interesting evolution topics for research paper

Custom Essay, Term Paper & Research paper writing services

• testimonials

Toll Free: +1 (888) 354-4744

Email: [email protected]

Writing custom essays & research papers since 2008

161 brilliant evolution paper topics to inspire you.

Evolution paper topics focus on natural diversity and the evolution theory. Evolution refers to habitable characteristics’ changes in species through several successive generations. It’s a process that results in biodiversity occurrence.

Thus, evolution is a process occurring in every species on the planet. The evolution theory explains different species’ origins through this process. Many people consider Charles Darwin, the father of the evolution theory.

How to Write a Paper on Evolution

An evolution paper can include information about species, extinction, and survival. The instructor will tell you whether to use MLA or APA format when writing the essay . Once you’ve researched the information to include in your paper, follow these steps to write it.

Write the Introduction Introduce the evolution topic briefly and tell the readers about the structure, elements, and the main idea or thesis statement. Ensure that the introduction has a hook sentence to grab your readers’ attention. Usually, this should appear in the first or second sentence of the paper. For instance, you can use a scientific fact about evolution. That way, you can grab your reader’s attention and interest. Also, overview the topic and the essay structure in the introduction. Write the Body Use logical and consistent paragraphs revealing arguments and facts supporting your thesis statement. Here, present all relevant and valuable information that your audience wants to hear about the topic. Present and support your argument in the body paragraphs. The number of sections you include in the body will depend on the preferred length of your paper. Conclude the Paper Write a firm conclusion by reminding the audience what you set out to do from the beginning and showing them how you’ve done it. You can also recommend further studies on the topic. Nevertheless, your conclusion should summarize the entire paper without introducing new ideas. Recap the essential findings and facts that the readers should take from your essay. Also, restate your thesis statement using different words to make your paper sound integrated and logical.

That’s a summary of the easiest way to write an evolution paper. However, your approach might vary slightly depending on the instructions you receive from the educator. But most importantly, use information from relevant and verified sources. Also, be consistent and logical in your argument.

Use a topic sentence to start your sentences in the body sections. Above all, explain your facts after stating them and avoid plagiarism in any form. After writing your paper, check the instructions from the educator to ensure that you’ve done the right thing. Proofread and edit your essay before submission to eliminate all typo, grammatical, and factual errors.

Evolution Research Paper Topics

Perhaps, you want to write an evolution paper but don’t have a topic for the essay. Maybe the educator asked you to pick a unique title for your essay, but this gives you a headache. If so, here’s a list of the best titles to consider for your evolution essay.

• Does evolution try to explain morality?
• Is there evidence to prove evolution?
• Explain how Darwin came up with the evolution theory
• Theories that will potentially debunk the evolution theory
• The evolution thought’s history
• Common myths about the evolution theory that people still believe
• How Darwin’s theory influences science
• Evolution theories that existed before “The Origin of Species” by Charles Darwin
• Describe the Life Tree concept
• Essentialism- What is it?
• The evolution theory objections
• Who deserves credit for the evolution theory- Darwin or Wallace?
• What was Alfred Wallace’s contribution to the evolution theory?
• Describe different categories of evolution theories
• What is neo-Darwinism?
• Describe the De Vries mutation theory
• What is evolutionary psychology?
• Describe the social change evolution theory
• Explain why scholars consider evolution a theory
• Describe the synthetic evolution theory
• What is somatic selection?
• Explain evolution as a theory and a fact
• Describe the adaptation theory
• Describe Lamarck’s evolution theory
• Are all human beings related?

Select a topic from this list and then research it extensively to develop a winning evolution paper. Some of these titles are relatively easy to find related information from reliable sources. Thus, writing an essay about any of these titles shouldn’t be difficult for most learners.

Evolutionary Biology Research Paper Topics

Evolutionary biology entails observing changes in living organisms. Writing a research paper on a topic in this category can help you understand the versatile nature of life on the planet. Here are interesting issues to consider in this category.

• Compare the ectotherms and endotherms evolutionary process
• Explain how animal physiology adapts to a geographic range
• Investigate the stamina evolution of animal locomotion
• Explain how bees learn communication by dancing
• Explain ways via which species achieve maximum fitness
• Life history theory: Explain how the life history of a species influence its evolution
• Explain the process of determining age in the herbaceous plants
• Explain how stabilizing selection maintains a species’ phenotype during evolution
• Discuss the four questions by Tinbergen
• Describe the advantages of sexual reproduction
• Why does cancer persist?
• Evolution and society: What is their connection?
• Explain the limited alcohol dehydrogenase gene occurrence in Southeast Asia
• Dividing humans into different races- Is it scientifically logical?
• Tracking the aging evolution in human history
• Explain how speciation works
• Genetic drift- Explain how it affects variation
• Describe the Modern Synthesis problems
• The Red Queen hypothesis- What does it state?
• What is morphological development?
• Ideas on sex evolution and recombination
• Recent evidence supporting or refuting Wright’s shifting balance theory
• Evolution evidence in the chloroplast genome
• Codon choice evolution evidence
• Sympatric speciation evidence
• Speciation evidence through polyploidization
• Reticulate evolution evidence
• Speciation evidence through hybridization
• Flowering plants’ ancestral group evidence
• Evolution evidence in the mitochondrial genome
• Evolution evidence arising from predator-prey interactions
• Evolution evidence for developmental pathways
• Evolution evidence for diverse mating systems
• Demonstrate the disease role in a species’ evolution
• Describe evolutionary changes in how species mate
• Describe the evolution of the human immunodeficiency virus
• How wolves exhibit a social behavior
• Why do malaria parasites resist drugs?
• Animal camouflage- Describe the evolutionary evidence and causes
• Evolutionary response by parasites to vaccination
• Natural selection for aquatic organisms
• Human appendix- What were its original functions?
• Describe the evolutionary connections between butterflies and moths
• Chimpanzees versus gorillas anatomy
• Describe aquatic speciation
• Explain the genome response to environmental toxicants
• What are the impacts of evolutionary theory?
• Explain the plants’ evolutionary history
• Does evolution has any applications?
• Explain the evolution of plants

Evolutionary biology research topics can cover geology, genetics, and ecology. Some of these titles cover paleontology too. Nevertheless, select a title you can comfortably work with and impress the educator.

Interesting Evolution Topics

Maybe you want to have some fun researching and writing your evolution paper. Perhaps, you want to write about a topic that even your audience will find exciting to read. In that case, consider these titles for your paper.

• Describe the evolution of mating systems in plants
• Interactions between biotic and physical environments
• Neglected taxa genomic diversity
• Life-history evolution and reproductive allocation
• Sexual conflict and sexual selection
• What is social evolution?
• Memory and learning in the wild
• Infectious disease evolutionary biology
• Evolution of the immune systems and immunity
• Parasites evolutionary ecology
• Host-parasite co-evolution
• The speciation genetics
• Genome and molecular evolution
• Bacterial evolution
• Viral evolution

Many scholars would love to research and write about these exciting topics in evolution because they can unearth exciting information. Nevertheless, take your time to explore any of these topics to develop a winning paper.

Human Evolution Topics

Do you want to research and write about human evolution? If yes, this category has some of the best topics to consider for your essay.

• Are humans different from apes?
• Why did humans start walking on their two feet?
• Explain what happened to Neanderthals
• Describe the evolutionary benefits of establishing a society
• Evolution and art- Is there a correlation?
• Evolution variation
• Host-parasite co-evolution in malaria
• Sex differences evolution in cognition
• The human nervous system’s evolution
• Immunity evolution
• Evolutionary theory and its social effects
• Describe evolutionary medicine
• Describe monogamy evolution
• Human intelligence- How has it evolved over the years?
• Describe the Red Queen hypothesis
• Explain why humans laugh
• Explain what enabled the human species to dominate the others on earth
• What makes the human brain different from that of the other species?
• Describe the human eye evolution
• Explain why humans perceive beauty
• How the evolution theory tries to explain speech and language existence
• Describe the recent human mutations
• Describe the evolutionary sex theory by Geodakyan
• Sexual reproduction evolution
• What are the evolutionary advantages of a culture?

All these are exciting topics to consider for your academic paper. Nevertheless, spend sufficient time researching your title to develop a stellar evolution paper.

Creation vs. Evolution Topics

Maybe you want to write about creation versus evolution. This category has some of the most controversial topics to explore when writing a research paper. Consider these ideas for your essay.

• Examining the arguments for evolution and creationism
• How evolution and creation explain the origin of humans on earth
• How different religions explain the creation theory
• How Buddhism explains the creation theory
• Evolution and the creation myth
• Is the creation theory an abuse of science?
• Is there a common ground between evolution and God?
• A Darwinian as a Christian- Is it possible?
• Why creationism and evolution present a public controversy
• Why is the creation theory so different from the evolution theory?

These are brilliant topics to consider for your college or university paper. However, prepare to research your paper extensively and use other theories to support your argument if possible. That way, you can compose a unique, custom paper that will impress your educator to award you the top grade.

Good Evolution Research Topics

Maybe you need a good topic that most people will find captivating to read about and find relevant information. In that case, this category has good titles to consider for your paper.

• Aqua man- An evolution across the ages
• The evolution of whales, cats, dogs, or any species
• Describe the earliest forms of life on earth
• With examples, explain the animal kingdom’s parallel evolution
• The animal kingdom’s cladistics
• Birds and evolution
• How climate affects evolution
• Describe fungi evolution
• Describe hair evolution
• Describe the animal selection process in the animal kingdom
• Describe the co-operation development
• How chromosomal change affects plant evolution
• Describe evolution during animals domestication
• Sexual modes reconstruction throughout evolution
• Evolution and pant population genetics
• Early neurons evolution
• Animal genome evolution
• Medusas and polyps evolution
• The evolution of early animals

This category has simple and complex topics for students at different academic levels. Nevertheless, you can find information on most of these topics from reliable sources. Thus, you can write your paper on any of these titles and impress the educator.

Additional Evolution Topics for Research Paper

Perhaps, you’re yet to find an exciting topic for which you can write a detailed paper. In that case, these additional topics should present a title you’ll find worth working with if the teacher has assigned you an essay on this subject.

• Intimate selection- What is it, and how does it work?
• Optimality concept- Describe it in detail
• What is a gene-centered view
• What effect of biology is social?
• Multicellular organisms development
• Adaptation and hereditary architecture
• Describe evolutionary robotics
• Palaeobiology- Describe it with examples
• Neuroscience and evolutionary biology
• Immunology and evolutionary biology
• Biological preservation- What is it?
• Evolutionary biology- What are the conceptual problems?
• The evolutionary sperm biology perspective
• Evolutionary biology and mathematical models
• Phylogenetics and evolutionary biology
• Biology Genetics and evolutionary population

Please select these topics and then develop them into awesome papers through extensive research and analysis. Evolution is undoubtedly an exciting subject to study and even write about in high school, college, or university. However, students need time to research and write papers about this subject. Unfortunately, not every learner finds this subject exciting or has adequate time to write an essay about any of these topics. And that’s where the help of professionals comes in.

Get Online Help with Your Evolution Paper

Maybe you’re stuck with an evolution paper whose deadline is due in the next few hours. Perhaps, you don’t even know where to start or write your essay without compromising on quality. Whether the educator asked you to write about comparative anatomy or an ancient species and its evolution, our crew can help you.

We’re a professional team with a proven track record of helping students with evolution essays and papers. Regardless of how simple or complex your topic seems, we are ready to help you write a winning paper about it. Our expert writers know where and how to gather relevant information for any evolution topic. What’s more, we’re always ready to take your paper order. That means you will get instant help with your paper upon enlisting our service.

Stop struggling to write your evolution when our experts are ready to help. Instead, contact us now to enlist a service that will enable you to score the top grade in your class!

505 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best evolution topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on evolution, ✅ simple & easy evolution essay titles, 🔍 good research topics about evolution, 🎓 writing prompts about evolution, 📌 interesting topics to write about evolution, ❓ evolution essay questions.

