computer and modern age essay

Table of Contents
Random Entry
Chronological
Editorial Information
About the SEP
Editorial Board
How to Cite the SEP
Special Characters
Advanced Tools
Support the SEP
PDFs for SEP Friends
Make a Donation
SEPIA for Libraries
Entry Contents

Bibliography

Academic tools.

Friends PDF Preview
Author and Citation Info
Back to Top

The Modern History of Computing

Historically, computers were human clerks who calculated in accordance with effective methods. These human computers did the sorts of calculation nowadays carried out by electronic computers, and many thousands of them were employed in commerce, government, and research establishments. The term computing machine , used increasingly from the 1920s, refers to any machine that does the work of a human computer, i.e., any machine that calculates in accordance with effective methods. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, with the advent of electronic computing machines, the phrase ‘computing machine’ gradually gave way simply to ‘computer’, initially usually with the prefix ‘electronic’ or ‘digital’. This entry surveys the history of these machines.

Analog Computers

The Universal Turing Machine

Electromechanical versus electronic computation, turing's automatic computing engine, the manchester machine, eniac and edvac, other notable early computers, high-speed memory, other internet resources, related entries.

Charles Babbage was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University from 1828 to 1839 (a post formerly held by Isaac Newton). Babbage's proposed Difference Engine was a special-purpose digital computing machine for the automatic production of mathematical tables (such as logarithm tables, tide tables, and astronomical tables). The Difference Engine consisted entirely of mechanical components — brass gear wheels, rods, ratchets, pinions, etc. Numbers were represented in the decimal system by the positions of 10-toothed metal wheels mounted in columns. Babbage exhibited a small working model in 1822. He never completed the full-scale machine that he had designed but did complete several fragments. The largest — one ninth of the complete calculator — is on display in the London Science Museum. Babbage used it to perform serious computational work, calculating various mathematical tables. In 1990, Babbage's Difference Engine No. 2 was finally built from Babbage's designs and is also on display at the London Science Museum.

The Swedes Georg and Edvard Scheutz (father and son) constructed a modified version of Babbage's Difference Engine. Three were made, a prototype and two commercial models, one of these being sold to an observatory in Albany, New York, and the other to the Registrar-General's office in London, where it calculated and printed actuarial tables.

Babbage's proposed Analytical Engine, considerably more ambitious than the Difference Engine, was to have been a general-purpose mechanical digital computer. The Analytical Engine was to have had a memory store and a central processing unit (or ‘mill’) and would have been able to select from among alternative actions consequent upon the outcome of its previous actions (a facility nowadays known as conditional branching). The behaviour of the Analytical Engine would have been controlled by a program of instructions contained on punched cards connected together with ribbons (an idea that Babbage had adopted from the Jacquard weaving loom). Babbage emphasised the generality of the Analytical Engine, saying ‘the conditions which enable a finite machine to make calculations of unlimited extent are fulfilled in the Analytical Engine’ (Babbage [1994], p. 97).

Babbage worked closely with Ada Lovelace, daughter of the poet Byron, after whom the modern programming language ADA is named. Lovelace foresaw the possibility of using the Analytical Engine for non-numeric computation, suggesting that the Engine might even be capable of composing elaborate pieces of music.

A large model of the Analytical Engine was under construction at the time of Babbage's death in 1871 but a full-scale version was never built. Babbage's idea of a general-purpose calculating engine was never forgotten, especially at Cambridge, and was on occasion a lively topic of mealtime discussion at the war-time headquarters of the Government Code and Cypher School, Bletchley Park, Buckinghamshire, birthplace of the electronic digital computer.

Analog computers

The earliest computing machines in wide use were not digital but analog. In analog representation, properties of the representational medium ape (or reflect or model) properties of the represented state-of-affairs. (In obvious contrast, the strings of binary digits employed in digital representation do not represent by means of possessing some physical property — such as length — whose magnitude varies in proportion to the magnitude of the property that is being represented.) Analog representations form a diverse class. Some examples: the longer a line on a road map, the longer the road that the line represents; the greater the number of clear plastic squares in an architect's model, the greater the number of windows in the building represented; the higher the pitch of an acoustic depth meter, the shallower the water. In analog computers, numerical quantities are represented by, for example, the angle of rotation of a shaft or a difference in electrical potential. Thus the output voltage of the machine at a time might represent the momentary speed of the object being modelled.

As the case of the architect's model makes plain, analog representation may be discrete in nature (there is no such thing as a fractional number of windows). Among computer scientists, the term ‘analog’ is sometimes used narrowly, to indicate representation of one continuously-valued quantity by another (e.g., speed by voltage). As Brian Cantwell Smith has remarked:

‘Analog’ should … be a predicate on a representation whose structure corresponds to that of which it represents … That continuous representations should historically have come to be called analog presumably betrays the recognition that, at the levels at which it matters to us, the world is more foundationally continuous than it is discrete. (Smith [1991], p. 271)

James Thomson, brother of Lord Kelvin, invented the mechanical wheel-and-disc integrator that became the foundation of analog computation (Thomson [1876]). The two brothers constructed a device for computing the integral of the product of two given functions, and Kelvin described (although did not construct) general-purpose analog machines for integrating linear differential equations of any order and for solving simultaneous linear equations. Kelvin's most successful analog computer was his tide predicting machine, which remained in use at the port of Liverpool until the 1960s. Mechanical analog devices based on the wheel-and-disc integrator were in use during World War I for gunnery calculations. Following the war, the design of the integrator was considerably improved by Hannibal Ford (Ford [1919]).

Stanley Fifer reports that the first semi-automatic mechanical analog computer was built in England by the Manchester firm of Metropolitan Vickers prior to 1930 (Fifer [1961], p. 29); however, I have so far been unable to verify this claim. In 1931, Vannevar Bush, working at MIT, built the differential analyser, the first large-scale automatic general-purpose mechanical analog computer. Bush's design was based on the wheel and disc integrator. Soon copies of his machine were in use around the world (including, at Cambridge and Manchester Universities in England, differential analysers built out of kit-set Meccano, the once popular engineering toy).

It required a skilled mechanic equipped with a lead hammer to set up Bush's mechanical differential analyser for each new job. Subsequently, Bush and his colleagues replaced the wheel-and-disc integrators and other mechanical components by electromechanical, and finally by electronic, devices.

A differential analyser may be conceptualised as a collection of ‘black boxes’ connected together in such a way as to allow considerable feedback. Each box performs a fundamental process, for example addition, multiplication of a variable by a constant, and integration. In setting up the machine for a given task, boxes are connected together so that the desired set of fundamental processes is executed. In the case of electrical machines, this was done typically by plugging wires into sockets on a patch panel (computing machines whose function is determined in this way are referred to as ‘program-controlled’).

Since all the boxes work in parallel, an electronic differential analyser solves sets of equations very quickly. Against this has to be set the cost of massaging the problem to be solved into the form demanded by the analog machine, and of setting up the hardware to perform the desired computation. A major drawback of analog computation is the higher cost, relative to digital machines, of an increase in precision. During the 1960s and 1970s, there was considerable interest in ‘hybrid’ machines, where an analog section is controlled by and programmed via a digital section. However, such machines are now a rarity.

In 1936, at Cambridge University, Turing invented the principle of the modern computer. He described an abstract digital computing machine consisting of a limitless memory and a scanner that moves back and forth through the memory, symbol by symbol, reading what it finds and writing further symbols (Turing [1936]). The actions of the scanner are dictated by a program of instructions that is stored in the memory in the form of symbols. This is Turing's stored-program concept, and implicit in it is the possibility of the machine operating on and modifying its own program. (In London in 1947, in the course of what was, so far as is known, the earliest public lecture to mention computer intelligence, Turing said, ‘What we want is a machine that can learn from experience’, adding that the ‘possibility of letting the machine alter its own instructions provides the mechanism for this’ (Turing [1947] p. 393). Turing's computing machine of 1936 is now known simply as the universal Turing machine. Cambridge mathematician Max Newman remarked that right from the start Turing was interested in the possibility of actually building a computing machine of the sort that he had described (Newman in interview with Christopher Evans in Evans [197?].

From the start of the Second World War Turing was a leading cryptanalyst at the Government Code and Cypher School, Bletchley Park. Here he became familiar with Thomas Flowers' work involving large-scale high-speed electronic switching (described below). However, Turing could not turn to the project of building an electronic stored-program computing machine until the cessation of hostilities in Europe in 1945.

During the wartime years Turing did give considerable thought to the question of machine intelligence. Colleagues at Bletchley Park recall numerous off-duty discussions with him on the topic, and at one point Turing circulated a typewritten report (now lost) setting out some of his ideas. One of these colleagues, Donald Michie (who later founded the Department of Machine Intelligence and Perception at the University of Edinburgh), remembers Turing talking often about the possibility of computing machines (1) learning from experience and (2) solving problems by means of searching through the space of possible solutions, guided by rule-of-thumb principles (Michie in interview with Copeland, 1995). The modern term for the latter idea is ‘heuristic search’, a heuristic being any rule-of-thumb principle that cuts down the amount of searching required in order to find a solution to a problem. At Bletchley Park Turing illustrated his ideas on machine intelligence by reference to chess. Michie recalls Turing experimenting with heuristics that later became common in chess programming (in particular minimax and best-first).

Further information about Turing and the computer, including his wartime work on codebreaking and his thinking about artificial intelligence and artificial life, can be found in Copeland 2004.

With some exceptions — including Babbage's purely mechanical engines, and the finger-powered National Accounting Machine - early digital computing machines were electromechanical. That is to say, their basic components were small, electrically-driven, mechanical switches called ‘relays’. These operate relatively slowly, whereas the basic components of an electronic computer — originally vacuum tubes (valves) — have no moving parts save electrons and so operate extremely fast. Electromechanical digital computing machines were built before and during the second world war by (among others) Howard Aiken at Harvard University, George Stibitz at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Turing at Princeton University and Bletchley Park, and Konrad Zuse in Berlin. To Zuse belongs the honour of having built the first working general-purpose program-controlled digital computer. This machine, later called the Z3, was functioning in 1941. (A program-controlled computer, as opposed to a stored-program computer, is set up for a new task by re-routing wires, by means of plugs etc.)

Relays were too slow and unreliable a medium for large-scale general-purpose digital computation (although Aiken made a valiant effort). It was the development of high-speed digital techniques using vacuum tubes that made the modern computer possible.

The earliest extensive use of vacuum tubes for digital data-processing appears to have been by the engineer Thomas Flowers, working in London at the British Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill. Electronic equipment designed by Flowers in 1934, for controlling the connections between telephone exchanges, went into operation in 1939, and involved between three and four thousand vacuum tubes running continuously. In 1938–1939 Flowers worked on an experimental electronic digital data-processing system, involving a high-speed data store. Flowers' aim, achieved after the war, was that electronic equipment should replace existing, less reliable, systems built from relays and used in telephone exchanges. Flowers did not investigate the idea of using electronic equipment for numerical calculation, but has remarked that at the outbreak of war with Germany in 1939 he was possibly the only person in Britain who realized that vacuum tubes could be used on a large scale for high-speed digital computation. (See Copeland 2006 for m more information on Flowers' work.)

The earliest comparable use of vacuum tubes in the U.S. seems to have been by John Atanasoff at what was then Iowa State College (now University). During the period 1937–1942 Atanasoff developed techniques for using vacuum tubes to perform numerical calculations digitally. In 1939, with the assistance of his student Clifford Berry, Atanasoff began building what is sometimes called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer, or ABC, a small-scale special-purpose electronic digital machine for the solution of systems of linear algebraic equations. The machine contained approximately 300 vacuum tubes. Although the electronic part of the machine functioned successfully, the computer as a whole never worked reliably, errors being introduced by the unsatisfactory binary card-reader. Work was discontinued in 1942 when Atanasoff left Iowa State.

The first fully functioning electronic digital computer was Colossus, used by the Bletchley Park cryptanalysts from February 1944.

From very early in the war the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) was successfully deciphering German radio communications encoded by means of the Enigma system, and by early 1942 about 39,000 intercepted messages were being decoded each month, thanks to electromechanical machines known as ‘bombes’. These were designed by Turing and Gordon Welchman (building on earlier work by Polish cryptanalysts).

During the second half of 1941, messages encoded by means of a totally different method began to be intercepted. This new cipher machine, code-named ‘Tunny’ by Bletchley Park, was broken in April 1942 and current traffic was read for the first time in July of that year. Based on binary teleprinter code, Tunny was used in preference to Morse-based Enigma for the encryption of high-level signals, for example messages from Hitler and members of the German High Command.

The need to decipher this vital intelligence as rapidly as possible led Max Newman to propose in November 1942 (shortly after his recruitment to GC&CS from Cambridge University) that key parts of the decryption process be automated, by means of high-speed electronic counting devices. The first machine designed and built to Newman's specification, known as the Heath Robinson, was relay-based with electronic circuits for counting. (The electronic counters were designed by C.E. Wynn-Williams, who had been using thyratron tubes in counting circuits at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, since 1932 [Wynn-Williams 1932].) Installed in June 1943, Heath Robinson was unreliable and slow, and its high-speed paper tapes were continually breaking, but it proved the worth of Newman's idea. Flowers recommended that an all-electronic machine be built instead, but he received no official encouragement from GC&CS. Working independently at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill, Flowers quietly got on with constructing the world's first large-scale programmable electronic digital computer. Colossus I was delivered to Bletchley Park in January 1943.

By the end of the war there were ten Colossi working round the clock at Bletchley Park. From a cryptanalytic viewpoint, a major difference between the prototype Colossus I and the later machines was the addition of the so-called Special Attachment, following a key discovery by cryptanalysts Donald Michie and Jack Good. This broadened the function of Colossus from ‘wheel setting’ — i.e., determining the settings of the encoding wheels of the Tunny machine for a particular message, given the ‘patterns’ of the wheels — to ‘wheel breaking’, i.e., determining the wheel patterns themselves. The wheel patterns were eventually changed daily by the Germans on each of the numerous links between the German Army High Command and Army Group commanders in the field. By 1945 there were as many 30 links in total. About ten of these were broken and read regularly.

Colossus I contained approximately 1600 vacuum tubes and each of the subsequent machines approximately 2400 vacuum tubes. Like the smaller ABC, Colossus lacked two important features of modern computers. First, it had no internally stored programs. To set it up for a new task, the operator had to alter the machine's physical wiring, using plugs and switches. Second, Colossus was not a general-purpose machine, being designed for a specific cryptanalytic task involving counting and Boolean operations.

F.H. Hinsley, official historian of GC&CS, has estimated that the war in Europe was shortened by at least two years as a result of the signals intelligence operation carried out at Bletchley Park, in which Colossus played a major role. Most of the Colossi were destroyed once hostilities ceased. Some of the electronic panels ended up at Newman's Computing Machine Laboratory in Manchester (see below), all trace of their original use having been removed. Two Colossi were retained by GC&CS (renamed GCHQ following the end of the war). The last Colossus is believed to have stopped running in 1960.

