of a pilot programme, and results will be used to inform expansion of the FVRx programme within our hospital.

Given the poverty status of many of our patients (figure 1), it is expected that many would have transient housing, possibly leading to the wrong number for three participants, and a disconnected telephone numbers for one another participant. Such social determinants might have also affected the ability to afford transportation to and from classes, as well as copays for the classes. We suspect these factors contributed to the high dropout rate (n=11) and the 44% non-response rate when calling patients 6 months postcompletion of the programme. This is potentially supported by our findings among the six respondents who mentioned cost as the biggest barrier; five of those were individuals who did not finish the programme. The interviews show that nearly all 18 of the respondents had the same motivation for starting the programme: to learn to eat better; however for those that did not ‘graduate’ (n=11), they reported current life circumstances as preventing them from completing the programme. This included health issues (their own or that of a family member), scheduling or difficulty with transportation to the programme site were reported by respondents as reasons for dropping out. These types of variables are not able to be addressed through the FVRx programming in the pilot phase of the programme, but should be researched and addressed in larger studies moving forward

Our multifaceted FVRx pilot programme enhanced participants’ nutritional knowledge and skills and continued consumption of fresh produce months after completion of the programme. However, socioeconomic factors remain as continual barriers to sustaining healthy eating. Additional efforts may be necessary to promote sustained healthy eating, such as skill building around gardening and growing fresh produce in the home. Using these types of innovative approaches may empower lower income populations to overcome barriers to healthy behaviour change. Efforts to improve participant retention in the programme, expand the programme to more participants and promote sustained behaviour change on programme completion are underway.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge Wholesome Wave Georgia, Project Open Hand, and The Common Market for their contributions to the FVRx program at our site. We are appreciative to Grady Memorial Hospital and the Primary Care Center for their innovative role in implementing systems change by supporting patient-centred group classes and FVRx prescriptions at our site.

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Contributors All authors listed have contributed sufficiently to the project to be included as authors, and all those who are qualified to be authors are listed in the author byline. Authors’ contributions: EC conducted the study and the analysis for the study, and helped to write up the study. SRS (MD) gave idea for study and helped plan and conduct the study and helped write up the study. TLH (MD, MPH, MS, FACP) helped plan, developed and conducted the study along with helping write up the study. SB helped plan, developed and conducted the study along with helping to write up the study. GK (MD) helped plan the study and write up the study. JB-J (MD, FACP) helped plan and developed the study. AWG (PhD) supervised and assisted EC in conducting the study and analysing the study and helped to write up the study.

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Patient consent for publication Not required.

Ethics approval All study protocols, informed consent documents and tools were reviewed and approved by the hospital review board and deemed exempt from review by Emory University Institutional Review Board. All participants gave verbal informed consent to participate and provided permission to record the call.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

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The Use of Qualitative Analysis in Food Research and Technology: Considerations and Reflections from an Applied Point of View

• Published: 16 September 2016
• Volume 10 , pages 964–969, ( 2017 )

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• D. Swain 1 ,
• J. J. Roberts 1 &
• D. Cozzolino 1  

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The application of qualitative analytical techniques is usually associated with the analysis of data sets targeting issues related with the presence or absence of a particular class or type of sample, pattern recognition and cluster analysis. In food sciences, these techniques are generally used to deal with the authenticity, classification, discrimination, fraud and origin of foods. In recent years, qualitative analysis became more relevant in both food research and industry applications, addressing fraud and traceability concerns in the food value chain. In this overview, some of the most common classification methods and techniques used in food sciences will be briefly described, with emphasis on the validation, interpretation and reporting of the results obtained.

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Doyle, N., Swain, D., Roberts, J.J. et al. The Use of Qualitative Analysis in Food Research and Technology: Considerations and Reflections from an Applied Point of View. Food Anal. Methods 10 , 964–969 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-016-0654-8

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• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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18 Qualitative Research Examples

Qualitative research is an approach to scientific research that involves using observation to gather and analyze non-numerical, in-depth, and well-contextualized datasets.

It serves as an integral part of academic, professional, and even daily decision-making processes (Baxter & Jack, 2008).

Methods of qualitative research encompass a wide range of techniques, from in-depth personal encounters, like ethnographies (studying cultures in-depth) and autoethnographies (examining one’s own cultural experiences), to collection of diverse perspectives on topics through methods like interviewing focus groups (gatherings of individuals to discuss specific topics).