• The Rise and Evolution of the World of Islam Prophet Muhammad, who was was born and raised in Mecca, started spreading the teachings of Islam in Saudi Arabia and this marked the origin of Islam.
• International Organizations and Their Evolution In this context, it can be stated that this strategy of international politics recognizes the belief that organizations and institutions are key ways of promoting peace around the world. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Land Transport – History, Evolution, and Development Essay The combination of the horse and the wheel made transportation system simple as it facilitated exchange of crops. This was the origin of movement of a large number of people in the 18th century.
• The History and Evolution of the Visual Basic Programming Language It is a specific language that is used by users to have a flexible environment in which they interact easily with the computer it is the best programming language and the easiest to use.
• The Stone Age Period and Its Evolution Therefore, the term is associated with the tools and the equipments that the ancient people made from the stones. In the Neolithic age, there was development of weaving, pottery and metal weapons and tools began […]
• Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments The development of computer technology is characterized by the change in the technology used in building the devices. The semiconductors in the computers were improved to increase the scale of operation with the development of […]
• Geography, its Evolution and Future Geography is the study of the earth and the natural features that characterize it. The revolution was related in some way, to the methods in which the researchers studied the earth and the processes occurring […]
• Importance of History and Evolution of Businesses to Managers Business managers are expected to organize, plan, control and oversee the implementation of business plans and strategies with the ultimate aim of accomplishing the goals and objectives of the firm.
• Stellar Evolution The mass of the star is, however, the most essential and influential factor that determines its lifetime especially when other factors are kept to a constant.
• Creationism vs. Evolution A piece of art showcases the aptitude of an artist, so does the earth and the universe that imply the reality and the potentiality of its stylist.
• The Importance of Teaching Alternative Evolution Theories The theory of evolution should be the basis of the entire course of biology at school. The general representation of the leading alternative evolution concepts should be provided before the arguments for these theories implementation […]
• “Why Evolution Is True?” by Jerry A. Coyne The reader is able to use this vivid substantiation of claims to understand the author’s need to introduce the aspect of God who is at the center of these natural happenings.
• The Evolution of Behavioral and Cognitive Development Theories of Crime Behavioral theory is based upon the principles of behavioral psychology and is the basis for behavior modification and change. This theory is founded on the belief that the way in which people organize their thoughts […]
• The Evolution of the Automobile & Its Effects on Society This piece of work will give an exhaustive discussion of the evolution of the automobile and the effects it has had on the society.
• The Times New Roman Font: Evolution and Readability The typography used in a newspaper represents a sample of the state of the medium. 7There is however, a strong tendency to ensure the legibility of the style and the readability of the writing, at […]
• Sports Photography and Its Evolution The death of Niepce was announced in 1833, but the experiment was still been performed by Daguerre and he succeeded in the development of the daguerreotype finally in 1837.
• Evolution of Fire Fighting Gear The traditional shape of the helmet was created with a short brim on the front and a long brim on the back to keep embers and hot water from going down the back of the […]
• Principles & Concept of Total Quality Management Essay The second principle of TQM is that the problem in most companies is the processes but not the people. This was based on the fact that the quality of the products was determined by all […]
• Evolution of Television Throughout the decade, the cable television was the means of transmission between the transmitters in television network premises and the receivers at the viewer’s home.
• History of Hunting: Evolution and Improvement Contrary to the modern trend of hunting being more of a sport, during the pre-civilization era hunting was one of the main means of survival.
• The Evolution of Electricity In one of her works Diana Bocce observes, “The kite experiment helped Franklin establish a relationship between lightening and electricity, which led to the invention of the lightning rod” This is considered one of the […]
• Harry Winston Fashion Brand and Its Evolution Harry Winston Diamond Corporation was founded in the year 1932 and is headquartered in New York. Harry Winston has remained a powerful brand in the global jewelry industry.
• Evolution of Capitalism: Concept, Origin and Development The central idea in the ‘Evolution of Capitalism’ is that western society is archetypical of a radical change and gradual development of the capitalist system.
• Internet Evolution and Structure The creation of the network was meant to be a security measure to ensure that data and information belonging to ARPA remained within the system.
• Hebrew Monotheism: Origins and Evolution In the book of Exodus, Moses received the Ten Commandments from God and one of the commandments was to worship one God only.
• Evolution of the Clock In this light, the paper tracks changes in the operation mechanisms of the clock in the quest to provide theoretical records of evolution of engineering.
• “The Facts of Evolution” by Michael Shermer The major theme of the article is the justification of Darwin’s evolution theory. The theory is based on the assumption that species are static, but the changes in species are very rapid, and, thus, the […]
• The Private Security’ History and Evolution However, it was after this era when the parliament in the United States organized a number of security studies in order to expand the scope of security channels in various institutions including the inclusion of […]
• Co-Evolution: Angiosperms and Pollinating Animals The birds need nectar from the flowers, the plants that produce nectar consequently only do so to attract these birds and insects, for the process of drawing nectar from these plants to be possible, the […]
• Candy Evolution Through the History The evolution of candy similar to those of the organism, may explain the reason why candy has found a centre spot in celebrating Darwin’s days. Valentine candy was used in the past and presently with […]
• The evolution of McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y in relation to the development of management theory The natural response of managers was to be more stringent and consequently the employees reacted to it, resulting in a viscous cycle.
• Urbanism in Architecture: Definition and Evolution In general urbanism is a very wide concept that is used to describe an urban centre architectural system in its totality beyond the mere building structures and includes a city’s infrastructure system, economy, geography, social-cultural […]
• Embedded Intelligence: Evolution and Future The importance of mobility in the current business context has motivated the use of embedded technology to design systems. It is used in the management of energy systems such as production, distribution, and optimization.
• The FBI and Its Evolution Through the History To talk competently and properly about the start of the FBI, you need to know and understand the main purpose they are keeping to; “The mission of the FBI is to upload the law through […]
• Evolution of Construction Management From 1960s to Today Thus, the basic features of management within the scope of construction were visible already throughout the undertakings of the first people.
• The Evolution of Heavy Metal Rock Music in UK and US In the United States, the tempo of heavy metal music is slower than the heavy metal rock music in Great Britain.
• Charles Darwin: Evolution Theory The naturalist of the time believed that everything in the world had a key role in the economic of nature and the credit was given to an intelligent creator.
• English Language Evolution Because of the consolidation processes which England was experiencing in the course of the sixteenth century and the following strengthening of the empire, as well as the establishment of the relationships with other states of […]
• Hominids and Stages of Human Evolution Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecines, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo Neanderthal are stages of human evolution with distinct physical appearances and behavior. The molars and premolars of Homo habilis were comparatively smaller than Ardipithecus and Australopithecus.
• The Evolution of Nursing Overview When defining the notion of nursing in the context of the 21st century, many people fail to reflect on the historical precedents that contributed to the development of nursing as a separate qualification.
• Horse Family and Its Evolution Fossil records reveal a wide study of the evolution of the horse. This paper examines the evolutionary trend of the horse.
• The Evolution of the Greek Temple Admittedly, the architecture of ancient Greece had a great impact on the development of the architecture of the entire western civilization.
• The Evolution of Harriet Tubman When describing Harriet Tubman’s psychosocial development during the first stage, it is important to examine her relationship with the parents, especially with her mother.
• The Evolution of Human Rights: France vs. America The Age of Enlightenment made human rights one of the major concerns of the world community, which led to the American and French Revolutions the turning points in the struggle for justice.
• Phonograph Invention and Evolution The time period the phonograph was invented and the circumstances that led to the invention. The invention and advancement of the phonograph and its operations has had a part to play on other inventions.
• Ponyboy’s Evolution in Hinton’s “The Outsiders” Two of Ponyboy’s friends die, and he sees a lot of violence in the streets. He is still a part of the gang, and he thinks that violence is a part of their life.
• Why Evolution Is True? A study of some of the fossil evidence using some of the modern tools shows a clear pattern of evolutionary change that make it easy to appreciate that evolution could be true.
• Historical Evolution of Technology in Healthcare During the 18th century, the medical field was in disarray due to the lack of organization and deaths resulting from inefficiencies and negligence of doctors.
• Evolution of Makkah as a City The first pattern is a central business district, in this pattern the shape has been affected by the natural topography of the city of Makkah.
• The Evolution of the Chinese Brush Painting Other ritual vessels in the country were decorated using the brush and ink; resulting in the flourishing of the brush painting in the country.
• Scientist Charles Darwin & Evolution By the year 1846, Darwin had a number of publications relating to zoological and geological discoveries of his expedition works that catapulted him in the scientists front rank.
• The American Military and the Evolution of Computer Technology From the Early 1940s to Early 1960s During the 1940s-1960, the American military was the only wouldriver’ of computer development and innovations.”Though most of the research work took place at universities and in commercial firms, military research organizations such as the Office […]
• Tesla: Testing a Business Model at Its (R)Evolutionary Best To examine the sustainability of Tesla’s business model, one needs to get to the very core of what the company is actually doing on the market and in the business world.
• Nursing Evolution Since Florence Nightingale Secondly, the environmental theory introduced by Nightingale has evolved in the course of time, and modern nurses do their best to investigate the role of nursing environments and provide their patients with the most relevant […]
• Graphic Card Industry and Evolution A graphic card, usually, referred to as a video card or a graphic accelerator card is an electronic circuit installed on the motherboard inside the central power unit, mostly on Laptops and desktop computers.
• Modern City and Human Society Evolution In this regard, it is possible to suggest that the evolution of the modern city will be conditioned by the blistering development of the business world and other tendencies related to the sphere of the […]
• The Evolution of Philips Organization Reorganization in the 1990s demonstrated that the company’s effectiveness of Philips was earlier reduced due to the specific approach to the senior management selection.
• The Evolution of Dragons in Fantasy Fiction One of the most significant figures among the range of the animals inhabiting the land of fantasy is a dragon, the symbol of wisdom and power.
• Controversies on Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Although there are many theories which explain the origin of the earth, Darwin’s theory evokes strong responses due to the fact that it opposes religion and it does not meet all the requirements of a […]
• The Theory of Evolution It must be admitted that the theory of evolution has a number of legit points and has all the rights to be considered the most valid theory of all existing.
• Darwin’s Theory of Human Evolution Although Darwin seems to refute the religious claim on the origin of man, it is apparent that both religion and science share a common hypothesis that man has a distinct origin. Darwin is also concerned […]
• The Evolution of Television The discovery of the photoconductive properties of selenium by Willoughby Smith and his assistant in 1873 completely changed the things in the history of television.
• Evolution of Amazon Business Model In this whole process, it will have to entice the customers to pay for the value and so it is a proposition of what the customer expects in terms of product, how they want it […]
• Human Computer Interface: Evolution and Changes The conferences will not require members to be there in person as the events can be transmitted to people in their homes and they can make suggestions too.
• The Evolution of the Car Engine France and the Great Britain reinforced the notion of the electric powered cars in the late 1800s. At the beginning of the century, a number of 33,842 electric vehicles in the United States became registered.
• Evolution and Importance of Advertising in a Context of Modern Society It is difficult to overestimate the importance of advertising within the modern society as the main tool of persuasion of the audience and advancement of the companies and their products.Dr S.
• Creationism and Evolution The bible in the book of Genesis describes the origin of heaven and earth and everything that is in it; God created everything.
• History and Evolution of the Guitar Instrument According to Scott, one final and significant development in the evolution of the guitar is the increasing attention given to musical composers.
• Money: Evolution, Functions, and Characteristics It acts as medium of exchange where it is accepted by both buyers and sellers; the buyer gives money to the seller in exchange of commodities.
• Greek Sculpture and Its Evolution Over Time The shape of the hands was sculptured to be held close to the sides of the statue; their fists were clenched, their knees were rigid, and their hair was stylized.
• American Popular Music and Its Evolution Compared to the country blues popular in the 1900s, classic female blues combines its features with urban theater music, and “Crazy Blues” is one of the first songs of this genre.
• Audre Lorde’s Role in the Black Aesthetics Evolution Ilmonen also observes that in her poems, Lorde often referred to the West African cultural and spiritual heritage as “the consoling arms of a mother”.
• Technology Evolution in The Modern Society Service perspective – which holds that e-commerce constitute a tool that fulfills the needs and desires of companies, customers and management with aim of reducing the transaction costs while at the same time being able […]
• Evolution of Predator and Prey Pairings Given the fact that prey and predator pairings threatens the survival of the prey there are other external factors that contribute to the elimination of the prey species.
• Human Circulatory System and Evolution The coronary circulation involves the movement of blood through the tissues of the heart while the systemic circulation involves taking blood to all the rest of the body tissues and back to the heart”.
• Nursing as a Discipline: Evolution and Education This paper aims at discussing and describing the evolution of the nursing profession to date, its mode of conduct, and the differences between associate nurses and Baccalaureate nurses.
• Evolution of Humans: The Human Evolutionary Theory The earliest best-known theory of evolution was propounded by Charles Darwin, whose main thesis was that life has evolved from simple single-celled organisms to multi-cellular, complex living things through the process of natural selection and […]
• Evolution: Primate Locomotion and Body Configuration The idea that mobility of upper limbs was least in prosimians, greater in monkeys, greater still in apes, and most in humans was a useful idea for viewing the primates in earlier times.
• Women’s Status in the Workforce and Its Evolution However, I was interested in taking a historical excursion into the evolution of the position of women in the labor market and understanding how women of the last century felt in the labor market and […]
• Distance Learning and Its Evolution Definitions of distance education are varied and diverse, but the main concept of distance learning can be summarized from the situation wherein the student and the educator are separated by distance and time and the […]
• Psychological Perspectives Evolution and Theories Watson maintained that study of psychology should focus on studying behavior and desist from referring to mental states in the study of behavior.
• Canadian Child Welfare System Evolution Significant changes started with the introduction of the Indian Act, the Act for the Prevention of Cruelty to and Better Protection of Children of 1981, and the Child Welfare Act of 1922.
• Evolution of Planning and Design It has been argued that, ‘While Environmental Planning emerged as a profession in the 1970s, the environmental planning movement was evident sometime before this.’ The main purpose of this paper is to explore the origins […]
• Human Brain Evolution: External & Internal Factors In general, the development of society helps people to increase the effectiveness of how their brains address different challenges that emerge in their lives. There are many factors that contribute to the different stages of […]
• Classical Symphonies: Investigating Style Evolution of Western Classical Music The formative period of classical music was between the 18th and 19th centuries. Beethoven wrote music slowly and purposely with the romantics’ guidance.
• Modernist Movement in Music: Investigating Style Evolution of Western Classical Music The modernist movement in music seems appropriate for this paper because of the unique and exciting styles of composing modern-era music, such as jazz, pop, and rock.
• Evolutionary Psychology and Christian Worldview Since psychology studies the human mind and behavior of people and thus it incorporates and implements various scientific fields and methods to do so.
• The Automotive Technology Evolution This marked the beginning of the car industry, which ultimately led to the development of modern automobiles and opened the way for their production. The reliability and safety of automobiles have increased due to technological […]
• Hominin Evolution: Biological and Cultural Aspects The brain capacity of Homo habilis creatures was greater compared to their ancestors enabling them to become more intelligent. The locomotion of Homo habilis was aided by their legs and forelimbs.
• The Evolution of Boy and Girl Characters Through the Decades That depiction of the boy character reflects the expectations for boys in the 1940s, which were heavily influenced by the traditional values of the time.
• The Juvenile Justice System Evolution Process The notion of due legal process, in turn, implies the maturity and autonomy of the person involved in the due process.
• Linguistic Evolution: Language Development The ability to acquire new things and keep the brain active and healthy is greatly enhanced by acquiring a second language other than one’s native tongue. Identifying language as a tool for forming connections and […]
• Unveiling the Evolution of Geography Much of the Middle Ages’ astronomy and geography may be traced back to the claims of Claudius Ptolemy, a Greek mathematician, astronomer, and geographer. He wrote about it in The Almagest, a book about the […]
• Transhumanism and Its Impact on Human Evolution The same thoughts began to spread within the framework of eugenics in the early 20th century in the form of various conferences and meetings.
• Human Evolution and Bio-Cultural Changes The concept of the human sphere was introduced in the 30s of the XX century simultaneously in different countries by several scientists.
• The Origin of Man and Primates’ Evolution However, one can merely comprehend the origin of man if one considers history from the beginning of the evolution of the order of primates. Primates are masters of living in the trees due to their […]
• The Evolution of Modern US Society: The US Foreign Policy The economy of the antebellum era was characterized by significant growth, which was attributed to the slave economy, which was common among the southerners and the family farms in the northern states, and the waged […]
• The Evolution and Impact of Advertising in the Medical Sector The negative impact of advertising has often been a myth and has not been adapted to the specific influence in the area under consideration.
• Telehealth’s Evolution: Navigating Health and Equality Across Pandemic Phases By offering estimates of the effect of improved access to telehealth services on the general public, this research adds to the larger body of work on telecare.
• Aspects of Human Evolution and Progress The concepts of human evolution and progress have evolved throughout history leading to different perspectives on the scientific, agricultural, and language themes resulting in universal similarities that have shaped the nature of the world today.
• The Evolution of Private and Public Unions Public sector unions first appeared in the 1900s, after private sector unions in the middle of the 1800s. Since the middle of the 20th century, the membership of unions in the public and commercial sectors […]
• Primal Vocal Communication and Evolution of Speech The focus on primate vocal communication and its significance to the evolution of speech, the main form of human communication, led to the selection of a paper by Fischer J, “Primate Vocal Communication and the […]
• Philosophizing About Music and Its Evolution Applying the cultural lens to the notion of music and the associated concepts implies revisiting the current understanding of the specified notions.
• Theories of Galaxy Evolution: Looking at the Bigger Picture From the point of galaxy evolution, it means that the stellar mass of the galaxy also intensifies with time due to the existence of trends in the spectral energy distribution.
• Evolution of Humans: The Main Theories The process of evolution is one of the closest to the human being as people constantly invent new technologies and expand their minds.
• Evolution of Political Philosophy: Smith & Arendt The flowering of the ideas of political economy in the historical sense came in the works of the eighteenth-century English economist Adam Smith.
• Artificial Intelligence: The Trend in the Evolution Thus, the lens of history is a great way to consider knowledge and understanding of society and technology from a different angle in terms of comprehending the dynamics of society and the importance of technology […]
• The Video Game Industry Evolution The first mention of the creation of such games dates back to the 1940s, but it was in 1952 that Alexander Shafto “Sandy” Douglas officially presented his dissertation at the University of Cambridge. One of […]
• Social Darwinism: Evolutionary Explanations in Sociology In order to understand the reasons behind the failure of social Darwinism to describe society objectively, it is essential to review this ideology’s common arguments.
• Hyper Evolution: The Rise of the Robots From the video, the robots look like real human beings, and they have been capacitated to act in a human way in what is known as machine learning technology powered by artificial intelligence. Hyper evolution […]
• Analysis of Nursing Practice Evolution Nursing started as a profession in the middle of the 19th century, with most historians crediting Florence Nightingale as the person who founded nursing.
• Evolutionary and Revolutionary Models of Change in Management At the same time, the rush and the absence of back-and-forth communication usually mean that revolutionary change has to be maintained to prevent the company from reverting to the old ways.
• Technical Evolution of Automobiles In 1888, the practically of Benz’s car would come to test when his wife, Bertha, and their two sons embarked on a journey using a better version of the car.
• Creation and Evolution According to Holy Bible This doctrine has been validated by the Church, based on the first passage of the Bible: “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the world”. Overall, being in line with the biblical viewpoint, both […]
• Evolutionary Psychology and Psychological Anthropology Coupled with the tendency to avoid uncertainty and the positive activation of the emotional system by fantasies about winning, humans’ reliance on crude calculations of odds makes lottery gambling something attractive.
• Computer Usage Evolution Through Years In the history of mankind, the computer has become one of the most important inventions. The diagnostics and treatment methods will be much easier with the help of computer intervention.
• Aggression in Nonhuman Primates and Human Evolution Comparing and analyzing the sources of aggression among chimpanzees and bonobos revealed that environmental factors, such as food availability, determined key differences of social structure and aggression patterns in chimps and bonobos.
• The US Federal Authority: History and Evolution Moreover, according to Grodzins, the sheer force employed in persecuting African-Americans in their movements for Civil rights was also facilitated by Federalism.
• Evolutionary Biology and Darwin The lack of knowledge about the laws of heredity, the genetic and ecological structure of species, and the lack of experimental evidence of natural selection served as the basis for the growth of critical attitudes […]
• Nursing History and Theory Evolution This paper aims to offer a comprehensive view of the history of nursing, major influences on the profession, and the evolution of nursing theory.
• Early Evolution of Parole in the US In Chapter 3, there is a discussion on the early evolution of parole in the US, as well as its utilization in the current sentencing practices.
• Study About the Greek Evolution Following the development of the polis, the Greeks initiated the formation of different political structures in the country. Athens played a vital role in the Persian war by defeating the Persians in the salamis and […]
• Sociology: History, Early Theories, and Evolution In the middle of the first millennium BC, the awareness of the inevitability of social inequality resulted in a conceptual justification of its necessity.
• Healthcare Evolution and Its Effect on the US Thus, presuming inequality in the fabric of the nation and lack of the feeling of “sameness” is one part of the reason for the lack of unified healthcare.
• Materiality, Agency and Evolution of Lithic Technology The authors’ hypothesis is to conduct a re-assessment of materiality theory and to broadly re-articulate the debate about the evolution of the human species.
• The Historical Evolution of Perceptions Towards Gender Some of the main questions of what is appropriate to the people of certain gender have been present and debated about for a long time.
• Origin of the Earth: The Creation and Evolution Theory The Catholic Church believes in both the creation and evolution theory. According to the Catholics, all Christians believe in a unique creation carried out by God in six days, and there is a strong belief […]
• Racism Evolution: Experience of African Diaspora As a result, distinct foundations fostered the necessity of inequality to establish effectiveness of inferiority and superiority complexes. To determine the effect of slavery and racism to modern society.
• Emotional Evolution and Mental Problems in Postmodern Literature For the first time, the authors started talking about the horrors of war and the animal fear that a person experiences.
• Researching of Evolution of Love Intimacy, as a component of the triangular theory of love, is the feeling of bondedness, connectedness, and closeness in a relationship.
• Northwest Coast Masks: Evolution of Cultural Complexity According to Coupland, “the development of the Northwest Coast ethnographic pattern those uniquely complex ethnographic hunting-and-gathering societies has been the focus of many archaeological investigations on the Northwest Coast of North America”.
• The Evolutionary Theory in the Context of Modern Sociology A theory is a connected system of general concepts, constructs, or propositions presenting a systematic view of phenomena through the specification of variables to explain the phenomena.
• History: Evolution of Humans The first picture demonstrates the areas of the settlement of modern humans’ predecessors, namely, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens, as well as the times of the migration of Homo sapiens to different regions.
• Evolutionary Ethics vs. Belief in God In addition, the disadvantage of the evolutionary theory is that moral and ethical norms cannot be determined only to a biological degree.
• First Reptiles Adaptation: Amniotic Egg Evolution The amniotic egg evolution is an adaptation that allowed the first reptiles to thrive in a dry land the development occurred over 300 million years ago. The robust shell protects the egg from drying out, […]
• The Evolution of Computers and Digitalization The evolution of computers was a long process, which started with the emergence of calculating machines. The repeated operations, which were the basis of their functioning, determined further progress.
• Lenski’s Theory of Sociocultural Evolution An evaluation of the progression of crime, deviance, and social control through these stages is demonstrative of the theory’s applicability. The forms and means of crime and deviance were rudimentary during the pre-industrial age, and […]
• Categorizing Human-Made Objects: How It Shaped the Evolution of Display Spaces Due to the introduction of museums and display spaces in the 1500s-1830s, the opportunity to apply the historical lens to historical objects has emerged, helping to discover and appreciate the information about the specifics of […]
• The Evolution of Women’s Rights Through American History From the property-owning women of the late 18th century to the proponents of the women’s liberation in the 1960s, women always succeeded in using the influential political theories of their time to eventually make feminist […]
• Aspects of Evolution and Creationism The adheres to the theory of divine spark and pays special attention to the ability of organisms to adapt to various conditions and the complexity of their structure.
• Evolution: Natural Selection in Action The population of these moths will have both dark and white moths at the starting point. The dark moths reproduced successfully due to lack of predation.
• Evolution of Public Policies in Healthcare – Role and Impact of Nurses In California in the 1990s changes in health care delivery resulted in reduced nursing jobs and consequent higher stress for nurses, affecting the safety of patients.
• Evolutionary Changes of Animals and Plants This presentation will show how animals and plants evolved with time passing. It is critical to examine the factors that underlie these processes and their outcomes.
• The Evolution of Human Skin Color The amount of UV light depends on the latitude: the highest concentration is spread throughout the equator, while the areas close to the Earth’s poles had it in scarcity. Both folate and vitamin D contributed […]
• Evolution of Autonomous Driving Technology The torpedo could travel hundreds of meters while maintaining underwater depth due to its pressurization system known as ‘The Secret.’ The Secret was a combination of hydrostatic and pendulum that gave the hydroplane stability to […]
• Anthropology: Evolution of Human Language and Tongue According to the anatomical characteristics of humans the ability to produce speech was pursuant to them. They lived among hominids which noise and sounds they tried to come after.
• Evolutionary and Socioemotional Selectivity Theories Namely, interpersonal relationships in the family are the basis of socialization and intellectual development as they connect a person with other people, allowing the developing of a personality and forming an identity.
• Evolution: Taxonomy, Primate Physiology The bones in the snake are the last remaining parts of the pelvis though the snake’s bones however, the snake does not have bones.
• Nigeria’s Economic Evolution and Future Growth The Federal Republic of Nigeria is a country located in the western part of the African Continent. The paper is going to tackle the economic evolution and the current economic status of Nigeria.
• On the Evolution of MTV and Music Videos The nature of the music industry had a great transformation with the birth of MTV and acquired a glory in the next several years.
• The Evolution Of Cell Types: Evolution of a Menace Antibiotic resistance The capability of a bacterial species to survive the impact of the administration of chemicals that are designed to induce death is known as antibiotic resistance.
• Organ System and Evolution The resistant bacteria can survive and continue to multiply even in the presence of the antibiotics that were once used to eradicate them.
• “Molecular Insights Into Classic Examples of Evolution” Current research, as discussed by the symposium speakers explicitly cited in this article, reveals that genetics plays a fundamental role in evolution science and it is indeed the mutation of genes that actually allows organisms […]
• Evolution of Community Correctional Programs One of the varieties of the sanctuary was applied to all members of the public while the other was reserved to the church members only.
• Evolution of Understanding of Medical Ethics From Past to the Present A look at the concern about the treatment of human subjects, the history of human subjects, the current treatment of human subjects and the real impact of the treatment of human subjects and research done […]
• Do Parasites Become Less Toxic to Their Hosts Over Evolutionary Time? The most devastating effects of a parasite to the host are related to the toxicity of the parasite. The phenomenon of natural selection leads to the molecular evolution and ultimately changes the chemical and biological […]
• Parasites and Hosts Relations Over Evolutionary Time Subsequently, within the secondary host, the behavior of the parasite that makes the secondary host more at vulnerable risk to being consumed by the primary host would be anticipated to evolve.
• How Biogeography Supports the Theory of Human Evolution This segment of the study reveals variation in biological communities of organisms in the lines of geographical gradients of elevation, habitat area, isolation, and latitude.
• Emerging Infectious Disease: Epidemiology and Evolution of Influenza Viruses The chain of infection of H1N1 influenza is hard to break because it is transmitted through the respiratory system and contact. When a human being is infected with the H1N1 virus, is mainly due to […]
• Humans Are Not the “Last Point” in the Evolution of Vertebrates This paper focuses on the evolution of animals and in precise the evolution of the vertebrates. It shows that the mammals were are not the highest evolution of the vertebrates but some more animals and […]
• Impact of Specialization and Evolution in Law
• “The Evolution of the New Environmental Metaparadigms of Nursing” by Kleffel
• The Evolution of Probation, Parole, Prisons, Jails, and Sentencing
• Evidence for Biological Evolution
• The Theory of Evolution. Gene Responsible for Hairiness
• Structure and Evolution of Plants
• Evolution: Debunking Darwin’s and Lincoln’s Contributions
• Theories of Galaxy Formation and Evolution
• Biological Diversity Origin and Evolution Directionality
• Evolutionary Theory: Misconceptions Analysis
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection
• Healthcare Evolution and Current Financial Decision-Making Situation
• Healthcare Facilities’ Design Evolution
• Summary Article and Video of Evolutionary Process
• The Role of Certain Genes in the Process of Evolution
• Evolution of Segmentation Among the Chordates, Annelids, and Arthropods
• The Origin and Evolution of Segmentation by Davis and Patel
• The Origin and Evolution of Segmentation: Analysis
• Origin and Evolution of Segmentation
• Finches and Worms’ Evolutionary Pattern
• Technological Evolution in the Financial Industry
• Evidence of the Evolutionary Process
• Evolution Development: Introducing New Species
• Personal Computer Evolution Overview
• Patterns of Evolution in Humans and Other Organisms
• The Evolution of Vertebrae Teeth
• Evolutionary Analysis of Asymmetric Limits
• Evolutionary Biology: Sleep Patterns in Mammals
• Darwin’s Ideas of Natural Selection and Evolution
• Evolution of Computers in Commercial Industries and Healthcare
• Human Evolution and Animal Extinction
• Society and Evolutionary History: The Question of the Origin of Life
• Evolution and Natural Selection
• The Evolution of Insect Wings
• The Evolution of Communication Structures in Animals
• Evolution of the Cichlid Fish Species in Lake Victoria
• Prison Gangs’ Evolution and Solutions to Them
• Evolution of the Caregiving Experience in the Initial 2 Years Following Stroke
• Duty of Obedience in Charitable Organizations Evolution
• Photosynthesis Rate Determination From the Oxygen Gas Evolution
• Insect Evolution
• Evolution: Three Different Modes of Selection
• Medicare: Comparison With Medicaid and Its Evolution
• Evolutionary Theory and Linguistics in Africa’s Historiography
• The History Of Drag Queens and The Evolution Of Drag
• Microeconomic Perspective on Poverty Evolution in Pakistan
• How Customer Evolution Has Affected Airlines
• The Evolution of Marketing Activities
• Convergent Evolution of Health Information Management and Health Informatics
• Transgenic Organisms and Evolution
• Evolution of Clothes and Fashion in Twentieth Century
• Screen Readers’ Evolution and Their Current Usability
• Hip Hop Evolution and Racial & Political Conditions
• DNA and Evolution – What’s Similar
• Evolutionary Biology: Program Model at Genetic Level
• Creationism and Evolution Theories
• Human Evolution: Electronic Immortality
• Evolution of Mating by Charles Darwin
• The Positive Evolution of Art in the Twentieth Century
• Non-Aligned Movement History and Evolution
• Primate Evolutionary Context
• Criminal Justice System in the United States Evolution
• Morality Evolution, Its Explanations, and Definitions
• Franklin Roosevelt: The Evolution of an American Idea
• “Why Evolution Is True” by J. A. Coyne
• Evolution of Social Behaviour and Attitudes
• History and Evolution of the Public Policy
• Evolutionary Explanation for Sex and Gender Differences
• “Evolution of Federal Cyber Security” by J. Roth
• The Evolutionary Psychology Key Points
• Evolutionary Paradigm Theory by Alan Malachowski
• God and Darwin’s Evolution Theory: A Theological Approach
• The Origin and Evolution of Religious Pro-sociality
• Evolution Process and the Study of Hominids
• The Evolution of Terrorism on the World Stage
• The Super Continental Cycle and Evolution
• Leadership Evolution in Public Administration
• Lamprell Company: Company’s Evolution
• Evolution of Icon Painting: Hans Belting’s “Likeness and Presence”
• Earliest Humans and the Evolution of Humans in the Region of Africa
• Child Development and Evolutionary Psychology
• Judaism: Religious Beliefs Evolution
• Understanding the Evolution of Trade Deficits
• A Perspective on the Evolution Marketing Management
• Intelligent Design and Evolution
• Popular Culture in America Today: Evolution, Features, and Impact in Other Parts of the World
• Evolution Essays and Their Components
• Anthropology: Genus Homo and Human Birth Evolution
• EPA and the Evolution of Federal Regulation
• Biological Anthropology, Lamarck’s and Darwin’s View of Evolution
• Evolution of Formal Organizations
• Evolution of Chevrolet Camaro. Historical Analysis
• Evolution: Different Types of Selection
• Evolution and the Cognitive Neuroscience of Awareness and Consciousness
• Sociology. Evolution of Formal Organizations
• Misconceptions About the Evolutionary Theory
• Dove as a Brand and Its Evolution
• Music: Evolution Factors of Technology and Drugs
• Evolution: Gene Variations Among Different Species
• Alternative Theories of Evolution
• Stephen Jay Gould, Evolution, and Intelligent Design
• Grandmothering and the Evolution of Homo Erectus
• Music, Its Definition and Evolution
• Television Systems: Innovation and Evolution
• Science Provides Evidences to Idea of Evolution
• Hominoid Evolution: Intelligence and Communication
• Theory of Evolution and Religion
• The Expression of the Bmp4 Gene and Its Role in the Evolutionary Process
• Telemedicine: Evolution Today of This Form of Trade With Development of IT and E-Commerce
• Scholars on Philosophy and Evolution
• Outsourcing Evolution in Poland
• The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: Origins and Evolution
• “Why Evolution Is True” by Jerry Coyne
• The Evolution of Music: Brief Review
• Evolution of a Media Sources
• The Network and Architectural Issues of Enterprise System Evolution
• Modern Corporate Marketing Departments Evolution
• Evolution of Warfare and Weapons
• Bergson’s and Whitehead’s Philosophy of Evolution
• Soccer in America: Its History, Origin, Evolution, and Popularize This Sport Among Americans
• Theology of the Old Testament. Religious Evolution
• Communication Evolution and Media at the Wartime
• Evolution of Formal Organizations Paper
• Mexico’s Economic, Social and Political Evolution
• The Analysis of Tendencies of Evolution of Global Governance
• Evolution of Limbs: Fossil and Genetic Information
• “The Historical Evolution of Black Feminist Theory and Praxis” by Taylor
• Film Music Evolution in the United States
• The Turtle Evolution Concept
• Cartesian Dualism and Human Evolution
• Intelligent Design vs. Evolution Theory
• Learning Assessment Evolution and Current Trends
• The Importance of Studying Creation and Evolution Theories for a Christian
• Body Shape Evolution in African Sympatric Congeners
• Web Form Evolution: From Web 1.0 to Web 3.0
• Darwin, Evolution, and Modern History
• Personal Legend and Journey of Evolution
• Evolutionary Psychology and Natural Selection Theory
• Tectonics and Geology: Landscape Evolution
• Human Societies Evolution and the Role of Innovation
• History and Evolution of Lipsticks
• Contrast Evolutionary and Social Psychology
• Instructional Design Approaches and Evolution
• Russian Ideas’ Evolution in Politics and Economics
• Anthropology: Homo Erectus in Evolution
• Balanced Scorecard Evolution as a Management Tool
• Evolution of Project Management Research
• The Evolution of Software Attacks
• Evolution With a Human Face: Biological and Cultural
• The American Revolution and Political Legitimacy Evolution
• Ardipithecus Ramidus in Language Evolution
• Fibrous Aerosol Filters and Their Evolution
• Fresh Fruit and Vegetables Supply Chains’ Evolution
• The Evolution of Leadership Theory
• Durkheim’s Labor Division Theory and Legal Evolution
• Kent Flannery’s View on the Evolution of Civilisations
• The Study of the Civilizations Evolution
• Evolution of Psychology and Social Cognition
• The US Foreign Politics Evolution
• Globalization Evolution in the UAE
• Emirate Post Group: the Pace of Evolution
• Television, Its Invention and Technical Evolution
• Evolutionary Theory in Biology and Anthropology
• Native Americans’ Evolution in the XIX Century
• Human Brain Evolution and Shrinking
• The Islam Nation Rise and Evolution
• The Evolution of Finches and Their Feeding Habits
• Evolution of Close Binary Stars
• Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory and Creationism
• Darwinism and Creationism in “Evolution” Documentary
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
• Evolution of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• Evolutionary Time Lag and Good Genes Selection
• Criticism and Discussion in Science Evolution
• Jerry Coyne’s Book “Why Evolution Is True?”
• An Evolutionary Window on the Worlds of Pornography and Romance
• Languages, Their Evolution and Importance
• From Classics to Our Time: the Evolution of the Cinema
• Money Evolution in Ancient Times and Nowadays
• Biodiversity, Its Evolutionary and Genetic Reasons
• American Finance Evolution and Its Stages
• Money Evolution in the 21st Century and Before
• Nazi Anti-Jewish Policy and Its Evolution
• Creationism, Evolution and Intelligent Design
• Starbucks’ Brand Evolution and Redesign
• Language: Evolution and Universal Features
• Parity Conditions and Country’s Evolution
• American National Security and Technology Evolution
• Computer Evolution, Its Future and Societal Impact
• Process of Evolution: Organisms Structure Modifications
• US Militia System Evolution to US Military
• Evolution of a Firm: Linear Regression
• The Process Market Relations Evolution in Modern World
• Terrorism: the Evolution of ISIS
• Evolutionary Driving Forces
• Habeas Corpus: History, Evolution and Significance
• US Policing Evolution Since 1963
• Performance Measurement Evolution
• Ecocide, Human Social Evolution, and Globalization
• The Evolution of Lean Six Sigma by Pepper & Spedding
• Automotive Industry Evolution
• Anti-Defamation League: Evolution and Definition
• Evolutionary Psychology: Science or Pseudoscience
• The Solar System Formation and the Earth Evolution
• Culture of Italy: History and Evolution
• Social Networking Evolution: GeoCities Analysis
• The Evolution of the Race Meaning
• Neurophysiological and Evolutionary Theories
• Evolutionary Theory and Genetics
• Evolutionary Psychology: Cognition and Culture
• The Future of Islam: Evolution and Changes
• The Evolution of Human Rights in Canada
• Biosphere Evolution and Threats
• Hotel Electronic Distribution Channel Strategy Evolution
• Evolution and Speciation’s Four Forces
• India and the UAE: Evolution Ways
• History of the Race Evolution
• The Concept of Design and Its Evolution
• Why Medicine Needs a Dose of Evolution?
• Athletic Training Evolution
• Evolution Role in the Humanity and Planet Development
• Cognitive Psychology Evolution Aspects
• Celtic Christianity Evolution
• Formal Organization Structure
• The Instrumental Music of Baroque: Forms and Evolution
• Forbidden Archeology Against Mainstream Evolution Theories
• Commoner, Darwin and Paley’ Theories on Humans Evolution
• Culture and Human Evolution – Personal Psychology
• Andy Clark on Human Mentality and Technology
• Canadian Social Democracy Historical Evolution
• The Evolution of the LGBT Rights
• History: Evolution of the Scientific Revolution
• Economic Issues: The Evolution of Usury
• The Crime Fighting Evolution
• The Human Morals Evolution
• Evolution Process Definition
• Mi’kmaq People: History and Evolution
• Biological Anthropology: Hominid Evolution
• Evolution of Cognitive Psychology
• 4G Network Adaptation and Evolution
• Evolutionary Psychology: Short-term Mating in Men
• Evolutionary Psychology: Definition and Key Concepts
• Phyletic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium Evolution Theory
• Language Evolution in Human Being
• Analysis: “Pandora’s Growing Box: Inferring the Evolution and Development of Hominin Brains from Endocasts” by Zollikofer and Ponce de Leo´n
• The Evolution of Organizational Knowledge Creation Theory
• The Evolution Future Architecture
• Office Depot’s E-Commerce Evolution
• Does Evolution Explain Why Men Rape
• “The Link Between Fire Research and Process Safety” by Cadena and Munoz
• Balanced Scorecard Concept Evolution
• Plantinga’s Evolutionary Argument against Naturalism
• The Evolution of Education in Hong Kong
• Impressionism and Post-Impressionism: Technique Evolution
• Industrial relations-Evolution of labor movements
• Evolution and Revolution as Organizations Grow
• Evolution of Organizational Knowledge Creation Theory
• Evolutionary Psychology: Depression
• History and Evolution of Health Care Economics
• Evolution of Fire Protection Codes
• Evolutionary Psychology Issues
• How the Way of Reading Books Changed due to Rapid Evolution of Technology
• Evolution of Imperial Rule in Japan and China
• The Problem of People’s ‘Dangerous Evolutionary Baggage’
• The Reasons for Amazon’s Evolution of Supply Chain and Distribution Systems in the United States
• Earth Atmospheric Evolution
• Evolution of ERP system
• Incident Command System History and Evolution
• Human Evolution and Archaeology
• The Four Forces of Evolution and Variation
• The Individual and Game Theory Criticisms and the Evolutionary Theory
• Childhood Evolution and History
• Evolution of Charitable Self-Guidelines in Europe
• Evolution of the Incidents Command System
• History of the Gradual Radical Evolution in America
• The Evolution of Gun Control Policy in College Campus: The Path to Better Policy Making
• West Coast Jazz: History and Evolution
• Major Historical Vents: Evolution or Revolution
• The Evolution of the Personal Computer and the Internet
• The Concept and Effects of Evolution of Electronic Health Record System Software
• Theories of the Language Evolution
• Illustration’ Evolution in 20th Century
• Evolution of the Chilean Government After the Ruthless Regime of Augusto Pinochet
• How primary resources can debunk the misconception that Darwin proposed the first theory of evolution
• The Evolution of American Slavery
• Capitalism Concept Evolution
• Evolution in the English Language
• The background and evolution of British policy regarding the Palestine issue
• The Evolution of Industrialized Workers in Chicago
• The Evolutionary Genetics of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
• Evolutionary Account of Female Mating Preferences
• The Four Forces of Evolution
• The Development and Evolution of the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology
• Feminism and Evolution or Emergence of Psychology
• Paleontology and The Evolutionary Theory
• Global Evolution in “Midaq Alley” by Mahfouz Naguib
• Women and the Evolution of World Politics
• “The Indian Challenge: The Evolution of a Successful New Global Strategy in the Pharmaceutical Industry” by D. Jane Bower and Julian C. Sulez
• The Evolution of the Division of Labor Theory Starting From Ancient Greek Economists to the Present
• The Evolution of Woman’s Work From the 19th Century
• Evolution of Solar Energy in US
• Evolution of the IRA
• The Evolution of US Military Logistical Procurement
• Does Evolution explain human nature?
• The Evolution of the American Hero
• Evolution and History of Fire Science
• Evolution of Dogs from the Gray Wolf
• Comparing Knauft’s Study on Violence and Sociality with Darwin’s Evolutionary Perspectives
• Evolution of Power Production
• Evolution of Photography: Trying to Seize the Moment
• Evolution of Hospice Care
• Natural Selection: Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
• The Evolution of American Federalism
• The Relevance of Evolutionary Psychology
• The Evolution of the iPhone from Inception to Today’s iPhone 4
• Are Economic Crises Inherent to Capitalist Evolution?
• Are Spatial Planning Objectives Reflected in the Evolution of Urban Landscape Patterns?
• Can Evolution and Creation Co-exist?
• Can Evolution Ever Explain Why Men Rape?
• Can Evolution Fit Into Christianity?
• Did Climate Effect Human Evolution?
• Did “Desert Storm” Represent a Revolution or Evolution in Air Power?
• Does Evolution Make Reasoning Improve Learning?
• Does Evolution Solve the Hold-up Problem?
• Does Molecular and Structural Evolution Shape the Speedy Grass Stomata?
• Ecological Rationality and Evolution: The Mind Works That Way?
• Evolution Versus Creation: Does Biblical Religion Unravel the Mysteries That Science Forbids?
• Host-Microbe Interactions as a Driver of Brain Evolution and Development?
• How Does Bioarchaeology Reveal the Evolution of Disease?
• How Do Body Plans Relate to Nervous System Evolution Biology?
• How Did the Evolution of Oxygen-Releasing Photosynthesis?
• How Did the Evolution of the Amniote Egg-Free Amniotes?
• How Does Evolution Tune Biological Noise?
• How Does Kin Selection Explain the Evolution of Altruism?
• How Does Teilhard Justify Placing God Christ in Evolution?
• How Does Transduction Contribute to the Rapid Evolution?
• How Has Evolution Affected Our Lives Today?
• How Did Evolution Transpire?
• How Finding Yourself Comes Through the Evolution of Thought?
• How Genetic Evolution Alters Brain Development?
• How Has Mankind’s Perception of Evolution Impacted Society?
• How Human Disease Impacted Our Evolution?
• How Humans Became Athletes Through Evolution?
• How Learning About Evolution Challenged My Religious Upbringing?
• How Have Male and Female Gametophytes Changed During Evolution?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 28). 505 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/evolution-essay-topics/