Those who knew of Colossus were prohibited by the Official Secrets Act from sharing their knowledge. Until the 1970s, few had any idea that electronic computation had been used successfully during the second world war. In 1970 and 1975, respectively, Good and Michie published notes giving the barest outlines of Colossus. By 1983, Flowers had received clearance from the British Government to publish a partial account of the hardware of Colossus I. Details of the later machines and of the Special Attachment, the uses to which the Colossi were put, and the cryptanalytic algorithms that they ran, have only recently been declassified. (For the full account of Colossus and the attack on Tunny see Copeland 2006.)

To those acquainted with the universal Turing machine of 1936, and the associated stored-program concept, Flowers' racks of digital electronic equipment were proof of the feasibility of using large numbers of vacuum tubes to implement a high-speed general-purpose stored-program computer. The war over, Newman lost no time in establishing the Royal Society Computing Machine Laboratory at Manchester University for precisely that purpose. A few months after his arrival at Manchester, Newman wrote as follows to the Princeton mathematician John von Neumann (February 1946):

I am … hoping to embark on a computing machine section here, having got very interested in electronic devices of this kind during the last two or three years. By about eighteen months ago I had decided to try my hand at starting up a machine unit when I got out. … I am of course in close touch with Turing.

Turing and Newman were thinking along similar lines. In 1945 Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in London, his brief to design and develop an electronic stored-program digital computer for scientific work. (Artificial Intelligence was not far from Turing's thoughts: he described himself as ‘building a brain’ and remarked in a letter that he was ‘more interested in the possibility of producing models of the action of the brain than in the practical applications to computing’.) John Womersley, Turing's immediate superior at NPL, christened Turing's proposed machine the Automatic Computing Engine, or ACE, in homage to Babbage's Difference Engine and Analytical Engine.

Turing's 1945 report ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’ gave the first relatively complete specification of an electronic stored-program general-purpose digital computer. The report is reprinted in full in Copeland 2005.

The first electronic stored-program digital computer to be proposed in the U.S. was the EDVAC (see below). The ‘First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC’ (May 1945), composed by von Neumann, contained little engineering detail, in particular concerning electronic hardware (owing to restrictions in the U.S.). Turing's ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’, on the other hand, supplied detailed circuit designs and specifications of hardware units, specimen programs in machine code, and even an estimate of the cost of building the machine (£11,200). ACE and EDVAC differed fundamentally from one another; for example, ACE employed distributed processing, while EDVAC had a centralised structure.

Turing saw that speed and memory were the keys to computing. Turing's colleague at NPL, Jim Wilkinson, observed that Turing ‘was obsessed with the idea of speed on the machine’ [Copeland 2005, p. 2]. Turing's design had much in common with today's RISC architectures and it called for a high-speed memory of roughly the same capacity as an early Macintosh computer (enormous by the standards of his day). Had Turing's ACE been built as planned it would have been in a different league from the other early computers. However, progress on Turing's Automatic Computing Engine ran slowly, due to organisational difficulties at NPL, and in 1948 a ‘very fed up’ Turing (Robin Gandy's description, in interview with Copeland, 1995) left NPL for Newman's Computing Machine Laboratory at Manchester University. It was not until May 1950 that a small pilot model of the Automatic Computing Engine, built by Wilkinson, Edward Newman, Mike Woodger, and others, first executed a program. With an operating speed of 1 MHz, the Pilot Model ACE was for some time the fastest computer in the world.

Sales of DEUCE, the production version of the Pilot Model ACE, were buoyant — confounding the suggestion, made in 1946 by the Director of the NPL, Sir Charles Darwin, that ‘it is very possible that … one machine would suffice to solve all the problems that are demanded of it from the whole country’ [Copeland 2005, p. 4]. The fundamentals of Turing's ACE design were employed by Harry Huskey (at Wayne State University, Detroit) in the Bendix G15 computer (Huskey in interview with Copeland, 1998). The G15 was arguably the first personal computer; over 400 were sold worldwide. DEUCE and the G15 remained in use until about 1970. Another computer deriving from Turing's ACE design, the MOSAIC, played a role in Britain's air defences during the Cold War period; other derivatives include the Packard-Bell PB250 (1961). (More information about these early computers is given in [Copeland 2005].)

The earliest general-purpose stored-program electronic digital computer to work was built in Newman's Computing Machine Laboratory at Manchester University. The Manchester ‘Baby’, as it became known, was constructed by the engineers F.C. Williams and Tom Kilburn, and performed its first calculation on 21 June 1948. The tiny program, stored on the face of a cathode ray tube, was just seventeen instructions long. A much enlarged version of the machine, with a programming system designed by Turing, became the world's first commercially available computer, the Ferranti Mark I. The first to be completed was installed at Manchester University in February 1951; in all about ten were sold, in Britain, Canada, Holland and Italy.

The fundamental logico-mathematical contributions by Turing and Newman to the triumph at Manchester have been neglected, and the Manchester machine is nowadays remembered as the work of Williams and Kilburn. Indeed, Newman's role in the development of computers has never been sufficiently emphasised (due perhaps to his thoroughly self-effacing way of relating the relevant events).

It was Newman who, in a lecture in Cambridge in 1935, introduced Turing to the concept that led directly to the Turing machine: Newman defined a constructive process as one that a machine can carry out (Newman in interview with Evans, op. cit.). As a result of his knowledge of Turing's work, Newman became interested in the possibilities of computing machinery in, as he put it, ‘a rather theoretical way’. It was not until Newman joined GC&CS in 1942 that his interest in computing machinery suddenly became practical, with his realisation that the attack on Tunny could be mechanised. During the building of Colossus, Newman tried to interest Flowers in Turing's 1936 paper — birthplace of the stored-program concept - but Flowers did not make much of Turing's arcane notation. There is no doubt that by 1943, Newman had firmly in mind the idea of using electronic technology in order to construct a stored-program general-purpose digital computing machine.

In July of 1946 (the month in which the Royal Society approved Newman's application for funds to found the Computing Machine Laboratory), Freddie Williams, working at the Telecommunications Research Establishment, Malvern, began the series of experiments on cathode ray tube storage that was to lead to the Williams tube memory. Williams, until then a radar engineer, explains how it was that he came to be working on the problem of computer memory:

[O]nce [the German Armies] collapsed … nobody was going to care a toss about radar, and people like me … were going to be in the soup unless we found something else to do. And computers were in the air. Knowing absolutely nothing about them I latched onto the problem of storage and tackled that. (Quoted in Bennett 1976.)

Newman learned of Williams' work, and with the able help of Patrick Blackett, Langworthy Professor of Physics at Manchester and one of the most powerful figures in the University, was instrumental in the appointment of the 35 year old Williams to the recently vacated Chair of Electro-Technics at Manchester. (Both were members of the appointing committee (Kilburn in interview with Copeland, 1997).) Williams immediately had Kilburn, his assistant at Malvern, seconded to Manchester. To take up the story in Williams' own words:

[N]either Tom Kilburn nor I knew the first thing about computers when we arrived in Manchester University. We'd had enough explained to us to understand what the problem of storage was and what we wanted to store, and that we'd achieved, so the point now had been reached when we'd got to find out about computers … Newman explained the whole business of how a computer works to us. (F.C. Williams in interview with Evans [1976])

Elsewhere Williams is explicit concerning Turing's role and gives something of the flavour of the explanation that he and Kilburn received:

Tom Kilburn and I knew nothing about computers, but a lot about circuits. Professor Newman and Mr A.M. Turing … knew a lot about computers and substantially nothing about electronics. They took us by the hand and explained how numbers could live in houses with addresses and how if they did they could be kept track of during a calculation. (Williams [1975], p. 328)

It seems that Newman must have used much the same words with Williams and Kilburn as he did in an address to the Royal Society on 4th March 1948:

Professor Hartree … has recalled that all the essential ideas of the general-purpose calculating machines now being made are to be found in Babbage's plans for his analytical engine. In modern times the idea of a universal calculating machine was independently introduced by Turing … [T]he machines now being made in America and in this country … [are] in certain general respects … all similar. There is provision for storing numbers, say in the scale of 2, so that each number appears as a row of, say, forty 0's and 1's in certain places or "houses" in the machine. … Certain of these numbers, or "words" are read, one after another, as orders. In one possible type of machine an order consists of four numbers, for example 11, 13, 27, 4. The number 4 signifies "add", and when control shifts to this word the "houses" H11 and H13 will be connected to the adder as inputs, and H27 as output. The numbers stored in H11 and H13 pass through the adder, are added, and the sum is passed on to H27. The control then shifts to the next order. In most real machines the process just described would be done by three separate orders, the first bringing [H11] (=content of H11) to a central accumulator, the second adding [H13] into the accumulator, and the third sending the result to H27; thus only one address would be required in each order. … A machine with storage, with this automatic-telephone-exchange arrangement and with the necessary adders, subtractors and so on, is, in a sense, already a universal machine. (Newman [1948], pp. 271–272)

Following this explanation of Turing's three-address concept (source 1, source 2, destination, function) Newman went on to describe program storage (‘the orders shall be in a series of houses X1, X2, …’) and conditional branching. He then summed up:

From this highly simplified account it emerges that the essential internal parts of the machine are, first, a storage for numbers (which may also be orders). … Secondly, adders, multipliers, etc. Thirdly, an "automatic telephone exchange" for selecting "houses", connecting them to the arithmetic organ, and writing the answers in other prescribed houses. Finally, means of moving control at any stage to any chosen order, if a certain condition is satisfied, otherwise passing to the next order in the normal sequence. Besides these there must be ways of setting up the machine at the outset, and extracting the final answer in useable form. (Newman [1948], pp. 273–4)

In a letter written in 1972 Williams described in some detail what he and Kilburn were told by Newman:

About the middle of the year [1946] the possibility of an appointment at Manchester University arose and I had a talk with Professor Newman who was already interested in the possibility of developing computers and had acquired a grant from the Royal Society of £30,000 for this purpose. Since he understood computers and I understood electronics the possibilities of fruitful collaboration were obvious. I remember Newman giving us a few lectures in which he outlined the organisation of a computer in terms of numbers being identified by the address of the house in which they were placed and in terms of numbers being transferred from this address, one at a time, to an accumulator where each entering number was added to what was already there. At any time the number in the accumulator could be transferred back to an assigned address in the store and the accumulator cleared for further use. The transfers were to be effected by a stored program in which a list of instructions was obeyed sequentially. Ordered progress through the list could be interrupted by a test instruction which examined the sign of the number in the accumulator. Thereafter operation started from a new point in the list of instructions. This was the first information I received about the organisation of computers. … Our first computer was the simplest embodiment of these principles, with the sole difference that it used a subtracting rather than an adding accumulator. (Letter from Williams to Randell, 1972; in Randell [1972], p. 9)

Turing's early input to the developments at Manchester, hinted at by Williams in his above-quoted reference to Turing, may have been via the lectures on computer design that Turing and Wilkinson gave in London during the period December 1946 to February 1947 (Turing and Wilkinson [1946–7]). The lectures were attended by representatives of various organisations planning to use or build an electronic computer. Kilburn was in the audience (Bowker and Giordano [1993]). (Kilburn usually said, when asked from where he obtained his basic knowledge of the computer, that he could not remember (letter from Brian Napper to Copeland, 2002); for example, in a 1992 interview he said: ‘Between early 1945 and early 1947, in that period, somehow or other I knew what a digital computer was … Where I got this knowledge from I've no idea’ (Bowker and Giordano [1993], p. 19).)

Whatever role Turing's lectures may have played in informing Kilburn, there is little doubt that credit for the Manchester computer — called the ‘Newman-Williams machine’ in a contemporary document (Huskey 1947) — belongs not only to Williams and Kilburn but also to Newman, and that the influence on Newman of Turing's 1936 paper was crucial, as was the influence of Flowers' Colossus.

The first working AI program, a draughts (checkers) player written by Christopher Strachey, ran on the Ferranti Mark I in the Manchester Computing Machine Laboratory. Strachey (at the time a teacher at Harrow School and an amateur programmer) wrote the program with Turing's encouragement and utilising the latter's recently completed Programmers' Handbook for the Ferranti. (Strachey later became Director of the Programming Research Group at Oxford University.) By the summer of 1952, the program could, Strachey reported, ‘play a complete game of draughts at a reasonable speed’. (Strachey's program formed the basis for Arthur Samuel's well-known checkers program.) The first chess-playing program, also, was written for the Manchester Ferranti, by Dietrich Prinz; the program first ran in November 1951. Designed for solving simple problems of the mate-in-two variety, the program would examine every possible move until a solution was found. Turing started to program his ‘Turochamp’ chess-player on the Ferranti Mark I, but never completed the task. Unlike Prinz's program, the Turochamp could play a complete game (when hand-simulated) and operated not by exhaustive search but under the guidance of heuristics.

The first fully functioning electronic digital computer to be built in the U.S. was ENIAC, constructed at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, for the Army Ordnance Department, by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. Completed in 1945, ENIAC was somewhat similar to the earlier Colossus, but considerably larger and more flexible (although far from general-purpose). The primary function for which ENIAC was designed was the calculation of tables used in aiming artillery. ENIAC was not a stored-program computer, and setting it up for a new job involved reconfiguring the machine by means of plugs and switches. For many years, ENIAC was believed to have been the first functioning electronic digital computer, Colossus being unknown to all but a few.

In 1944, John von Neumann joined the ENIAC group. He had become ‘intrigued’ (Goldstine's word, [1972], p. 275) with Turing's universal machine while Turing was at Princeton University during 1936–1938. At the Moore School, von Neumann emphasised the importance of the stored-program concept for electronic computing, including the possibility of allowing the machine to modify its own program in useful ways while running (for example, in order to control loops and branching). Turing's paper of 1936 (‘On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem’) was required reading for members of von Neumann's post-war computer project at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University (letter from Julian Bigelow to Copeland, 2002; see also Copeland [2004], p. 23). Eckert appears to have realised independently, and prior to von Neumann's joining the ENIAC group, that the way to take full advantage of the speed at which data is processed by electronic circuits is to place suitably encoded instructions for controlling the processing in the same high-speed storage devices that hold the data itself (documented in Copeland [2004], pp. 26–7). In 1945, while ENIAC was still under construction, von Neumann produced a draft report, mentioned previously, setting out the ENIAC group's ideas for an electronic stored-program general-purpose digital computer, the EDVAC (von Neuman [1945]). The EDVAC was completed six years later, but not by its originators, who left the Moore School to build computers elsewhere. Lectures held at the Moore School in 1946 on the proposed EDVAC were widely attended and contributed greatly to the dissemination of the new ideas.

Von Neumann was a prestigious figure and he made the concept of a high-speed stored-program digital computer widely known through his writings and public addresses. As a result of his high profile in the field, it became customary, although historically inappropriate, to refer to electronic stored-program digital computers as ‘von Neumann machines’.