Qualitative Research Examples

1. ethnography.

Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. Rooted in the discipline of anthropology , this research approach investigates the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions within groups, communities, or organizations.

Ethnographic research is characterized by extended observation of the group, often through direct participation, in the participants’ environment. An ethnographer typically lives with the study group for extended periods, intricately observing their everyday lives (Khan, 2014).

It aims to present a complete, detailed and accurate picture of the observed social life, rituals, symbols, and values from the perspective of the study group.

Example of Ethnographic Research

Title: “ The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity “

Citation: Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.

Overview: This study by Evans (2010) provides a rich narrative of young adult male identity as experienced in everyday life. The author immersed himself among a group of young men, participating in their activities and cultivating a deep understanding of their lifestyle, values, and motivations. This research exemplified the ethnographic approach, revealing complexities of the subjects’ identities and societal roles, which could hardly be accessed through other qualitative research designs.

Read my Full Guide on Ethnography Here

2. Autoethnography

Definition: Autoethnography is an approach to qualitative research where the researcher uses their own personal experiences to extend the understanding of a certain group, culture, or setting. Essentially, it allows for the exploration of self within the context of social phenomena.

Unlike traditional ethnography, which focuses on the study of others, autoethnography turns the ethnographic gaze inward, allowing the researcher to use their personal experiences within a culture as rich qualitative data (Durham, 2019).

The objective is to critically appraise one’s personal experiences as they navigate and negotiate cultural, political, and social meanings. The researcher becomes both the observer and the participant, intertwining personal and cultural experiences in the research.

Example of Autoethnographic Research

Title: “ A Day In The Life Of An NHS Nurse “

Citation: Osben, J. (2019). A day in the life of a NHS nurse in 21st Century Britain: An auto-ethnography. The Journal of Autoethnography for Health & Social Care. 1(1).

Overview: This study presents an autoethnography of a day in the life of an NHS nurse (who, of course, is also the researcher). The author uses the research to achieve reflexivity, with the researcher concluding: “Scrutinising my practice and situating it within a wider contextual backdrop has compelled me to significantly increase my level of scrutiny into the driving forces that influence my practice.”

Read my Full Guide on Autoethnography Here

3. Semi-Structured Interviews

Definition: Semi-structured interviews stand as one of the most frequently used methods in qualitative research. These interviews are planned and utilize a set of pre-established questions, but also allow for the interviewer to steer the conversation in other directions based on the responses given by the interviewee.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer prepares a guide that outlines the focal points of the discussion. However, the interview is flexible, allowing for more in-depth probing if the interviewer deems it necessary (Qu, & Dumay, 2011). This style of interviewing strikes a balance between structured ones which might limit the discussion, and unstructured ones, which could lack focus.

Example of Semi-Structured Interview Research

Title: “ Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review “

Citation: Puts, M., et al. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.

Overview: Puts et al. (2014) executed an extensive systematic review in which they conducted semi-structured interviews with older adults suffering from cancer to examine the factors influencing their adherence to cancer treatment. The findings suggested that various factors, including side effects, faith in healthcare professionals, and social support have substantial impacts on treatment adherence. This research demonstrates how semi-structured interviews can provide rich and profound insights into the subjective experiences of patients.

4. Focus Groups

Definition: Focus groups are a qualitative research method that involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain their perspectives on a specific concept, product, or phenomenon. Typically, these discussions are guided by a moderator.

During a focus group session, the moderator has a list of questions or topics to discuss, and participants are encouraged to interact with each other (Morgan, 2010). This interactivity can stimulate more information and provide a broader understanding of the issue under scrutiny. The open format allows participants to ask questions and respond freely, offering invaluable insights into attitudes, experiences, and group norms.

Example of Focus Group Research

Title: “ Perspectives of Older Adults on Aging Well: A Focus Group Study “

Citation: Halaweh, H., Dahlin-Ivanoff, S., Svantesson, U., & Willén, C. (2018). Perspectives of older adults on aging well: a focus group study. Journal of aging research .