"505 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 28 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/evolution-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '505 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 28 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "505 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 28, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/evolution-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "505 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 28, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/evolution-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "505 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 28, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/evolution-essay-topics/.

• Nature vs Nurture Research Topics
• Demography Paper Topics
• Extinction Research Topics
• Animal Testing Topics
• Charles Darwin Topics
• Cruelty to Animals Titles
• Acquisition Essay Ideas
• Human Nature Essay Titles
• African Diaspora Ideas
• Natural Disaster Topics
• DNA Essay Ideas
• Antibiotic Ideas
• Biodiversity Research Topics
• Developmental Psychology Essay Ideas
• Environment Research Topics

Presentations made painless

• Get Premium

120 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Evolution is a fascinating topic that has captivated scientists and scholars for centuries. From the origins of life to the development of complex organisms, the study of evolution has provided valuable insights into the history of our planet and the diversity of life on Earth. If you're interested in exploring this complex and intriguing subject, we've compiled a list of 120 evolution essay topic ideas and examples to help spark your creativity and inspire your research.

• The Theory of Evolution: An Overview
• Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection
• The Evidence for Evolution
• Evolutionary Biology: The Study of Evolution
• The Evolution of Humans
• The Evolution of Birds
• The Evolution of Whales
• The Evolution of Insects
• The Evolution of Plants
• The Evolution of Fish
• The Evolution of Reptiles
• The Evolution of Mammals
• The Evolution of Primates
• The Evolution of Dinosaurs
• The Evolution of Fossils
• The Evolution of Genetics
• The Evolution of DNA
• The Evolution of Development
• The Evolution of Behavior
• The Evolution of Ecology
• The Evolution of Speciation
• The Evolution of Adaptation
• The Evolution of Extinction
• The Evolution of Migration
• The Evolution of Reproduction
• The Evolution of Diversity
• The Evolution of Complexity
• The Evolution of Cooperation
• The Evolution of Competition
• The Evolution of Symbiosis
• The Evolution of Parasitism
• The Evolution of Mutualism
• The Evolution of Predation
• The Evolution of Herbivory
• The Evolution of Carnivory
• The Evolution of Omnivory
• The Evolution of Trophic Levels
• The Evolution of Ecosystems
• The Evolution of Biomes
• The Evolution of Climate
• The Evolution of Ice Ages
• The Evolution of Mass Extinctions
• The Evolution of Biodiversity
• The Evolution of Endemism
• The Evolution of Invasive Species
• The Evolution of Conservation
• The Evolution of Restoration
• The Evolution of Evolutionary Theory
• The Evolution of Creationism
• The Evolution of Intelligent Design
• The Evolution of Lamarckism
• The Evolution of Epigenetics
• The Evolution of Horizontal Gene Transfer
• The Evolution of Gene Duplication
• The Evolution of Gene Regulation
• The Evolution of Gene Expression
• The Evolution of Gene Networks
• The Evolution of Genetic Drift
• The Evolution of Gene Flow
• The Evolution of Genetic Variation
• The Evolution of Genetic Diversity
• The Evolution of Genetic Structure
• The Evolution of Genetic Isolation
• The Evolution of Genetic Speciation
• The Evolution of Genetic Adaptation
• The Evolution of Genetic Inheritance
• The Evolution of Genetic Mutations
• The Evolution of Genetic Recombination
• The Evolution of Genetic Mapping
• The Evolution of Genetic Engineering
• The Evolution of Genetic Testing
• The Evolution of Genetic Counseling
• The Evolution of Genetic Modification
• The Evolution of Genetic Sequencing
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms
• The Evolution of Genetic Programming
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Artificial Intelligence
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Machine Learning
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Robotics
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Bioinformatics
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Medicine
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Agriculture
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Industry
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Finance
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Marketing
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Education
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Sports
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Gaming
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Entertainment
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Art
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Music
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Literature
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Film
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Television
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Theater
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Dance
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Fashion
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Architecture
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Design
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Technology
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Science
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Engineering
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Mathematics
• The Evolution of Genetic Algorithms in Physics
• The Evolution of Genetic

Want to create a presentation now?

Instantly Create A Deck

Let PitchGrade do this for me

Hassle Free

We will create your text and designs for you. Sit back and relax while we do the work.

Explore More Content

• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Service

© 2023 Pitchgrade

• Essay Topics
• Homework Help
• Essay Types
• Essay Examples
• Become a Tutor

100 Evolution Essay Topics + Essay Writing Guide

Even though most of us know enough about evolution, finding a good and a unique topic can quickly become a challenge! The trick here is to determine a unique framework for your future paper, so you know what structure to follow to keep up with all the essay writing rules. Looking through the countless Biology and Life Sciences essays of the actual students and reading through essay revisions of college and university professors in our time, I have made a list of 100 excellent evolution essay topics and wrote down all the “Do’s” and “Don’t’s” of evolution essay writing.

Trust me, choosing a good topic becomes much easier when you understand how the evolution works and realize that it deals with much more than explaining how we all got here. It is not only about us, human beings, as evolution also deals with all flora and fauna and the changes that take place in our society. As you read through the topics below, think of evolution as of diversity in nature that provides a framework for the determination of the ways how the species develop their distinguishable differences!

Contents (Clickable)

      What is an Evolution Essay?

Evolution essay is a paper that focuses on any aspect related to the evolution theory and diversity in nature. Since it is a scientific theory that is fundamental for the modern biological theory, an evolution essay also includes the facts, theories, hypotheses, and the history of the evolution theory among other topics. Evolution essay is first and foremost, a scientific work, therefore, it is extremely important to include verified facts, backed up with the help of academic journals and the books with a correct format and the references.

      Evolution and Theory of Evolution

A bit more theory that will help you to understand the topics in a better way! Trust me; I’ll keep it short!

Evolution refers to changes in heritable characteristics in species over successive generations. This process ultimately results in the occurrence of biodiversity (this is the reason why the presence of Biodiversity in your research paper is so important!). In basic terms, evolution is a process that occurs in all species on Earth, which are currently estimated at mind-blowing 2 million . In other words, it means all the species, starting with miniscule bacteria and up to the evolution of human beings.

Theory of evolution refers to a scientific theory that explains the origin of different species by evolution. Charles Darwin is considered to be the father of the theory of evolution and the one behind the foundation of the theory explained in the famous On the Origin of Species book published in 1859.

      Actual Research Essay Examples on Topic!

Before we move on to the list of 100 evolution essay topics, I want to share four actual essay examples related to evolution, biology, and the life sciences, so you can get a better idea about how particular ideas can be implemented in practice for the best results. Looking through our vast essay database written and shared by students, I came up with these diverse examples:

• Global Warming: Fact or Fiction? – Evolution explored through the phenomenon of global warming. Is it a fact or a fiction? This essay’s author came up with an excellent research topic and argumentation!
• Environmental Science Q&A – Here we have an example of environmental issues related to evolution and the changes that we can observe. See how the questions are addressed and how the structure is kept.
• Genetically Modified Food – As surprising as it may be, it is also an issue related to evolution because the microorganisms and the species go through mutation, which is, essentially, an evolution process and a relevant social issue.
• Geographical Characteristics of the Streams in Urban Areas and Forested Areas – see how the changes of evolution impact the geographical aspect in both urban and the forested areas.

As you can see from the examples, evolution is an expansive concept and a field of research, so you do not have to limit yourself with a strict list of biology or microorganisms-related topics. Be creative and try to make your evolution essay feel interesting and inspiring!

     100 Evolution Essay Topics

Let us start with the human evolution, so we can see how broad and many-sided the evolution essay writing can be!

      Human Evolution Essay Topics

• Why do human beings laugh?
• Why did human species develop to be dominant on the planet?
• What distinguishes human brain from the other species?
• Evolution of human eye.
• Why do human beings perceive beauty?
• How does evolution theory explain the existence of language and speech?
• Recent mutations the humans underwent.
• The current mutations humans are going through.
• Geodakyan evolutionary theory of sex.
• Evolution of sexual reproduction.
• Red Queen hypothesis.
• Evolution of human intelligence.
• Evolution of monogamy.
• Evolutionary medicine.
• Social effects of evolutionary theory.
• Evolution of immunity.
• Evolution of the human nervous system.
• Evolution of sex differences in cognition.
• Sexual selection.
• Sexual conflict.
• Host-parasite coevolution in human malaria.
• Variation in evolution.
• Evolutionary stance on art.
• Why did humans start walking on two feet?
• What is the evolutionary benefit of forming the society?
• As you can see from these examples, evolution is not only about biology and the life sciences!

Okay, so you want something more traditional? Here we go below:

      Evolution of Flora and Fauna Essay Topics

• Evolution of dogs/cats/whales/ or any other species of your choice.
• Parallel evolution in the animal kingdom.
• Earliest life forms.
• Cladistics in the animal kingdom.
• Evolutionary ecology of parasites.
• Host-parasite coevolution in animals.
• Evolution of birds.
• An impact of climate on evolution.
• Evolution of fungi.
• The hair evolution.
• Notable cases of adaptation.
• Evolution of mimicry.
• Natural selection in the animal kingdom.
• Co-operation development.
• Early animal evolution.
• Polyps and medusas evolution.
• “Savannah” hypothesis of early bilateral evolution.
• Why the invertebrates became more complex?
• Evolution of the animal genome.
• Early evolution of neurons.
• Plant population genetics and evolution.
• Reconstruction of sexual modes throughout evolution.
• The role of chromosomal change in plant evolution.
• Evolution during the domestication of animals.

Have an essay due? Need to write a college essay? Let Homework Lab help you with your task:

• Register at Homework Lab
• Plan and schedule your task
• Work on your own or request help from a Geek

Help With My Essay

Let’s continue with more biology-related topics!

      Evolutionary Biology Essay Topics

• Gene-centered view.
• Theory of stellar evolution.
• The social impact of evolutionary biology.
• Evolution of multicellular organisms.
• Genetic architecture of adaptation.
• Evolutionary robotics.
• Evolution of cooperation.
• Paleobiology.
• Bayesian inference of phylogeny and its impact on evolutionary biology.
• Evolutionary biology of aging.
• Neuroscience in evolutionary biology.
• Optimality theory.
• Morphometrics.
• Biological conservation.
• Evolutionary biology and ecology.
• Evolutionary biology and immunology.
• Conceptual issues in evolutionary biology.
• Evolutionary biology and population genetics.
• Evolutionary biology and phylogenetics.
• Mathematical models in evolutionary biology.
• The evolutionary perspective on sperm biology.
• Plant speciation.
• Marine speciation.
• Morphological evolution.

      Theory of Evolution Essay Topics

• How did Darwin come up with his theory?
• Theories that can potentially debunk an evolution theory.
• Common misconceptions about evolution that everyone still believes.
• Influence of Darwin’s theory on the science.
• History of evolutionary thought.
• Theories about evolution that existed before Darwin’s “ The Origin of Species”
• Essentialism.
• Tree of Life Concept.
• Are we all related?
• Adaptation theory.
• Lamarck’s theory of evolution.
• Evolution as fact and the theory.
• Somatic selection.
• Synthetic theory of evolution.
• Why is evolution still considered a theory?
• Evolution theory of a social change.
• Evolutionary psychology.
• Mutation theory by De Vries.
• Neo-Darwinism.
• The types of evolutionary theories.
• The contribution of Alfred Wallace in the evolution theory.
• Who should be credited for evolution theory – Wallace or Darwin?
• Objections to evolution theory.
• Proof of evolution.
• How does evolution explain morality?

      How to Write an Evolution Essay

1 Evolution Essay Structure

The structure of an evolution essay is what you should know even before you decide on a topic and there is a good reason for that! There are three major elements that your essay structure should include to make sure that your professor will not decrease your future grade:

• Introduction . It provides the readers with a brief outlook on your topic, your essay structure, the elements included, and the main idea that you want to communicate. It is where your strong thesis statement or an argument go to! Make sure your introduction contains the following:
• A strong hook sentence – an attention-grabbing element that is usually in the first 1-2 sentences of the essay. Since we have to write an essay about the evolution theory, we will choose a scientific fact or refer to an impressive discovery that refers to evolution. A reason why hook should be there is to capture your reader’s interest and attention!
• Overview of your major argument and topic – let the readers know what they are about to find out and learn as they read your evolution essay!
• A brief overview of the essay structure – explain how and in what order you are planning to develop each part of your paper.
• Thesis statement – the main idea or the quintessence of your essay. Make sure to write several thesis statements and choose the one that not only sounds best but the one that you can back up and explain with the help of scientific data and credible references.
• Body paragraph includes the consistent and logical sequence of paragraphs that reveal all the facts and arguments that you use to support your thesis statement.

Make sure to:

• Use verified sources – evolution theory is a scientific theory that has plenty of evidence, so make sure that you include as many credible references as necessary!
• Be logical and consistent – let your readers follow your logic easily. Remember that your audience may differ, so make sure to write a sentence or two that explains your vision and the concepts you are discussing. If it requires more work or a reference to a case study, make sure to include it in your paper.
• Start every paragraph with a topic sentence – it will be much easier for you to write each section if you start writing them with a thesis that reflects the content of the paragraph.
• Explain the facts included in the essay – demonstrate your understanding of the facts you use in the essay and their relevance to the main topic and thesis statement
• Avoid plagiarism – copying someone else’s work without reference is not cool while using numerous sources to support your thought with an academic claim is entirely another thing that makes your essay look credible and professional!
• Conclusion part is where you summarize the whole essay without the introduction of any new ideas . Remind your readers of the most important facts and the findings they should remember when they are done reading your essay. Restate your thesis statement in other words to make the essay sound logical and integrated.

2 Argumentative Essay on Evolution Writing Tricks

When you have to write an argumentative essay on evolution, there are some writing tricks that you should mind to avoid trouble with your paper and impress your college or university professor.

• Include your own opinion on an issue that you discuss – an argumentative essay requires having your own stance on a problem or what most college professors call “a voice of the writer.” Ask yourself about how can YOU contribute to the issue since it is your paper and it has to stand out!
• Defend your view on the issue using as many verified facts as you can!
• Include the viewpoints that oppose yours – and prove them wrong . Do so with the facts and use strong reasoning.
• Do not simply restate thesis statement in conclusion , but readdress it using the evidence you accumulated through the body paragraphs.
• Use classic 5-paragraph essay format (if you are not required to do otherwise) – Introduction, 3 Body Paragraphs, and Conclusion. Such an approach will help you to see where all that information belongs!

      Evolution Essay “Do’s and Dont’s”

• Research your facts, the background of the issue, and the case studies (if relevant) as you choose your future topic and read the list of topic examples below.
• Include scientific facts in your essay and use professional language.
• Start your introduction with an interesting hook by stating why is the topic of choice relevant to you and society.
• Use strong thesis statement as your guideline to make sure that you don’t deviate from the topic.
• Double-check your facts and always back up your paper with academic journals and credible references.
• Do not underestimate the use of drafts as you write the paper.
• Do not use the same wording for the thesis statement as for your hook sentence. These are two different matters where one of them is an introduction, and the other one is the reason for your research.
• Do not simply copy scientific information without your personal comment and consideration. If it has to be there, explain how and why.
• Do not underestimate the importance of an outline, format, and the body structure.
• Do not ignore the importance of proofreading because it will help you to eliminate typos, grammar mistakes, and accidental repeating of the same sentence.

      Help! I’m Still Stuck!!!

Sometimes even the list of helpful topic ideas and the essay writing guides are still not enough because the deadline is coming up and you have not yet started. In other cases, it is way too difficult to find the right sources, and you need just a bit of help to get your paper done. It is exactly the moment when you need professional help and someone who can help you get out of this “I’m Stuck!” mode.

The help is already here for you as our skilled team of biology and life sciences experts, as well as professionals in the other fields of science, are ready to help you work through the most complex assignments and be there to make you come up with a great topic idea! All you have to do is tell us of your homework task, fill in the simple form, and we shall connect you with a skilled geek who knows how to help and do so timely! It is absolutely safe and confidential, let alone that it is fine to ask for help when you need it! Our team knows how much challenging all of these tasks are, so it is guaranteed that you will be guided through each problem and issue that you have to deliver a great final paper. No matter what your problem may be, we are ready to help you identify and deal with it!

I am sincerely hoping that my 100 evolution essay topics and the writing guide article have helped you to get an idea of how to write your paper. If not, remember what I have mentioned in a paragraph above! 🙂 In case you have something to add or want to share something important, feel free to post in the comments below! I wish you the best of luck and let us make an evolution with a truly awesome paper!

Related articles

Popular articles

Evolution Research Paper Topics

Writing an anthropology research paper? This list of evolution research paper topics provides some ideas for narrowing down your topic to a successful and manageable one. This page also outlines the various models of evolution that have been proposed, including the Darwinian theory and the most popular alternatives. It then outlines the early development of ideas about how life could have developed, including the Lamarckian theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. The development and publication of Darwin’s theory is described, along with the controversies following its publication. Efforts to promote alternative theories in the late nineteenth century are described and the implications of the various theories for ideas about human origins and social evolution noted. The article concludes with the emergence of modern Darwinism and later debates such as those arising from sociobiology and evolutionary developmental biology. Browse other anthropology research paper topics for more inspiration.

Ape biogeography Aquatic ape hypothesis Arboreal hypothesis Arc of evolution Australopithecines Biological adaptation Biological anthropology Biological anthropology and neo-Darwinism Catastrophism Charles Darwin Cladistics Creationism versus geology Darwin and Germany Darwin and India Darwin and Italy Darwinism versus Lamarckism Dinosaurian hominid Disbelief in evolution Dropithecus Dynamic integrity Evolution education controversy Evolution of primate brain Evolutionary anthropology Evolutionary epistemology Evolutionary ethics Evolutionary ontology Evolutionary psychology Extinction Fossil record Fossils Galapagos Islands Gigantopithecus Hominid taxonomy Hominoids Homo antecessor Homo erectus Homo ergaster Homo habilis Homo sapiens Human canopy evolution Human evolution Human genetics Humans and dinosaurs India and evolution Issues in hominization Kenyanthropus platyops Kenyapithecus wickeri Lucy reconstruction models Mass extinctions Meganthropus Models of evolution Modern Darwinism Molecular evolution Monkey Trial [1925] Monogenesis versus polygenesis Morphology versus molecules in evolution Narmada man Natural selection Neandertal evidence Neandertals Neo-Darwinism Non-Darwinian evolutionary mechanisms Orangutan-human evolution Oreopithecus Organic evolution Origin of life Origin of Neo-Darwinism Primate extinction Primate genetics Primate morphology and evolution Russia and evolution Sahelanthropus tchadensis Sexual selection Social Darwinism State Darwin Museum, Moscow, Russia Theories Uniformitarianism Zinjanthropus boisei

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code, evolution definition.

Models of Evolution

The term ‘evolution’ is derived from the Latin evolutio, denoting the unrolling of a scroll. In the eighteenth century it was applied to the growth of the embryo, then often described as the mere expansion of a preformed miniature. This application was retained up to the nineteenth century, by which time it was clear that the development of the embryo consisted of the progressive appearance of more complex structures. The philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer generalized the term by applying it to any process of natural progressive development, thereby creating the still common but inaccurate belief that all evolution must be progressive. In particular, Spencer applied the term to the development of societies and of life on earth.

Charles Darwin did not often use the term when describing his theory of the origin of species, but by the end of the nineteenth century, this had become the most common version of ‘evolution.’ However, Darwin’s theory did not imply an inevitable progression toward complexity, and much controversy has surrounded the association between evolution and progress. Darwin’s theory of natural selection now dominates biology and is being extended to many other domains; it is but one of a number of mechanisms that have been suggested to explain evolution, each of which has its own associated implications.

The Ladder of Progress

Perhaps the most popular model of evolution, and one that reveals the link with embryology, is of a linear hierarchy of stages of development from inception to maturity. Such a model simply assumes that all change is progressive and that there is only one direction of development. When applied to societies or species, the model can be adapted by supposing that many lines of development each ascend the same hierarchy but at different rates, so that the slow developers illustrate the ancestral stages already passed through by those at the top of the scale.

Evolutionary Trees

Although the ladder model is still popularly applied to the evolution of life on earth, and was once accepted in the social sciences, biologists and sociologists now realize that there is no single goal toward which evolution is developing – neither the human race nor Western civilization can be treated as the most mature phase of development. Evolution is better represented as a tree or a bush with many branches, each of which is constantly subdividing. The end product of one branch cannot be seen as the goal toward which all the others are ascending, and it is impossible for the end product of one branch to illustrate exactly the ancestral form of another branch. The living apes are not immature humans, because even if the common ancestor from which humans and apes have evolved would be classified as an ape, it would no longer be identical to any of the living ape species. If there is progress on the branching tree-model, it has to be defined in more sophisticated terms so that there are many different ways to become more complex.