The Los Alamos physicist Stanley Frankel, responsible with von Neumann and others for mechanising the large-scale calculations involved in the design of the atomic bomb, has described von Neumann's view of the importance of Turing's 1936 paper, in a letter:

I know that in or about 1943 or ‘44 von Neumann was well aware of the fundamental importance of Turing's paper of 1936 … Von Neumann introduced me to that paper and at his urging I studied it with care. Many people have acclaimed von Neumann as the "father of the computer" (in a modern sense of the term) but I am sure that he would never have made that mistake himself. He might well be called the midwife, perhaps, but he firmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing, in so far as not anticipated by Babbage … Both Turing and von Neumann, of course, also made substantial contributions to the "reduction to practice" of these concepts but I would not regard these as comparable in importance with the introduction and explication of the concept of a computer able to store in its memory its program of activities and of modifying that program in the course of these activities. (Quoted in Randell [1972], p. 10)

Other notable early stored-program electronic digital computers were:

EDSAC, 1949, built at Cambridge University by Maurice Wilkes
BINAC, 1949, built by Eckert's and Mauchly's Electronic Control Co., Philadelphia (opinions differ over whether BINAC ever actually worked)
Whirlwind I, 1949, Digital Computer Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Jay Forrester
SEAC, 1950, US Bureau of Standards Eastern Division, Washington D.C., Samuel Alexander, Ralph Slutz
SWAC, 1950, US Bureau of Standards Western Division, Institute for Numerical Analysis, University of California at Los Angeles, Harry Huskey
UNIVAC, 1951, Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, Philadelphia (the first computer to be available commercially in the U.S.)
the IAS computer, 1952, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University, Julian Bigelow, Arthur Burks, Herman Goldstine, von Neumann, and others (thanks to von Neumann's publishing the specifications of the IAS machine, it became the model for a group of computers known as the Princeton Class machines; the IAS computer was also a strong influence on the IBM 701)
IBM 701, 1952, International Business Machine's first mass-produced electronic stored-program computer.

The EDVAC and ACE proposals both advocated the use of mercury-filled tubes, called ‘delay lines’, for high-speed internal memory. This form of memory is known as acoustic memory. Delay lines had initially been developed for echo cancellation in radar; the idea of using them as memory devices originated with Eckert at the Moore School. Here is Turing's description:

It is proposed to build "delay line" units consisting of mercury … tubes about 5′ long and 1″ in diameter in contact with a quartz crystal at each end. The velocity of sound in … mercury … is such that the delay will be 1.024 ms. The information to be stored may be considered to be a sequence of 1024 ‘digits’ (0 or 1) … These digits will be represented by a corresponding sequence of pulses. The digit 0 … will be represented by the absence of a pulse at the appropriate time, the digit 1 … by its presence. This series of pulses is impressed on the end of the line by one piezo-crystal, it is transmitted down the line in the form of supersonic waves, and is reconverted into a varying voltage by the crystal at the far end. This voltage is amplified sufficiently to give an output of the order of 10 volts peak to peak and is used to gate a standard pulse generated by the clock. This pulse may be again fed into the line by means of the transmitting crystal, or we may feed in some altogether different signal. We also have the possibility of leading the gated pulse to some other part of the calculator, if we have need of that information at the time. Making use of the information does not of course preclude keeping it also. (Turing [1945], p. 375)

Mercury delay line memory was used in EDSAC, BINAC, SEAC, Pilot Model ACE, EDVAC, DEUCE, and full-scale ACE (1958). The chief advantage of the delay line as a memory medium was, as Turing put it, that delay lines were "already a going concern" (Turing [1947], p. 380). The fundamental disadvantages of the delay line were that random access is impossible and, moreover, the time taken for an instruction, or number, to emerge from a delay line depends on where in the line it happens to be.

In order to minimize waiting-time, Turing arranged for instructions to be stored not in consecutive positions in the delay line, but in relative positions selected by the programmer in such a way that each instruction would emerge at exactly the time it was required, in so far as this was possible. Each instruction contained a specification of the location of the next. This system subsequently became known as ‘optimum coding’. It was an integral feature of every version of the ACE design. Optimum coding made for difficult and untidy programming, but the advantage in terms of speed was considerable. Thanks to optimum coding, the Pilot Model ACE was able to do a floating point multiplication in 3 milliseconds (Wilkes's EDSAC required 4.5 milliseconds to perform a single fixed point multiplication).

In the Williams tube or electrostatic memory, previously mentioned, a two-dimensional rectangular array of binary digits was stored on the face of a commercially-available cathode ray tube. Access to data was immediate. Williams tube memories were employed in the Manchester series of machines, SWAC, the IAS computer, and the IBM 701, and a modified form of Williams tube in Whirlwind I (until replacement by magnetic core in 1953).

Drum memories, in which data was stored magnetically on the surface of a metal cylinder, were developed on both sides of the Atlantic. The initial idea appears to have been Eckert's. The drum provided reasonably large quantities of medium-speed memory and was used to supplement a high-speed acoustic or electrostatic memory. In 1949, the Manchester computer was successfully equipped with a drum memory; this was constructed by the Manchester engineers on the model of a drum developed by Andrew Booth at Birkbeck College, London.

The final major event in the early history of electronic computation was the development of magnetic core memory. Jay Forrester realised that the hysteresis properties of magnetic core (normally used in transformers) lent themselves to the implementation of a three-dimensional solid array of randomly accessible storage points. In 1949, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he began to investigate this idea empirically. Forrester's early experiments with metallic core soon led him to develop the superior ferrite core memory. Digital Equipment Corporation undertook to build a computer similar to the Whirlwind I as a test vehicle for a ferrite core memory. The Memory Test Computer was completed in 1953. (This computer was used in 1954 for the first simulations of neural networks, by Belmont Farley and Wesley Clark of MIT's Lincoln Laboratory (see Copeland and Proudfoot [1996]).

Once the absolute reliability, relative cheapness, high capacity and permanent life of ferrite core memory became apparent, core soon replaced other forms of high-speed memory. The IBM 704 and 705 computers (announced in May and October 1954, respectively) brought core memory into wide use.

Works Cited

Babbage, C. (ed. by Campbell-Kelly, M.), 1994, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher , New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press
Bennett, S., 1976, ‘F.C. Williams: his contribution to the development of automatic control’, National Archive for the History of Computing, University of Manchester, England. (This is a typescript based on interviews with Williams in 1976.)
Bowker, G., and Giordano, R., 1993, ‘Interview with Tom Kilburn’, Annals of the History of Computing , 15 : 17–32.
Copeland, B.J. (ed.), 2004, The Essential Turing Oxford University Press
Copeland, B.J. (ed.), 2005, Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine: The Master Codebreaker's Struggle to Build the Modern Computer Oxford University Press
Copeland, B.J. and others, 2006, Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers Oxford University Press
Copeland, B.J., and Proudfoot, D., 1996, ‘On Alan Turing's Anticipation of Connectionism’ Synthese , 108 : 361–377
Evans, C., 197?, interview with M.H.A. Newman in ‘The Pioneers of Computing: an Oral History of Computing’, London: Science Museum
Fifer, S., 1961, Analog Computation: Theory, Techniques, Applications New York: McGraw-Hill
Ford, H., 1919, ‘Mechanical Movement’, Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office , October 7, 1919: 48
Goldstine, H., 1972, The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann Princeton University Press
Huskey, H.D., 1947, ‘The State of the Art in Electronic Digital Computing in Britain and the United States’, in [Copeland 2005]
Newman, M.H.A., 1948, ‘General Principles of the Design of All-Purpose Computing Machines’ Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , series A, 195 (1948): 271–274
Randell, B., 1972, ‘On Alan Turing and the Origins of Digital Computers’, in Meltzer, B., Michie, D. (eds), Machine Intelligence 7 , Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1972
Smith, B.C., 1991, ‘The Owl and the Electric Encyclopaedia’, Artificial Intelligence , 47 : 251–288
Thomson, J., 1876, ‘On an Integrating Machine Having a New Kinematic Principle’ Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , 24 : 262–5
Turing, A.M., 1936, ‘On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem’ Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society , Series 2, 42 (1936–37): 230–265. Reprinted in The Essential Turing (Copeland [2004]).
Turing, A.M, 1945, ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’, in Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine (Copeland [2005])
Turing, A.M., 1947, ‘Lecture on the Automatic Computing Engine’, in The Essential Turing (Copeland [2004])
Turing, A.M., and Wilkinson, J.H., 1946–7, ‘The Turing-Wilkinson Lecture Series (1946-7)’, in Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine (Copeland [2005])
von Neumann, J., 1945, ‘First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC’, in Stern, N. From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers Bedford, Mass.: Digital Press (1981), pp. 181–246
Williams, F.C., 1975, ‘Early Computers at Manchester University’ The Radio and Electronic Engineer , 45 (1975): 237–331
Wynn-Williams, C.E., 1932, ‘A Thyratron "Scale of Two" Automatic Counter’ Proceedings of the Royal Society of London , series A, 136 : 312–324

Support SEP

Mirror sites.

View this site from another server:

Info about mirror sites

Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Essay on Computer and its Uses for School Students and Children

500+ words essay on computer.

In this essay on computer, we are going to discuss some useful things about computers. The modern-day computer has become an important part of our daily life. Also, their usage has increased much fold during the last decade. Nowadays, they use the computer in every office whether private or government. Mankind is using computers for over many decades now. Also, they are used in many fields like agriculture, designing, machinery making, defense and many more. Above all, they have revolutionized the whole world.

History of Computers

It is very difficult to find the exact origin of computers. But according to some experts computer exists at the time of world war-II. Also, at that time they were used for keeping data. But, it was for only government use and not for public use. Above all, in the beginning, the computer was a very large and heavy machine.

Working of a Computer

The computer runs on a three-step cycle namely input, process, and output. Also, the computer follows this cycle in every process it was asked to do. In simple words, the process can be explained in this way. The data which we feed into the computer is input, the work CPU do is process and the result which the computer give is output.

Components and Types of Computer

The simple computer basically consists of CPU, monitor, mouse, and keyboard . Also, there are hundreds of other computer parts that can be attached to it. These other parts include a printer, laser pen, scanner , etc.

The computer is categorized into many different types like supercomputers, mainframes, personal computers (desktop), PDAs, laptop, etc. The mobile phone is also a type of computer because it fulfills all the criteria of being a computer.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Uses of Computer in Various Fields

As the usage of computer increased it became a necessity for almost every field to use computers for their operations. Also, they have made working and sorting things easier. Below we are mentioning some of the important fields that use a computer in their daily operation.

Medical Field

They use computers to diagnose diseases, run tests and for finding the cure for deadly diseases . Also, they are able to find a cure for many diseases because of computers.

Whether it’s scientific research, space research or any social research computers help in all of them. Also, due to them, we are able to keep a check on the environment , space, and society. Space research helped us to explore the galaxies. While scientific research has helped us to locate resources and various other useful resources from the earth.

For any country, his defence is most important for the safety and security of its people. Also, computer in this field helps the country’s security agencies to detect a threat which can be harmful in the future. Above all the defense industry use them to keep surveillance on our enemy.

Threats from a Computer

Computers have become a necessity also, they have become a threat too. This is due to hackers who steal your private data and leak them on internet. Also, anyone can access this data. Apart from that, there are other threats like viruses, spams, bug and many other problems.

The computer is a very important machine that has become a useful part of our life. Also, the computers have twin-faces on one side it’s a boon and on the other side, it’s a bane. Its uses completely depend upon you. Apart from that, a day in the future will come when human civilization won’t be able to survive without computers as we depend on them too much. Till now it is a great discovery of mankind that has helped in saving thousands and millions of lives.

Frequently Asked Questions on Computer

Q.1 What is a computer?

A.1 A computer is an electronic device or machine that makes our work easier. Also, they help us in many ways.

Q.2 Mention various fields where computers are used?

A.2 Computers are majorly used in defense, medicine, and for research purposes.

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Which class are you in.

Travelling Essay
Picnic Essay
Our Country Essay
My Parents Essay
Essay on Favourite Personality
Essay on Memorable Day of My Life
Essay on Knowledge is Power
Essay on Gurpurab
Essay on My Favourite Season
Essay on Types of Sports

Download the App

Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments Essay

To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
As a template for you assignment

Evolution of Computers and their Technology

Uses of computers, advantages of computers and their technology, disadvantages of computers and computer technology, trends in computer technology, works cited.

The development of computer technology is characterized by the change in the technology used in building the devices. The evolution of computer technology is divided into several generations, from mechanical devices, followed by analog devices, to the recent digital computers that now dominate the world. This paper examines the evolution of computers and their technology, their use in the early and modern periods, their merits and demerits, and future developments.

Mechanical Age (1800s -1920s)

The development of the computer characterized this period to facilitate mathematical calculations that could not be done manually by individuals. The first notable computing device was the “analytical engine” designed by Charles Babbage in 1834, which used electromechanical relays to function (Zakari 1). The mechanical era saw improvements made to the first design by Babbage until the first generation era.

First Generation (the 1930s-1950s)

The first generation era is characterized by the development of three electronic computers that used vacuum tubes, unlike the previous devices that used electromechanical relays to perform their tasks (Enzo 4). In this period, the machines were capable of storing data in the form of instructions written manually by the programmers and installed into the device (Zakari 1). The devices developed in this period were primarily used in applied science and engineering to facilitate solving evaluations.

Second Generation (Mid-1950s-Early 1960s)

The second-generation period saw the development of many design areas; there was development in the technology used and the programming language used to write the commands. Unlike in the previous generations, the operations in this era were performed in the hardware (McAfee 141). The period saw the development of the index registers used for numerous operations.

Third Generation (the Early 1960s – Early1970s)

The era saw improvement in the technology used in designing the devices; integrated circuits in computer devices were introduced. The period saw the introduction of the microprogramming technique and the development of the operation system (Zakari, 1). The speed of functioning of the devices designed in this period was faster than in the previous eras, and the computers could perform more functions.

Fourth Generation (The early 1970s – Mid 1980s)

This Generation saw the development in the use of large-scale integration in the computers developed. The size of the microchips was the information for the computers was stored was reduced to allow for data to be stored in the same microchip (Zakari 1). The devices were installed with semiconductors memories to replace the core memories of the previous era. The processors were designed with high speed to allow faster processing speed of operations in the devices (McAfee 141).

Fifth Generation (the Mid 1980s- Early 1990s)

The machines/ devices designed had many processors that worked simultaneously on a single program (Zakari1). The semiconductors in the computers were improved to increase the scale of operation with the development of chips (Enzo 2). In this period, the computer devices developed were capable of performing parallel processing of commands. Which improved their functionality?

Sixth Generation (1990 to Date)

The era is characterized by improvements in all the areas of designing computers. There is a reduction in the size of the devices developed with increased portability of the machines. The era has seen the development of computers to interact more with people and facilitate human functions in society, with an increase in connection due to improved network development linking computers (Zachari 1).

