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Research Roundup: How the Pandemic Changed Management

• Mark C. Bolino,
• Jacob M. Whitney,
• Sarah E. Henry

Lessons from 69 articles published in top management and applied psychology journals.

Researchers recently reviewed 69 articles focused on the management implications of the Covid-19 pandemic that were published between March 2020 and July 2023 in top journals in management and applied psychology. The review highlights the numerous ways in which employees, teams, leaders, organizations, and societies were impacted and offers lessons for managing through future pandemics or other events of mass disruption.

The recent pandemic disrupted life as we know it, including for employees and organizations around the world. To understand such changes, we recently reviewed 69 articles focused on the management implications of the Covid-19 pandemic. These papers were published between March 2020 and July 2023 in top journals in management and applied psychology.

• Mark C. Bolino is the David L. Boren Professor and the Michael F. Price Chair in International Business at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business. His research focuses on understanding how an organization can inspire its employees to go the extra mile without compromising their personal well-being.
• JW Jacob M. Whitney is a doctoral candidate in management at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business and an incoming assistant professor at Kennesaw State University. His research interests include leadership, teams, and organizational citizenship behavior.
• SH Sarah E. Henry is a doctoral candidate in management at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business and an incoming assistant professor at the University of South Florida. Her research interests include organizational citizenship behaviors, workplace interpersonal dynamics, and international management.

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Optimization of topology and energy management in fuel cell cruise ship hybrid power systems

• Research Paper
• Open access
• Published: 17 May 2024
• Volume 2 , article number  12 , ( 2024 )

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• Lei Niu 1 , 2 &
• Li Xiao 3  

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Current research on energy management strategies (EMSs) often neglects the impact of system topology and local control. This study tackles this issue by optimizing the topology of the hybrid power system on the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ cruise ship and enhancing EMS performance using various local controllers. First, the paper outlines the objectives of the research and provides an analysis of the current domestic and international research status. Second, the methods used in this study are introduced, including the topology optimization method and EMS. Subsequently, a model of the hybrid power system is constructed and verified through simulations. Finally, the effectiveness of different strategies is evaluated according to simulation results. Compared with an EMS based solely on a proportional-integral controller, the combination of a state machine and droop controller achieves better results, reducing battery power fluctuations by 86.5% and fuel cell power fluctuations by 16.2%.

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1 Introduction

1.1 motivation.

In the shipbuilding industry, fuel cells are considered promising clean alternative energy sources (van Biert et al. 2016 ). Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are preferred in the maritime industry because of their benefits, such as zero emissions, quick startup, high efficiency, high power density, and low noise (Ma et al. 2013 ). However, ship navigation conditions are complex, and load fluctuations are considerable (de-Troya et al. 2016 ). The application of fuel cells to various types of ships is much more intricate than to land equipment, mainly because fuel cells cannot rapidly suppress power fluctuations in a ship’s microgrid (Wu and Bucknall 2020 ). Therefore, energy storage systems (ESSs) are often used to complement fuel cell systems to address the synergy and complementarity among energy sources, ultimately enhancing the overall energy efficiency of vessels. ESSs can effectively smooth out power fluctuations in a ship’s load (Yang et al. 2020 ). Battery systems are typically used for energy storage in fuel cell power systems to enhance efficiency and power. These storage systems combine the high energy densities of batteries and high power densities of supercapacitors and can thus handle frequent charge-discharge cycles (Banaei et al. 2021 ). This capability enables them to mitigate low- and high-frequency power fluctuations, resulting in peak shaving and valley-filling effects and effectively reducing the impact of load fluctuations on a grid (Xing et al. 2021 ). A hybrid power system composed of fuel cells and ESSs can optimize the operation of fuel cells, improve their efficiency, extend their lifespan, enhance the dynamic response of a power system, and enable multisource complementary power generation (Dall’Armi et al. 2023 ).

Designing an efficient energy management strategy (EMS) that appropriately allocates the required power between a fuel cell system and ESS is challenging. An EMS controls the dynamic behavior of components in a hybrid power system, thereby affecting system efficiency, fuel consumption, and lifespan (Sun et al. 2013 ). Therefore, developing a suitable EMS for hybrid fuel cell power systems has always been an essential research topic (Sulaiman et al. 2018 ). However, existing research on EMSs for hybrid fuel cell power systems has mostly focused on EMS performance, overlooking the impact of local control on energy management performance (Liu et al. 2024 ). Nevertheless, some researchers have achieved favorable research results by using topology optimization or capacity optimization design. Given the shortcomings of existing research, this study aims to explore topology optimization and energy management in the hybrid power system of the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ cruise ship. It will investigate the impact of topology and local control on EMSs and further enhance the performance of EMSs.