Darwin argued that branching evolution explains how we are able to classify species into groups within groups (species, genera, families, etc.). Two species descended from a common ancestor will still share many characters derived from that ancestor, and will share some characters with even more distant relatives. Darwin and his modern followers assume that each new character is developed only once, so all species exhibiting the character are descended from a common ancestor that also had the character. This assumption will be invalidated if there are cases where two lines of evolution evolve the same character independently (convergence or homoplasy). It will also be invalidated if there are even small-scale examples of ladder-like evolution, where several branches are constrained to evolve along the same pattern of development (parallelism).

The branching model had already been applied to the evolution of languages before Darwin and his followers used it to transform biology. Darwin’s key insight was that there was no natural mechanism that could force evolution along a single predetermined path. Evolution is driven not by progress but by the necessity for each species to adapt to its environment in an ever-changing world. Branching occurs because a single population can sometimes become divided by a geographical barrier, after which each isolated population will develop independently in response to the different adaptive pressures it encounters. Progress to a more complex structure is at best a by-product of adaptation and is never inevitable in any one branch; indeed, many species are the products of degenerative evolution. In the animal kingdom, two branches of evolution can seldom if ever rejoin via hybridization (although this does happen in plants). Here, there is a clear contrast with social and linguistic evolution, where mergings and borrowings are frequent.

Darwinism and Lamarckism

Two mechanisms of adaptive evolution have been suggested: natural selection (Darwinism) and the inheritance of acquired characters (Lamarckism). Darwin assumed that the species consists of a population of organisms that exhibit some degree of individual variation and that these variations are inherited – we now explain them as genetic differences produced by mutations. He argued that if the population is exposed to a new environment, some variants will by chance be able to cope better with the new conditions; they will survive and reproduce, transmitting their favorable characters to the next generation. Any that are less fitted to the environment will be unlikely to breed and may even die, so their characters are eliminated from the population. Over many generations, this process of natural selection (Spencer called it the ‘survival of the fittest’) will change the species to adapt it to the environment.

Some time before Darwin, J.B. Lamarck proposed that the inheritance of characters acquired during an organism’s lifetime could accumulate to give adaptive transmutation. An acquired character is produced by the organism’s behavior, which in the wild is usually a response to the environment. Thus, the ancestral giraffes, striving to reach the leaves of trees as an alternative source of food, were able to lengthen their necks, just as a weightlifter can acquire better developed muscles. If such characters are inherited, the next generation of giraffes would be born with longer necks and would then stretch them further. This mechanism was once popular in biology, and corresponds quite closely to how humans transmit new ideas to their descendants. However, where teaching and learning provide a natural mechanism for ideas to be transmitted, modern genetics has shown that there is no way in which acquired biological characters can be inherited. Lamarckism has been banished from biology: The giraffe got its long neck because those who by chance inherited the genes producing that trait reproduced faster than those who carried the genes for shorter necks. The genetic differences are the product of mutations that are random as far as the requirements of the species are concerned.

Nonadaptive Evolution

There are also several mechanisms of biological evolution that suppose that not all developments are adaptive. In the nineteenth century, many naturalists believed that evolution was the unfolding of a predetermined pattern, perhaps analogous to or controlled by the forces of embryological development. Such ideas gave rise to the theory of recapitulation, which supposes that the evolutionary history of the species is traced out by the development of the embryo (or ‘ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny’). This in turn suggests a model of evolution more in tune with the notion of a hierarchical ladder of development. The possibility that saltations (evolutionary jumps or macromutations) might have found new populations was once taken seriously even by geneticists. The theory of orthogenesis supposed that the species was somehow programmed to vary continuously in a particular direction, forcing groups of species to evolve in parallel. Such ideas are now largely discounted in biology, although the possibility that there might be constraints on the range of possible variation has recently been taken more seriously by the advocates of evolutionary developmental biology or ‘evo-devo.’ In the social sciences, the question of whether all cultural and social differences serve a practical purpose has been much debated, and this debate continues.

Pre-Darwinian Evolutionism

Darwin’s was not the first theory of evolution, although the publication of his Origin of Species in 1859 triggered the conversion of most scientists to evolutionism. Several earlier versions of the idea were proposed, and although rejected by conservative thinkers and most scientists, they did much to prepare the way for the reception of Darwinism (Bowler, 1989c).

Creation and Design

The early Church Fathers did not take the Genesis story of creation in the Bible literally, and it was the Protestant theologians of the seventeenth century who established the worldview that survives in modern ‘young earth’ creationism. Archbishop James Ussher published his much ridiculed calculation that the earth was created in 4004 BC. In such a climate of opinion, a form of natural theology flourished in which it could be argued that God had designed and created all the modern species just as we see them today, each with the structures and instincts appropriate for its intended habitat. John Ray and many other naturalists stressed the adaptation of species to their environment, and argued that similarities could be used to classify species because they expressed the rational order of God’s plan of creation – a view adopted by Carolus Linnaeus, who founded the modern system of biological classification (Greene, 1959). Others exploited the ancient concept of the ‘chain of being,’ in which the plan of creation was a linear hierarchy, with the human species at the top of the animal series. This was promoted without any sense of progression through time, although the influence of the chain was retained in some of the early theories of progressive evolution.

Evolution in the Enlightenment

The more radical thinkers of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment recognized that the Earth was much older than Ussher’s estimate and that the planet had changed considerably in the course of its history. Some explored the possibility that life had been produced by spontaneous generation from nonliving matter, and began to doubt that species remained unchanged through time. The French naturalist Georges Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, was especially influential in this respect, as were the materialist philosophers Denis Diderot and Baron d’Holbach (Roger, 1998).

Toward the end of the eighteenth century, Erasmus Darwin (grandfather of Charles) published a theory of transmutation in his Zoonomia, arguing that all living things were derived from a simple origin and had become more complex through their striving to adapt to the environment. These views were echoed in a more sophisticated form in J.B. Lamarck’s Zoological Philosophy of 1809. Lamarck accepted that there was a basic progressive force driving living things to ascend the chain of being over many generations, but he accepted that no linear pattern is visible in the present animal and plant kingdoms, explaining the divergence as a consequence of life’s constant need to adapt to an ever-changing environment. He invoked the inheritance of acquired characters (described above) to explain this process, and his name has been associated with that mechanism ever since (Corsi, 1988).

The Fossil Record

Historians used to think that Lamarck was marginalized by his great rival, Georges Cuvier, who pioneered the study of fossil bones to reconstruct the history of life. Cuvier showed that there was a succession of populations in the course of the earth’s history but insisted that species disappear abruptly from the record through the action of geological catastrophes. He rejected transmutation but did not openly endorse the idea of divine creation – although the theory of a succession of creations was popularized by Cuvier’s British followers, including William Buckland. Although they had extended the Earth’s history, Cuvier and Buckland were convinced that the human race was a recent creation. Their work thus endorsed a view of human history in which there was no time for social evolution, many scholars still believing that language and the arts of civilization were taught to the earliest humans by their Creator.

Later historical work has shown that although the theory of successive creations was endorsed by the scientific establishment, more radical thinkers in both France and Britain were attracted to Lamarck’s theory (Desmond, 1989). Darwin, who developed his theory in the 1830s, concealed it for fear of being associated with this radical movement. Historians also now recognize that there was an alternative non-Darwinian theory of evolution emerging in Germany among the followers of J.F. Blumenbach. This stressed the model of preordained development and invoked the parallel with embryological development. The situation in Britain changed significantly following the anonymous publication of Robert Chambers’ Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation in 1844 (Secord, 2000). Chambers argued that an ideology of progress was just what the middle class needed to support its demands for reform, and provided a scientific foundation for this ideology based on the idea of progressive evolution. Although he presented evolution as the unfolding of a divine plan, his book’s open recognition that humans are transformed animals, and that the mind is a product of the expansion of the brain, caused an outcry from conservative thinkers. Over the following decade, however, Vestiges popularized the idea of progressive evolution, creating a space in which Darwin’s more scientific theory could have an impact.

The Development of Darwin’s Theory

Charles Darwin was converted to evolutionism by his discoveries on the voyage of HMS Beagle (1831–36) and returned to England determined to understand how the process worked. He soon discovered the mechanism of natural selection and continued to work on the various aspects of his theory in relative secrecy. Much controversy has surrounded Darwin’s discovery, because in addition to the many scientific factors influencing his thinking, he acknowledged the impact of Thomas Malthus’ principle of population, a product of the ideology of laissez-faire economics.

Scientific Influences

While studying at Cambridge, Darwin was attracted to William Paley’s Natural Theology of 1802, which restated the argument that species are adapted to their environment through the wisdom and benevolence of the Creator. On the voyage of the Beagle, his observations of South American geology converted him to Charles Lyell’s uniformitarian position, which accounted for all geological change in terms of the action of observable forces over vast periods of time. Biogeographical studies, especially those of the birds of the Galapagos Islands, forced him to rethink the idea of Divine Creation, because he saw that individual islands had each acquired a distinct species of immigrant families, such as the finches. On his return to England, he soon accepted a complete evolutionary philosophy and began to search for a mechanism (Browne, 1995).

Darwin saw that evolution must be a branching process and that the ultimate cause was the adaptation of isolated populations to different environments. He studied animal breeding and realized that breeders produce new varieties by selecting out individual animals with the required character and breeding only from these. Artificial selection draws on the natural and largely random variability of the population and allows only individuals with a selected character to breed, thereby enhancing that character in future generations. Darwin was soon looking for a natural equivalent of this process.

Malthus and Population

A vital step in Darwin’s thinking came when he read Malthus’ Essay on Population, which argued that populations breed so rapidly that they outstrip their food supply. Drawing on hints in Malthus, Darwin realized that population pressure must generate a struggle for existence in which many individuals die He was now able to argue that any better adapted variant would be more successful in the struggle and would be more likely to survive and reproduce, while poorly adapted variants would die, thus establishing the theory of natural selection described in Section Darwinism and Lamarckism. This gave Darwin the basis on which to erect a comprehensive account of evolution. The role played by Malthus’ ideologically loaded principle has, however, led to frequent charges that Darwin’s theory is itself a projection of laissez-faire values on to nature, with the consequence that the theory would be used to justify the competitive ethos of Victorian capitalism (Young, 1985). Much controversy also surrounds the degree of Darwin’s commitment to the idea of progress. Although the selection theory undermines the ladder model of progress, historians now accept that Darwin’s thinking was influenced by the assumption that competition is the driving force of a more general form of progress. However, it is clear that Darwin’s commitment to branching evolution went far beyond the conventional social values later linked to his theory, while his application of the population principle undermined Malthus’ own ideology, which was an attempt to discredit the optimism of social progressionists.

Darwin let only a few close contacts know of his theory, while continuing to work on exploring its scientific implications. He came to appreciate that, even in a stable environment, specialization would allow natural selection to continue the process of divergence by which species separate from close relatives. Eventually, he began to write up his ideas for publication but was interrupted in 1858 by the arrival of a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace describing a similar (although not identical) theory. The joint Darwin–Wallace papers were published in that year, while Darwin rushed to complete the Origin of Species (Browne, 2002).

Darwinism in Biology

The Origin of Species sparked an intense debate that soon led to the conversion of most scientists and educated people to evolutionism (Hull, 1973; Ruse, 1979). Despite initial opposition by conservative thinkers, the belief that the human race was the outcome of a progressive trend built into nature was accepted. In science, too, creationism was replaced by the expectation that all living species are the products of natural processes, and here, too, there was a widespread assumption that such processes guaranteed progress, even if superimposed on a branching model of development. The success of Darwinism needs to be assessed with care because the popularity of this developmental model of evolution meant that the more radical implications of Darwin’s thinking were evaded (Bowler, 1988). Far from welcoming the theory of natural selection, most nineteenth-century scientists, including some of Darwin’s leading supporters, were lukewarm about it. Opposition grew toward the end of the century, with many alternative mechanisms of evolution being tried out.

The History of Life

Much of the first generation of evolutionists’ efforts focused on reconstructing the course of the history of life on earth from anatomical, embryological, biogeographical, and fossil evidence (Bowler, 1996). Darwin himself treated this project with caution, but under the influence of the German biologist Ernst Haeckel, a whole generation of evolutionists strove to complete it. They had some successes, but the problems were much greater than they had anticipated and the project was sidelined by new developments in biology at the beginning of the twentieth century. Darwin had stressed the imperfection of the fossil record, but in a few important areas new discoveries helped to show how the major steps in evolution had taken place. Elsewhere, anatomical and embryological evidence was used to reconstruct evolutionary relationships. Darwin’s theory implied that it would be unlikely for the same character to develop independently in different lines of evolution, so similarity of underlying structure could be taken as evidence of common descent. Some non-Darwinian theories, however, postulated predetermined trends that might generate similar structures independently. In embryology, Darwin’s assumption that early stages of development would illustrate affinities was overtaken by Haeckel’s recapitulation theory, according to which earlier stages could actually illustrate ancestral adult forms. This way of thinking was a product of the progressionist way of thought, presupposing a privileged line of development toward maturity. Only in biogeography did it become clear that evolution was a highly irregular process, depending on the hazards of migration in a world where geological forces were constantly remolding the topography.

Natural Selection and the Alternatives

Historians have focused on the debates over natural selection, but this is more a product of our modern preoccupation with that mechanism than of its significance in late nineteenth-century biology. One much discussed theme centers on Darwin’s concept of heredity, which was quite unlike the model of unit character inheritance promoted by Mendelian genetics. It has even been argued that, without the concept of non-blending unit characters, natural selection was fatally flawed. It is true that Darwin was much concerned by Fleeming Jenkins’ 1867 review, which argued that if male and female parental characters blend in the offspring, the advantages of a well-favored ‘sport’ or mutation would be diluted rapidly. However, as A.R. Wallace pointed out, this objection is irrelevant if there is a continuous range of variation in the population, which is the case for most characters (Gayon, 1998).

In fact, many of the objections to natural selection were intended only to show that evolution must be a more purposeful process than any mechanism based on random variation would allow. One major alternative that now became popular was the Lamarckian theory of the inheritance of acquired characters, in which the animals’ own behavior directs their variation. Some objections to natural selection were aimed at the whole idea of adaptive evolution and were intended to show that some internally driven force directed the organisms’ variation. These were very much a product of the rival developmental tradition that had become popular earlier in the century, especially in Germany. The theory of orthogenesis supposed that variation was controlled by internal developmental forces that generated linear evolutionary trends, while the theory of saltations assumed that macromutations could somehow find new breeding populations (Bowler, 1983).

Human Origins and Social Evolution

Many religious thinkers objected to the idea that the human soul was the product of evolution from an animal ancestry. Much of this initial opposition was overcome by stressing the purposeful nature of evolution, allowing the appearance of humanity to be presented as the culmination of a divine plan (Moore, 1979). Darwin’s theory of evolution threatened this assumption, and in his Descent of Man of 1871, he argued that humans had evolved from African apes, which had stood upright as an adaptation to a new lifestyle on the open plains. Most late nineteenth-century accounts of human evolution, however, stressed the expansion of the brain as the main driving force of the process. At the same time, the idea of progressive evolution was applied to the history of human cultures and societies. Some evolutionists, including Spencer, stressed competition as the driving force of progress, leading to the charge that they were promoting a ‘social Darwinism’ designed to legitimize capitalist values. While Darwin’s theory was certainly associated with this movement, it was by no means the only scientific justification offered.

Cultural Evolutionism

Coincidentally with the Darwinian revolution, archaeologists undermined the belief that the human race was a recent creation, and exposed a vast period of prehistory in which our ancestors had used only stone tools. It was this initiative rather than any influence from Darwinism that led anthropologists such as Edward B. Tylor to equate modern ‘savages’ (i.e., people with relatively unsophisticated technology) with the ancestral stages through which civilized humans had passed in prehistoric times on their march toward a more mature culture. Cultural evolutionism was a product of the nineteenth-century developmental viewpoint, based on the ladder model of progress (Bowler, 1989a). Tylor himself did not accept that humans had evolved from apes, but other cultural evolutionists, especially John Lubbock, linked the two modes of evolution and argued that ‘savages’ were biologically as well as culturally primitive – living examples of the earlier stages in human biological and mental evolution. Herbert Spencer’s model of social evolution, while stressing ostensibly the divergent nature of evolution, still presented ‘lower’ races as surviving primitives incapable of matching the mental powers of the Anglo-Saxons.

Social Darwinism

Spencer is most often remembered, however, as the social philosopher who linked the idea of progress to the ideology of free enterprise individualism. As an exponent of laissez-faire, and the coiner of the term ‘survival of the fittest,’ it has been easy for critics to portray Spencer’s enthusiasm for struggle as the motor of progress as a direct application of the Darwinian selection theory to society, hence the image of him as the founder of ‘Social Darwinism.’ Spencer worried about the elimination of the unfit, but in biology he defended Lamarckism, and his enthusiasm for struggle came more from a conviction that competition would stimulate individual self-improvement (which in a Lamarckian scheme could be passed on to future generations). Darwin’s theory is thus only one of the scientific factors that stimulated the ideology of ‘progress through struggle’ – remembered preferentially because natural selection has now become the only mechanism by which that metaphor can be put into practice in biology (Bannister, 1979). In the later nineteenth century, there was more emphasis on the struggle between nations and races, which bypasses the central feature of natural selection within populations.

Modern Darwinism

By the end of the nineteenth century, the attempt to reconstruct the courses of biological and social evolution had run out of steam. The social sciences abandoned the evolutionary model and any suggestion that human behavior is predetermined by biological factors. Biologists began to study the actual processes of heredity and variation, leading to the emergence of Mendelian genetics. The geneticists destroyed Lamarckism, and although at first hostile to the selection theory, they were eventually convinced that genetic mutation was the source of the random variation that is the raw material of natural selection. By the mid-twentieth century, the ‘Modern Synthesis’ of Darwinism and genetics had come to dominate biology but remained controversial elsewhere.

The Modern Darwinian Synthesis

In the last decade of the nineteenth century, the statistician Karl Pearson developed a mathematical model of natural selection acting on the variations in a wild population (Gayon, 1998). Many biologists were now exploring the idea that new species were produced by saltations or macromutations, and it was partly from this tradition that the ‘rediscovery’ of Gregor Mendel’s laws of particulate inheritance emerged. Ignored since the 1860s, these laws postulated the existence of unit characters transmitted unchanged from one generation to the next. In 1900, Mendel’s laws were proclaimed as the basis for a new science of heredity, which William Bateson soon called ‘genetics.’ However, Pearson was already hostile to Bateson’s saltationism, while Bateson rejected Pearson’s commitment to continuity and adaptation. Genetics was thus perceived as a new alternative to Darwinism, although it destroyed the credibility of Lamarckism by suggesting that there is no plausible way in which acquired characters can affect the gene (Bowler, 1989b).

T.H. Morgan’s studies of genetic mutations showed that most macromutations are fatal, while small mutations simply add to the genetic variation in the population. Soon, Morgan conceded that natural selection would affect the reproductive success of the various genes. In the 1920s and 1930s, R.A. Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, and Sewall Wright brought together the statistical study of populations with the new genetics to create a science of population genetics based on the genetic theory of natural selection (Provine, 1971; Mayr, 1982). Naturalists such as Julian Huxley and Ernst Mayr now recognized that the adaptation of local populations to their environment was the most likely explanation of how species originate. The new selection theory was integrated with these wider developments to create what Huxley called the ‘Modern Synthesis.’

Later Developments

The Darwinian synthesis has dominated biology since the mid-twentieth century, although there have been numerous developments within it and some efforts to limit its applicability. Some modern thinkers now argue that the concept of natural selection can be applied to almost all areas where change is observed, sweeping away the whole idea of a universe that is the product of divine purpose. Conversely, the emergence of evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) has renewed interest in the role of embryological factors in the creation of new characters and has thereby reinstated some topics that were central to the non-Darwinian programs of the nineteenth century (Amundson, 2005).

Perhaps the most controversial applications of modern biology are efforts to apply the theory of natural selection to human beings, especially in the area of social behavior. The science of sociobiology has been successful in explaining the social behavior of animals in terms of genetics and reproductive success, via the concept of the ‘selfish gene’ (Dawkins, 1976). However, E.O. Wilson’s efforts to apply sociobiology to human behavior by suggesting that we are driven by instincts implanted by natural selection have been greeted with much suspicion by social scientists and have also been dismissed as a revived ‘social Darwinism’ by the political left (Segerstrale, 2000). In more recent decades, sociobiology has been replaced by evolutionary psychology, which postulates that human behavior is shaped by inbuilt behavioral constraints evolved originally to deal with the environment in which the earliest modern humans evolved (Barkow et al., 1992). This approach depicts the mind as a collection of more or less independent modules controlling behavior, rather than as a generalized information processor. It is opposed by rival methodologies including human behavioral ecology and a new form of cultural evolutionism, both of which focus on the malleability of behavior and our ability to respond to current environmental and social pressures. The question of how much evolutionary biology can tell us about operations of the human mind thus remains controversial.

Anthropology and Evolution: Facts, Concepts, and Perspectives

As the comprehensive study of evolving humankind, anthropology is that discipline that is devoted to research in those areas that are relevant to understanding and appreciating Homo sapiens sapiens within the natural world (Bollt, 2009; Hublin, 2006). These areas range from genetics, paleontology, and archaeology to sociology, psychology, and linguistics. The more anthropologists search, the more fossils and artifacts they find that shed light on the emergence of our species over several million years. Each discovery helps to complete the developing picture of hominid evolution (Birx, 1988; Shubin, 2009; Tattersall & Schwartz, 2000). Of particular significance are those discoveries in primatology that clearly show the undeniable similarities between our human species and the four great apes in terms of genetics and psychology. Research in cross-cultural studies reveals the astonishing diversity of human thought and behavior from society to society throughout history.

In paleoanthropology, three discoveries have been especially important: Ardipithecus ramidus (“Ardi”), Astralopithecus afarensis (“Lucy”), and Homo florensiensis (“Hobbit”). Although interpretations of these three hominid species vary among anthropologists, who debate specific conclusions from the fossil specimens, there is no denying the empirical evidence itself. Today, it is exciting to speculate on what remarkable fossil specimens are still in the earth waiting to be discovered by future anthropologists.

A perplexing question still haunts some anthropologists: What is the uniqueness of our species? One answer offered was that the human animal is the only toolmaker— until it was discovered that chimpanzees make and use simple tools (as do a few other animals). A second reply was that only our species has self-consciousness that allows it to communicate through language—until ape studies showed that the pongids have self-awareness and are capable of learning symbolic communication. More recently, it has been argued that only humans stand erect and walk upright with a bipedal gait; that is, only humans are capable of sustained bipedality. However, chimpanzees and bonobos are able to walk erect for short distances. It seems that the only uniqueness of our species that separates us from the other living hominoids is about 6 million years of biological evolution (Rachels, 1999). Huxley, Haeckel, and Darwin himself got it correctly back in the 19th century: Man differs merely in degree rather than in kind from the great apes.

Religious Creationism or Scientific Evolutionism

During the 19th century, two fundamental questions remained to be answered: What is the age of this planet? Have species always been fixed throughout earth history? As evidence accumulated in geology and paleontology, it became increasingly obvious to naturalists that our planet is millions (actually billions) of years old and that species have changed over time (with most species eventually becoming extinct). This emerging evolution framework held devastating consequences for all orthodox conceptions of earth, life-forms, and our species. In 1860 at the University of Oxford, England, the infamous Thomas Huxley and Samuel Wilberforce confrontation exemplified the intense conflict between the new evolution paradigm in science and an outmoded static worldview in religion.

The fact of evolution challenged not only traditional science and philosophy but also natural theology. Darwin himself was disturbed by the materialist implications of his own evolution theory for religious beliefs. In fact, his wife, Emma, even felt compelled to delete all of her husband’s views on theology and religion from his Autobiography, which was published posthumously in 1887; not until 1958 did an unexpurgated edition of Darwin’s life, written by himself in 1876, appear in print (Darwin, 1969).

In England, to reconcile evolutionary science with Christian faith, religious naturalist Philip Gosse argued that God had placed fossils in the earth in order to merely suggest that organic evolution had taken place, although in reality (so thought Gosse) species are fixed and earth had been suddenly created only about 6,000 years ago. Not surprisingly, his bizarre but provocative book Omphalos: An Attempt to Untie the Geological Knot (1857) convinced neither scientists nor theologians.

During the 20th century, reacting to the materialist ramifications of organic evolution, some religionists argued against the new dynamic outlook by first defending biblical fundamentalism and then advocating so-called scientific creationism (Isaak, 2007). Both viewpoints gave priority to beliefs rather than to facts. In 1925 at Dayton, Tennessee, the infamous John Scopes “Monkey Trial” had best represented this ongoing clash between science and religion over the factual theory of organic evolution.

In an attempt to reconcile modern science with traditional theology, some religionists now maintain that the universe in general and evolution in particular manifest an intelligent design (Petto & Godfrey, 2007). Ultimately, this is a religious position not supported by scientific evidence. Despite all the ongoing attacks, continuing research in all areas of science (from genetics to paleontology) confirms the fact of evolution and the close biological relationship between our species and the great apes. In fact, an honest examination of human history clearly shows that even complex religious beliefs and theological systems have evolved, over thousands of years, from simplistic explanations for interpreting the natural world. No doubt, exciting discoveries in the future will further strengthen the evolution framework. Finally, in light of ongoing changes in human societies and their cultures, one wonders what the religious beliefs and theological systems of human beings will look like 2,000 years from now.

Evolutionary Humanism, Transhumanism, and Posthumanism

Grounded in science, reason, and an open-ended perspective, evolutionary humanism emphasizes the ongoing development of human beings within a strictly naturalistic framework. It maintains the unity of mental activity and the organic brain, and places our species totally within biological evolution. With optimism, evolutionary humanism argues for the improvement of our species in order to increase its health, happiness, and longevity (overcoming illness, disease, and physical disability). With the advances in science and technology since the middle of the 20th century, especially in genetics, the innovative ideas and pragmatic values of this movement for human enhancement would seem increasingly plausible for guiding our evolving species.