The early computers were mainly used to accomplish mathematical functions in applied science and engineering. These machines were primarily used to solve mathematical calculation problems (Zakari 1). The second-generation devices improved on their functionality and were capable of processing information stored in them by the programmer (Zakari 1). Today, individuals use computers to perform various functions, including facilitating communication, storing data, and processing information for individuals. The use of computer technology is now in every section of the world; people in different areas are using computers to perform numerous functions (McAfee 141). The technology is directly applied in agriculture, health and medicine, education and transport, communication, and other regions.

Computer technology has enabled the development of devices like mobile phones that are easy to use and effective, allowing individuals to keep in contact with one another even when at different locations (Golosova and Romanovs 3). Computer technology has improved manufacturing; producing goods is now better and more efficient due to the development of technology that enhances individuals’ performance. Computer technology enhances the development of better healthcare operations by facilitating functions in health. Computer technology also enhances learning as individuals can get the required learning material (Golosova and Romanovs 6). Computers and computer technology improve teacher-student interaction during education by providing a medium that can facilitate lessons.

Computers are hazardous to human health; when used excessively, individuals suffer from health issues like eye problems resulting from extreme exposure to the screen light. Also, sitting for an extended period affects an individual’s health (Golosova and Romanovs 14). Computers and computer technology are artificial, making them susceptible to human manipulation; humans are exposed to risks from those that can harm them by manipulating information (Suma 133). Computers also impact the environment negatively due to the carbon footprint left in the environment when they become obsolete because people can no longer use them.

There is an expected increase in the use of artificial intelligence among people with increased developments in computers and their technology (McAfee 141). Computer technology is expected to increase the automation of processes and functci0ons previously done by humans in society. Computer technology is expected to increase the virtual reality and augmented reality among individuals in society to improve the human experience.

Enzo, Albert, Charles O. Connors, and Walter Curtis. “The Evolution of Computer Science.” Computer Science, Murdoch University, Australia. Web.

McAfee, Andrew. “Mastering the Three Worlds of Information Technology.” Harvard Business Review. vol. 84, no. 11, 2006, p. 141. Web.

Suma. V. “Computer Vision for Humans-machines Interaction-review.” Journal of Trends in Computer Science and Smart Technology ( TCSST ), vol. 1, no. 2, 2019, pp. 131-139. Web.

Golosova, Julija, and Andrejs Romanovs. “The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Blockchain Technology.” 2018 IEEE 6th Workshop on Advances in Information, Electronic and Electrical Engineering (AIEEE) . Web.

Zakari, Ishaq “History of Computers and its Generations.” Umaru Musa Yar’adua University, Katsina State (2019). Web.

How Computer Works?
Threats Facing Microsoft Products and ISA Server Security Settings
Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Buildings & Their Components
Personal Computer Evolution Overview
Computer Evolution, Its Future and Societal Impact
The Essence of Niche Networking
VMware Server Virtualization Solution
Google Technologies That Are Currently Developing
Creating a Database in Microsoft Access
Computer Network: Data Flow and Protocol Layering
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2022, August 13). Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments. https://ivypanda.com/essays/computer-technology-evolution-and-developments/

"Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments." IvyPanda , 13 Aug. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/computer-technology-evolution-and-developments/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments'. 13 August.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments." August 13, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/computer-technology-evolution-and-developments/.

1. IvyPanda . "Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments." August 13, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/computer-technology-evolution-and-developments/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments." August 13, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/computer-technology-evolution-and-developments/.

The history of computing is both evolution and revolution

Head, Department of Computing & Information Systems, The University of Melbourne

Disclosure statement

Justin Zobel does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of Melbourne provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation AU.

View all partners

This month marks the 60th anniversary of the first computer in an Australian university. The University of Melbourne took possession of the machine from CSIRO and on June 14, 1956, the recommissioned CSIRAC was formally switched on. Six decades on, our series Computing turns 60 looks at how things have changed.

It is a truism that computing continues to change our world. It shapes how objects are designed, what information we receive, how and where we work, and who we meet and do business with. And computing changes our understanding of the world around us and the universe beyond.

For example, while computers were initially used in weather forecasting as no more than an efficient way to assemble observations and do calculations, today our understanding of weather is almost entirely mediated by computational models.

Another example is biology. Where once research was done entirely in the lab (or in the wild) and then captured in a model, it often now begins in a predictive model, which then determines what might be explored in the real world.

The transformation that is due to computation is often described as digital disruption . But an aspect of this transformation that can easily be overlooked is that computing has been disrupting itself.

Evolution and revolution

Each wave of new computational technology has tended to lead to new kinds of systems, new ways of creating tools, new forms of data, and so on, which have often overturned their predecessors. What has seemed to be evolution is, in some ways, a series of revolutions.

But the development of computing technologies is more than a chain of innovation – a process that’s been a hallmark of the physical technologies that shape our world.

For example, there is a chain of inspiration from waterwheel, to steam engine, to internal combustion engine. Underlying this is a process of enablement. The industry of steam engine construction yielded the skills, materials and tools used in construction of the first internal combustion engines.

In computing, something richer is happening where new technologies emerge, not only by replacing predecessors, but also by enveloping them. Computing is creating platforms on which it reinvents itself, reaching up to the next platform.

Getting connected

Arguably, the most dramatic of these innovations is the web. During the 1970s and 1980s, there were independent advances in the availability of cheap, fast computing, of affordable disk storage and of networking.

Compute and storage were taken up in personal computers, which at that stage were standalone, used almost entirely for gaming and word processing. At the same time, networking technologies became pervasive in university computer science departments, where they enabled, for the first time, the collaborative development of software.

This was the emergence of a culture of open-source development, in which widely spread communities not only used common operating systems, programming languages and tools, but collaboratively contributed to them.

As networks spread, tools developed in one place could be rapidly promoted, shared and deployed elsewhere. This dramatically changed the notion of software ownership, of how software was designed and created, and of who controlled the environments we use.

The networks themselves became more uniform and interlinked, creating the global internet, a digital traffic infrastructure. Increases in computing power meant there was spare capacity for providing services remotely.

The falling cost of disk meant that system administrators could set aside storage to host repositories that could be accessed globally. The internet was thus used not just for email and chat forums (known then as news groups) but, increasingly, as an exchange mechanism for data and code.

This was in strong contrast to the systems used in business at that time, which were customised, isolated, and rigid.

With hindsight, the confluence of networking, compute and storage at the start of the 1990s, coupled with the open-source culture of sharing, seems almost miraculous. An environment ready for something remarkable, but without even a hint of what that thing might be.

The ‘superhighway’

It was to enhance this environment that then US Vice President Al Gore proposed in 1992 the “ information superhighway ”, before any major commercial or social uses of the internet had appeared.

Meanwhile, in 1990, researchers at CERN, including Tim Berners-Lee , created a system for storing documents and publishing them to the internet, which they called the world wide web .

As knowledge of this system spread on the internet (transmitted by the new model of open-source software systems), people began using it via increasingly sophisticated browsers. They also began to write documents specifically for online publication – that is, web pages.

As web pages became interactive and resources moved online, the web became a platform that has transformed society. But it also transformed computing.

With the emergence of the web came the decline of the importance of the standalone computer, dependent on local storage.

We all connect

The value of these systems is due to another confluence: the arrival on the web of vast numbers of users. For example, without behaviours to learn from, search engines would not work well, so human actions have become part of the system.

There are (contentious) narratives of ever-improving technology, but also an entirely unarguable narrative of computing itself being transformed by becoming so deeply embedded in our daily lives.

This is, in many ways, the essence of big data. Computing is being fed by human data streams: traffic data, airline trips, banking transactions, social media and so on.

The challenges of the discipline have been dramatically changed by this data, and also by the fact that the products of the data (such as traffic control and targeted marketing) have immediate impacts on people.

Software that runs robustly on a single computer is very different from that with a high degree of rapid interaction with the human world, giving rise to needs for new kinds of technologies and experts, in ways not evenly remotely anticipated by the researchers who created the technologies that led to this transformation.

Decisions that were once made by hand-coded algorithms are now made entirely by learning from data. Whole fields of study may become obsolete.

The discipline does indeed disrupt itself. And as the next wave of technology arrives (immersive environments? digital implants? aware homes?), it will happen again.

Computer science
Computing turns 60

OzGrav Postdoctoral Research Fellow

Student Administration Officer

Casual Facilitator: GERRIC Student Programs - Arts, Design and Architecture

Senior Lecturer, Digital Advertising

Manager, Centre Policy and Translation

Talk to our experts

1800-120-456-456

Essay on Computer

Long and Short Computer Essay

The term computer was once used to refer to a person who did computation, unlike today. The development of early prototypes that led to the modern computer is credited to many individuals throughout history. A series of breakthroughs, beginning with transistor computers and then integrated circuit computers, resulted in the development of transistor technology and the integrated circuit chip, causing digital computers to largely replace analogue computers.

In this essay, we will discuss the various components and types of computers and talk about their uses in various fields.

Long Computer Essay in English

A computer is an electronic tool that manipulates data or information. It can store, retrieve, and process information. We can type documents, send emails, play games, and browse the Web using a computer. It can also be used to edit spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos, or create them.

Early computers were conceived only as devices for calculating. Simple manual devices such as the abacus have helped individuals do calculations since ancient times. Some mechanical devices were built early in the Industrial Revolution to automate long, tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. In the early 20th century, more sophisticated electrical machines performed specialized analogue calculations.

Common Components of Computers

All those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects are covered under the term hardware. The hardware includes circuits, computer chips, graphics cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboards, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices.

There are five main hardware components:

Input Devices:

These are devices that are used to enter data/information in the central processing unit. Example- keyboard, mouse, scanner, document reader, barcode reader, optical character reader, magnetic reader etc.

Output Devices:

These are devices that provide the processed data/information into human-readable form. Example- monitor, printer, speaker, projector etc.

Control Unit:

The control unit handles the various components of the computer; it reads and interprets (decodes) the instructions for the program, transforming them into control signals that activate other computer parts.

Arithmetic Logic Unit:

It is capable of performing arithmetical and logical functions. The set of arithmetic operations supported by a specific ALU may be restricted to addition and subtraction or may include functions of multiplication, division, trigonometries such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots.

Central Processing Unit:

The ALU, control unit and registers and together called the CPU. It is sometimes called the computer's brain, and its job is to perform commands. We send instructions to the CPU whenever we press a key, click the mouse, or start an application.

Software refers to computer parts, such as programs, data, protocols, etc., that do not have a material form. In contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built, the software is that portion of a computer system consisting of encoded information or computer instructions.

It is sometimes called "firmware" when the software is stored in hardware that can not be easily modified, such as with a BIOS ROM on an IBM PC compatible computer.

Computer hardware and software require each other, and neither of them can be realistically used on their own. There are four main components of a general-purpose computer: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the I/O (collectively called input and output) devices.

Uses of Computer

Computers are used in various fields, such as homes, businesses, government offices, research organizations, educational institutions, medicine, entertainment, etc. because of their features and powerful functions. They have taken sectors and companies to a whole new level.

Science-

Computers are best suited for the collection, analysis, categorization, and storage of data in science, research and engineering. They also help scientists to exchange data both internally and internationally with each other.

Government-

Computers in the government sector are used to perform various functions and improve their services. In most cases, data processing tasks, the maintenance of citizens' databases, and the promotion of a paperless environment are the primary purposes of using computers. In addition to this, computers play a key role in the country's defence system.

Health and Medicine-

They are used to preserve information, records, live patient monitoring, X-rays, and more from patients. Computers assist in setting up laboratory tools, monitoring heart rate and blood pressure, etc. Besides, computers allow physicians to easily exchange patient data with other medical specialists.

Education-

They help people get different educational materials (such as images, videos, e-books, etc.) in one place. Also, computers are best suited for online classes, online tutoring, online exams, and task and project creation. Also, they can be used to maintain and track student performance and other data.

Banking-

Most countries use online banking systems so that customers can access their data directly. People can verify the balance of their account, transfer cash, and pay online bills, including credit cards. Besides, banks use computers to execute transactions and store client information, transaction records, etc.

Short Computer Essay in English

A computer's a programmable device that accepts raw data(input) and processes it as output with a group of instructions (a program) to supply the result. It renders output after performing mathematical and logical operations and can save the output for future use. The word "computer" derives from the word "computare" in Latin, which means calculating.

Types of Computer

Computers are of different types based on different criteria. Based on their size, computers are of five types:

Micro Computers-

It is a single-user computer that has less capacity for speed and storage than the other types. For a CPU, it uses a microprocessor. Laptops, desktop computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), tablets, and smartphones are common examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers are generally designed and built for general use, such as browsing, information search, the internet, MS Office, social media, etc.

Mini Computers-

Minicomputers are also referred to as "Midrange Computers." They are multi-user computers designed to simultaneously support multiple users. Therefore, they are generally used by small companies and firms.

Mainframe Computers-

It is also a multi-user computer that large companies and government organizations use to run their business operations as large amounts of data can be stored and processed. Banks, universities, and insurance companies, for example, use mainframe computers to store data from their customers, students, and policyholders.

Super Computer-

Among all types of computers, supercomputers are the fastest and most costly computers. They have an enormous capacity for storage and computing speeds and can therefore perform millions of instructions per second.

Workstations-

It is a single-user computer with a comparatively more powerful microprocessor and a high-quality monitor compared to a mini-computer.

Benefits of Computers:

It increases productivity.

It helps in connecting to the internet.

It helps in organizing data and information.

It allows storing large amounts of data.

Fun Facts About Computers

The first electric computer that was invented weighed around 27 tons or even more than that and took up to 1800 square feet.

There are about 5000 new viruses that are released every month.

The original name of Windows was Interface Manager.

It is surely known that the life of humans would not have been so easy if computers were not a part of human life. This is also supported by a lot of pieces of evidence where we can even see in daily life how the computer is not just present in an organization but is also available right in the pockets of everyone. Thus, the computer has surely made it easy while also spoiling a lot of people's lives.

FAQs on Essay on Computer

1. What are the disadvantages of computers?

While the computer has surely made life easier, it also has a lot of disadvantages. The disadvantages of the computers can be provided as follows:

People spend too much time sitting and doing nothing but watching the content on computers.

People staring at computers for a long time also tend to strain their eyes, and as a result, they need spectacles to understand what is being written in front of them.

Attention span is decreasing with an increase in the use of computers.

With computers being AI-powered, it is now easier for people to do all the tasks on a computer and not work on it themselves. This has made a lot of people lazy.

2. What is the process of working on a computer?

A computer is an electronic machine and it needs information to be added in as raw data to function well. It has a flow that determines the accessing of data. The following steps take place before the results are obtained:

Information is taken in by the computer in the form of raw data. This process is also called the input.

Then the information that is not needed will be stored while the information that is needed is passed onto the next step. The storing of data is called memory.

Then the information that is required is crushed or it is split and this process is called processing.

The last step is where the results are obtained. This process is called getting the output.

Essay on Computer

500+ words essay on computer.