Overview: This study aimed to explore what older adults (aged 60 years and older) perceived to be ‘aging well’. The researchers identified three major themes from their focus group interviews: a sense of well-being, having good physical health, and preserving good mental health. The findings highlight the importance of factors such as positive emotions, social engagement, physical activity, healthy eating habits, and maintaining independence in promoting aging well among older adults.

5. Phenomenology

Definition: Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, involves the examination of lived experiences to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence or underlying meanings of a phenomenon.

The focus of phenomenology lies in meticulously describing participants’ conscious experiences related to the chosen phenomenon (Padilla-Díaz, 2015).

In a phenomenological study, the researcher collects detailed, first-hand perspectives of the participants, typically via in-depth interviews, and then uses various strategies to interpret and structure these experiences, ultimately revealing essential themes (Creswell, 2013). This approach focuses on the perspective of individuals experiencing the phenomenon, seeking to explore, clarify, and understand the meanings they attach to those experiences.

Example of Phenomenology Research

Title: “ A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: current state, promise, and future directions for research ”

Citation: Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59 , 487-510.

Overview: A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

6. Grounded Theory

Definition: Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in qualitative research that typically applies inductive reasoning . The primary aim is to develop a theoretical explanation or framework for a process, action, or interaction grounded in, and arising from, empirical data (Birks & Mills, 2015).

In grounded theory, data collection and analysis work together in a recursive process. The researcher collects data, analyses it, and then collects more data based on the evolving understanding of the research context. This ongoing process continues until a comprehensive theory that represents the data and the associated phenomenon emerges – a point known as theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2014).

Example of Grounded Theory Research

Title: “ Student Engagement in High School Classrooms from the Perspective of Flow Theory “

Citation: Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158–176.

Overview: Shernoff and colleagues (2003) used grounded theory to explore student engagement in high school classrooms. The researchers collected data through student self-reports, interviews, and observations. Key findings revealed that academic challenge, student autonomy, and teacher support emerged as the most significant factors influencing students’ engagement, demonstrating how grounded theory can illuminate complex dynamics within real-world contexts.

7. Narrative Research

Definition: Narrative research is a qualitative research method dedicated to storytelling and understanding how individuals experience the world. It focuses on studying an individual’s life and experiences as narrated by that individual (Polkinghorne, 2013).

In narrative research, the researcher collects data through methods such as interviews, observations , and document analysis. The emphasis is on the stories told by participants – narratives that reflect their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

These stories are then interpreted by the researcher, who attempts to understand the meaning the participant attributes to these experiences (Josselson, 2011).

Example of Narrative Research

Title: “Narrative Structures and the Language of the Self”

Citation: McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative . American Psychological Association.

Overview: In this innovative study, McAdams et al. (2006) employed narrative research to explore how individuals construct their identities through the stories they tell about themselves. By examining personal narratives, the researchers discerned patterns associated with characters, motivations, conflicts, and resolutions, contributing valuable insights about the relationship between narrative and individual identity.

8. Case Study Research

Definition: Case study research is a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single instance or event: a case. These ‘cases’ can range from individuals, groups, or entities to specific projects, programs, or strategies (Creswell, 2013).

The case study method typically uses multiple sources of information for comprehensive contextual analysis. It aims to explore and understand the complexity and uniqueness of a particular case in a real-world context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This investigation could result in a detailed description of the case, a process for its development, or an exploration of a related issue or problem.

Example of Case Study Research

Title: “ Teacher’s Role in Fostering Preschoolers’ Computational Thinking: An Exploratory Case Study “

Citation: Wang, X. C., Choi, Y., Benson, K., Eggleston, C., & Weber, D. (2021). Teacher’s role in fostering preschoolers’ computational thinking: An exploratory case study. Early Education and Development , 32 (1), 26-48.

Overview: This study investigates the role of teachers in promoting computational thinking skills in preschoolers. The study utilized a qualitative case study methodology to examine the computational thinking scaffolding strategies employed by a teacher interacting with three preschoolers in a small group setting. The findings highlight the importance of teachers’ guidance in fostering computational thinking practices such as problem reformulation/decomposition, systematic testing, and debugging.

Read about some Famous Case Studies in Psychology Here

9. Participant Observation

Definition: Participant observation has the researcher immerse themselves in a group or community setting to observe the behavior of its members. It is similar to ethnography, but generally, the researcher isn’t embedded for a long period of time.