Extending the evolutionary framework, some scientists and philosophers see the human being as an unfinished species that will continue to change as a result of implementing nanotechnology and genetic engineering (Harris, 2007; Savulescu & Bostrom, 2009; Sorgner, 2006; Young, 2006). Both the ideas and values of transhumanism (going beyond the human of today) have been put forward by several visionary thinkers: Nick Bostrom, Fereidoun M. Esfandiary, Sir Julian S. Huxley, Michel Houellebecq, and Julian Savulescu (among others). Through human intervention, these thinkers argue, our species will be improved in its biological and psychological makeup, just as Homo sapiens of today is a biopsychological advance over Homo erectus of the distant past.

Reminiscent of Friedrich Nietzsche’s conception of the overbeing, some thinkers even speculate that the transhuman will be the “missing link” between the human of today and the posthuman of the remote future. In fact, the posthuman may even be a new species far beyond both humans and the following transhumans. Of course, one cannot imagine the nature of the posthumans. It is likely that these cosmic overbeings will travel to and live among the stars.

Exobiology and Exoevolution

In 1836, during the end of his 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin revisited the tropical Brazilian rainforest. He admired this lush environment and thought how great it would be, if it were ever possible, to experience the scenery on another planet. Therefore, at least once, the young naturalist glimpsed the forthcoming science of exobiology or astrobiology as the search for life-forms on other worlds (and if they are found, their study).

In the history of philosophy, major thinkers like Giordano Bruno (1548–1600) and Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) envisioned living beings inhabiting other planets. Today, with advances in technology, scientists are seriously scanning the heavens in hopes of detecting indisputable evidence that organisms exist elsewhere in sidereal reality (Boss, 2009; Lamb, 2001). The size and age of this material universe, with its billions of galaxies each having billions of stars, argues for the existence of countless planets. If the same physical laws and chemical elements pervade this cosmos, then it seems reasonable to assume that earthlike worlds harbor life-forms among the stars, perhaps even sentient beings similar to or even advanced beyond ourselves.

In our own solar system, the earth has those necessary natural conditions that have allowed for the origin and evolution of biological forms over the past 4 billion years. Beyond this solar system, extrasolar planets may have similar life zones that permit the existence of organisms. Thus, planetology becomes cosmology as the probability of and interest in biological evolution are extended to include this entire universe. Likewise, exobiology implies exoevolution, that is, the evolution of life-forms on different worlds, where organisms are adapting to changing habitats far different from those environments on earth (Birx, 2006b). In the distant future, both exobiology and exoevolution may offer intriguing areas for scientific research.

Even if forms of life are never found elsewhere in this universe, it does not mean that they do not exist on worlds that will remain beyond the detection of our human species (Webb, 2002). Moreover, organisms may have existed in the remote past before the formation of the present galaxies or will emerge in the distant future in new galaxies. And there may have been, are, or will be other universes with life-forms very similar to or far different from those organisms that have inhabited or are now inhabiting earth. One can only speculate on what the consequences might be if our human species ever encounters superior intelligent beings evolving among the stars.

Since the convincing writings of Charles Darwin, interpretations of organic evolution have evolved from the narrow materialism of early evolutionists to the comprehensive naturalism of modern neo-Darwinists. Advances in those special sciences that support biological evolution include ongoing discoveries in paleontology, comparative biology, anthropology, and population genetics, as well as more accurate dating techniques in geology and biochemistry. Progress in these special sciences is an increasing challenge to vitalistic, spiritualistic, and mystical interpretations of our species and organic evolution.

Two exciting and promising but controversial areas in modern evolution research are transhumanism and exoevolution. With the rapid advances in nanotechnology and genetic engineering, an increasing ability to design the DNA molecule will allow humans to alter and improve species, including our own, and to design new organisms for specific purposes both on earth and in outer space; as such, one may speak of emerging teleology in terms of human intervention and technological manipulation. The successful journey of human beings into outer space will require our species to adapt to and survive in different environments, both artificial and natural. If life-forms are discovered elsewhere in this universe, then scientists and philosophers will be able to study the evolution of organisms on other worlds.

Quo vadis, Homo sapiens? In those countless centuries to come, the human being may even transform itself into a new species, Homo futurensis. Of course, designer evolution will require establishing ethical guidelines while promoting open inquiry. For now, the primary focus must be on those steps that need to be taken to ensure the continued biodiversity of life-forms on this planet, including the ongoing fulfillment of humans on this earth before they venture to the stars.

Bibliography:

• Amundson, R., (2005). The Changing Role of the Embryo in Evolutionary Thought: The Roots of Evo-Devo. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
• Bannister, R.C., (1979). Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought. Temple University Press, Philadelphia, PA.
• Barkow, J.H., Cosmides, L., Tooby, J. (Eds.), (1992). The Adapted Mind. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
• Birx, H. J. (1988). Human evolution. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
• Birx, H. J. (2006a). Evolution, arc of. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology (Vol. 2, pp. 881–882). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Birx, H. J. (2006b). Exobiology and exoevolution. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology (Vol. 2, pp. 931–934). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Bollt, R. (2009). Anthropology. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of time (Vol. 1, pp. 23–30). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Boss, A. (2009). The crowded universe: The search for living planets. New York: Basic Books.
• Bowler, P.J., (1983). The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades around 1900. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
• Bowler, P.J., (1988). The Non-Darwinian Revolution: Reinterpreting a Historical Myth. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
• Bowler, P.J., (1989a). The Invention of Progress: The Victorian and the Past. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
• Bowler, P.J., (1989b). The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergence of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society. Athlone, London.
• Bowler, P.J., (1989c). Evolution: The History of an Idea. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
• Bowler, P.J., (1996). Life’s Splendid Drama: Evolutionary Biology and the Reconstruction of Life’s Ancestry, 1860–1940. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
• Browne, J., (1995). Charles Darwin: Voyaging. Jonathan Cape, London.
• Browne, J., (2002). Charles Darwin: The Power of Place. Jonathan Cape, London.
• Corsi, P., (1988). The Age of Lamarck: Evolutionary Theory in France, 1790–1830. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
• Darwin, C. (1969). Autobiography (N. Barlow, Ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. (Original work published 1887, unexpurgated version published 1958)
• Dawkins, R., (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, New York.
• Desmond, A., (1989). The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine and Reform in Radical London. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
• Gayon, J., (1998). Darwinism’s Struggle for Survival; Heredity and the Hypothesis of Natural Selection. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
• Greene, J.C., (1959). The Death of Adam: Evolution and Its Impact on Western Thought. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.
• Harris, J. (2007). Enhancing evolution: The ethical case for making better people. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Hublin, J.-J. (2006). Evolutionary anthropology. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of anthropology (Vol. 2, pp. 913–919). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Hull, D.L., (1973). Darwin and His Critics: The Reception of Darwin’s Theory by the Scientific Community. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
• Isaak, M. (2007). The counter-creationism handbook. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Lamb, D. (2001). The search for extraterrestrial intelligence: A philosophical inquiry. New York: Routledge.
• Mayr, E., (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
• Moore, J.R., (1979). The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to Come to Terms with Darwin in Britain and America, 1870–1900. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
• Petto, A. J., & Godfrey, L. R. (Eds.). (2007). Scientists confront creationism: Intelligent design and beyond. New York: W. W. Norton.
• Provine, W.B., (1971). The Origin of Theoretical Population Genetics. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
• Rachels, J. (1999). Created from animals: The moral implications of Darwinism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Roger, J., (1998). The Life Sciences in Eighteenth-century French Thought. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
• Ruse, M., (1979). The Darwinian Revolution. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
• Savulescu, J., & Bostrom, N. (Eds.). (2009). Human enhancement. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Secord, J., (2000). Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
• Segerstrale, U., (2000). Defenders of the Truth: The Battle for Science in the Sociobiology Debate and Beyond. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
• Shubin, N. (2009). Your inner fish: A journey into the 3.5-billion-year history of the human body. New York: Random House.
• Sorgner, S. (2006). Transhumanism. In H. J. Birx (Ed.), Encyclopedia of time (Vol. 3, pp. 1375–1376). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Tattersall, I., & Schwartz, J. H. (2000). Extinct humans. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Webb, S. (2002). Where is everybody? Fifty solutions to the Fermi paradox and the problem of extraterrestrial life. New York: Copernicus Books.
• Young, R.M., (1985). Darwin’s Metaphor: Nature’s Place in Victorian Culture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
• Young, S. (2006). Designer evolution: A transhumanist manifesto. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

• Schools & departments

Research topics

At the Institute of Ecology and Evolution (IEE) we study evolution in the broadest possible sense, from virtually every angle and using a great range of organisms and techniques.

Our research falls under three broad topics:

Evolutionary and Quantitative Genetics

We study fundamental and applied aspects of genetics, from theoretical population genetics to the genetics of complex traits.

Current research includes:

• Viral evolution
• Bacterial evolution
• Methods of phylogenetic analysis
• Molecular and genome evolution
• Comparative genomics
• The evolution of plant mating systems
• The genetics of speciation
• The analysis of quantitative trait variation
• Population genetics

Evolutionary Ecology and Behaviour

We explore the evolutionary causes and consequences of ecological interactions and behaviour, using theoretical and empirical approaches.

• Host-parasite coevolution
• Evolutionary ecology of parasites
• Evolution of immunity and immune systems
• Social evolution
• Sexual selection and sexual conflict
• Reproductive allocation and life-history evolution
• Natural selection in the wild
• The evolution of sex differences in cognition
• Learning and memory in the wild
• The evolutionary biology of infectious disease

Biodiversity and Ecology

We examine biodiversity and ecological complexity, from genomes to ecosystems. Current research includes:

• Evolutionary developmental biology
• Metagenomics
• Phylogeography and ecosystem construction
• Plant conservation genetics
• Interactions between the physical and biotic environments
• The genomic diversity of neglected taxa

Our interdisciplinary research and teaching benefits from strong links with members of:

• the Institute of Immunology and Infection Research ( IIIR ),
• the Centre for Infectious Diseases ( CID ),
• the Wellcome Trust Centre in Development for Immunity,
• Infection and Evolution,
• the Centre for Molecular Medicine,
• the Life Physics Group,
• the MRC Human Genetics Unit,
• the Roslin Institute, and
• the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.

Many of us are joint members of IEB , IIIR , CID , and the Centre in Development.

Related Links

Institute of Immunology and Infection Research

Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution

Edinburgh Infectious Diseases

MRC Human Genetics Unit

MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine

Roslin Institute

Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh

Ten Astounding Cases of Modern Evolution and Adaptation

Animals (including humans) are constantly adapting to their environments. Here are ten reminders that this incredible process is constant—not limited to the distant past

By Dan Nosowitz | Published Sep 14, 2011 7:30 PM EDT

• Environment

When we look at how evolution has taken us from eyeless blobs to moderately capable bloggers, it can seem like a vast, unknowable force. But when we look at individual traits and how they appear and disappear in clever ways, the functioning of cause and effect is clear, and fascinating, to see. People keep poisoning your lake? Well, Mr. Fish, why don’t you develop a resistance to that poison, and pass it down to your kids? Bats keep ignoring your flower and pollinating others? Well, tropical vine, how about evolving an echolocation-reflecting satellite-dish-shaped leaf? We gathered a list of ten evolutions and adaptations that are either new or newly discovered, ranging from plants to animals to, yes, people. We’re not perfect, either.

Click to launch a list of ten amazing evolutions.

A note: these examples span a few different types of changes, including individual mutations (as with the humans), learned behaviors (as with the Muscovite dogs), new adaptations (as with the cave fish) and newly discovered evolutions (as with the satellite-dish-shaped leaf). Think of this as more of an overview of how things can change rather than any particular argument.

Babiana ringens , a South African flowering plant locally known as the Rat’s Tail, shows a very particular evolution to invite pollinating birds to dip their beaks into its flowers: a specialized bird perch. B. ringens ‘s flowers grow on the ground, which could mean it garners less attention from birds that don’t wish to hang around in that dangerous spot for too long. To entice the Malachite sunbird, the plant has evolved to grow a firm stalk in a perfect perching position for feeding. This one is interesting because the very same plant shows a distinct difference depending on where it is, according to University of Toronto researchers –when it relies on the sunbird for pollination, it grows a long and appealing stalk (quiet, guys), while in areas with lots of potential pollinators, that stalk has shrunk over many generations of less use. But the stalk is still a major advantage for the plant–plants without the stalk, whether it was broken off or whatever, produce only half as many seeds as those with an intact stalk.

Earlier this summer, we stumbled upon this newly-poison-resistant house mouse , which can now survive some of mankind’s deadliest rodenticide thanks to some very recent hybridization-as-evolution. Warfarin, a common mouse poison, works on most species of mouse, including the common house mouse, but it doesn’t work on the Algerian mouse, a separate though closely related species found on the Mediterranean coast. The two mouse species would never normally have met, but human travel introduced them, and the inevitable hybrid mouse began popping up in Germany, safe and sound–due to this new beneficial trait.

We’re not the only ones who love bats –turns out the Cuban rainforest vine Marcgravia evenia works pretty hard to get their attention, too. In a recently discovered (though not recently developed) evolution, M. evenia ‘s leaves have a distinct concave shape that work like little satellite dishes. Why? To send back a strong signal when bombarded with echolocation from bats. That makes the flower uniquely recognizable to our flying mammal friends, who often rely on echolocation to make up for their poor eyesight. The design isn’t great for photosynthesis , but apparently the benefits outweigh the negatives.

The most feared and panic-causing insect in New York isn’t the cockroach–it’s the bedbug. In the late 1990s, after a half-century of “relative inactivity,” as we noted back in May , the bedbug suddenly reappeared, stronger than ever. Turns out the bedbug had evolved in ways that make it much harder to eradicate, including a thick, waxlike exoskeleton that repels pesticides, a faster metabolism to create more of the bedbug’s natural chemical defenses, and dominant mutations to block search-and-destroy pyrethroids. You almost have to admire the little monsters.

A few weeks ago , we found an example of evolution in action: evolution at the cellular level, and within humans to boot. A small study of cardiologists, who use x-rays very frequently in their work, found that the doctors did have higher-than-normal levels of hydrogen peroxide in the blood, a development that could serve as a warning signal for potential carcinogens down the road. But they also found that that raised level of hydrogen peroxide triggered production of an antioxidant called glutathione, a protector of cells. Essentially, these doctors are developing protections against the hazards of their jobs from the inside out, starting deep down inside the cells. It’s an amazing story–read more about it here .

Moscow has a serious stray dog problem. For every 300 Muscovites (we might have guessed “Moswegian” for the demonym, but nope), there’s one stray dog, enough that a researcher at the A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Andrei Poyarkov, has been analyzing them from an evolutionary perspective. Poyarkov has separated the dogs into four personality types, ranging from a reversion to wolf-like qualities to a specialized “beggar” type. That latter type is particular interesting, as it’s a totally new set a behaviors: beggar dogs understand which humans are most likely to give them food, and have even evolved the ability to ride the subway, incorporating multiple stops into their territory. You can read more about Moscow’s dogs here .

The tale of Australia’s cane toads is tragic and mysterious in equal measure. Introduced in 1935 to control the native cane beetle, which was gnawing up the country’s crops, the toads pretty much immediately began breeding like Mogwai and eating up everything in sight, dooming many indigenous species. While the toads spread over most of northeast Australia, researchers began noting something very strange: the toads were mutating to have a very particular set of characteristics: longer legs, greater endurance, more speed. Those mutations allowed the newly evolved cane toads to move faster and spread further, but here’s the thing: it actually made them less healthy. The faster toads had the highest mortality rates, and often developed spinal problems. So what was the point of that evolution? After analyzing the environment, researchers came up with a new term for this kind of natural selection: spacial sorting. The idea is that the faster a toad could move, thus expanding the cane toad’s territory, the easier time it would have attracting a mate–even though the toads were less healthy, and even though there was no real need to keep expanding (certainly not a lack of food). The researchers describe it as “not as important as Darwinian processes but nonetheless capable of shaping biological diversity by a process so-far largely neglected.” [ Wired ]

It’s a pretty bad sign when you develop a genetically modified type of corn, weathering all the usual complaints about safety and playing God and all that, all to avoid having your crop gnawed on by a certain kind of pesky bug, only to find that, well, the bug has mutated. That happened to Monsanto (the GM corn maker) and the western corn rootworm (the bug, pictured above in its adult stage). Rootworms developed a natural resistance to the pesticide inherent in Monsanto’s genetically modified corn very quickly. We wrote: “The corn seed also contains a gene that produces a crystalline protein called Cry3Bb1, which delivers an unpleasant demise to the rootworm (via digestive tract destruction) but otherwise is harmless to other creatures (we think).” But an Iowa State University research paper described an instance of the rootworm developing an effective resistance to that protein, raising concerns that the rootworm is flexible enough to respond to all kinds of genetic protection.

We tend to take it for granted that a dog barks–but in the wild, canines hardly ever do, instead whining or yipping or howling. A few studies have examined why this is, and the current conclusion is that dogs bark, well, for us. That conclusion comes in a bit of a roundabout way: Csaba Molnar’s studies show both that a dog’s bark contains information, and that humans can understand that information. Despite a dog owner’s insistence otherwise, dog owners typically cannot tell their dog’s bark apart from the bark of a different dog of the same breed. But humans can quite easily distinguish “alarm” barks from “play” barks, and spectrum analysis shows that alarm barks tend to be very similar to each other, and very distinct from other types of barks. Evolutionarily speaking, dogs are not very far removed from their wild cousins, perhaps 50,000 years, so Molnar’s theory (and the generally accepted theory, to be fair; check out this great New Yorker piece for more) is that wild dogs and wolves were selectively bred for particular traits, one of which may have been the willingness to bark.

Every year, the Zoque people of southern Mexico dump a toxic paste made from the root of the barbasco plant into their local sulfur cave as part of a religious ceremony, praying for rain. The paste is highly toxic to the Poecilia mexicana a small cave fish closely related to the guppy, which is the point of the ceremony. The fish die, the Zoque eat the fish, and hopefully southern Mexico gets some rain. The Mexican government has actually banned this practice, due to that whole massive slaughter of fish thing, but if they had waited a little while longer, they may not have needed to. P. mexicana has actually begun evolving to resist the toxin, according to a paper published last year in the journal Biology Letters. A team of researchers found that some fish somehow managed to survive the wholesale attack, and that even the ones that succumbed seemed to be surviving longer than that species normally would. They tested the fish found in this cave against fish of the same type found elsewhere, and discovered that the cave fish have selectively bred a resistance to the toxin, surviving around 50 percent longer than the non-cave fish. As a side note, this Livescience article on the subject notes that the fish taste pretty awful.

Like science, tech, and DIY projects?

Sign up to receive Popular Science's emails and get the highlights.

201 Evolution Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on evolution, ✍️ evolution essay topics for college, 👍 good evolution research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting evolution research titles, 📌 easy evolution essay topics, ❓ evolution essay questions.