A computer is an electronic device that performs complex calculations. It is a wonderful product of modern technology. Nowadays, computers have become a significant part of our life. Whether it is in the sector of education or health, computers are used everywhere. Our progress is entirely dependent on computers powered by the latest technology. This ‘Essay on Computer’ also covers the history of computers as well as their uses in different sectors. By going through the ‘Computer’ Essay in English, students will get an idea of writing a good Essay on Computers. After practising this essay, they will be able to write essays on other topics related to computers, such as the ‘Uses of Computer’ Essay.

The invention of the computer has made our lives easier. The device is used for many purposes, such as securing information, messages, data processing, software programming, calculations, etc. A desktop computer has a CPU, UPS, monitor, keyboard, and mouse to work. A laptop is a modern form of computer in which all the components are inbuilt into a single device. Earlier, computers were not so fast and powerful. After thorough and meticulous research and work by various scientists, modern-day computers have come up.

History of Computers

The history of computer development is often used to reference the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of computers is characterised by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers work. Most of the major developments from the 1940s to the present day have resulted in increasingly smaller, more powerful, faster, cheaper and more efficient computing devices.

The evolution of computer technology is often divided into five generations. These five generations of computers are as follows:

Uses of Computers

Computers are used in various fields. Some of the applications are

1. Business

A computer can perform a high-speed calculation more efficiently and accurately, due to which it is used in all business organisations. In business, computers are used for:

Payroll calculations
Sales analysis
Maintenance of stocks
Managing employee databases

2. Education

Computers are very useful in the education system. Especially now, during the COVID time, online education has become the need of the hour. There are miscellaneous ways through which an institution can use computers to educate students.

3. Health Care

Computers have become an important part of hospitals, labs and dispensaries. They are used for the scanning and diagnosis of different diseases. Computerised machines do scans, which include ECG, EEG, ultrasound and CT Scan, etc. Moreover, they are used in hospitals to keep records of patients and medicines.

Computers are largely used in defence. The military employs computerised control systems, modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. It uses computers for communication, operation and planning, smart weapons, etc.

5. Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields are:

Computation of male/female ratio
Computerisation of PAN card
Income Tax Department
Weather forecasting
Computerisation of voters’ lists
Sales Tax Department

6. Communication

Communication is a way to convey an idea, a message, a picture, a speech or any form of text, audio or video clip. Computers are capable of doing so. Through computers, we can send an email, chat with each other, do video conferencing, etc.

Nowadays, to a large extent, banking is dependent on computers. Banks provide an online accounting facility, which includes checking current balances, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, trustee records, etc. The ATM machines, which are fully automated, use computers, making it easier for customers to deal with banking transactions.

8. Marketing

In marketing, computers are mainly used for advertising and home shopping.

Similarly, there are various other applications of computers in other fields, such as insurance, engineering, design, etc.

Students can practise more essays on different topics to improve their writing skills. Keep learning and stay tuned with BYJU’S for the latest update on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams. Also, download the BYJU’S App for interactive study videos.

Frequently asked Questions on Computer Essay

How has the invention of the computer been useful to students.

Easy and ready access to information has been possible (internet) with the invention of the computer.

How to start writing an essay on a computer?

Before writing an essay, first plan the topics, sub-topics and main points which are going to be included in the body of the essay. Then, structure the content accordingly and check for information and examples.

How to use the computer to browse for information on essays?

Various search engines are available, like Google, where plenty of information can be obtained regarding essays and essay structures.

CBSE Related Links

Register with BYJU'S & Download Free PDFs

Your Article Library

Computers: essay on the importance of computer in the modern society.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Read this comprehensive essay on the Importance of Computer in the Modern Society !

As the world progresses on in this never ending chase for a time and wealth, it is undeniable that science has made astounding developments.

Image Courtesy : upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb//05.jpg

As the 21st century looms ahead, it is clear to see that it has advancements that humanity may never have dreamed of and one of these shining developments is the well-recognized computer. Having the Latin meaning of ‘computing’ or ‘reckoning’ the computer is an invention that was called the ‘MAN OF THE YEAR’ in a survey carried out by an international magazine.

The computer system is not a simple machine. It is like a very modern and highly complex calculator. It can do all the functions at a speedy rate and also helps us to search and progress in our homes and businesses. A computer can therefore be called a calculator with a twist for not only does it perform fast calculations, but it also has other special characteristics. The computer has thoroughly changed the way we witness things, with its special auto correcting tools, which work with all languages, all logic and all subjects.

There was a time when computers were only heard of as a luxury. However today they are an unavoidable part of success and development. No longer are they owned only through theft and by the filthy rich, in fact computers are and will in the coming days and months be used to accomplish the brilliant goals of success and unparalleled development. For example, in India, the accurate knowledge and use of computers will bring change in a big and astonishing way. It will lead to the demolition of illiteracy, and lead to optimism, efficiency, productivity and high quality.

Even now in our day to day lives, computers have been allotted an integral role to play. They can be seen being used not only at the office or at home, but in all kinds of sectors and businesses. They are used at airports, restaurants, railway stations, banks etc. slowly and gradually, as computers are penetrating through the modern society, people are getting more and more optimistic about the promises its invention made. They are also used in the government sectors, businesses and industry, and through witnessing the rapid progress of the computer; mankind slowly sees the lights it has brought along.

One of the best things about the computer is the fact that it can help us to save so much of manual power, cost, and time. By the use of a computer, tasks can be done automatically and that will lead to saving the countless hours that may otherwise have been spent on doing the job manually.

Computers also ensure more accuracy. Examples of such cases include ticket booking, payment of bills, insurance and shopping. Interestingly, automatic operations of vehicles, like trains also help to ensure further safety and reliability of the journey. Computers can be used to observe and predict traffic patterns which would be a grand benefit to all and would save the hassle of getting stuck for hours in the roadblocks and traffics.

Computers can also drastically change the way agricultural tasks and businesses are carried out all over the world. With regard to agriculture, computers are being used to find out the best possible kinds of soil, plants and to check which match of these would result in the perfect crops. Use of computers thus in this sector along with the use of better agricultural practices and products in several countries, like India, could help the agricultural industry reach soaring heights, directly assuring the welfare of the economy.

It is also wonderful to see that the invention of this unbelievable machine has brought a ray of hope in the darkness of the sick citizens’ world. Computers are very capable of bringing along a medical revolution. Where in health sectors computers are being used for research regarding blood groups, medical histories, etc. and helping to improve medicine in a big way. The knowledge that computers are providing in this field may lead to better use and purchase of medicinal drugs and ensure better health. This also leads to a better diagnosing pattern and makes health care faster and more efficiently.

Although computers are bringing the evolution of technology and changing the way lives are lived, it cannot be denied that there are areas where the impacts of the computer system are not fully recognized yet. For instance if we take the education sector, the literacy rates have not been improved by computers the way other sectors have seemed to have gotten better over night.

The fact remains that 64% of our population remains to date illiterate, and it will be a revolutionary act if computers were made the full use of and worked with to spread educational awareness, in all areas, especially the underprivileged sector. They can be used to plan out lessons, and lessons can be taught on the computers too, the benefit of the prospect lying in the fact that computers excel at lots of different things altogether, which means they can be used to teach not only limited subjects but be used to spread education with reference to all kinds, including text, numbers and graphics.

Perhaps one may think the horrendous thought that computers may take the teacher’s place in the classroom, but we must look at the prospect with the brighter side. No longer will the teacher remain a person who only fits data into a pupil’s mind; and once again become that one supreme authority who inculcates both philosophical and spiritual education amongst his or her students, rising in esteem and role play.

The advantage of computers can also be seen in the fact that they might just be able to improve administration through the world. By providing daily accurate information to the administration departments, computers may change the way decisions are taken across the globe.Keeping all the above mentioned things in mind, we must accept that if used the right way, computers are a gift of science to mankind.

Computers: Essay on Computers (992 Words)
Personal Computers: Important Features of Modern Operating System for Personal Computers

No comments yet.

Leave a reply click here to cancel reply..

You must be logged in to post a comment.

Computer – A Great Invention of Modern Age – An Essay

Role of Computer in Modern Life/ A Great Invention Called Computer – A Short Essay

My interaction with you has become possible just because of a computer . Undoubtedly, computers are the one of the most important inventions of today’s life. Computer is called the best brain of the world.

That’s why the intelligent people are likened with the computers. Look at some of the phrases – He is as intelligent as a computer. Are you a computer ? and so on.

What is a computer ?

It’s an electronic device that helps in many works such as doing calculations, programming, storing date and so on. For various purposes, it has been moulded variously.In medical field, we have CT Scan, MRI Machines etc. It is linked with the Aeroplanes and Trains for GPS purposes. So it’s functions are unlimited.

Check Various functions done by a Computer –

Computer is machine that has capacity of doing work of around 8-10 people . This machine is used in various sectors to enhance the speed and efficiency at the work place. It has brought revolution in various fields such as banking sector, educational institutions, medical lines, aviation sector etc.

In the banking sector, computer has done a tremendous work. The invention of Internet has increased the importance of computer. All types of money transactions can be done on computer. Online banking is one of the latest facilities.

Computer – An Essay

In the same way, Railway Stations, Air Ports and other important organizations have been computerized. In schools and colleges, the libraries have been attached with computers. Due to computers, it has become very easy to manage any big organization.

There are many programmes on computers which have made the life easier at the work place. Such programmes are MS Office, MS Word, Word Power, Excel besides many computer languages.

As we have told you earlier, it attached with internet, it becomes a wonderful machine. You can watch movies, listen to songs, check results and so on. Laptops are the latest version of the computers. Computers are being updated as per the requirement of the people and age.

There are people who criticize the excessive use of computers. They claim that excessive use of computers has rendered millions of people jobless all over the world.

Another claim is that computers have made the people lazy and mentally and physically sick.

So computer is a boon for the modern world. But if it is misused it becomes bane as well.

Read other important articles from here.

Join the Discussion Cancel reply

Skip to main content
Skip to secondary menu
Skip to primary sidebar
Skip to footer

A Plus Topper

Improve your Grades

Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives Essay | Essay on Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives for Students and Children in English

March 22, 2023 by Prasanna

Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives Essay – Given below is a Long and Short Essay on Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives of competitive exams, kids and students belonging to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. The Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives essay 100, 150, 200, 250 words in English helps the students with their class assignments, comprehension tasks, and even for competitive examinations.

You can also find more Essay Writing articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long Essay on Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives 500 Words for Kids and Students in English

Computer is perhaps the most controversial inventions of the 20th century. Ever since Bill Gates made it a household name, people have been debating over its merits and demerits. Most students would agree that the computer is the greatest invention on earth because it has opened up a vast store of easily available information for them. At a click of the mouse they get to learn all the things that help them to keep abreast with today’s fast moving world. However, for each positive aspect of the computer there is an equal or more negative counter points.

Gone are the days of vigorous handwriting practice. The computer has come as a blessing for students who can now submit their assignments in neat and legible sheets. They can loop up any information to put together their projects and use various software applications to present them in an impressive manner. Coloured graphs and diagrams can be inserted, there is very little scope of spelling errors and even grammatical mistakes are done away with.

Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives Essay

Knowledge increases with its spread and anyone who wants to spread his thoughts and knowledge can put it on the internet. It is available to the world and research students no longer need to labor through piles and piles of manuscripts. Universities can be contacted, websites can be consulted and even queries are answered through the internet . All this saves them a lot of time, labour, as well as money. For those who want to discuss, there are numerous e-forums and conferences that they can log onto. They can always indulge In a healthy interaction with other literary enthusiasts.

As computers become increasingly pervasive into our lives, an increasing number of people are facing problems on the domestic front because of computers and the internet. Individuals are spending hours on end chatting or surfing on the net, but they do not have time for the other members in the family. Each one is becoming less communicative and more dependent on the computer. Children, especially of the advanced and more developed countries are known to spend 20 hours a week playing computer games.

Alternately, computers are helping to build up a global family instead of narrow groups based on community and caste. The different groups that can be found on social networks are witness to the growing popularity on ‘international communities’. In a very short time people can be brought together, to protest against some wrong, to fight for some right or garner support for someone. As people become increasingly aware of what is going on in the world, more and more people are involving themselves in the service of other. There are doctors who can be consulted online, lawyers who clarify legal points and teachers who help students with their assignments. There are net cafes that allow people to play online video games – most of which show a lot of violence and aggressiveness.

Children, who spend a substantial time playing these games, believe that such violence is the accepted behaviour in life too. If on the other hand playing of video games can be restricted and supervised, children can develop better reaction time, visual activity and dexterity. Is it not amazing to know that a child sitting in the US may be playing a game with a child in Japan, or Australia? This international level of activity, excludes a lot of negative prejudices allowing the child to develop into a world citizen. However, the child can very easily get in touch with negative groups also.

Sadly, the advent of computers and the internet has rung the death knell on a lot of habits that are essential for the development of a good character. Reading is one such habit that is fast dying. Be it the daily newspaper or a work of fiction, the practice of group reading is decreasing. Communicative skills are deteriorating and health too is suffering because of the long hours spent sitting in front of the computer. It depends on our wisely making use of a computer to turn it into a boon instead of a bane for us.

Picture Dictionary
English Speech
English Slogans
English Letter Writing
English Essay Writing
English Textbook Answers
Types of Certificates
ICSE Solutions
Selina ICSE Solutions
ML Aggarwal Solutions
HSSLive Plus One
HSSLive Plus Two
Kerala SSLC
Distance Education

Essay on History of Computer

Students are often asked to write an essay on History of Computer in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on History of Computer

Early beginnings.

Computers didn’t always look like the laptops or smartphones we use today. The first computer was the abacus, invented in 2400 BC. It used beads to help people calculate.

First Mechanical Computer

In 1822, Charles Babbage, a British mathematician, designed a mechanical computer called the “Difference Engine.” It was supposed to perform mathematical calculations.

The Birth of Modern Computers

The first modern computer was created in the 1930s. It was huge and filled an entire room. These computers used vacuum tubes to process information.

Personal Computers

In the 1970s, companies like Apple and IBM started making personal computers. This made it possible for people to have computers at home.

Also check:

250 Words Essay on History of Computer

Introduction.

The history of computers is a fascinating journey, tracing back several centuries. It illustrates human ingenuity and evolution from primitive calculators to complex computing systems.

Early Computers

The concept of computing dates back to antiquity. The abacus, developed in 2400 BC, is often considered the earliest computer. In the 19th century, Charles Babbage conceptualized and designed the first mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine, which used punch cards for instructions.

Birth of Modern Computers

The 20th century heralded the era of modern computing. The first programmable computer, the Z3, was built by Konrad Zuse in 1941. However, it was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), developed in 1946, that truly revolutionized computing with its electronic technology.

Personal Computers and the Internet

The 1970s and 1980s saw the advent of personal computers (PCs). The Apple II, introduced in 1977, and IBM’s PC, launched in 1981, brought computers to the masses. The 1990s marked the birth of the internet, transforming computers into communication devices and information gateways.