The researcher, being a participant, engages in daily activities, interactions, and events as a way of conducting a detailed study of a particular social phenomenon (Kawulich, 2005).

The method involves long-term engagement in the field, maintaining detailed records of observed events, informal interviews, direct participation, and reflexivity. This approach allows for a holistic view of the participants’ lived experiences, behaviours, and interactions within their everyday environment (Dewalt, 2011).

Example of Participant Observation Research

Title: Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics

Citation: Heemskerk, E. M., Heemskerk, K., & Wats, M. M. (2017). Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics. Journal of Management & Governance , 21 , 233-263.

Overview: This study examined how conflicts within corporate boards affect their performance. The researchers used a participant observation method, where they actively engaged with 11 supervisory boards and observed their dynamics. They found that having a shared understanding of the board’s role called a common framework, improved performance by reducing relationship conflicts, encouraging task conflicts, and minimizing conflicts between the board and CEO.

10. Non-Participant Observation

Definition: Non-participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the researcher observes the phenomena of interest without actively participating in the situation, setting, or community being studied.

This method allows the researcher to maintain a position of distance, as they are solely an observer and not a participant in the activities being observed (Kawulich, 2005).

During non-participant observation, the researcher typically records field notes on the actions, interactions, and behaviors observed , focusing on specific aspects of the situation deemed relevant to the research question.

This could include verbal and nonverbal communication , activities, interactions, and environmental contexts (Angrosino, 2007). They could also use video or audio recordings or other methods to collect data.

Example of Non-Participant Observation Research

Title: Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non-participant observation study

Citation: Sreeram, A., Cross, W. M., & Townsin, L. (2023). Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery‐oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non‐participant observation study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing .

Overview: This study investigated the attitudes of mental health nurses towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units. The researchers used a non-participant observation method, meaning they observed the nurses without directly participating in their activities. The findings shed light on the nurses’ perspectives and behaviors, providing valuable insights into their attitudes toward mental health and recovery-focused care in these settings.

11. Content Analysis

Definition: Content Analysis involves scrutinizing textual, visual, or spoken content to categorize and quantify information. The goal is to identify patterns, themes, biases, or other characteristics (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Content Analysis is widely used in various disciplines for a multitude of purposes. Researchers typically use this method to distill large amounts of unstructured data, like interview transcripts, newspaper articles, or social media posts, into manageable and meaningful chunks.

When wielded appropriately, Content Analysis can illuminate the density and frequency of certain themes within a dataset, provide insights into how specific terms or concepts are applied contextually, and offer inferences about the meanings of their content and use (Duriau, Reger, & Pfarrer, 2007).

Example of Content Analysis

Title: Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news .

Citation: Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50 (2), 93-109.

Overview: This study analyzed press and television news articles about European politics using a method called content analysis. The researchers examined the prevalence of different “frames” in the news, which are ways of presenting information to shape audience perceptions. They found that the most common frames were attribution of responsibility, conflict, economic consequences, human interest, and morality.

Read my Full Guide on Content Analysis Here

12. Discourse Analysis

Definition: Discourse Analysis, a qualitative research method, interprets the meanings, functions, and coherence of certain languages in context.

Discourse analysis is typically understood through social constructionism, critical theory , and poststructuralism and used for understanding how language constructs social concepts (Cheek, 2004).

Discourse Analysis offers great breadth, providing tools to examine spoken or written language, often beyond the level of the sentence. It enables researchers to scrutinize how text and talk articulate social and political interactions and hierarchies.

Insight can be garnered from different conversations, institutional text, and media coverage to understand how topics are addressed or framed within a specific social context (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002).

Example of Discourse Analysis

Title: The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis

Citation: Thomas, S. (2005). The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Studies in Education, 46 (2), 25-44.

Overview: The author examines how an education policy in one state of Australia positions teacher professionalism and teacher identities. While there are competing discourses about professional identity, the policy framework privileges a  narrative that frames the ‘good’ teacher as one that accepts ever-tightening control and regulation over their professional practice.

Read my Full Guide on Discourse Analysis Here

13. Action Research

Definition: Action Research is a qualitative research technique that is employed to bring about change while simultaneously studying the process and results of that change.

This method involves a cyclical process of fact-finding, action, evaluation, and reflection (Greenwood & Levin, 2016).