• The Evolution and History of Numbers and Counting
• Information Systems Evolution in the Banking Industry
• Evolution of Cell Phones
• Evolution of the Internet
• Charles Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory
• Evolution of Beauty: The Transformation of Beauty Throughout History
• The Evolution of Special Education
• Human Rights: Historical and Conceptual Evolution The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental document for the world population. It covered all aspects of the social, economic, and political life of human beings.
• Actinopterygii: The Evolution of Ray-Finned Fishes The paper illustrates that the Actinopterygii may be the largest, most varied but there remains much debate about the timing and extent of early evolutionary development.
• Aquaman: An Evolution Through the Ages Another way of how the Aquaman franchise has evolved to respond to the preoccupations of the time becomes clear when emphasis is placed on the details of Aquaman’s plot.
• Evidence of the Evolution Theory Evolution is a consolidating factor in biology supported by pieces of evidence from unique areas of biology. Over time, evolution changes the genetic composition of species.
• Evolution of Microsoft Windows Operating System This paper will cover the road Windows has traveled and continues to explore with Windows 7 that will be launched on the 22nd of October.
• The Evolution of Tragedy: From Greek to American The purpose of this paper is to provide a definition of tragedy, a form of drama, and discuss the differences between ancient Greek, Elizabethan, and an American one.
• Gender Identity Evolution and Its Results The evolution of gender identity evoked attempts to modify the cultural perceptions of the citizens; in this situation, sex became a less significant characteristic.
• Evolution of Healthcare Information Systems Healthcare and hospital information systems have greatly changed in the past twenty years and this has been as a result of the improvement of information technology.
• Government Power Evolution and Interpretation Political voting in America has declined today, for the reason that the level of articulate elite and mass political behavior has changed.
• Evolution in Modern Indian Music Rich and diverse, Indian folk music is utilized for special occasions and educational purposes. The sources of Indian music are endless and its potentials are without limit.
• The Historical Evolution of the International Community The emergence of the international community is linked to the treaty of Westphalia of 1648 which was signed following the thirty-year war.
• Human Impact on Evolution and Environment Research on positive and negative impacts of humans on evolution and industrial development on the environment.
• Whittington’s Classical and Evolutionary Approaches Towards Business Analysis The key theories that should be analyzed are Whittington’s classical and evolutionary approaches towards business analysis, as well as the resource-based view of decision-making.
• Organizational Psychology: Definition, Evolution, and Comparison With Related Disciplines The paper defining organizational psychology and offers an account of the evolution of the field, then it compares and contrasts with other related fields.
• Music Evolution and Historical Roots Music as a form of art was constantly changing throughout the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Baroque periods.
• The Evolution of Thought on Governance This paper explores the evolution of thought on governance, comparing the perspectives of philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Locke, and Hobbes.
• Sharks: History, Evolution and Habitat Sharks are a crucial part of the marine ecosystem, skillful predators with well-developed sensory systems. Most species are harmless to humans.
• “Why Evolution is True” by Jerry Coyne Jerry Coyne’s work provides some context for certain social issues, such as the misuse of Darwin’s theory, scientific racism, and the ongoing conflict of religion and evolution.
• Evolution vs. Religious Dogma The religiously fervent still rejects the idea of man evolving from ape but now even the most religious persons today accept evolution to be true.
• The Evolution of the Nursing Practice Role The role of nursing has shifted significantly in the last decades, enabling nurses to become critical and leading professionals in the community and healthcare systems.
• Study of Folklore in Terms of Development and Evolution According to the psychoanalytic perspective of folklore study, human beings have gone through various stages of psychological development and evolution.
• The Beatles Band’s Strategic Musical Evolution This paper provides insights into the formation of the Beatles, the British invasion, and their strategic musical evolution.
• Magnolia Tree: Life Cycle and Evolution Magnolia is among the largest genus flowering plants in Texas and eastern North America. Magnolia is derived from the French botanist Pierre Magnol.
• “Why Evolution Is True”: A Chapter-Wise Reflection This paper reflects on persuasions to accept the evolution theory as a valid discourse of explaining the origin of species in the nine chapters of Coyne’s “Why Evolution is True”.
• Business and Economics: The Evolution and Impacts of the Ponzi Scheme The regulators should keep the general populace informed through general alerts regarding methods employed to swindle investors.
• Sainsbury’s Market: Its History and Evolution Sainsbury’s was founded in 1869 by John James Sainsbury as a small shop in Drury Lane, London, however, in 1922, the company became the largest retailer of groceries.
• American Clothing Evolution and Its Factors Plenty of social, economic, and political aspects impacted the American outfits, changing them, and also the appearance of people.
• The Evolution of Cryptography In this paper, attention will be paid to the progress of cryptography through ancient, technical, and paradoxical periods, the worth of common encryption methods, and the impact of coding on modern communication.
• Cleopatra’s Role in the Evolution of Humanity Cleopatra managed to effectively rule her country, fostered its development by combining outstanding diplomatic skills, charisma, and knowledge.
• Evolution Psychology: “Is Anatomy Destiny?” The media “Is Anatomy Destiny” raises questions relating to the issue of anatomy by arguing that the concept of anatomy is to a large extent influenced by social categorizations of the human body.
• Evolution of Network Systems from 1G to 4G This paper is a literature review on the evolution of network systems from 1G to 4G, focusing on key aspects of each generation.
• Dehumanization and Its Evolution in Warfare One running theme in the history of warfare is dehumanization, which has often served the purpose of legitimizing the taking of human life during a war.
• Culture and Evolution of Hip-Hop in South Korea Korean hip-hop, otherwise known as K-hip hop, is a subgenre of hip-hop music from South Korea. It is essential to establish the culture and evolution of hip-hop in South Korea.
• Social Media Evolution and How Does It Make a Difference in Today’s World The evolution of social media has made it a global political actor because of its significant role in various areas of human life.
• History and Evolution of Online Education This paper aims to explore the evolution and history of online learning to understand its key milestones and recent developments.
• Evolution History and Scientific Discoveries Evolution is the theory that stipulates how changes occur among living organisms through the method that proves that all life is connected.
• Technology’s Influence on Design Evolution The introduction and adoption of the new technology in the contemporary world has significantly intertwined graphic design practices and other reproduction techniques.
• The Evolution of John Ford’s Idea of the West John Ford developed the idea of the West and the evolution of his thought can be seen in three famous films: “Stagecoach”, “The Searchers”, and “The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance”.
• Running Racing: History and Evolution Evolution is crucial in the running of the early man and various historical events led to the adoption of running as a sport.
• Vertebrate Jaw Evolution From Developmental Perspectives The vertebrate jaw is one of the essential developmental features associated with the crest cells’ changes, the history of jaws’ evolution can be traced to early fish species.
• Are We Ready for Neo-Evolution? The analyzed video is related to biopsychology through the aspect of interfering with human genes to influence different aspects of life, such as longevity and disease resistance.
• Homo Floresiensis and Human Evolution Models Homo florensis were discovered recently as a new hominid species and provided some new evidence for the three models of human origins.
• Architectural Form Evolution Throughout History The evolution of form in art is connected to human development over the years. This paper explores the connection between different art forms and their influence on architecture.
• Leadership History and Evolution Every century has an example of a capable leader that influenced many people. However, various leaders differ significantly from each other from one period of time to another.
• Evolution and Challenges of Modern Advertising The study aims to highlight the problems of advertising by identifying the causes, finding solutions, and evaluating the effectiveness of the solutions.
• The Evolution of the Panspermia Hypothesis This report will review the evolution of the panspermia hypothesis and the mechanisms of life transfer that are not rejected as totally unrealistic.
• “Frontiers, Borderlands, Wests”: The Evolution of the Historical Study of the American West “Frontiers, Borderlands, Wests” explores what connotation the interpretation of certain events takes on depending on the context, for example, the history of the American West.
• iPhone 12 Mini: Apple’s Smartphone Evolution The iPhone is one of the most competitive smartphone brands in the world today. This discussion examines how the iPhone has evolved until the latest device, the iPhone 12 mini.
• Natural Selection Process and Evidence of Evolution The purpose of this paper is to discuss the book “Why Evolution is True” by Coyne. This article assumes that evolution by natural selection is true.
• Anthropology: Natural Selection and Evolution Natural selection is the process of an organism’s adaptation to the environment that is performed through changing its genotype on a selective basis.
• Horse Population, Evolution, and Physiology The evolution of horses occurred over a period of 55 million years. By analyzing bones and DNA of the ancient horses, we are able to get an idea about their origins.
• Hip-Hop Evolution of Rap Movement This work explains the rapping element of Hip-Hop as it developed across time, how it has influenced the movement and changed over the years.
• Healthcare Marketing and Its Evolution During the last several decades, much attention has been paid to developing healthcare advertising and replacing traditional marketing principles with innovative ideas.
• DNA and Proteins as Evolutionary Tape Measures DNA and proteins can be used as tape measures of evolution but their usage depends on the concept of a linear sequence of nucleotides.
• Supply Chain Management. Evolution Supply chain management (SCM) entails the planning and management of every activity involving sourcing and procurement.
• Evolution of Skyscraper Design Since 1920 The essay analysis how improved build of tall buildings since the 20th century and provides examples of modern buildings.
• Evolution of Organizational Performance Metrics The metric of profit has likely not changed much throughout the 20th century. The rate of return is also calculated in the same manner, but it may have become less significant.
• Evolution of Human Language: Biological Anthropology The best way to understand language evolution in the wider spectrum of human culture, is tracing the function of images in the human brain.
• Ozone Hole and Atmosphere Evolution The main purpose of the atmosphere and all its strata is to protect the earth’s living organisms by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation or rays through the Ozone stratum.
• Quality Evolution in Auto Manufacturing Industry Since its first appearance at the end of the 19th century, the automobile has come a long way not only in its appearance and technical capabilities but also in quality standards.
• Warfare Evolution Throughout History War is known as an ancient social trend that continued to persist throughout centuries ever since humans appeared as a separate species.
• Evolution of Modern Banking: Middle Ages to Present The history of banking began around 2000 BCE in Assyria, Sumeria, and India when wealthy families kept gold and silver coins in their homes.
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection was crucial for science in the past but remains essential. This theory started a true revolution in science.
• Evolution: Are Humans Animals? The people supporting the idea of humans being animals may give an explanation of the origins of mankind and how it achieved its current form.
• The Evolution of the Roman Empire The paper states that the transformation of the political system within which the Roman Empire operated could be seen as a twofold concept.
• CompStat: It’s Origins, Evolution, and Integration CompStat is effective in monitoring and analyzing crime rates by using comparative statistics and geographical distribution maps.
• Evolutionary Mismatch and Mental Health The evolutionary mismatch has led to divergent cultural and lifestyle adaptations that have left current generations at a higher risk for mental illnesses.
• The Evolution of Opportunity in Sports The evolution of opportunities can be explained from the two breakthroughs of Jackie Robinson in professional baseball and Tiger Woods in professional golf.
• Marsupials: Evolutionary History, Key Features, and Ecological Role This paper discusses marsupials to present a phylogeny of their in-group and out-group taxa, key features that unite the clade, ecological roles played by some of these features.
• Intelligent Design and Evolution Theories The existing theories of human origin are still controversial, however, Intelligent Design remains a religious belief without clear scientific arguments.
• The Evolution of Business Ethics Drastic changes have occurred in the last few years in the position and duties of the leaders of the company or business establishments.
• Cultural Evolution in Vietnam’s Early 20th Century Article Review The authors are argumentative in presenting their central points. The first research question deals with the validity of the chosen approach.
• Analyzing the Evolution of Data Visualization Du Bois’ visionary statistical methods of infographics have revolutionized data visualization, and new platforms offer even more possibilities for analysis.
• GE’s Two-Decade Transformation: A Journey Through Organizational Evolution General Electric transformed itself over the last two decades by focusing on innovation, lifelong learning, and a global perspective.
• How the Evolution of Technology Has Advanced Cyber Financial Crimes This paper aims at discussing and assessing the specific ways in which technological evolution and digitalization advanced cyber financial crimes.
• The Structure and Evolution of Stars Although the life span of a star is extremely long, scientists have managed to analyze the evolution of celestial bodies and synthesize the knowledge gained.
• “Why Evolution Is True” Book by Jerry A. Coyne The book “Why Evolution is True” by Jerry A. Coyne features the characteristics of evolution that brace wildlife’s existence and tries to champion its ideas to be taught in school.
• The Evolution and Stability Concepts Comparison In the evolutionary process, each new state about the previous one appears to be better both quantitatively and qualitatively.
• Internet Technology: Software Maintenance and Evolution More and more organizations depend on trends in the IT market. Now one can see how even small companies hire employees who can create a website.
• Misconceptions About Evolution Questions about the origin of man continue to be topical, and the topic of whether humans are related to apes excites many.
• Role of Consumption of Meat in Human Evolution This paper explores the role of meat consumption in human evolution and discusses how the consumption of meat provided necessary nutrients for brain development.
• Historical Evolution of the Two-Party System and Functions of Parties The American two-party system characterizes the dominance of two major political parties that comprise the country’s largest number of elected officials.
• The Internet Evolution and Advancement Since its creation, the Internet has changed humanity’s trajectory. All aspects of people’s lives, from business to social interactions, are now shaped by the World Wide Web.
• Jamaican Music’s Evolution and Forms Jamaican music finds its origin in enslaved West Africans who sang for their masters and got rewarded for the skill. This form of music was known as the Mento.
• The Kuiper Belt and Evolution of a Star The Kuiper belt is a circumstellar disk located 30 to 50 astronomical units from Neptune. The region has many smaller bodies that primarily consist of metal and rock.
• The Nature of Man: Evolution and Adaption Humans and animals share similar biological characteristics; while man’s thinking abilities are strikingly diverse, distinguishing them from animals.
• Guitar: Evolution of Instrument The paper is devoted to the development of the guitar and the emergence of its new types, such as the electric one. The origins of the classical guitar are not known precisely.
• Immunology: Influenza Virus Evolution The influenza virus is one of the major threats to the health of the population. It is considered to be one of the infections with the highest potential for mutation.
• Human Evolutionary Development in Antiquity The traditional view of the evolution of Homo sapiens is that the modern individual did not evolve from an ape but rather from a great ape.
• Cultural Progress and the Evolution of Medicine This paper states that medicine evolves with the culture, as treatment reflects the culture and the current status of the country’s development.
• 911 Evolution: Computer-Aided Design for Personal Safety The computer-assisted 911 vehicle dispatch program includes vehicle dispatch, call dispatch, resources deployment, instruction and protocols, and status modification.
• The Evolution of Cheese and Cheesemaking The cheese was discovered as a happy accident that occurred when a shepherd found they could store milk in the preserved stomach of a goat.
• Convergent Evolution, Genetics and Related Structures This paper discusses the concept of convergent evolution and related structures. Convergent evolution describes the emergence of analogous or similar traits in different species.
• Anthropology as a Study of Evolution Anthropology as a study of evolution gives an understanding of the human experience and the different aspects that explain the lives of other human groups.
• How Will the Design Track the Evolution of the Growing Complexity of Society’s Problems? The paper argues it is the joint efforts of different cultures that create stunning designs that influence the expression of the thoughts and ideas of the authors.
• Evolutionary Cycles and Strategic Leadership It is quite natural for any company to experience business cycles due to the constant need for progress and introduction of new ideas into the organizational setting.
• Evolution in Recent History: Technological Change Technological evolution is happening fast and is implemented in medicine, engineering, production, marketing, and even policing.
• Evolution of Humans: Darwin’s Theory Certain scientists claim that Darwin’s theory of evolution from monkeys is fundamentally based on the same principles as the basic concept of evolutionary theory.
• Convergent Evolution and Analogous Structures Convergent evolution is a situation whereby different unrelated species independently develop similar traits. In some cases, other organisms develop identical characteristics.
• Exploring Primate Evolution: Evolution Patterns From the first occurrence of true primates about 60 million years ago, the genome of the order has changed significantly, and novel groups and suborders have come into existence.
• Christianity Views on Abortion Concepts, the Big Bang, and the Evolution Theory The Bible and other Christian articles provide information related to contemporary society, views on abortion concepts, the big bang, and the evolution theory.
• An Aspect of Evolutionary Biology as Phylogenetic Analysis The paper explores an aspect of evolutionary biology as phylogenetic analysis. Phylogenetic analysis is a tool in the hands of biologists.
• Evolutionary Theory and Mate Selection Influence on Contemporary Dating
• The Four Basics of the Human Evolution
• The American Senate and Its Evolution
• Darwin and the Theory of Evolution
• Why Does Schoolboy Tim Choose to Study the Theory of Evolution?
• Evolution of Lungs: Understanding the Divergence of Organisms
• Flashbulb Memories and the Evolutionary Mechanisms
• Evolution of Humans and Natural Selection
• Evolution, Not Revolution: Gender Law and Women Rights in Saudi Arabia
• The Evolution of Immunity and Immune Systems
• Religion and Science: Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
• The Evolution of the Goals of the Justice System
• Evolution of Societal Norms in “Supergirl”
• Digital Video Evolution and Its Implementation in Australia
• Skull Evolution in the Rhinocerotidae: Phylogeny of Early Rhinocerotoids
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: Impact of Genetics
• Why Evolution Should Be Taught in Schools
• The Evolution of Nursing Research and Evidence-Based Practice
• Evolution of Long-Term Care Systems
• Present and Future Population Groups’ Evolution
• Harvey Fineberg: Are We Ready for Neo-Evolution?
• Teen Pregnancy. The Evolution of Family Policy
• Civil Rights for African Americans: Evolution From the Civil War to Today
• Language Evolution: The Major Schools of Thought
• Evolution of Neurogenesis Concepts
• Characters’ Evolution in The House on Mango Street and Bullet in the Brain
• The History of Evolution of Thought and the Significance of the Affirmative Action
• Exploring the Evolution of Fungi: Ancient Origins
• The Evolution of Romantic Encounters and Norms and Actions Within Relationships
• Catholic and Scientific View of Evolution
• Evolution of the United States Health Care System
• The Evolution of Family in the USA
• Nursing Evolution Analysis: Challenges and Changes in Nursing Practice
• The Evolution of Taekwondo

🌶️ Hot Evolution Ideas to Write about

• Forensic Psychology, Its History and Evolution
• Zionism: The Evolution of Judaism
• The Theory of Evolution Overview and Analysis
• Evolution of Rock and Roll in Radio
• The Role of Religion in the Evolution and Creation Debate
• Energy Innovation Evolutionary Economics and Policies
• Evolution by Natural Selection
• Religion and Science. Intelligent Design vs. Evolution
• Automobile Industry and Its Evolution in the US
• Evolution of the US Healthcare System
• The Evolution of Nursing
• Aspects of Human Evolution
• Forensic vs. Advanced Practice Nursing Evolution
• Nursing Evolution: Future Perspectives and Challenges
• Natural Selection and Evolution Impact on Health
• Human Evolution. “Neanderthals on Trial” Documentary
• Evolution, Prehistory, and Physical Anthropology
• Cognitive Development Theories and Their Evolution
• Advanced Practice Nursing and Nursing Informatics: The Evolution of Nursing
• Evolution of Female Sexuality
• Cognition Evolution in Life Span Developmental Model
• Selection, Mutation and Other Evolution Drivers
• Parasites: Resistance and Tolerance Evolution
• The Evolution of Resistance and Tolerance to Parasites
• The Evolution of Financial Crisis
• Contemporary Design: Evolution Queen Wall Bed
• Terrorism Evolution from 1972 to 2016
• Development of Nursing Specialties: Advanced Practice Nursing Specialties and Nursing Informatics
• Merrill Lynch: Evolution, Revolution, and Sale
• Comparison of Evolution Theory vs. Creationism – Philosophy
• Human Resource Management Concepts Evolution
• Superfine Wool Industry: Evolution and Prediction
• Evolution of Pop Music – Hip-Hop Genre
• Which Theory About Human Origin Is Correct: Creation, Evolution or Intervention?
• What Do Scientists Say About Evolution of the Telencephalon in Nonmammals?
• How Do Scientists Characterize the Evolution of the Herpesviruses?
• What Is the Application of Genetic Approaches to the Study of Human Evolution?
• What Are the Principles of Human Evolution?
• Is It Possible to Discover New Theories of Human Evolution?
• What Is the Evolution of Sensitive Periods in the Development of Insects?
• What Are the Three Periods of Regulatory Innovation During Vertebrate Evolution?
• What Is the Evolution of Profit Persistence in the USA?
• What Is the Evolution of Brain Size and Juvenile Periods in Primates?
• What Is the Body Size Evolution During Cold Climatic Periods in the Cenozoic?
• What Are the Drivers of the Evolution and Amplitude of the African Humid Periods?
• What Are the Two Critical Periods in the Evolution of Random Planar Graphs?
• What Are the Glacial Periods on Early Earth and Implications for the Evolution of Life?
• What Is the Molecular Characterization of the Evolution of Phagosomes?
• What Is the Experimental and Numerical Characterization of Damage Evolution in Steels?
• Is a New and General Theory of Evolution Emerging?
• What Are the Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Evolution?
• What Are College Students’ Perceptions of the Theory of Evolution?
• What Is the Theory of Games and the Evolution of Animal Conflicts?
• What Is the Relation Between Multilocus Population Genetics and Social Evolution Theory?
• What Is the Effect of Quaternary Climatic Changes on Plant Distribution and Evolution?
• What Are the Roles of Time and Displacement in the Evolution Effect in Rock Friction?
• What Is the Evolution of Binary Stars and the Effect of Tides on Binary Populations?
• What Is the Effect of Tolerance on the Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance?

Cite this post

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 201 Evolution Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/evolution-essay-topics/

"201 Evolution Essay Topics." StudyCorgi , 9 Sept. 2021, studycorgi.com/ideas/evolution-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2021) '201 Evolution Essay Topics'. 9 September.

1. StudyCorgi . "201 Evolution Essay Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/evolution-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "201 Evolution Essay Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/evolution-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "201 Evolution Essay Topics." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/evolution-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Evolution were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 8, 2024 .

Articles on Evolutionary biology

Displaying 1 - 20 of 154 articles.

City mouse or country mouse? I collect mice from Philly homes to study how they got so good at urban living

Megan Phifer-Rixey , Drexel University

Rare access to hammerhead shark embryos reveals secrets of its unique head development

Gareth J. Fraser , University of Florida

Climate change is already forcing lizards, insects and other species to evolve – and most can’t keep up

Michael P. Moore , University of Colorado Denver and James T. Stroud , Georgia Institute of Technology

Two questions, hundreds of scientists, no easy answers: how small differences in data analysis make huge differences in results

Hannah Fraser , The University of Melbourne ; Elliot Gould , The University of Melbourne , and Timothy H. Parker , Whitman College

Curious Kids: what came first, the chicken or the egg?

Ellen K. Mather , Flinders University

How does fever help fight infections? There’s more to it than even some scientists realize

Edmund K. LeGrand , University of Tennessee and Joe Alcock , University of New Mexico

4 reasons not teaching evolution in schools is immoral

Peter Ellerton , The University of Queensland

Macaque monkeys shrink their social networks as they age – research suggests evolutionary roots of a pattern seen in elderly people, too

Erin Siracusa , University of Exeter and Noah Snyder-Mackler , Arizona State University

Racist and sexist depictions of human evolution still permeate science, education and popular culture today

Rui Diogo , Howard University

Power struggles in nature can be more subtle, nuanced and strategic than just  dog-eat -dog

Lee Alan Dugatkin , University of Louisville

Human and Neanderthal brains have a surprising ‘youthful’ quality in common, new research finds

Stephen Wroe , University of New England ; Gabriele Sansalone , Institute of Marine Sciences , and Pasquale Raia , University of Naples Federico II

The study of evolution is fracturing – and that may be a good thing

Erik Svensson , Lund University

Celibacy: family history of Tibetan monks reveals evolutionary advantages in monasticism – podcast

Gemma Ware , The Conversation

‘Impressive rafting skills’: the 8-million -year old origin story of how rodents colonised Australia

Emily Roycroft , Australian National University

Axolotls can regenerate their brains – these adorable salamanders are helping unlock the mysteries of brain evolution and regeneration

Ashley Maynard , Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich

Most human embryos naturally die after conception – restrictive abortion laws fail to take this embryo loss into account

Kathryn Kavanagh , UMass Dartmouth

Neanderthals died out 40,000 years ago, but there has never been more of their DNA on Earth

Peter C. Kjærgaard , University of Copenhagen ; Mark Maslin , UCL , and Trine Kellberg Nielsen , Aarhus University

Slime is all around and inside you – new research on its origins offers insight into genetic evolution

Omer Gokcumen , University at Buffalo

Why are bigger animals more energy-efficient ? A new answer to a centuries-old biological puzzle

Craig White , Monash University and Dustin Marshall , Monash University

Why do animals have tails?

Michael A. Little , Binghamton University, State University of New York

Related Topics

• Charles Darwin
• Evolutionary genetics
• Human evolution
• Human evolutionary biology
• Natural selection

Top contributors

Honorary Associate Professor, UNSW Sydney

Strategic Professor in Palaeontology, Flinders University

Professor of Evolutionary Biology, The University of Melbourne

Postdoctoral Researcher , The University of Melbourne

PhD Researcher, Nature and Function of Human Nonverbal Vocalisations, University of Sussex

Adjunct Research Associate, Monash University

Associate Professor, The University of Queensland

Distinguished Professor of Genetics and Vice Chancellor's Fellow, La Trobe University

Senior Lecturer, Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Newcastle University

Lecturer, Macquarie University

Sexual health researcher, The University of Melbourne

Research fellow, University of Sydney

Postdoctoral Researcher of Evolutionary Biology, University of Pennsylvania

Senior lecturer, School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, University of Bristol

Research Associate Professor in Evolutionary Biology, The University of Western Australia

• X (Twitter)
• Unfollow topic Follow topic

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• v.8(6); 2018 Mar

How scientists perceive the evolutionary origin of human traits: Results of a survey study

Hanna tuomisto.

1 Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

Matleena Tuomisto

Jouni t. tuomisto.

2 National Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland

Associated Data

Data are available from the Dryad Digital Repository: https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.s9r98

Various hypotheses have been proposed for why the traits distinguishing humans from other primates originally evolved, and any given trait may have been explained both as an adaptation to different environments and as a result of demands from social organization or sexual selection. To find out how popular the different explanations are among scientists, we carried out an online survey among authors of recent scientific papers in journals covering relevant fields of science (paleoanthropology, paleontology, ecology, evolution, human biology). Some of the hypotheses were clearly more popular among the 1,266 respondents than others, but none was universally accepted or rejected. Even the most popular of the hypotheses were assessed “very likely” by <50% of the respondents, but many traits had 1–3 hypotheses that were found at least moderately likely by >70% of the respondents. An ordination of the hypotheses identified two strong gradients. Along one gradient, the hypotheses were sorted by their popularity, measured by the average credibility score given by the respondents. The second gradient separated all hypotheses postulating adaptation to swimming or diving into their own group. The average credibility scores given for different subgroups of the hypotheses were not related to respondent's age or number of publications authored. However, (paleo)anthropologists were more critical of all hypotheses, and much more critical of the water‐related ones, than were respondents representing other fields of expertise. Although most respondents did not find the water‐related hypotheses likely, only a small minority found them unscientific. The most popular hypotheses were based on inherent drivers; that is, they assumed the evolution of a trait to have been triggered by the prior emergence of another human‐specific behavioral or morphological trait, but opinions differed as to which of the traits came first.

1. INTRODUCTION

Human evolution is a topic that interests not just researchers specialized in paleoanthropology, but also other scientists and the general public. A number of conflicting hypotheses have been put forward to explain why humans have become strikingly different from other primates. Most scientists in relevant fields (such as paleoanthropology, paleontology, ecology, evolution and human biology) have never published their views on the drivers of human evolution in general, nor on which of the proposed hypotheses on the origin of specific human traits they find most substantiated. No recent summary of the mainstream view among paleoanthropologists has been published either, so there is uncertainty as to whether scientists agree on the driving forces behind human evolution or not. The idea of carrying out a survey to find out emerged when one of us was teaching a university course on human evolution, happened to check what Wikipedia had to say on the subject, and noticed that some Talk pages (especially the one behind the article “Aquatic ape hypothesis”) contained definite but unreferenced claims about what the opinions of “all scientists” or “all paleoanthropologists” are.

Humans differ from all the other 400 primate species in many respects, some of the most striking ones being that they walk fully upright on their hind legs, have unusually big brains, and have an effectively naked rather than fur‐covered skin (Figure  1 ). Other features that among primates are uniquely human include descended larynx, articulated speech and the capacity to accumulate fat in a thick subcutaneous layer.

Male and female human figures from the plaque of the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecrafts. The pictorial message was intended to describe the origin of the probe for potential extraterrestrial life. It shows several typically human traits, such as bipedalism, nakedness, arched nose, large head, and opposable thumbs. Source: NASA ; vectors by Mysid (Public domain), via Wikimedia Commons

A number of conflicting hypotheses have been proposed to explain why these and other traits originally evolved in the lineage leading to humans but in none of the lineages leading to other extant primates. One line of argumentation is based on the widely accepted idea that animal species adapt to their environment by natural selection: Traits that give the animal a higher probability of survival and reproduction become more common over time and traits related to lower survival and reproduction rates become less common. Adaptive traits are often morphological (like long legs that increase running speed and facilitate escaping from predators, or thick fur that protects from heat loss in cold weather), but they can also be behavioral (like building a nest or being nocturnal). The corollary of viewing traits of a species as adaptations to its environment is that traits are expected to change if the environment changes, because then also the adaptive pressures change. In particular, if sister species have very different traits in spite of close genetic relatedness, the adaptationist scenario suggests that the lineages experienced different environments during their evolutionary past.

It has indeed been proposed that the ancestors of humans came to live in a different kind of environment than the ancestors of chimpanzees and gorillas, and adapted by evolving a suite of novel traits. One of the early proposals along these lines, suggested already by Lamarck and Darwin, was that human ancestors descended from the trees and moved to the open savanna (Bender, Tobias, & Bender, 2012 ; Dart, 1925 ; Domínguez‐Rodrigo, 2014 ; Leakey & Lewin, 1977 ). Because terrestrial life in the dry savanna is very different from arboreal life in wet forests, this change in habitat would have shifted the prevailing selection pressures: Traits that were adaptive in the old environment could become maladaptive in the new one, and novel morphological traits could be favored if they gave a higher probability of survival and reproduction. The ancestors of the great apes stayed in the forest and, therefore, remained more similar to other primates.

The savanna scenario has lost some of its appeal since paleoenvironmental reconstructions started to show that the environmental setting has been more complex than was originally thought. Accordingly, more recent accounts describe the environment of early human ancestors as a mosaic of woodlands, savanna, and water bodies with considerable temporal fluctuations between climatically arid and wet periods (Bender et al., 2012 ; Domínguez‐Rodrigo, 2014 ; Kingston, 2007 ; Kovarovic & Andrews, 2007 ; Maslin & Christensen, 2007 ). Environmental variability itself has also been proposed to have selected for versatility of adaptations (Potts, 1998a , b ).

There have been different views on which aspects of terrestrial life would have required the morphological changes that the human lineage has experienced, so a large number of different explanations have been put forward for each trait. For example, the origin of the bipedal gait has been attributed to (among other things) gaining better visibility over the savanna grass (Ravey, 1978 ), reaching for food on low branches (Hunt, 1994 , 1996 ), collecting small food items from the ground (Jolly, 1970 ; Kingdon, 2003 ), exposing a smaller part of the body to the scorching sun (Wheeler, 1984 , 1991 ), allowing more energy‐efficient long‐distance travel (Carrier et al., 1984 ; Pontzer, Raichlen, & Sockol, 2009 ; Rodman & McHenry, 1980 ), and freeing the hands to carry food, tools, weapons, or babies (Bartholomew & Birdsell, 1953 ; Hewes, 1961 ; Lovejoy, 1981 ; Sutou, 2012 ; Washburn, 1960 ). It has also been proposed that bipedalism originated already in the trees for hand‐supported walking on small branches too weak for brachiation (Crompton, Sellers, & Thorpe, 2010 ; Thorpe, Holder, & Crompton, 2007 ).

Another adaptationist proposal is that the human ancestors moved from the trees to the waterside, and started to adapt to a partly aquatic way of life (Hardy, 1960 ; Morgan, 1982 ; Verhaegen, Puech, & Munro, 2002 ). This would have exposed them to similar selection pressures than semi‐aquatic mammals, rather than to selection pressures typically experienced by other primates. Under this scenario, bipedal gait would have emerged because it allowed wading to deeper water and made the body more streamlined when swimming and diving for food (Kuliukas, 2002 ; Morgan, 1990 ; Niemitz, 2010 ; Verhaegen et al., 2002 ).

Not all traits need to have originated to enhance survival, however, and critical voices have been raised against interpreting all uniquely human traits as adaptations driven by natural selection (Gee, 2013 ). Sexual selection is known to have produced spectacular new traits in various animals, typically ornaments whose sole purpose is to attract the attention of the opposite sex. These confer no survival advantage or may even be harmful to the bearer. At least human bipedalism, nakedness, and subcutaneous fat layer have been explained by this mechanism (Barber, 1995 ; Giles, 2011 ; Tanner, 1981 ). Especially in small populations, traits may even emerge due to chance fixation of random variation (Sutou, 2012 ).