Present and Future

In summary, the history of computers is a testament to human innovation, evolving from simple counting devices to powerful tools that shape our lives. As we look forward to the future, the potential for further advancements in computing technology is limitless.

500 Words Essay on History of Computer

The dawn of computing.

The history of computers dates back to antiquity with devices like the abacus, used for calculations. However, the concept of a programmable computer was first realized in the 19th century by Charles Babbage, an English mathematician. His design, known as the Analytical Engine, is considered the first general-purpose computer, although it was never built.

During the same period, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was developed by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania. Completed in 1945, it was the first general-purpose electronic computer. However, it was not programmable in the modern sense.

The Era of Transistors

The late 1940s marked the invention of the transistor, which revolutionized the computer industry. Transistors were faster, smaller, and more reliable than their vacuum tube counterparts. The first transistorized computer was built at the University of Manchester in 1953.

Microprocessors and Personal Computers

The invention of the microprocessor in the 1970s marked the beginning of the personal computer era. The Intel 4004, released in 1971, was the first commercially available microprocessor. This development led to the creation of small, relatively inexpensive machines like the Apple II and the IBM PC, which made computing accessible to individuals and small businesses.

The Internet and Beyond

The 1980s and 1990s brought about the rise of the internet and the World Wide Web, expanding the use of computers into every aspect of modern life. The advent of graphical user interfaces, such as Microsoft’s Windows and Apple’s Mac OS, made computers even more user-friendly.

Today, computers have become ubiquitous in our society. They are embedded in everything from our phones to our cars, and they play a critical role in fields ranging from science to entertainment. The history of computers is a story of continuous innovation and progress, and it is clear that this trend will continue into the foreseeable future.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

One Comment

Essay on Importance of Computer in our life, Uses of Computer in various field

Importance of computer in our life | importance of computer in student life and uses of computer in various fields.

By Sathyavathi

Essay on the importance of Computers in our life – Computers have become an inevitable part of human life. We cannot overlook the importance of computers in education with the launch of so many education portals and apps which have made it necessary to use computers in education .

In this essay on the importance of computers in our life , students can get the use of computers in education , uses of computers in different fields like defense, medicine, business, entertainment, communication, and what is the importance of computers in today’s world . We have also compiled the importance of computers in points .

In case you have to write the 5 uses of computers , you can take help from this essay on computers . Also, any question based on the 10 points on the importance of computers can be easily answered once you have read this essay. So, let us check out this helpful essay on the importance of computers .

Related – Essays in English

We live in a world where Alexa plays the music in the living room, and Siri sets the alarm on the phone. Not far is the day when most of us will have robots in our homes, loading the dishwasher and assembling our furniture. We already have drones, and experiments on driverless cars are going on.

Computers are vital in the communication and transportation industries. They control our satellites and traffic signals. Through Big data and analytics, companies make business decisions.

Technologies like Artificial Intelligence , Machine Learning , and IoT (Internet of Things) could bring a sea of changes in our daily lives. A range of industries right from agriculture, textiles to our defense field is highly dependent on computer technology. There does not exist a sector, which is untouched by the magic of computers.

Related – Essay on Terrorism

If we acknowledge that our mobile phones are computers-based, then our life is not imaginable without them. Can we survive without phone calls and text messages?

Our gas bills, bank payments, groceries, meals, clothes, and all basic needs are met via a smartphone. So, let us now look in detail the role of computers in various fields:

Uses of Computers in Education
Uses of Computers in Defence
Uses of Computers in Medicine
Uses of Computers in Businesses
Uses of Computers in Services
Uses of Computers in communication
Uses of Computers in Entertainment
Let us see the main points on the importance of computers

Uses of Computers in Education

Computers, smartphones, and cheap internet data packs have revolutionized the field of education. A data-enabled mobile phone opens the door to vast resources.

Online learning and distance education has changed the fortunes of many. The curiosity to learn and diligent efforts are sufficient to succeed. High-quality, world-class courses are available at affordable rates through MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) from top-notch universities. The software programs are better than print media in presenting the subject to the students.

In this way, they are more interested in learning and take the initiative to know further. It increases the quality of education that people receive. Moreover, computers have vast storage spaces, and the durability of the study material is also high.

In specific fields like architecture and mechanical engineering, there is a paradigm shift in pedagogy. They learn and use software technologies like CAD and CAM (computer-aided design and manufacturing).

Top Uses of Computers in Defence

We know that the word ‘computer’ comes from compute and thus, they were mostly computing devices. The first computer was for the military, and the U.S. Army used it for calculating artillery firing tables.

Today, computers are used in tanks, planes, and ships to target enemy forces. They play a vital role in providing training and simulations to soldiers. They are essential to safeguard the confidential activities of the defense forces.

Top Uses of Computers in Medicine

Modern healthcare would become void without these wonderful machines. The hospitals require computers in all stages of treatment right from diagnosis to surgery. The advanced scans such as MRI and CT (Computerized Axial Tomography) scans help you detect life-threatening conditions.

The entire department of radiology is dependent on these electronic machines. Then we have fitness trackers and ECG bands that could warn you of imminent heart ailments and strokes.

Our doctors perform robotic surgeries by looking at a monitor. We are moving towards a time when we can swallow the computing devices in the form of a pill to get accurate images of the internal organs like the intestines.

Top

Related – Ten tips on writing a good essay

Uses of Computers in Businesses

The business communities are always quick in adapting to the latest technologies. Today, even in small shops, electronic book-keeping and PoS( Point-of-Sale) machines are indispensable. The supermarkets have computerized inventory management systems and barcode readers.

The factories have numerous automated manufacturing processes and software packages for sales, payrolls, and logistics are readily available in the market. Moreover, we have live access to global financial markets round the clock through the internet.

We should also remember that the flourishing E-commerce industry owes its existence to the internet and mobile technologies.

Top Uses of Computers in Services

The data-processing and storage facility has made life more comfortable. Automation of billing, book-keeping, and security services are due to smart devices. The Information Technology sector thrives on the quick, reliable services it provides. The concept of standing in queues for paying the electricity bills and taxes is no more in practice.

Banking is highly sophisticated due to the enhancement of data storage and retrieval technologies. ATMs, digital payments, and cashless transactions are changing the way we deal with money. Security and authentication services also are going through a sea of changes because of biometric identifications.

The use of computers in weather forecasting and disaster prediction and management is beneficial for people. It prevents loss of life and material. It is useful for farmers and tourists.

Related – Essay on Demonetization

Uses of Computers in communication

The way we communicate today is primarily due to the rapid developments in computer and internet technologies. We can control the satellites, traffic signals, locate trains, etc. from remote places. The GPS (Global Positioning System) has a myriad of applications in life.

We use Google Maps to get directions on our way, we can share our lives travel routes with the family, and we can also check the arrival of our food orders through services like zomato and Swiggy.

Instant messages, social media, video conferences, and Skype meetings attribute their existence to advanced communication systems. Emails are not for sending and receiving messages alone; companies use them as marketing tools.

Top Uses of Computers in Entertainment

The entertainment industry has become highly versatile due to advancements in file processing and internet technologies. Live- streaming of videos, downloading music, and advanced video games give recreation facilities at the click of a mouse.

The internet stage has also become an open venue for many amateur artists. It helps the industry people to identify and recognize raw talents. It brings in a kind of transparency in the system. People are more willing to take up music, dance, and acting as mainstream professions.

Related – Essay on Digital India in English

Let us see the main points on the importance of computers-

Online application process – Nowadays, the application process for almost everything – admissions to courses, job recruitments, passport, etc are done through computers. So, everyone needs a computer at one or the other point of time.

Communication – these days all type of important communication is done through emails for which one needs either a computer or a smartphone.

Education – some of the best facilities for education can be availed online at the comfort of sitting at home. Students can download educational apps and enrol for online classes and webinars too.

Defence – Computers are used extensively in defence forces for targeting weapons and finding locations.

Business – E-Commerce has changed the way businesses work. Consumers have adopted the system of buying online. Sellers like Amazon and services like Zomato have made e-commerce a daily thing for us.

Healthcare – the most advanced healthcare facilities like scans and various treatments have been made possible by the latest technologies in computers.

News – People stay updated with the latest news which is provided to us instantly through online resources.

We can see our favorite movies and serials at any time of the day with the help of computers.
Readers can avail e-books and free downloadable editions of their favorite books through online resources.
We can talk to our friends, family, and colleagues located in any part of the world through computers with the help of Skype and Whatsapp.

We can conclude that computers which were simple machines aimed at storing and transferring data are becoming an integral part of our lives. They are not limited to banks or military operations.

These modern machines permeate our home, work, and even entertainment. It has changed the way many industries operate. For example, travelers no longer need guides, the booking process is mostly online, and people are ready to take the path less known.

We want our farmers to become modern and tap the potential of the internet to get weather updates, seed availability, and market prices.

But, these advancements have their flip side too. People tend to have health issues because of long sitting hours, constant staring at the screen, and ensuing lethargy. For youngsters, social media addiction and virtual highs seem to be a complete menace.

It is in our onus that we take the pluses of the computers alone. In the race for catching up with the latest technology that is changing in the blink of the eye, let us not forget our roots.

Essays in English

Essay on My Father in English

Essay on Mahatma Gandhi in English

Essay on Swami Vivekanand in English

Essay on Shaheed Bhagat Singh in English

India’s 15th President Draupadi Murmu, Essay in English

Essay on Cruelty to Animals in English

Essay on Importance of English

Plastic ban – Are we doing enough?

Essay on my family

Essay on My best friend

Essay on Impact of Poverty on Education

Essay on The Wonder Called Science in English

Essay on Mobile Phones in English

Agnipath – A New Recruitment Scheme of Indian Armed Forces

Role of Technology in Education? English Essay

What is Exam Result Anxiety and How to Reduce it

Should Facebook be banned? English Essay

Suicide Among Students Due to Parental Pressure

Should selling and using tobacco be banned? English Essay

Social Media – A cause of Anxiety and Depression

Should Smoking in Public Places be banned? English Essay

Essay on Should children get limited access to the Internet?

Should Education be Free? English Essay

Coronavirus: Coping With Viruses in the 21st Century: Are we ready?

To Zoom or Not to Zoom – Is it Safe for Official meetings in 2020?

Online Education : A Boon or A Curse?

Citizenship Amendment Act – Confusion and Arguments Explained

Merger of Banks in India – What are the advantages and disadvantages?

Essay on why plastic has been banned in India for students

Impact of COVID-19 on the World Economy

The Impact of COVID-19 on Global Education and its Solution

Essay on the importance of Computers in our life

Essay on Importance of Discipline for success in life

Essay on Terrorism

Essay on Skill India Mission

Essay on Renewable Sources of Energy

Essay on Make in India Project

Essay on Haritha Haram Program

Essay on Corruption

Ten tips on writing a good essay

Essay on “My Aim in Life – to become an astronaut”

Essay on the Importance of Education

Essay on Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao

Essay on Importance of sports and games

Essay on Demonetization

Essay on Pollution

Essay on Water conservation

Essay on Global Warming

Essay on Diwali in English

Essay on Holi in English

Essay on Chandrayaan in English

Essay on Women Empowerment in English

Essay on Child labour in English

Essay on Swachh Bharat Mission

Contributions of DRDO in Indian Defence

Raksha Bandhan Wishes in Hindi
Birthday Wishes in Hindi
Anniversary Wishes in Hindi
Father’s Day Quotes and Messages
Father’s Day quotes in Hindi
International Yoga Day Slogans, Quotes and Sayings
अंतर्राष्ट्रीय योग दिवस Slogans, Quotes and Sayings
Good Morning Messages in Hindi
Good Night Messages in Hindi | शुभ रात्रि संदेश
Wedding Wishes in Hindi

Important Days

National Space Day Quiz| National Space Day MCQs
World Soil Day – Date, History, Significance
International Yoga Day Slogans, Quotes and Sayings by Famous people 2024
Calendar MCQ Quiz for Various Competitive Exams
CUET 2024 MCQ Quiz on Important Dates

Essay on rainy season

English Writing Skills

English Grammar Examples

All English Grammar Topics, Exercises, examples, MCQ Tests

Analytical Paragraph Writing | Format, Examples, Samples

Report Writing Format | How to Report Writing Examples, Topics, Samples and Types

Letter to Editor Class 10 to 12, Topics, Sample and Example

Informal Letter Format, Topics, Examples

Article Writing Format, Topics and Examples

Classified advertisement writing examples

Letter to the Principal, Format, Samples

Story Writing , Format, Topics, Examples

Job Application with Biodata, Format, Topics, Examples

Leave Application Format for Office, School and Sample

Leave Application for Marriage, Format, Sample, and Examples

Speech Writing format, examples for Class 11, 12

Invitation writing tips for class 12

Report writing tips for class 12

10 Important Things to DO to score more in Debate writing question

Let us revise Reported Speech in 9 Quick Steps

Job Application Writing Tips for Class 12 English

Tips to ace the question on Analytical Paragraph writing in Class 10

English Grammar

Active and Passive Voice Definition, Rules, Exercise, and Example Sentences

Countable and Uncountable Nouns Meaning, Definition, Difference and Examples

Direct and Indirect Speech, Format, Rules, Exercise, and Examples

Determiners Definition, Types, Exercise and Examples

All About Tenses | Tenses Examples, Types of Tenses in English Grammar

English Vocabulary for Bank PO Exams – Synonyms MCQ Videos

Noun Definition, Types, Exercise with Examples in Hindi and English

What is a Verb? Definition, Types of Verbs, Exercise and Verbs Examples in Hindi and English

What is a Preposition? Definition, Types, Exercise, and Examples in Hindi and English

Subject Verb Agreement Rules and Examples

Modals Definition | Modals Exercise, List of Modals with Examples

Master Tenses in English Grammar – The Easy Way

Essay Service Examples Technology Computer

Essay on the Role of the Computer in Modern Life

Proper editing and formatting
Free revision, title page, and bibliography
Flexible prices and money-back guarantee

Our writers will provide you with an essay sample written from scratch: any topic, any deadline, any instructions.

Cite this paper

Join our 150k of happy users

Get original paper written according to your instructions
Save time for what matters most

Fair Use Policy

EduBirdie considers academic integrity to be the essential part of the learning process and does not support any violation of the academic standards. Should you have any questions regarding our Fair Use Policy or become aware of any violations, please do not hesitate to contact us via [email protected].

We are here 24/7 to write your paper in as fast as 3 hours.

Provide your email, and we'll send you this sample!

By providing your email, you agree to our Terms & Conditions and Privacy Policy .

Say goodbye to copy-pasting!

Get custom-crafted papers for you.

Enter your email, and we'll promptly send you the full essay. No need to copy piece by piece. It's in your inbox!

Try AI-powered search

How AI could change computing, culture and the course of history

Expect changes in the way people access knowledge, relate to knowledge and think about themselves.

Your browser does not support the <audio> element.