Typically, Action Research is used in the fields of education, social sciences , and community development. The process isn’t just about resolving an issue but also developing knowledge that can be used in the future to address similar or related problems.

The researcher plays an active role in the research process, which is normally broken down into four steps: 

• developing a plan to improve what is currently being done
• implementing the plan
• observing the effects of the plan, and
• reflecting upon these effects (Smith, 2010).

Example of Action Research

Title: Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing

Citation: Ellison, M., & Drew, C. (2020). Using digital sandbox gaming to improve creativity within boys’ writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 34 (2), 277-287.

Overview: This was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

Read my Full Guide on Action Research Here

14. Semiotic Analysis

Definition: Semiotic Analysis is a qualitative method of research that interprets signs and symbols in communication to understand sociocultural phenomena. It stems from semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation (Chandler, 2017).

In a Semiotic Analysis, signs (anything that represents something else) are interpreted based on their significance and the role they play in representing ideas.

This type of research often involves the examination of images, sounds, and word choice to uncover the embedded sociocultural meanings. For example, an advertisement for a car might be studied to learn more about societal views on masculinity or success (Berger, 2010).

Example of Semiotic Research

Title: Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia

Citation: Symes, C. (2023). Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia. Semiotica , 2023 (250), 167-190.

Overview: This study examines school badges in New South Wales, Australia, and explores their significance through a semiotic analysis. The badges, which are part of the school’s visual identity, are seen as symbolic representations that convey meanings. The analysis reveals that these badges often draw on heraldic models, incorporating elements like colors, names, motifs, and mottoes that reflect local culture and history, thus connecting students to their national identity. Additionally, the study highlights how some schools have shifted from traditional badges to modern logos and slogans, reflecting a more business-oriented approach.

15. Qualitative Longitudinal Studies

Definition: Qualitative Longitudinal Studies are a research method that involves repeated observation of the same items over an extended period of time.

Unlike a snapshot perspective, this method aims to piece together individual histories and examine the influences and impacts of change (Neale, 2019).

Qualitative Longitudinal Studies provide an in-depth understanding of change as it happens, including changes in people’s lives, their perceptions, and their behaviors.

For instance, this method could be used to follow a group of students through their schooling years to understand the evolution of their learning behaviors and attitudes towards education (Saldaña, 2003).

Example of Qualitative Longitudinal Research

Title: Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study

Citation: Hackett, J., Godfrey, M., & Bennett, M. I. (2016). Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study.  Palliative medicine ,  30 (8), 711-719.

Overview: This article examines how patients and their caregivers manage pain in advanced cancer through a qualitative longitudinal study. The researchers interviewed patients and caregivers at two different time points and collected audio diaries to gain insights into their experiences, making this study longitudinal.

Read my Full Guide on Longitudinal Research Here

16. Open-Ended Surveys

Definition: Open-Ended Surveys are a type of qualitative research method where respondents provide answers in their own words. Unlike closed-ended surveys, which limit responses to predefined options, open-ended surveys allow for expansive and unsolicited explanations (Fink, 2013).

Open-ended surveys are commonly used in a range of fields, from market research to social studies. As they don’t force respondents into predefined response categories, these surveys help to draw out rich, detailed data that might uncover new variables or ideas.

For example, an open-ended survey might be used to understand customer opinions about a new product or service (Lavrakas, 2008).

Contrast this to a quantitative closed-ended survey, like a Likert scale, which could theoretically help us to come up with generalizable data but is restricted by the questions on the questionnaire, meaning new and surprising data and insights can’t emerge from the survey results in the same way.

Example of Open-Ended Survey Research

Title: Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey

Citation: Hertlein, K. M., & Ancheta, K. (2014). Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey.  The Qualitative Report ,  19 (11), 1-11.

Overview: This article examines the advantages and disadvantages of technology in couple relationships through an open-ended survey method. Researchers analyzed responses from 410 undergraduate students to understand how technology affects relationships. They found that technology can contribute to relationship development, management, and enhancement, but it can also create challenges such as distancing, lack of clarity, and impaired trust.

17. Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Naturalistic Observation is a type of qualitative research method that involves observing individuals in their natural environments without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

Naturalistic observation is often used when conducting research on behaviors that cannot be controlled or manipulated in a laboratory setting (Kawulich, 2005).