For someone interested in the “why” of human evolution, it is currently hard to find a comprehensive account of the scientific state of the art. Journal articles typically address only one or a few hypotheses in isolation of the others and often their focus is more on “how” than on “why” a given trait originally emerged (e.g., Crompton et al., 2010 ; Cunnane & Crawford, 2014 ; Isler & Van Schaik, 2014 ; Stout & Chaminade, 2012 ; Watson, Payne, Chamberlain, Jones, & Sellers, 2008 ; Wells, 2006 ). Only proponents of the aquatic/waterside hypotheses (collectively known as the aquatic ape hypothesis or AAH) seem to maintain that it is possible to explain most of the uniquely human traits as adaptive responses to a specific external factor (e.g., Morgan, 1997 ; Vaneechoutte, Kuliukas, & Verhaegen, 2011 ), but these views have found little resonance in paleoanthropological journals (Bender et al., 2012 ). Indeed, AAH has been fiercely opposed and criticized for being an umbrella hypothesis that attempts to explain everything, for being unparsimonious, for lacking evidence and even for being pseudoscience (Hawks, 2005 ; Langdon, 1997 ; Moore, 2012 ).

Here, we aim to find out what scientists really think about why some of the most striking human traits have emerged. We do so by analyzing the results of an online survey where scientists were directly asked for their views on the issue.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. survey.

A survey was performed using an online form in early 2013. Invitation to participate in the survey was sent by email to the authors of articles and review papers that had been published in a scientific journal of a relevant field during the three previous years (2010–2012). A 3‐year period was thought to be long enough for most researchers to have published at least one scientific paper, but short enough for most of the email addresses given in those papers not to have become obsolete. The focus was on journals of paleontology, zoology, ecology, evolutionary biology, and human biology. Only journals with an ISI impact factor equal to or larger than 1.0 were considered. The exact criteria used to select the journals, as well as a full list of journal names, can be found in Appendix S1 .

Almost 58,000 unique email addresses were found in the information available online for the papers published in the selected journals during the selected time period. The full address list exceeded the capacity of the online survey system (Webropol), so the addresses were sorted in alphabetical order, and an invitation to participate in the survey was sent to the first 29,000 addresses. The remaining addresses were used for a different survey, whose results will be reported elsewhere. The first page of the online survey informed participants about the purpose of the survey. The survey was performed anonymously, and all who responded did so voluntarily. After a few reminders had been sent, a total of 1,266 persons had submitted their responses to the survey.

Although the initial sample was large and can be considered representative of the scientific community in relevant fields, the proportion of invitees who answered the survey was very small (4.4%). The sample is no doubt biased toward people who have a larger than average interest in human evolution. Therefore, the obtained answers do not reflect the opinions of the entire scientific community. Nevertheless, they can indicate whether any of the hypotheses proposed to explain the evolutionary origin of a specific human trait is universally accepted or rejected. Even if this were not the case, the survey gives indication of which hypotheses are most or least popular, although conclusions in this respect remain tentative.

The survey first asked background information of the respondent, such as gender, age, the highest academic degree obtained, number of scientific publications authored (both overall and on human evolution), degree of knowledge about human evolution, and whether the respondent has taught courses on human evolution. The second part listed fifteen human traits (such as bipedalism) and asked the respondents to rate the credibility of 51 alternative hypotheses that have been proposed to explain their evolutionary origin (such as freeing the hands for tool use or seeing over tall grass). The credibility scoring was done using a five‐point scale: very unlikely, moderately unlikely, no opinion, moderately likely, and very likely. The number of alternative hypotheses considered was ten for both bipedalism and brain size, eight for hairlessness, seven for speech, four for subcutaneous fat, and three for descended larynx. In addition, there were nine traits for which only one explanation has been proposed in the literature, and this was related to the aquatic ape hypothesis. The third part asked about the respondents’ views on criticism against AAH. All questions and a summary of the answers are presented in Appendix S2 .

2.2. Data analyses

The respondents were asked for their professional field of expertise by offering 15 alternatives. For statistical analyses, these were simplified to four categories to ensure sufficient sample size in each. The group “(paleo)anthropologist” was formed by lumping the originally separate fields “paleoanthropology” and “anthropology or archaeology.” The group “biologist” was formed by lumping all the original subfields of biology (animal physiology, anatomy, or morphology; ecology; evolution; genetics or molecular biology; other) and the group “human biologist” by lumping all subfields of human biology (cardiovascular or respiratory system, musculoskeletal system, nervous system, nutrition, other aspects of human biology). The fourth group was “other,” which contained the remaining fields (geology, paleontology, other).

Overall relationships among the hypotheses were visualized by principal coordinates analysis (PCoA), where the objects were the hypotheses and the descriptors were individual respondents, with the variable of interest being the credibility score each respondent had given to each hypothesis. A Euclidean distance matrix was calculated, such that the distance between two hypotheses reflects how differently the respondents scored their credibilities. Every respondent who gave one of the hypotheses a higher score than the other increased the final distance between the hypotheses, with the overall distance between the hypotheses equaling zero if every respondent had scored both hypotheses similarly (irrespective of whether the score itself was high or low). PCoA visualizes these pairwise distances, so the closer together two hypotheses get plotted in the ordination diagram, the more similar their explanatory value is in the opinion of an average individual respondent.

The respondents themselves were plotted in the PCoA ordination space on the basis of the scores they had given to the hypotheses. Therefore, the relative positions of the respondents reflect their opinions on the hypotheses: Respondents get plotted toward the same part of the ordination space as the hypotheses they gave highest credibility scores, and far away from the hypotheses they gave lowest scores.

Relationships between the respondents’ opinions and their backgrounds were first assessed visually with the help of the ordination diagram. We then used analysis of variance to test whether there were differences in the average opinions of respondents of different backgrounds. If so, a post hoc Tukey's honest significance test was carried out to assess which aspects of the respondents’ background were associated with differences in opinion. A more detailed breakdown of the respondents’ opinions was obtained by visually comparing the distributions of the credibility scores given to the different hypotheses. This was done both to obtain an idea of which hypotheses are most popular overall, and to see if there were differences among respondents representing different scientific fields and/or having different levels of scientific experience.

R statistical software version 3.3.2 ( https://cran.r-project.org/ ) was used both to run the analyses and to produce the graphs. The vegan package (Oksanen et al., 2015 ) was used for principal coordinates analysis. The survey data and all R code used to manipulate and analyze the data are available at Opasnet web‐workspace http://en.opasnet.org/w/Evolutionary_origin_of_human_traits . The survey data are also available from the Dryad Digital Repository https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.s9r98 .

Principal coordinates analysis revealed some clear patterns among the hypotheses proposed to explain the evolutionary origin of specific human traits. The most eye‐catching feature of the ordination diagram in Figure  2 a is that the hypotheses got divided into two elongated groups that parallel each other but are clearly separated (the abbreviations of Fig. ​ Fig.2 2 are explained in Table  1 ). The smaller group contains all the hypotheses that evoke adaptation to swimming or diving as an explanatory factor for the emergence of a trait, and the larger group contains all other hypotheses, whether they refer to adaptation to a specific environment or to needs that emerge from a specific behavior. Because all the hypotheses in the smaller group refer to locomotion in water and have been included in the aquatic ape hypothesis (AAH), this group will be referred to as the water‐related or AAH group. For lack of a better unifying term, the larger group will be referred to as the dryland group.

Principal coordinates analysis ( PC oA) of different hypotheses proposed to explain the evolutionary origin of specific human traits. Distances between hypotheses are based on scores given by (a) all respondents, or only respondents whose main field of expertise is (b) anthropology or paleoanthropology, (c) biology, (d) human biology, or (e) other. Each colored point corresponds to one hypothesis, and the color indicates which of the traits listed in the inset the hypothesis aims to explain. Points are scaled to reflect the average credibility score given to the corresponding hypothesis by the respondents of the mentioned expertise group. The hypothesis name abbreviations are explained in Table  1 . Each gray point in (a) corresponds to one respondent, whose position within the ordination space reflects the scores given to the hypotheses. For example, respondents plotted toward the bottom left part of the respondent cloud found the hypotheses plotted toward the bottom left of the hypothesis cloud more credible than the hypotheses at the top, and vice versa. More details on the respondent ordination are shown in Figure  3

The hypotheses on the evolutionary origin of human traits that were included in an online survey to find out how popular they are among scientists. The abbreviations are used in the figures, and the full text is copied verbatim from the survey. If ambiguous, the abbreviated hypothesis is followed by a letter depicting the trait: B = bipedalism, E = encephalization (big brain), F = subcutaneous fat, N = nakedness, L = descended larynx, S = speech, O = other

Within each of the two groups, the hypotheses got sorted by their popularity, with the average credibility score increasing toward the bottom left in Figure  2 a. A tight cluster at the extreme left of the dryland group was formed by five hypotheses with high average credibility scores (4.08–4.26 on a 1–5 scale, with 1 corresponding to “very unlikely” and 5 to “very likely”). This cluster included the most popular hypothesis for the subcutaneous fat layer (energy reserve especially for the developing brain), the descended larynx (required by articulate speech), bipedalism (use of tools and weapons), speech (social pressure for elaborate communication), and the big brain (complex social organization).

This combination might be the most popular overall scenario for the origin of these traits, but the next most popular 2–3 explanations for bipedalism (freeing hands for foraging, better view over tall grass), large brain (required by either language or collaborative hunting), and speech (required by either collaborative hunting or transmitting cultural tradition; triggered by the descended larynx) also received high average credibility scores (3.53–3.96). Their proximity in ordination space indicated that they were found credible by the same respondents, which makes it difficult to identify a single most popular overall scenario. The hypotheses explaining hairlessness were not found convincing by the respondents, as even the two most popular ones (avoidance of overheating when hunting, avoidance of ectoparasites) had average credibility scores of only 3.48 and 3.17, respectively.

Eleven of the twelve most popular hypotheses were based on inherent drivers of evolution, that is, proposing that morphological traits emerged in response to selection pressure either from a novel behavior or from a pre‐existing morphological trait. Hypotheses based on selection pressure from a new kind of external environment were less popular even within the dryland group, and the credibility scores of all the hypotheses in the water‐related group were low to intermediate (2.26–2.99). The hypotheses proposing that encephalization was triggered by improved nutrition also received intermediate popularity scores, whether achieved by cooking or by increased consumption of fish or meat (all three with credibility scores in the range 2.61–2.77). The four least popular hypotheses of all (credibility scores 1.95–2.20) were based on inherent drivers operating on dry land.

The ordination results suggest that the respondents viewed the water‐related hypotheses as an ensemble whose overall credibility they assessed independently of how they scored the credibilities of the other hypotheses. This impression is strengthened when viewing the ordination of the respondents (the gray cloud in Figure  2 a) in more detail (Figure  3 ). The main gradient among the respondents follows the average credibility score they gave for the water‐related hypotheses (Figure  2 a), and this is almost perpendicular to the (less clear) gradient of average credibility scores given for the twelve most popular hypotheses (Figure  3 b).

The positions of the survey respondents in the space of the principal coordinates analysis shown in Figure  2 a. The ordination is the same in each panel, but colors illustrate different kinds of information related to each respondent. The colored crosses indicate the mean position of the respondents belonging to the respective subgroup. (a) Average credibility score given to the hypotheses in the water‐related group (the smaller cloud of points in Figure  2 a). (b) Average score given to the 12 most popular hypotheses in Figure  2 a. (c) Number of scientific publications authored or co‐authored (crosses of all three categories overlap). (d) Field of expertise. (e) Familiarity with hypotheses on human evolution. (f) Experience in teaching human evolution

The respondents’ position in the ordination did not seem to be related with how much scientific experience they had in general, as measured with the total number of scientific publications they had authored (Figure  3 c), but it was related with how much they knew about human evolution. Those having more background information on this specific topic (by self‐assessment, by main field of expertise being paleoanthropology or anthropology, or by having taught university courses on the topic) appeared to be more often plotted in the upper part of the ordination than respondents representing other backgrounds (Figure  3 d–f).

The visual impressions were confirmed by statistical analyses. These were carried out separately for five different subgroupings of the hypotheses. Three of these were chosen because they formed clear groups in the ordination of Figure  2 a (the dryland hypotheses, the water‐related hypotheses, the 12 most popular dryland hypotheses). The dryland hypotheses were also split into those based on environmental adaptation and those evoking behavioral drivers.

The largest effect by far on the responses was that of the field or expertise, with (paleo)anthropologists being more critical overall than representatives of any other expertise group (Table  2 ). The difference was especially large for the water‐related hypotheses: The average credibility score given by (paleo)anthropologists to this group of hypotheses (2.10 on the 1–5 scale) was much lower than the average score given by human biologists (3.02), with biologists (2.70), and others (2.67) being intermediate. For the dryland hypotheses, the difference between (paleo)anthropologists (2.97) and human biologists (3.22) was only 0.25 (vs. 0.92 in the case of the water‐related hypotheses), and the differences in the scores given by biologists, human biologists, and others were not statistically significant.

Results of Tukey's HSD test between different subgroups of respondents (line starting with Test result ~) and their average credibility scores (standard deviation in parentheses) for different groups of hypotheses: the most popular 12 hypotheses; the dryland hypotheses (the larger hypothesis group in Figure 2a); the water‐related hypotheses (the smaller hypothesis group in Figure 2a); dryland hypotheses based on behavioural demands; dryland hypotheses based on adaptation to the external environment

The results obtained with respondent subgroups based on total number of authored peer reviewed publications and total number of authored popular science publications are not shown, because they were not associated with significantly different ( p  < .05) means in any comparisons.

*** p  < .001; ** p  < .01; * p  < .05.

Overall scientific experience (as measured with the number of scientific publications authored) had no effect on the scores given to either the dryland or the water‐related hypotheses (Table  2 ). However, the more knowledge the respondents had on human evolution specifically (self‐assessed familiarity with the hypotheses, number of scientific publications on human evolution or experience in teaching human evolution), the lower the scores they gave to the water‐related hypotheses. Among biologists, those who knew more about human evolution were more critical than the less knowledgeable ones, and (paleo)anthropologists were more critical than human biologists with the same self‐assessed knowledge level.

When the dryland hypotheses were split into two groups depending on whether they were based on behavioral arguments or environmental adaptation, both groups obtained rather similar results. The main difference was that the behavioral hypotheses received somewhat higher average credibility scores, which reflects the fact that 10 of the 12 most popular hypotheses were based on behavior (on the other hand, so were the four least popular hypotheses).

To visualize the differences in opinion among the (paleo)anthropologists and representatives of other fields, we repeated the ordination of the hypotheses for each of the four respondent groups separately. In accordance with the fact that most respondents were biologists, the ordination based on the biologists’ data only (Figure  2 c) was very similar to the ordination based on all respondents (Figure  2 a). The ordination based on (paleo)anthropologists’ views (Figure  2 b) differed especially in relation to the hypotheses for bipedalism: Hypotheses that explained bipedalism by foraging, tool use, or carrying were very far removed from the main cloud and toward the opposite side than the water‐related hypotheses. In addition, the average credibility scores given to the water‐related hypotheses were among the lowest of any hypotheses. This contrasted with the situation in the ordination based on human biologists’ data (Figure  2 d), in which the water‐based hypotheses had intermediate credibility scores.

The hypotheses differed clearly from each other in the frequencies of different credibility scores, but there were some similarities in the overall pattern among those six traits for which three or more hypotheses were evaluated (Figure  4 ). None of the hypotheses received the “very likely” score from more than 46% of the respondents, but most traits had at least one hypothesis that was considered “very likely” by more than 23% and likely (either “very likely” or “moderately likely”) by 72%–90%. Many of the intermediately popular hypotheses divided the respondents rather evenly between those who found them likely and those who found them unlikely (the latter referring to the scores “very unlikely” and “moderately unlikely” combined).

Credibility scores given by survey respondents to hypotheses that aim to explain the evolutionary origin of specific human traits. The hypotheses are sorted in order of decreasing popularity as estimated by the percentage of respondents who scored them likely (i.e., either “very likely” or “moderately likely”). Descriptions of the hypotheses as they were given in the survey are shown in Table  1

A causal relationship between articulate speech and descended larynx was accepted by most respondents, but there was no consensus on the direction of the causality. That the larynx descended because this was required by articulate speech was found likely by 84% and very likely by 43%. At the same time, that the evolution of speech was triggered by the descended larynx was found likely by 61% and very likely by 18%. In fact, 36% of the respondents scored both directions as equally likely.

Traits in the category “other” had only one explanatory hypothesis each in the survey, and this was water‐related. All of these hypotheses received many more “very unlikely” than “very likely” scores. However, four hypotheses (that baby swimming, profuse sweating, diving ability, and magnitude of diving reflex evolved as adaptations to a semi‐aquatic way of life) received so many “moderately likely” scores that the percentage of respondents who found them likely was slightly larger than the percentage who found them unlikely (Figure  4 ).

Details on how the hypotheses were scored by respondents representing different fields of expertise are shown in Figure  5 . In accordance with the statistical test results, most hypotheses received rather similar scores from respondents of all fields of expertise. However, (paleo)anthropologists were clearly more critical than representatives of the other fields in relation to several hypotheses, including: that nakedness evolved to avoid ectoparasites, that the big brain evolved because warfare caused pressure for higher intelligence, and that any traits evolved as adaptations to swimming or diving.

Frequencies of credibility scores given to hypotheses aiming to explain different traits (columns) by respondents of different fields of expertise (rows). In each panel, the answers are, from left to right, “very likely,” moderately likely,” “no opinion,” “moderately unlikely,” and “very unlikely.” Hypotheses that have been included in the aquatic ape hypothesis are shown in shades of blue and green. Those dryland hypotheses for which the opinions of anthropologists and other expertise groups clearly diverged are shown in magenta. The other hypotheses are in shades of brown, with darker colors given to hypotheses that received higher average credibility scores in the survey

There was a lot of variation among the traits in how many of the proposed explanations the respondents found convincing (Figure  6 ). For any one trait, 33%–64% of the respondents did not find any of the proposed hypotheses “very likely,” while 19%–38% found exactly one and 8%–45% more than one. Ten respondents (0.8%) explained that they did not score any of the hypotheses as likely, because they do not believe that humans have evolved at all (most of them explicitly referred to special creation by God).

The number of hypotheses (colors) proposed to explain each human trait (rows) that each respondent found very likely (left panel) or likely (either very likely or moderately likely; right panel). The total number of hypotheses included in the survey is shown after the name of each trait

The survey asked respondents’ opinions on twenty critical arguments that have been presented against the aquatic ape hypothesis. For most arguments, the modal response was “no opinion,” especially among those 43% of the respondents who had never heard of AAH before. Nevertheless, some arguments were clearly more frequently agreed with than others (Figure  7 and Table  3 ). The most widely accepted critique was that not all aquatic mammals have naked skin, so hairlessness cannot be considered an aquatic adaptation. In the other extreme, less than 3% of the respondents fully agreed and less than 12% mostly agreed with the critique that AAH is unscientific or not worthy of attention for the reasons given; in most cases, the number of respondents who strongly disagreed with these critiques was larger than the number who mostly or fully agreed.

The degree to which respondents representing different expertise fields agree with critique presented against the aquatic ape hypothesis. The full description of each point of critique can be found in Table  3

Points of critique presented against the aquatic ape hypothesis (AAH). The abbreviations are used in Figure  7 , and the full text is copied verbatim from the survey

4. DISCUSSION

The main results of our survey can be summarized as follows: (1) There was no general agreement among the respondents on why any of the uniquely human traits have evolved: None of the proposed hypotheses was universally either accepted or rejected. (2) For any individual trait, the percentage of respondents who found none of the hypotheses “very likely” was between >30% (bipedalism) and >65% (nakedness). (3) In general, opinions on the credibility of the hypotheses were independent of a person's background (gender, age, field of expertise, degree of scientific experience), but (paleo)anthropologists were clearly more critical than representatives of other fields. (4) The hypotheses that mention adaptation to swimming or diving as an explanatory factor were found much less credible by (paleo)anthropologists and slightly more credible by human biologists than by biologists and representatives of other fields. (5) Most respondents were critical about the aquatic ape hypothesis (AAH), but only a small minority considered it to be unscientific.

Of course, all conclusions based on the survey data must be considered tentative only, because the response rate was very low, and it is possible that the results are biased. Members of some subgroup might have been more likely to respond than members of some other subgroup, and the average credibility scores given to the different hypotheses by the respondents may not be representative of the opinions of all scientists in the background population. However, it is unlikely that a lack of general agreement on the drivers of trait evolution or such a clear difference in opinion between (paleo)anthropologists and others could have emerged just as a result of biased sampling.

Our results did not reveal a set of explanations that would collectively provide a coherent and popular scenario for the origin of all (or even many) human traits. Indeed, some of the hypotheses that had almost equal and rather high average credibility scores explained the same trait, whereas for other traits, no hypothesis emerged as particularly popular. Against this background, it is interesting that almost half of the respondents fully or mostly agreed with the statement that the aquatic ape hypothesis “is not needed, because all human traits can be explained by terrestrial scenarios”.

The lack of agreement on why humans evolved the traits we have today is very obvious in our results: No hypothesis was universally accepted, and for most traits, there were several almost equally popular alternative hypotheses rather than one that would generally be considered superior to the others. None of the hypotheses received the score “very likely” from more than half of the respondents or obtained an average credibility score higher than 4.26 (of 5). For hairlessness, the most popular hypothesis was thought to be “very likely” by only 16% of the respondents, and its average credibility score (3.48) was closer to 3 (which is the limit between being considered more likely than unlikely) than to 4 (moderately likely). In addition, for only two of the traits (subcutaneous fat layer and descended larynx), the most popular hypothesis was found at least moderately likely by almost all respondents at the same time as the next most popular hypothesis was found clearly less likely. This may partly reflect the fact that fewer alternative hypotheses have been proposed for these traits than for many of the others included in the survey.

Importantly, lack of agreement did not reflect just ignorance on the topic among nonspecialists, because the responses were, in general, very similar between anthropologists and respondents representing other fields of science. In fact, anthropologists were even more skeptical about all hypotheses than representatives of the other fields were. In other words, outsiders were slightly more convinced that the proposed hypotheses are plausible than those who work in the field. Maybe anthropologists (especially paleoanthropologists) are more systematically trained to be wary of just‐so‐stories (explanations of past events and processes backed up by little or no evidence) than students in nearby fields are. It is also possible that outsiders are somewhat less likely to question hypotheses proposed within an unfamiliar field. This could be because they do not feel qualified to do so, or because they have not heard of the debates that draw attention to the weaknesses of the hypotheses.

Our results conform with the widespread belief that professionals in the field of human evolution are more critical toward the aquatic ape hypothesis (AAH) than outsiders are (Langdon, 1997 ; Bender et al., 2012 ; see also nonscientific sources such as Hawks, 2005 ; Moore, 2012 and Wikipedia: Aquatic Ape Hypothesis: Talk). However, this did not seem to be due to overall scientific ignorance, because how respondents assessed the credibility of the hypotheses proposing adaptation to swimming or diving was independent of both their overall scientific experience level and how they assessed the credibility of the other hypotheses. Interestingly, those whose main field of expertise is human biology had the most positive attitudes toward the water‐related hypotheses, giving them an average credibility score that was as much as 0.9 units higher (on a 1–5 scale) than the average score given by (paleo)anthropologists.

The difference in average opinion between (paleo)anthropologists and other scientists can be interpreted in two opposite ways. On the one hand, those who know the field of human evolution best may be best positioned to make a justified evaluation of the validity of the alternative hypotheses. On the other hand, prior knowledge may induce one to reject unconventional hypotheses offhand merely because they challenge the established paradigms of a field (Bender et al., 2012 ; Klayman, 1995 ). Obviously, the two interpretations lead to opposite conclusions on whether or not the critical attitude of the (paleo)anthropologists can be taken as evidence that AAH is flawed. In our survey, a vast majority of the respondents who had an opinion on the issue disagreed with the statement that AAH can be ignored because its main proponents are not professionals in the field of human evolution. This was the case both overall and within each field of expertise separately, although the proportion of respondents who agreed with the statement was higher among (paleo)anthropologists than among representatives of the other fields.

In this context, it is also interesting that the respondents’ assessment of the credibility of the water‐related hypotheses did not depend on the number of scientific papers they had authored. This indicates that established scientists are no more likely to reject or accept these hypotheses than junior scientists are—unless their scientific experience relates directly to the field of human evolution. A vast majority of the respondents disagreed with the critique that AAH is unscientific. Of course, this does not mean that they would consider the explanations proposed by AAH to be correct, and indeed, all the hypotheses related to AAH received relatively low credibility scores (although not as low as the least popular dryland hypotheses).

If, for the sake of argument, we accept the most popular explanation for each trait to be the correct one, a scenario of evolution by internal drive emerges: The large brain evolved because complex social organization required higher intelligence, the subcutaneous fat layer evolved to serve as an energy reserve for the developing brain, articulate speech evolved because there was social pressure for elaborate communication, the larynx descended because this was required by articulate speech, bipedalism evolved to make the use of tools and weapons easier, and nakedness evolved to avoid overheating when hunting. For most traits, the next most popular explanation was not far behind in popularity. Most of these were also based on inherent drivers, but sometimes in the opposite temporal sequence (e.g., articulate speech was triggered by the descended larynx; large brain evolved because it was required by articulate speech). We found this result disturbing, because the overwhelming popularity of hypotheses based on inherent drivers gives the impression that human evolution is generally thought to have been goal‐directed. This would be in conflict with the current understanding (explained in every evolutionary biology textbook) that evolution has no foresight.