A mong the more sombre gifts brought by the Enlightenment was the realisation that humans might one day become extinct. The astronomical revolution of the 17th century had shown that the solar system both operated according to the highest principles of reason and contained comets which might conceivably hit the Earth. The geological record, as interpreted by the Comte de Buffon, showed massive extinctions in which species vanished for ever. That set the scene for Charles Darwin to recognise such extinctions as the motor of evolution, and thus as both the force which had fashioned humans and, by implication, their possible destiny. The nascent science of thermodynamics added a cosmic dimension to the certainty of an ending; Sun, Earth and the whole shebang would eventually run down into a lifeless “heat death”.

The 20th century added the idea that extinction might not come about naturally, but through artifice. The spur for this was the discovery, and later exploitation, of the power locked up in atomic nuclei. Celebrated by some of its discoverers as a way of indefinitely deferring heat death, nuclear energy was soon developed into a far more proximate danger. And the tangible threat of imminent catastrophe which it posed rubbed off on other technologies.

None was more tainted than the computer. It may have been guilt by association: the computer played a vital role in the development of the nuclear arsenal. It may have been foreordained. The Enlightenment belief in rationality as humankind’s highest achievement and Darwin’s theory of evolution made the promise of superhuman rationality the possibility of evolutionary progress at humankind’s expense.

Artificial intelligence has come to loom large in the thought of the small but fascinating, and much written about, coterie of academics which has devoted itself to the consideration of existential risk over the past couple of decades. Indeed, it often appeared to be at the core of their concerns. A world which contained entities which think better and act quicker than humans and their institutions, and which had interests that were not aligned with those of humankind, would be a dangerous place.

It became common for people within and around the field to say that there was a “non-zero” chance of the development of superhuman AI s leading to human extinction. The remarkable boom in the capabilities of large language models ( LLM s), “foundational” models and related forms of “generative” AI has propelled these discussions of existential risk into the public imagination and the inboxes of ministers.

As the special Science section in this issue makes clear, the field’s progress is precipitate and its promise immense. That brings clear and present dangers which need addressing. But in the specific context of GPT-4 , the LLM du jour , and its generative ilk, talk of existential risks seems rather absurd. They produce prose, poetry and code; they generate images, sound and video; they make predictions based on patterns. It is easy to see that those capabilities bring with them a huge capacity for mischief. It is hard to imagine them underpinning “the power to control civilisation”, or to “replace us”, as hyperbolic critics warn.

But the lack of any “Minds that are to our minds as ours are to those of the beasts that perish, intellects vast and cool and unsympathetic [drawing] their plans against us”, to quote H.G. Wells, does not mean that the scale of the changes that AI may bring with it can be ignored or should be minimised. There is much more to life than the avoidance of extinction. A technology need not be world-ending to be world-changing.

The transition into a world filled with computer programs capable of human levels of conversation and language comprehension and superhuman powers of data assimilation and pattern recognition has just begun. The coming of ubiquitous pseudocognition along these lines could be a turning point in history even if the current pace of AI progress slackens (which it might) or fundamental developments have been tapped out (which feels unlikely). It can be expected to have implications not just for how people earn their livings and organise their lives, but also for how they think about their humanity.

For a sense of what may be on the way, consider three possible analogues, or precursors: the browser, the printing press and practice of psychoanalysis. One changed computers and the economy, one changed how people gained access and related to knowledge, and one changed how people understood themselves.

The humble web browser, introduced in the early 1990s as a way to share files across networks, changed the ways in which computers are used, the way in which the computer industry works and the way information is organised. Combined with the ability to link computers into networks, the browser became a window through which first files and then applications could be accessed wherever they might be located. The interface through which a user interacted with an application was separated from the application itself.

The power of the browser was immediately obvious. Fights over how hard users could be pushed towards a particular browser became a matter of high commercial drama. Almost any business with a web address could get funding, no matter what absurdity it promised. When boom turned to bust at the turn of the century there was a predictable backlash. But the fundamental separation of interface and application continued. Amazon, Meta ( née Facebook) and Alphabet ( née Google) rose to giddy heights by making the browser a conduit for goods, information and human connections. Who made the browsers became incidental; their role as a platform became fundamental.

The months since the release of Open AI ’s Chat GPT , a conversational interface now powered by GPT-4 , have seen an entrepreneurial explosion that makes the dotcom boom look sedate. For users, apps based on LLM s and similar software can be ludicrously easy to use; type a prompt and see a result. For developers it is not that much harder. “You can just open your laptop and write a few lines of code that interact with the model,” explains Ben Tossell, a British entrepreneur who publishes a newsletter about AI services.

And the LLM s are increasingly capable of helping with that coding, too. Having been “trained” not just on reams of text, but lots of code, they contain the building blocks of many possible programs; that lets them act as “co-pilots” for coders. Programmers on GitHub, an open-source coding site, are now using a GPT-4 -based co-pilot to produce nearly half their code.

There is no reason why this ability should not eventually allow LLM s to put code together on the fly, explains Kevin Scott, Microsoft’s chief technology officer. The capacity to translate from one language to another includes, in principle and increasingly in practice, the ability to translate from language to code. A prompt written in English can in principle spur the production of a program that fulfils its requirements. Where browsers detached the user interface from the software application, LLM s are likely to dissolve both categories. This could mark a fundamental shift in both the way people use computers and the business models within which they do so.

Every day I write the book

Code-as-a-service sounds like a game-changing plus. A similarly creative approach to accounts of the world is a minus. While browsers mainly provided a window on content and code produced by humans, LLM s generate their content themselves. When doing so they “hallucinate” (or as some prefer “confabulate”) in various ways. Some hallucinations are simply nonsense. Some, such as the incorporation of fictitious misdeeds to biographical sketches of living people, are both plausible and harmful. The hallucinations can be generated by contradictions in training sets and by LLM s being designed to produce coherence rather than truth. They create things which look like things in their training sets; they have no sense of a world beyond the texts and images on which they are trained.

In many applications a tendency to spout plausible lies is a bug. For some it may prove a feature. Deep fakes and fabricated videos which traduce politicians are only the beginning. Expect the models to be used to set up malicious influence networks on demand, complete with fake websites, Twitter bots, Facebook pages, TikTok feeds and much more. The supply of disinformation, Renée DiResta of the Stanford Internet Observatory has warned, “will soon be infinite”.

This threat to the very possibility of public debate may not be an existential one; but it is deeply troubling. It brings to mind the “Library of Babel”, a short story by Jorge Luis Borges. The library contains all the books that have ever been written, but also all the books which were never written, books that are wrong, books that are nonsense. Everything that matters is there, but it cannot be found because of everything else; the librarians are driven to madness and despair.

This fantasy has an obvious technological substrate. It takes the printing press’s ability to recombine a fixed set of symbols in an unlimited number of ways to its ultimate limit. And that provides another way of thinking about LLM s.

Dreams never end

The degree to which the modern world is unimaginable without printing makes any guidance its history might provide for speculation about LLM s at best partial, at worst misleading. Johannes Gutenberg’s development of movable type has been awarded responsibility, at some time or other, for almost every facet of life that grew up in the centuries which followed. It changed relations between God and man, man and woman, past and present. It allowed the mass distribution of opinions, the systematisation of bureaucracy, the accumulation of knowledge. It brought into being the notion of intellectual property and the possibility of its piracy. But that very breadth makes comparison almost unavoidable. As Bradford DeLong, an economic historian at the University of California, Berkeley puts it, “It’s the one real thing we have in which the price of creating information falls by an order of magnitude.”

Printed books made it possible for scholars to roam larger fields of knowledge than had ever before been possible. In that there is an obvious analogy for LLM s, which trained on a given corpus of knowledge can derive all manner of things from it. But there was more to the acquisition of books than mere knowledge.

Just over a century after Gutenberg’s press began its clattering Michel de Montaigne, a French aristocrat, had been able to amass a personal library of some 1,500 books—something unimaginable for an individual of any earlier European generation. The library gave him more than knowledge. It gave him friends. “When I am attacked by gloomy thoughts,” he wrote, “nothing helps me so much as running to my books. They quickly absorb me and banish the clouds from my mind.”

And the idea of the book gave him a way of being himself no one had previously explored: to put himself between covers. “Reader,” he warned in the preface to his Essays , “I myself am the matter of my book.” The mass production of books allowed them to become peculiarly personal; it was possible to write a book about nothing more, or less, than yourself, and the person that your reading of other books had made you. Books produced authors.

As a way of presenting knowledge, LLM s promise to take both the practical and personal side of books further, in some cases abolishing them altogether. An obvious application of the technology is to turn bodies of knowledge into subject matter for chatbots. Rather than reading a corpus of text, you will question an entity trained on it and get responses based on what the text says. Why turn pages when you can interrogate a work as a whole?

Everyone and everything now seems to be pursuing such fine-tuned models as ways of providing access to knowledge. Bloomberg, a media company, is working on Bloomberg GPT , a model for financial information. There are early versions of a Quran GPT and a Bible GPT ; can a puffer-jacketed Pontiff GPT be far behind? Meanwhile several startups are offering services that turn all the documents on a user’s hard disk, or in their bit of the cloud, into a resource for conversational consultation. Many early adopters are already using chatbots as sounding boards. “It’s like a knowledgeable colleague you can always talk to,” explains Jack Clark of Anthropic, an LLM- making startup.

It is easy to imagine such intermediaries having what would seem like personalities—not just generic ones, such as “avuncular tutor”, but specific ones which grow with time. They might come to be like their users: an externalised version of their inner voice. Or they might be like any other person whose online output is sufficient for a model to train on (intellectual-property concerns permitting). Researchers at the Australian Institute for Machine Learning have built an early version of such an assistant for Laurie Anderson, a composer and musician. It is trained in part on her work, and in part on that of her late husband Lou Reed.

Without you

Ms Anderson says she does not consider using the system as a way of collaborating with her dead partner. Others might succumb more readily to such an illusion. If some chatbots do become, to some extent, their user’s inner voice, then that voice will persist after death, should others wish to converse with it. That some people will leave chatbots of themselves behind when they die seems all but certain.

Such applications and implications call to mind Sigmund Freud’s classic essay on the Unheimliche , or uncanny. Freud takes as his starting point the idea that uncanniness stems from “doubts [as to] whether an apparently animate being is really alive; or conversely, whether a lifeless object might not be in fact animate”. They are the sort of doubts that those thinking about LLM s are hard put to avoid.

Though AI researchers can explain the mechanics of their creations, they are persistently unable to say what actually happens within them. “There’s no ‘ultimate theoretical reason’ why anything like this should work,” Stephen Wolfram, a computer scientist and the creator of Wolfram Alpha, a mathematical search engine, recently concluded in a remarkable (and lengthy) blog post trying to explain the models’ inner workings.

This raises two linked but mutually exclusive concerns: that AI ’s have some sort of internal working which scientists cannot yet perceive; or that it is possible to pass as human in the social world without any sort of inner understanding.

“These models are just representations of the distributions of words in texts that can be used to produce more words,” says Emily Bender, a professor at the University of Washington in Seattle. She is one of the authors of “On the Dangers of Stochastic Parrots: Can Language Models Be Too Big?” a critique of LLM triumphalism. The models, she argues, have no real understanding. With no experience of real life or human communication they offer nothing more than the ability to parrot things they have heard in training, an ability which huge amounts of number crunching makes frequently appropriate and sometimes surprising, but which is nothing like thought. It is a view which is often pronounced in those who have come into the field through linguistics, as Dr Bender has.

For some in the LLM -building trade things are not that simple. Their models are hard to dismiss as “mere babblers”, in the words of Blaise Agüera y Arcas, the leader of a group at Alphabet which works on AI -powered products. He thinks the models have attributes which cannot really be distinguished from an ability to know what things actually mean. It can be seen, he suggests, in their ability reliably to choose the right meaning when translating phrases which are grammatically ambiguous, or to explain jokes.

If Dr Bender is right, then it can be argued that a broad range of behaviour that humans have come to think of as essentially human is not necessarily so. Uncanny “doubts [as to] whether an apparently animate being is really alive” are fully justified.

To accept that human-seeming LLM s are calculation, statistics and nothing more could influence how people think about themselves. Freud portrayed himself as continuing the trend begun by Copernicus—who removed humans from the centre of the universe—and Darwin—who removed them from a special and God-given status among the animals. Psychology’s contribution, as Freud saw it, lay in “endeavouring to prove to the ‘ego’ of each one of us that he is not even master in his own house”. LLM s could be argued to take the idea further still. At least one wing of Freud’s house becomes an unoccupied “smart home”; the lights go on and off automatically, the smart thermostat opens windows and lowers blinds, the roomba roombas around. No master needed at all.

Uncanny as that may all be, though, it would be wrong to think that many people will take this latest decentring to heart. As far as everyday life is concerned, humankind has proved pretty resilient to Copernicus, Darwin and Freud. People still believe in gods and souls and specialness with little obvious concern for countervailing science. They could well adapt quite easily to the pseudocognitive world, at least as far as philosophical qualms are concerned.

You do not have to buy Freud’s explanation of the unsettling effect of the uncanny in terms of the effort the mind expends on repressing childish animism to think that not worrying and going with the animistic flow will make a world populated with communicative pseudo-people a surprisingly comfortable one. People may simultaneously recognise that something is not alive and treat it as if it were. Some will take this too far, forming problematic attachments that Freud would have dubbed fetishistic. But only a few sensitive souls will find themselves left behind staring into an existential—but personal—abyss opened up by the possibility that their seeming thought is all for naught.

New gold dream

What if Mr Agüera y Arcas is right, though, and that which science deems lifeless is, in some cryptic, partial and emergent way, effectively animate? Then it will be time to do for AI some of what Freud thought he was doing for humans. Having realised that the conscious mind was not the whole show, Freud looked elsewhere for sources of desire that for good or ill drove behaviour. Very few people now subscribe to the specific Freudian explanations of human behaviour which followed. But the idea that there are reasons why people do things of which they are not conscious is part of the world’s mental furniture. The unconscious is probably not a great model for whatever it is that provides LLM s with an apparent sense of meaning or an approximation of agency. But the sense that there might be something below the AI surface which needs understanding may prove powerful.

Dr Bender and those who agree with her may take issue with such notions. But they might find that they lead to useful actions in the field of “ AI ethics”. Winkling out non-conscious biases acquired in the pre-verbal infancy of training; dealing with the contradictions behind hallucinations; regularising rogue desires: ideas from psychotherapy might be seen as helpful analogies for dealing with the pseudocognitive AI transition even by those who reject all notion of an AI mind. A concentration on the relationship between parents, or programmers, and their children could be welcome, too. What is it to bring up an AI well? What sort of upbringing should be forbidden? To what extent should the creators of AI s be held responsible for the harms done by their creation?