1.2 Literature review

Various advanced ship EMSs have been proposed and examined owing to challenges in enhancing hybrid power systems’ performance, including dynamic programming (DP; Zhang 2019 ), Pontryagin’s minimum principle (PMP; Schmid et al. 2021 ), equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS; Ge et al. 2023 ), machine learning algorithms, and model predictive control (Ghorashi Khalil Abadi et al. 2022 ). The DP algorithm, as a classic multistage decision optimization method, optimizes the operation cost of ship power systems. However, this strategy is difficult to apply to practical energy management because of uncertainties about ship navigation conditions. DP requires accurate global operational conditions. PMP is partially applicable to hybrid electric vehicles, but research into hybrid power ships is limited. The principle of this strategy is to find an optimal solution by calculating the Hamiltonian function at each moment. DP and PMP are usually conducted offline and often used as benchmarks. Meanwhile, the ECMS optimizes all energy sources in real time by adjusting factors representing equivalent fuel consumption costs and is widely used for real-time power distribution optimization in hybrid power systems. However, this strategy heavily relies on equivalent factors. Thus, determining optimal values is difficult, and the method has limited performance. Energy management strategies based on machine learning algorithms have potential but are hampered by the ’black box’ issue (Fan et al. 2023 ), which renders their direct application to actual ships difficult. To further enhance the performance of hybrid power systems, innovative and effective approaches that address current strategy dependencies and uncertainties are needed.

A hybrid fuel cell propulsion system, as a typical form of ship hybrid power system, has many potential applications, thus garnering considerable interest from the shipbuilding sector. The system has already been applied and researched, but studies on hybrid fuel cell propulsion systems have mainly focused on the hybrid power system of the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ ship to develop new EMSs for conserving energy and reducing emissions. Han et al. ( 2014 ) proposed a state machine-based energy management system for the hybrid power system of the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ ship; the proposed strategy was designed on the basis of the optimal efficiency of the fuel cell (FC) and batteries to ensure that both energy sources operate in the high-efficiency range. Bassam et al. ( 2016 ) proposed a novel energy management strategy that uses fuel cell efficiency as input to maintain high fuel cell efficiency and reduce pressure and thereby reduce fuel consumption; compared with a state-based ECMS strategy and the original proportional-integral (PI) strategy, the proposed PI strategy achieved daily hydrogen savings of 3.5%, 1.7%, and 1.4% while reducing fuel cell stress. Sun et al. ( 2020 ) considered the aging cost of fuel cells and developed a unified optimization model to minimize the total cost of fuel consumption and power source aging over the entire voyage and to optimize the output power of multiple fuel cells and batteries, as well as propulsion power. Tang and Wang ( 2021 ) proposed an EMS based on wavelet transformation and fuzzy logic for a fuel cell/battery/supercapacitor hybrid power cruiser, considering the dynamic characteristics of each power source; the simulation results showed that the proposed EMS enabled the fuel cell to provide approximately 50% of high-frequency power and reduced peak power from the fuel cell by 80% when the initial charge level of the supercapacitor was low. Rafiei et al. ( 2021 ) presented and analyzed a zero-emission all-electric hybrid energy system based on fuel cells, batteries, and shore power, using an improved sin-cosine algorithm to optimize power scheduling; the proposed hybrid power system and energy management method demonstrated high performance as an applicable approach for ships. Wu et al. ( 2020 ) introduced an EMS based on dual Q reinforcement learning; their results indicated that the strategy achieved nearly optimal cost-effectiveness compared with DP and comparable state space resolution without prior knowledge of future power demand. However, although these studies have conducted advanced research on energy management strategies, they have overlooked the impact of local control on hybrid power systems (Zeng et al. 2023 ). Owing to the multiple aspects of energy management in hybrid power systems, it can include an energy management layer and a local control layer according to the hierarchical control architecture. The energy management layer is primarily responsible for optimizing power distribution and decision-making in hybrid power systems (Haseltalab et al. 2016 ), whereas the local control layer is responsible for executing the structure determined by the energy management layer. The two layers are interdependent and cannot be discussed separately. Therefore, the local control layer should be investigated in order that the impact of different local control layers on hybrid power systems and energy management strategies can be explored.