Overall, the survey revealed no general agreement among the respondents: None of the proposed hypotheses on why specific uniquely human traits have evolved was universally either accepted or rejected. Nevertheless, identifying and quantifying what is not generally known and agreed upon can be useful in itself, as it may help to focus future research on answering the most important open questions. Clearly, there is still a long way to go before the question “why are humans so different from other primates” has been answered in a comprehensive and generally satisfactory way.

DATA ACCESSIBILITY

Conflict of interest.

None declared.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

HT designed and conducted the survey and led the writing. All authors discussed the results and planned the data analyses together. The R code used to analyze the data and draw the figures was written by MT with contributions from JT.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments.

We thank Carlos Peña for writing the code to extract respondents’ email addresses from the Internet; Mirkka Jones, Kalle Ruokolainen, and Timo Vuorisalo for comments that helped to improve the survey questions; and Jouko Tuomisto for comments on the manuscript.

Tuomisto H, Tuomisto M, Tuomisto JT. How scientists perceive the evolutionary origin of human traits: Results of a survey study . Ecol Evol . 2018; 8 :3518–3533. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3887 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

• Barber, N. (1995). The evolutionary psychology of physical attractiveness: Sexual selection and human morphology . Ethology and Sociobiology , 16 , 395–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(95)00068-2 [ Google Scholar ]
• Bartholomew, G. A. , & Birdsell, J. B. (1953). Ecology and the Protohominids* . The American Anthropologist , 55 , 481–498. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bender, R. , Tobias, P. W. , & Bender, N. (2012). The savannah hypotheses: Origin, reception and impact on paleoanthropology . History & Philosophy of the Life Sciences , 34 , 147–184. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carrier, D. R. , Kapoor, A. K. , Kimura, T. , Nickels, M. K. , Scott, E. C. , So, J. K. , & Trinkaus, E. (1984). The energetic paradox of human running and hominid evolution [and comments and reply] . Current Anthropology , 25 , 483–495. https://doi.org/10.1086/203165 [ Google Scholar ]
• Crompton, R. H. , Sellers, W. I. , & Thorpe, S. K. S. (2010). Arboreality, terrestriality and bipedalism . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 365 , 3301–3314. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0035 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cunnane, S. C. , & Crawford, M. A. (2014). Energetic and nutritional constraints on infant brain development: Implications for brain expansion during human evolution . Journal of Human Evolution , 77 , 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.05.001 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dart, R. (1925). Australopithecus africanus : The man‐ape of South Africa . Nature , 115 , 195–199. https://doi.org/10.1038/115195a0 [ Google Scholar ]
• Domínguez‐Rodrigo, M. (2014). Is the “Savanna Hypothesis” a dead concept for explaining the emergence of the earliest hominins? Current Anthropology , 55 , 59–81. https://doi.org/10.1086/674530 [ Google Scholar ]
• Gee, H. (2013). The accidental species: Misunderstandings of human evolution . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226044989.001.0001 [ Google Scholar ]
• Giles, J. (2011). Naked love: The evolution of human hairlessness . Biology Theory , 5 , 326–336. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hardy, A. (1960). Was man more aquatic in the past? The New Scientist , 7 , 642–645. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hawks, J. (2005). Why anthropologists don't accept the Aquatic Ape Theory . Retrieved from http://johnhawks.net/weblog/topics/pseudoscience/aquatic_ape_theory.html [accessed 5 September 2017]
• Hewes, G. W. (1961). Food transport and the origin of hominid bipedalism . The American Anthropologist , 63 , 687–710. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1961.63.4.02a00020 [ Google Scholar ]
• Hunt, K. D. (1994). The evolution of human bipedality: Ecology and functional morphology . Journal of Human Evolution , 26 , 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1994.1011 [ Google Scholar ]
• Hunt, K. D. (1996). The postural feeding hypothesis: An ecological model for the evolution of bipedalism . South African Journal of Science , 92 , 77–90. [ Google Scholar ]
• Isler, K. , & Van Schaik, C. P. (2014). How humans evolved large brains: Comparative evidence . Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews , 23 , 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21403 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jolly, C. J. (1970). The seed‐eaters: A new model of hominid differentiation based on a baboon analogy . Man , 5 , 5–26. https://doi.org/10.2307/2798801 [ Google Scholar ]
• Kingdon, J. (2003). Lowly origin: Where, when, and why our ancestors first stood up . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kingston, J. D. (2007). Shifting adaptive landscapes: Progress and challenges in reconstructing early hominid environments . The American Journal of Physical Anthropology , 134 , 20–58. https://doi.org/10.1002/(ISSN)1096-8644 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Klayman, J. (1995). Varieties of confirmation bias In Busemeyer J., Hastie R., & Medin D. L. (Eds.), Psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 385–418). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kovarovic, K. , & Andrews, P. (2007). Bovid postcranial ecomorphological survey of the Laetoli paleoenvironment . Journal of Human Evolution , 52 , 663–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.01.001 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kuliukas, A. (2002). Wading for food the driving force of the evolution of bipedalism? Nutrition and Health , 16 , 267–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/026010600201600402 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Langdon, J. H. (1997). Umbrella hypotheses and parsimony in human evolution: A critique of the Aquatic Ape Hypothesis . Journal of Human Evolution , 33 , 479–494. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1997.0146 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leakey, R. , & Lewin, R. (1977). Origins: The emergence and evolution of our species and its possible future . Boston, MA: E. P. Dutton. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lovejoy, C. O. (1981). The origin of man . Science , 211 , 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.211.4480.341 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maslin, M. A. , & Christensen, B. (2007). Tectonics, orbital forcing, global climate change, and human evolution in Africa: Introduction to the African paleoclimate special volume . Journal of Human Evolution , 53 , 443–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.06.005 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moore, J. (2012). Aquatic ape theory: Sink or swim? Retrieved from www.aquaticape.org [accessed 5 September 2017]
• Morgan, E. (1982). The aquatic ape: A theory of human evolution . London, UK: Souvenir Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Morgan, E. (1990). The scars of evolution: What our bodies tell us about human origins . London, UK: Souvenir Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Morgan, E. (1997). The aquatic ape hypothesis . London, UK: Souvenir Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Niemitz, C. (2010). The evolution of the upright posture and gait—a review and a new synthesis . Naturwissenschaften , 97 , 241–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-009-0637-3 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Oksanen, J. , Blanchet, F. G. , Kindt, R. , Legendre, P. , Minchin, P. R. , O'Hara, R. B. , … Wagner, H. (2015). Vegan: Community ecology package . R package version 2.3‐2. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan
• Pontzer, H. , Raichlen, D. A. , & Sockol, M. D. (2009). The metabolic cost of walking in humans, chimpanzees, and early hominins . Journal of Human Evolution , 56 , 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.09.001 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Potts, R. (1998a). Environmental hypotheses of hominin evolution . The American Journal of Physical Anthropology , 107 , 93–136. https://doi.org/10.1002/(ISSN)1096-8644 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Potts, R. (1998b). Variability selection in hominid evolution . Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews , 7 , 81–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/(ISSN)1520-6505 [ Google Scholar ]
• Ravey, M. (1978). Bipedalism: An early warning system for Miocene Hominoids . Science , 199 , 372 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.199.4327.372 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rodman, P. S. , & McHenry, H. M. (1980). Bioenergetics and the origin of hominid bipedalism . The American Journal of Physical Anthropology , 52 , 103–106. https://doi.org/10.1002/(ISSN)1096-8644 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stout, D. , & Chaminade, T. (2012). Stone tools, language and the brain in human evolution . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 367 , 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0099 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sutou, S. (2012). Hairless mutation: A driving force of humanization from a human–ape common ancestor by enforcing upright walking while holding a baby with both hands . Genes to Cells , 17 , 264–272. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2443.2012.01592.x [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tanner, N. M. (1981). On becoming human . Cambridge, UK: CUP Archive. [ Google Scholar ]
• Thorpe, S. K. S. , Holder, R. L. , & Crompton, R. H. (2007). Origin of human bipedalism as an adaptation for locomotion on flexible branches . Science , 316 , 1328–1331. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140799 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vaneechoutte, M. , Kuliukas, A. , & Verhaegen, M. (2011). Was man more aquatic in the past? Fifty years after Alister hardy – Waterside hypotheses of human evolution . Sharjah, UAE: Bentham Science Publishers. [ Google Scholar ]
• Verhaegen, M. , Puech, P.‐F. , & Munro, S. (2002). Aquarboreal ancestors? Trends in Ecology & Evolution , 17 , 212–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02490-4 [ Google Scholar ]
• Washburn, S. L. (1960). Tools and human evolution . Scientific American , 203 , 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0960-62 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Watson, J. C. , Payne, R. C. , Chamberlain, A. T. , Jones, R. K. , & Sellers, W. I. (2008). The energetic costs of load‐carrying and the evolution of bipedalism . Journal of Human Evolution , 54 , 675–683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.10.004 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wells, J. C. K. (2006). The evolution of human fatness and susceptibility to obesity: An ethological approach . Biological Reviews , 81 , 183–205. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1464793105006974 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wheeler, P. E. (1984). The evolution of bipedality and loss of functional body hair in hominids . Journal of Human Evolution , 13 , 91–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2484(84)80079-2 [ Google Scholar ]
• Wheeler, P. E. (1991). The influence of bipedalism on the energy and water budgets of early hominids . Journal of Human Evolution , 21 , 117–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484(91)90003-E [ Google Scholar ]

• New Research
• Oldies but Goodies
• Research Topics
• The Critical Eye
• Publications
• CEP Founders
• Faculty & Directors
• Graduate Students
• Online resources
• Suggested reading
• Places to Study EP
• Courses at UCSB
• Research Assistants
• About the CEP
• Public essays
• Press attention

Research topics at the Center for Evolutionary Psychology

Reprints are provided for scholarly purposes only.  Permission to reprint any article must be sought from the holder of the copyright. 

Scientists at the Center for Evolutionary Psychology specialize in finding new ways that an evolutionary perspective can inform research on the design of the human mind.  In so doing, we have been researching many new topics, as well as trying out new approaches to old topics.  Below we provide a partial list with links to some relevant research papers. 

Principles of evolutionary psychology

A roadmap to principles of evolutionary psychology

Reasoning and rationality

Social exchange reasoning (reciprocation, reciprocal altruism, cooperation)

Judgment under uncertainty  (intuitive statistics; optimal foraging; ecological rationality; heuristics & biases)

Adaptationism, normative theories, and rationality

Emotions—What are they?

Emotion  (emotions as super-ordinate programs solving the problem of mechanism coordination in a multimodular mind)

Emotions—Specific ones

Anger . See also:

Formidability, Strength, and Entitlement . Adaptations for detecting physical strength

Vision and Visual Attention

Visual attention –a system specialized for monitoring animals

Vision : Faces—the case for domain-specific object recognition

Evolutionary Biology

Evolutionary Biology : Intragenomic Conflict , Pathogens & the Evolution of Sexual Recombination; Banker’s Paradox (etc)

Literature and the Arts

Art, Fiction, and Aesthetics

Close social relationships

Kin detection  (as regulator of incest avoidance; altruism)

Friendship and Deep Engagement Relationships

Courtship, Mate Choice, and Human Sexuality

Varieties of Cooperation

Two-person cooperation / reciprocation / reciprocal altruism

Evolution of generosity

Cooperating in Groups:

Coalitional psychology and alliance detection

Adaptations for collective action

Memory  (memory systems; specializations; personality trait database; self-knowledge, episodic memories; amnesia; memory loss )

Spatial cognition

Spatial adaptations for foraging (female advantage in location memory for plants; content effects; optimal foraging)

Tools: Cognitive foundations

Adaptations for tool use  (the artifact concept and inferences about function; design stance; problem solving, dissociation between inferences about function and naming)

Personality

Personality (personality differences and universal human nature; adaptationist framework for personality science; cognitive systems specialized for encoding, storing, and retrieving knowledge of personality traits)

The links below are not live yet—hopefully I will be able to update them soon! LC

Darwinian medicine, Darwinian psychiatry

Development

Economics, Business, and Organizational Behavior

Hazard Management (precautionary reasoning)

Intelligence (improvisational intelligence; dedicated intelligence; decoupled reasoning (counterfactual reasoning, suppositional reasoning, metarepresentation)

Theoretical foundations of psychology and the behavioral sciences

Environments of Evolutionary Adaptedness  (EEA; Why the past explains the present)

Evolutionary psychology: A primer

A brief introduction to the field in  [ English ], [ Español ] and [ Português ].

Recent News

Recent Awards

Learning the history of evolution and primatology

An exhibition and undergraduate course at Stanford examines the peculiar scrutiny people have placed on their primate relatives to better understand the human condition.

Go to the web site to view the video.

Ever since Charles Darwin claimed in 1871 that humans and other primates share a common ancestor, people have turned to apes in search of an answer to the age-old question: What makes us human?

A new collaboration between Stanford historians  Jessica Riskin  and  Caroline Winterer  takes up this question, and their efforts have culminated in an exhibition in Green Library’s Hohbach Hall,  The Apes & Us: A Century of Representations of Our Closest Relatives , an accompanying  color catalog , a conference, and most recently, a winter quarter  Introductory Seminar  (IntroSem),  HIST 41Q:  The Ape Museum: Exploring the Idea of the Ape in Global History, Science, Art and Film , where students study with original source material to learn how people have viewed and exploited apes in science and across society through the ages.

“Students can see what people around the world in the 19th century were seeing – it was like the moon landing of the 20th century to suggest that all life on Earth is not only connected, but connected over an enormous span of time in which we all changed and evolved,” said Winterer, the William Robertson Coe Professor of History and American Studies in the School of Humanities & Sciences (H&S) and the author of a forthcoming book,  How the New World Became Old: The Deep Time Revolution in America . “As Darwin himself put it, there’s ‘grandeur in this view of life.’ ”

But as her collaboration with Riskin shows, that revelation has been controversial from the beginning. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, evolution and primatology have been entangled with race, ideology, and politics.

“When you think historically about the relationship of humans to nonhuman primates, you can connect current ideas and attitudes in science and culture with their now hidden roots in the past,” said Riskin, the Frances and Charles Field Professor of History in H&S.

Gabriel von Max (1840-1915) Abelard und Héloïse , c. 1900-1915, oil on canvas. (Image credit: Courtesy Jack Daulton Collection)

Grappling with a paradigm shift in science

The course and exhibition on the primates and people began after Riskin visited an exhibition in 2021 at the Musée d’Orsay in Paris, The Origins of the World: The Invention of Nature in the Nineteenth Century .

Riskin described some of the items  in an essay for  the New York Review of Books , including the small selection of paintings by the eccentric Czech-Austrian artist Gabriel von Max (1840-1915) showing his pet monkeys assuming human-like positions and roles. Riskin described how von Max – who was an avid Darwinian as well as a painter – anthropomorphized non-human primates to emphasize Darwin’s theories that apes were closely connected to humans.

Riskin’s essay caught the attention of lawyer turned art collector Jack Daulton, who had loaned some von Max paintings to the Musée d’Orsay from his private collection. He contacted Riskin to say he lived near the Stanford campus and asked if Riskin and her students would be interested in seeing other von Max works he owns, to which Riskin enthusiastically responded, yes.

Gabriel von Max, Schlechte Zeiten / Bad Times , 1915, oil on canvas. (Image credit: Courtesy Jack Daulton Collection)

Gabriel von Max (1840-1915), Geburtstagblumen / Birthday Flowers , c. 1890, oil on wood panel. (Image credit: Courtesy Jack Daulton Collection)

Now, some 13 paintings by von Max from Daulton’s collection are on view in Hohbach Hall, including the iconic image of two capuchin monkeys holding one another tenderly, even mournfully. The painting is named after the tragic star-crossed lovers from the 12th century, Abelard and Héloïse.

In addition, there are six glass cases with items from Stanford’s own collections that show the many ways artists and scholars – at Stanford and elsewhere – have examined the differences and similarities between people and primates throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.

For example, there is a case on posture that includes an 1863 copy of Thomas Henry Huxley’s notorious diagram comparing a human skeleton to that of a gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, and gibbon as a way to show how our place in nature is in step with apes.

An original copy of Huxley’s diagram is on view at the Apes & Us exhibition. (Image credit: Courtesy Department of Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford University Libraries Collections)

Another case looks at tools and the hands that made them. Some have argued – such as Friederich Engels, a collaborator and close friend of Karl Marx – that the main differentiator between humans and apes is tool use. In the case is a first edition of the book from the Stanford University Archives in which Engels makes his argument.

The exhibit also shows some of the dangerous ways that differences drawn between human and non-human primates have been used to create imaginary racial and class hierarchies.

Francis Galton, Darwin’s cousin, invoked his own interpretation of Darwin’s theory of evolution to found eugenics, a field devoted to “improving” the human population through selective breeding and controlled reproduction.

One case in  The Apes & Us exhibit looks at the role that the evolutionary biologist, ichthyologist, and first president of Stanford, David Starr Jordan, played in the eugenics movement in the United States.

Throughout the cases are various materials from the personal papers of Stephen J. Gould, the influential paleontologist, historian, and evolutionary biologist who spent much of his career rebutting scientific racism and biological deterministic theories. The exhibition calls attention to his 1981 book,  The Mismeasure of Man , in which Gould confronts some of the pervasive tropes about race and intelligence that were prevalent throughout the Victorian era and early 20th century.

There is also a case on primate research at Stanford, including images from the Stanford Outdoor Primate Facility (SOPF) that British primatologist Jane Goodall established in 1974 with David Hamburg, Stanford professor of human biology. Their research became mired in controversy and SOPF closed in 1979.

Learning the history of science and ideas

Studying how humans have interacted with primates in a post-Darwin age is what Winterer calls a “boundary case” where different historical, political, and social perspectives can be brought to bear.

“Whenever you explore a boundary case, you’re also exploring connections,” Winterer said. “When do we erect boundaries between things? When do we create connections across boundaries? We can apply those questions to almost every domain of human thought. The ape and the human boundary or connection is really just one of many such inquiries we can make.”

Crossing in and out of these boundaries was a goal of Riskin’s and Winterer’s IntroSem.

Appropriately titled  The Ape Museum , their course was held in Hohbach Hall, where each week, students interacted with items in the  Apes & U s exhibit.

Students also looked at objects held elsewhere on campus, including at the Stanford University Archaeology Collections, where curator Danielle Raad presented tools and other artifacts made by human ancestors, including some estimated to be between 300,000 to 1.75 million years old.

Francesca Pinney (left) and Megan Liu (right) hold ancient artifacts on a class visit to the Stanford University Archaeology Collections. (Image credit: Danielle Raad)

For freshman Francesca Pinney, holding something so distant in time and space from her was stirring. “History never felt closer,” she said.

The class also visited the Hoover Institution Library & Archives, where  Jean M. Cannon , a research fellow and curator for North American Collections, pulled out propaganda  from their world-renowned poster collection  that showed how apes were used in World War I and II by both Allied and Axis powers to dehumanize the enemy.

Pinney said she was particularly struck by how apes were used in racist ways and the far-reaching consequences that imagery had in society.

“It was disturbing to see some of this propaganda that was so influential in dehumanizing various populations,” Pinney said. “The most haunting part of seeing those pieces of propaganda was [realizing] the prevalence of such disturbing racial components and how successful it was.”

Megan Liu, a sophomore in the course, had a similar reaction when viewing the propaganda posters – some of which were up to 4 feet wide.

“Just seeing them in their original state really showcased how effective it can be because it’s very in your face. It’s very loud. And it’s very bold,” Liu said. “It was a completely different experience seeing them at the Hoover Archive than seeing them [reprinted] on a regular piece of paper.”

The course also featured guest speakers, including course assistant Noah Sveiven, a Stanford senior who talked about his honors thesis research investigating the history of primate science at Stanford and SOPF.

SOPF facility, c. 1974. (Image credit: Stanford University; Archives Peninsula-Times Tribune, Stanford University photographs)

The class also took an optional visit to the San Francisco Zoo, which included a poignant moment for the group with Oscar Jonesy, a 43-year-old silverback western lowland gorilla. When he saw the group entering his enclosure, he approached them and watched them – calmly and intensely – until they disappeared from view.

“It was a stare full of meaning and import somehow,” Riskin recalled of the visit. “That encounter with Oscar gave me a pang to think that he’s lived his whole life in captivity.”

Indeed, an unsettling discomfort can emerge when thinking about the treatment and ethical implications of our closest evolutionary counterparts.

It is that proximity that makes primate science controversial, said Riskin.

“All of our uncertainties, anxieties, convictions, and our whole psyche with regard to humans and humaneness comes out in primate research,” Riskin said.

Apes & Us is on view at Hohbach Hall, located on the first floor of the East Wing of the Green Library, until June 2024.

Stanford Global Studies, which is part of H&S, helped fund the course through  a Course Innovation Award  which supports the development of new courses focused on global topics.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals

Evolutionary ecology articles from across Nature Portfolio

Evolutionary ecology is a field within both ecology and evolution that examines how interactions between and within species evolve. It explicitly considers the evolutionary effects of competitors, mutualists, predators, prey and pathogens.

Latest Research and Reviews

Mycoheterotrophy in the wood-wide web

In this Perspective, Vincent Merckx and colleagues discuss an important but overlooked aspect of mycorrhizal interactions, mycoheterotrophy, in the context of recent arguments about the importance of these interactions to forest functioning.

• Vincent S. F. T. Merckx
• Sofia I. F. Gomes
• Martin I. Bidartondo

Shark genome size evolution and its relationship with cellular, life-history, ecological, and diversity traits

• Mario Torralba Sáez
• Michael Hofreiter
• Nicolas Straube

Temperature optima of a natural diatom population increases as global warming proceeds

The authors use resurrected strains of a diatom species to compare temperature optima, cell size and gene expression across 60 years. Modern samples have a 1 °C higher temperature optima and probably support increased nutrient uptake, highlighting the adaptation potential of diatoms to global change.

• G. S. I. Hattich
• C. Sjöqvist

Fossils document evolutionary changes of jaw joint to mammalian middle ear

A new morganucodontan-like species from the Jurassic in China shows evidence of a loss of load-bearing function in the articular–quadrate jaw joint, which probably had a role in the evolution of the mammalian middle ear.

• Fangyuan Mao

Flying fast improves aerodynamic economy of heavier birds

• Charles M. Bishop
• Lewis G. Halsey
• Graham N. Askew

Complex parental effects impact variation in larval thermal tolerance in a vertically transmitting coral

• Erika C. Johnston
• Carlo Caruso
• Crawford Drury

News and Comment

Multicellularity drives ecological diversity in a long-term evolution experiment

Long-term experimental evolution in brewer’s yeast reveals how the transition to simple multicellularity can drive ecological divergence and maintain diversity.

Guest edited collection: fungal evolution and diversity

There are 5 million fungal species. However, the discovery and classification of fungi are in high flux. Modern concepts indicate that the three kingdoms of “fungi” are Chromista, Fungi and Protozoa . Strong support for the wrong phylogeny can occur without correct analytical methods. In the current Collection we envisaged fungi representing extremely diverse and ancient eukaryotic organisms, with familiar groups such as mushrooms, yeasts and “moulds”. We collected 6 fascinating papers in three areas of Diversity, Chemical Diversity and Evolution.

• Robert Russell Monteith Paterson
• Zakaria Solaiman
• Oscar Santamaria

Metals for microbes in the ancient sea

Identifying the metal micronutrients required by early life could help to illuminate how primitive organisms arose, but which metals were biologically available in ancient seawater has not been determined. A new experimental framework suggests how the precipitation of iron minerals from seawater reduced the availability of key metals, particularly zinc, copper and vanadium.

• Jena E. Johnson

Spatial sorting creates winners and losers

A catastrophic flooding event offered an unusual chance to demonstrate that spatial sorting — the differential dispersal of phenotypes — occurs in soapberry bugs as they recolonize after a major disturbance. But this process does not always prove to be adaptive.

• Swanne P. Gordon
• Caleb J. Axelrod

Engineered and natural gene drives: mechanistically the same, yet not same in kind

We propose the use of the terms natural gene drive (NGD) and engineered gene drive (EGD) arguing against James et al. 1 , who think both should be included within the term “gene drive”, based on their mechanistic similarities.

• Raul F. Medina
• Jennifer Kuzma

Origins of successful invasions

An analysis of distributions of over 99% of the world’s seed plant flora shows that species that originate from large and biodiverse regions are more successful at establishing naturalized populations outside of their native range. They are also more likely to be used by humans for economic purposes.

• Jaime Moyano

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Enable JavaScript in your browser to view this website correctly.

Close panel

• Publications
• Reading lists
• Add to "Read later"
• Eliminar de "Leer más tarde"
• Add to "My library"
• Eliminar de "Mi biblioteca"
• Share on Facebook
• Share on X (Twitter)
• Share on LinkedIn
• Share on WhatsApp
• Share on Telegram

Spain | Regional finances in 2023 and between 2003 and 2023

See social media to share

• X (Twitter)

Close social media to share

See tools to share

Close tools to share

Published on Tuesday, April 23, 2024

Document number 24/05

This Working Paper analyzes the evolution in regional revenues and expenditures, the sector’s budget balance and its debt stock from 2003 to the present.

• Key points:
• The first part pays close attention to the behaviour of per capita expenditure at constant prices.
• It then analyzes the accounts for the last few years in some detail, highlighting the effect caused by certain atypical factors, including the extraordinary income and expenses linked to the COVID-19 crisis and the forecasting errors in the calculation of the payments on account of the regional financing system.
• Correcting the raw data for the impact of these factors significantly modifies the apparent financial position of the autonomous communities of Spain, for the worse in the pandemic years (2020 and 2021) and for the better in 2022 and 2023, and offers a quite different perspective on their evolution.

Documents to download

Report (pdf), data (excel).

• Angel De la Fuente Fedea and CSIC - External partner

Geographies

• Geography Tags
• Regional Analysis Spain
• Regional financing
• Regional income
• Macroeconomics
• Economic Growth & Inequality

Was this information useful?

• I found it useful
• I did not find it useful

New comment

Be the first to add a comment.

You may also be interested in

Post your comment.