And human desires may need some inspection, too. Why are so many people eager for the sort of intimacy an LLM might provide? Why do many influential humans seem to think that, because evolution shows species can go extinct, theirs is quite likely to do so at its own hand, or that of its successor? And where is the determination to turn a superhuman rationality into something which does not merely stir up the economy, but changes history for the better? ■

Explore more

This article appeared in the Essay section of the print edition under the headline “THE AGE OF PSEUDOCOGNITION”

From the April 22nd 2023 edition

Discover stories from this section and more in the list of contents

More from Essay

Solar power is going to be huge

An energy source that gets cheaper and cheaper is a wonderful thing

The Alaskan wilderness reveals the past and the future

The oil flows more slowly, the climate changes more quickly

How a free and open Hong Kong became a police state

It was a long time in the planning

Viruses have big impacts on ecology and evolution as well as human health

They are ubiquitous, diverse and very powerful

The South Asian monsoon, past, present and future

A story of famines and trade, science and cupidity

The story of China’s economy as told through the world’s biggest building

It is a microcosm that reveals how much China is master of its own fate

Essay on Modern Technology 1000+ Words

In today’s fast-paced world, modern technology plays an essential role in our lives. It surrounds us in the form of smartphones, computers, smart homes, and more. These advancements have transformed the way we communicate, work, and live. This essay will explore the many reasons why modern technology is a boon for society.

Improved Communication

Modern technology has revolutionized communication. With the advent of smartphones, people can connect with friends and family no matter where they are. According to recent statistics, 81% of people use smartphones for messaging and social media, making it easier to stay in touch.

Learning Made Fun

In the classroom, modern technology has made learning more engaging and interactive. Educational apps and online resources provide students with a wealth of knowledge at their fingertips. For instance, Khan Academy offers free online lessons in various subjects, helping students grasp complex concepts with ease.

Medical Breakthroughs

Technology has also transformed the field of medicine. With the help of advanced machines, doctors can diagnose illnesses more accurately and treat patients more effectively. For example, robotic surgery has reduced the risk of complications during operations.

Increased Productivity

In the workplace, technology has boosted productivity. Computers and software tools allow employees to streamline their tasks, reducing the time spent on repetitive work. A study by the Bureau of Labor Statistics found that technology has contributed to a 69% increase in productivity in the past two decades.

Environmental Benefits

Modern technology has the potential to help us combat environmental challenges. Electric cars, for instance, produce fewer emissions than traditional gasoline vehicles, contributing to cleaner air. Additionally, smart home systems can help us reduce energy consumption, leading to a more sustainable future.

Accessibility for All

One of the remarkable aspects of modern technology is its ability to make life more accessible for individuals with disabilities. Screen-reading software, voice recognition technology, and mobility aids have empowered people with disabilities to lead more independent lives.

Innovation and Creativity

The world of technology continually pushes the boundaries of human innovation and creativity. Think about the imaginative video games, stunning visual effects in movies, and groundbreaking virtual reality experiences. These creations were all made possible through modern technology.

Global Connectivity

The internet, a product of modern technology, has connected people from all corners of the globe. It fosters cross-cultural understanding, enables international collaboration, and allows us to access information from diverse perspectives.

Conclusion of Essay on Modern Technology

In conclusion, modern technology has become an integral part of our lives, offering countless benefits to society. It enhances communication, facilitates learning, advances medical practices, boosts productivity, and addresses environmental concerns. Additionally, it promotes accessibility, fuels innovation, and connects us on a global scale. As we continue to embrace and develop modern technology, we must harness its potential for the betterment of humanity. It’s clear that the marvels of modern technology have transformed our world for the better and hold the promise of an even brighter future.

Also Check: The Essay on Essay: All you need to know

GK SCIENTIST

Essay on The Role of Computers in Modern Life

The Role of Computers in Modern Life:

The twentieth century has witnessed a great advance in science and technology, and its applied form. The latest in this development is computer technology, which has come like a worldwide technical revolution. A computer is essentially a processing machine that can perform several important functions in a very short time. The functions are repetitive calculations, storage of information, decision making, providing information to the programmer on the basis of the information fed into the machine, control over certain other devices through signals, and helping in diagnosing diseases accurately.

During the last two decades, computer technology has shown remarkable development. Computers of various sizes and shapes have come up. The functions they perform now belong to different fields, ranging from space research to the diagnosis of diseases and industrial technology. They are now being used extensively in manufacturing and processing industries, power distribution system, airline, and railway reservation systems.

Computers are of tremendous help in offices too. Long and complicated information can be stored in computers and summoned at will. Besides, the data fed into the computers can be mixed and reorganized according to need. The old filing system for preserving information is becoming redundant. In departments such as income tax, where large documentation is necessary computers are providing very helpful indeed.

In the field of medicine, computers are used for diagnosing illness, monitoring patients, curing ailments, surgery, etc. For example, a pacemaker is a little computer, which is fixed inside patients having heart problems. Similarly, computers can be used to control tiny remote cameras which can take pictures inside the body and help doctors make diagnoses. Also, medical students learning surgery can practice operations on computers through virtual reality.

In space research, satellites and space laboratories are being controlled from a distance of millions of miles. The position of a Satellite in space can be adjusted, its functioning controlled and its defective parts repaired from the space laboratories on the earth. Computer technology has thus started working like what people used to dream of doing with the help of magic.

In industry, computers are proving to be highly helpful and effective. In the publishing industry, computers are making it possible to change and adjust the size of letters, opt for different varieties of print, and what is more, print accurately. In the textile industry, computer-made designs not only save a lot of labor but can also pour out design after design through combination and permutation of the material fed into them. In industrial sciences, computer technology not only provides accuracy but also speed and efficiency. There is now hardly any industry in which computers are not used, or cannot be used.

Scientists and technologists in the whole of the world are busy further improving and expanding the scope of computers. In printing, computers are doing the job much more effectively and accurately than human hands used to do before. In arts, especially painting, caricature, and music, computers, are being employed more and more frequently. They are very useful in making animation films too. A time may soon come when computerized robot slaves may start working in our houses. Designs, of such computers, have already been made, only the cost of production needs to be reduced.

Computers have thus become the new favorites. Because of their accuracy and fast work, they are regarded as a miraculous inventions of science. It needs to be said, however, that computers, like all other machines, are human inventions. They do not have any independent thinking power. They can only act according to the information and skill put into them. And both of these- the information and the skill to manipulate the given information- are given by human beings. So computers like traditional machines can be good slaves but bad masters if we submit ourselves entirely to them.

– NIOS

Short Essay on Good Manners

Essay on Social Reforms in India

Essay on My Favourite Poet

Essay on The Power of the Press

Essay On Mahatma Gandhi

Essay on the Economic Depression of 1929-30 A.D.

Short Essay on My Favourite Teacher

Essay on “If I were the Education Minister”

Comments (no), leave a reply cancel reply.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

IMAGES

The History and Evolution of Computers Essay Example
History Of Computer In English Essay
History of Computer
Attributes of the Modern Age Essay Example
Brief History of Computers Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com
History Of Computer In English Essay

COMMENTS

The Modern History of Computing
The Modern History of Computing. First published Mon Dec 18, 2000; substantive revision Fri Jun 9, 2006. Historically, computers were human clerks who calculated in accordance with effective methods. These human computers did the sorts of calculation nowadays carried out by electronic computers, and many thousands of them were employed in ...
Essay on Computer and its Uses in 500 Words for Students
500+ Words Essay on Computer. In this essay on computer, we are going to discuss some useful things about computers. The modern-day computer has become an important part of our daily life. Also, their usage has increased much fold during the last decade. Nowadays, they use the computer in every office whether private or government.
Essay on Age of Computer
The Genesis of the Computer Age. The advent of the Computer Age, also known as the Information Age, marked a significant shift in human history. This era, which began in the mid-20th century, witnessed the transition from traditional industry established by the Industrial Revolution to an economy primarily based on information technology.
History of Computers: From Abacus to Modern PC Essay
The first personal computer was marketed in kit form with 256 bytes of memory. The machine used BASIC compiler that was developed by Bill Gates and other technicians. Apple followed the trend and went on to advertise also in personal computers in the same kit form. The computers comprised of a monitor, and keyboard.
How Computers Influence Our Life
It is therefore clear, that computers and its influence on man have a long history. Its invention involved hard work dedication and determination, and in the end it paid off. The world was and is still being changed by computers. Man has been able to see into the future and plan ahead because of computers.
The computer revolution: how it's changed our world over 60 years
Computing is creating platforms on which it reinvents itself, reaching up to the next platform. Getting connected. Arguably, the most dramatic of these innovations is the web. During the 1970s and 1980s, there were independent advances in the availability of cheap, fast computing, of affordable disk storage and of networking.
Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments Essay
The development of computer technology is characterized by the change in the technology used in building the devices. The evolution of computer technology is divided into several generations, from mechanical devices, followed by analog devices, to the recent digital computers that now dominate the world. This paper examines the evolution of ...
The history of computing is both evolution and revolution
Six decades on, our series Computing turns 60 looks at how things have changed. It is a truism that computing continues to change our world. It shapes how objects are designed, what information we ...
Essay on Generation of Computer
These machines were enormous, occupying entire rooms, and were prone to overheating. Their programming was done in machine language, which was a low-level language. Despite their size and inefficiency, these computers laid the groundwork for modern computing and marked the beginning of the digital age. The Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors
Essay on Importance of Computer
Conclusion. In conclusion, the importance of computers in our modern society is undeniable. They have transformed the way we learn, work, communicate, and entertain ourselves. While challenges exist, the prospective advancements in computer technology signify exciting possibilities. As we continue to integrate computers into our lives, it is ...
Essay on Computer for Students in English
Short Computer Essay in English. A computer's a programmable device that accepts raw data (input) and processes it as output with a group of instructions (a program) to supply the result. It renders output after performing mathematical and logical operations and can save the output for future use.
Importance of Computer Essay
100 Words Essay on The Importance of Computer. A computer is a modern and complex machine, adequate for performing various tasks in a fraction of a second. These devices are used in various fields such as educational and medical fields. In the education field, a computer is used for teaching and learning purposes.
Importance of Computer Essay
Long Essay on Importance of Computer 500 Words in English. Long Essay on Importance of Computer is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10. Computers are an essential part of the modern lives that also serve as a useful information source for managing various organisations and accomplishing multiple tasks.
Essay on Computer For Students In English
Essay on Computer: Students can go through the 500+ words essay on computers to get ideas for essay writing on the computer. ... Age of Industrialisation MCQs; Work, Life and Leisure MCQs; Print Culture and the Modern World MCQs; ... A laptop is a modern form of computer in which all the components are inbuilt into a single device. Earlier ...
Computers: Essay on the Importance of Computer in the Modern Society
Computers also ensure more accuracy. Examples of such cases include ticket booking, payment of bills, insurance and shopping. Interestingly, automatic operations of vehicles, like trains also help to ensure further safety and reliability of the journey. Computers can be used to observe and predict traffic patterns which would be a grand benefit ...
Computer
Role of Computer in Modern Life/ A Great Invention Called Computer - A Short Essay. My interaction with you has become possible just because of a computer. Undoubtedly, computers are the one of the most important inventions of today's life. Computer is called the best brain of the world. That's why the intelligent people are likened with ...
Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives Essay
The Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives essay 100, 150, 200, 250 words in English helps the students with their class assignments, comprehension tasks, and even for competitive examinations. You can also find more Essay Writing articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.
Essay on History of Computer
The Birth of Modern Computers. The first modern computer was created in the 1930s. It was huge and filled an entire room. These computers used vacuum tubes to process information. ... 250 Words Essay on History of Computer Introduction. The history of computers is a fascinating journey, tracing back several centuries. It illustrates human ...
Essay on Importance of Computer in our life, Uses of Computer in
In case you have to write the 5 uses of computers, you can take help from this essay on computers. Also, any question based on the 10 points on the importance of computers can be easily answered once you have read this essay. So, let us check out this helpful essay on the importance of computers. Related - Essays in English
Essay on the Role of the Computer in Modern Life
1. This essay sample was donated by a student to help the academic community. Papers provided by EduBirdie writers usually outdo students' samples. Cite this essay. Download. Nowadays, computers play an important role in our day-to-day lives, they are almost used everywhere, without them this modern life seems to be impossible.
How AI could change computing, culture and the course of history
The humble web browser, introduced in the early 1990s as a way to share files across networks, changed the ways in which computers are used, the way in which the computer industry works and the ...
Essay on Modern Technology 1000+ Words
In today's fast-paced world, modern technology plays an essential role in our lives. It surrounds us in the form of smartphones, computers, smart homes, and more. These advancements have transformed the way we communicate, work, and live. This essay will explore the many reasons why modern technology is a boon for society. Improved Communication
Essay on The Role of Computers in Modern Life
The Role of Computers in Modern Life: The twentieth century has witnessed a great advance in science and technology, and its applied form. The latest in this development is computer technology, which has come like a worldwide technical revolution. A computer is essentially a processing machine that can perform several important functions in a ...

Bibliography

The Modern History of Computing

The Universal Turing Machine

Analog computers

Works Cited

Further Reading

Support SEP

Essay on Computer and its Uses for School Students and Children

History of Computers

Working of a Computer

Components and Types of Computer

Uses of Computer in Various Fields

Medical Field

Threats from a Computer

Frequently Asked Questions on Computer

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Download the App

Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments Essay

Evolution of Computers and their Technology

Mechanical Age (1800s -1920s)

First Generation (the 1930s-1950s)

Second Generation (Mid-1950s-Early 1960s)

Third Generation (the Early 1960s – Early1970s)

Fourth Generation (The early 1970s – Mid 1980s)

Fifth Generation (the Mid 1980s- Early 1990s)

Sixth Generation (1990 to Date)

The history of computing is both evolution and revolution

Disclosure statement

Evolution and revolution

Getting connected

The ‘superhighway’

We all connect

OzGrav Postdoctoral Research Fellow

Student Administration Officer

Casual Facilitator: GERRIC Student Programs - Arts, Design and Architecture

Senior Lecturer, Digital Advertising

Manager, Centre Policy and Translation

Long and Short Computer Essay

Long Computer Essay in English

Common Components of Computers

Uses of Computer

Short Computer Essay in English

Types of Computer

Benefits of Computers:

Fun Facts About Computers

FAQs on Essay on Computer

Essay on Computer

History of Computers

Uses of Computers

Frequently asked Questions on Computer Essay

How to start writing an essay on a computer?

How to use the computer to browse for information on essays?

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Register with BYJU'S & Download Free PDFs

Your Article Library

Related Articles:

No comments yet.

Computer – A Great Invention of Modern Age – An Essay

Computer – An Essay

Join the Discussion Cancel reply

Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives Essay | Essay on Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives for Students and Children in English

Long Essay on Role Of Computers And Internet In Our Lives 500 Words for Kids and Students in English

Essay on History of Computer

100 Words Essay on History of Computer

First Mechanical Computer

The Birth of Modern Computers

Personal Computers

250 Words Essay on History of Computer

Early Computers

Birth of Modern Computers

Personal Computers and the Internet

Present and Future

500 Words Essay on History of Computer

The Era of Transistors

Microprocessors and Personal Computers

The Internet and Beyond

One Comment

Essay on Importance of Computer in our life, Uses of Computer in various field

Essays in English