It is frequently used in the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology. For instance, to understand the social dynamics in a schoolyard, a researcher could spend time observing the children interact during their recess, noting their behaviors, interactions, and conflicts without imposing their presence on the children’s activities (Forsyth, 2010).

Example of Naturalistic Observation Research

Title: Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study

Citation: Kaplan, D. M., Raison, C. L., Milek, A., Tackman, A. M., Pace, T. W., & Mehl, M. R. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study. PloS one , 13 (11), e0206029.

Overview: In this study, researchers conducted two studies: one exploring assumptions about mindfulness and behavior, and the other using naturalistic observation to examine actual behavioral manifestations of mindfulness. They found that trait mindfulness is associated with a heightened perceptual focus in conversations, suggesting that being mindful is expressed primarily through sharpened attention rather than observable behavioral or social differences.

Read my Full Guide on Naturalistic Observation Here

18. Photo-Elicitation

Definition: Photo-elicitation utilizes photographs as a means to trigger discussions and evoke responses during interviews. This strategy aids in bringing out topics of discussion that may not emerge through verbal prompting alone (Harper, 2002).

Traditionally, Photo-Elicitation has been useful in various fields such as education, psychology, and sociology. The method involves the researcher or participants taking photographs, which are then used as prompts for discussion.

For instance, a researcher studying urban environmental issues might invite participants to photograph areas in their neighborhood that they perceive as environmentally detrimental, and then discuss each photo in depth (Clark-Ibáñez, 2004).

Example of Photo-Elicitation Research

Title: Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study

Citation: Green, E. M., Spivak, C., & Dollahite, J. S. (2021). Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study. Appetite, 158 .

Overview: This study focused on early adolescents (ages 10-14) and their food routines. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews using a photo-elicitation approach, where participants took photos related to their food choices and experiences. Through analysis, the study identified various routines and three main themes: family, settings, and meals/foods consumed, revealing how early adolescents view and are influenced by their eating routines.

Features of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

Some key features of this method include:

• Naturalistic Inquiry: Qualitative research happens in the natural setting of the phenomena, aiming to understand “real world” situations (Patton, 2015). This immersion in the field or subject allows the researcher to gather a deep understanding of the subject matter.
• Emphasis on Process: It aims to understand how events unfold over time rather than focusing solely on outcomes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The process-oriented nature of qualitative research allows researchers to investigate sequences, timing, and changes.
• Interpretive: It involves interpreting and making sense of phenomena in terms of the meanings people assign to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). This interpretive element allows for rich, nuanced insights into human behavior and experiences.
• Holistic Perspective: Qualitative research seeks to understand the whole phenomenon rather than focusing on individual components (Creswell, 2013). It emphasizes the complex interplay of factors, providing a richer, more nuanced view of the research subject.
• Prioritizes Depth over Breadth: Qualitative research favors depth of understanding over breadth, typically involving a smaller but more focused sample size (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2020). This enables detailed exploration of the phenomena of interest, often leading to rich and complex data.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative research centers on exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

It involves an in-depth approach to the subject matter, aiming to capture the richness and complexity of human experience.

Examples include conducting interviews, observing behaviors, or analyzing text and images.

There are strengths inherent in this approach. In its focus on understanding subjective experiences and interpretations, qualitative research can yield rich and detailed data that quantitative research may overlook (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Additionally, qualitative research is adaptive, allowing the researcher to respond to new directions and insights as they emerge during the research process.

However, there are also limitations. Because of the interpretive nature of this research, findings may not be generalizable to a broader population (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). Well-designed quantitative research, on the other hand, can be generalizable.

Moreover, the reliability and validity of qualitative data can be challenging to establish due to its subjective nature, unlike quantitative research, which is ideally more objective.

Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies in This Guide Here

In conclusion, qualitative research methods provide distinctive ways to explore social phenomena and understand nuances that quantitative approaches might overlook. Each method, from Ethnography to Photo-Elicitation, presents its strengths and weaknesses but they all offer valuable means of investigating complex, real-world situations. The goal for the researcher is not to find a definitive tool, but to employ the method best suited for their research questions and the context at hand (Almalki, 2016). Above all, these methods underscore the richness of human experience and deepen our understanding of the world around us.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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