Existing research primarily utilizes a classic proportional-integral (PI) controller for fuel cells because of the direct parallel connection of a ship’s batteries to a DC bus. The control principle relies on open-loop control based on the reference power of a fuel cell and the state of charge (SOC) of batteries, which provide passive energy. This feature leads to challenges in the optimization of fuel cells and battery power. Some studies have explored strategies for optimizing the architecture and capacity configurations of hybrid power systems. Zhang et al. ( 2020 ) proposed a selection method for the hybrid ESS of a fuel cell hybrid propulsion cruise ferry to extend the lifespan of fuel cells; based on the configuration of the power system, a real-time optimization control strategy that balances efficiency and durability was proposed; the simulation results showed that the strategy outperformed rule-based strategies in terms of fuel economy, system durability, and dynamic performance. Zhu et al. ( 2020 ) proposed a multi-objective dual-layer optimization approach, where component sizing adjustments and energy management were simultaneously conducted in the upper and lower layers, respectively; the results of the proposed dual-layer optimization were compared with the results of two independent single-layer optimization strategies; the optimal solution of the proposed method outperformed single-layer optimization, and the results of single lower-layer optimization were closer to the dual-layer optimization results than single upper-layer optimization results (Zhu et al. 2020 ).

However, not only the selection of energy equipment but also the topology structures of different energy sources affect the selection of energy equipment and the performance of hybrid power systems. Chen et al. ( 2020 ) introduced a multi-objective optimization method for HESS and EMS based on a support vector machine and frequency control; the simulation results indicated that compared with different hybrid power system structures, the optimal HESS can meet power demands and reduce the cost of energy storage devices. Compared with rule-based energy management strategies, the optimal hybrid power system showed a 5.4% decrease in energy consumption, improving the quality of electrical energy and extending equipment lifespan (Chen et al. 2020 ). Ge et al. ( 2023 ) optimized the topology structure of a ship’s hybrid fuel cell power system; in addition, they proposed a hybrid power system combining fuel cells, batteries, and supercapacitors and utilized a fuzzy logic-based EMS to improve the performance of the hybrid power system; they suggested the potential of the capacity and topology structure of the ship’s hybrid power system for further optimization. Overall, these studies have optimized and compared the topology structures of hybrid power systems, studying the performance of hybrid power systems under different topology structures and demonstrating the impact of topology structure optimization on the performance of hybrid power systems. Therefore, studying the influence of topology structure on hybrid power systems is necessary.

The purpose of this research is to enhance the existing topology structure of a fuel cell/battery hybrid power ship, investigate the combined effects of different energy management strategies and local controllers, and improve the performance of the EMS. This study will compare the performance of energy management strategies on the basis of PI-based local controllers and droop controllers. It will compare these strategies with an EMS based on the original PI controller, state machine-based EMS, and fuzzy logic-based EMS according to the energy quality of batteries and fuel cells and SOC of batteries.

1.3 Outline

The remaining sections of this study are organized as follows. Section  2 introduces topology structure optimization, EMS, and local controllers. Section  3 focuses on the information on the hybrid power system of the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ ship, including the modeling, simulation process, setup, and construction of the hybrid power system, EMS, and local controller models. Section  4 presents and discusses the simulation results. Section  5 concludes the paper and provides future research directions.

2 Methodology

2.1 topology optimization.

The ship’s original hybrid power system directly connected the battery to the 560 V DC bus as an ESS (Fig.  1 ). However, owing to frequent fluctuations in the ship’s load, the traditional PI-based EMS ensured stability by only controlling the fuel cell system’s power, and the battery had to bear not only partial low-frequency loads but also the main high-frequency load output. Thus, optimizing the hybrid power system and stabilizing the bus voltage were difficult.

Original hybrid power system topology of the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ ship

Given the fluctuations in shipload, the economy and equipment lifespan of the hybrid power system can be enhanced by improving the controllability of the hybrid power system. This paper proposes a scheme for improving topology, local control, and EMS to achieve the efficient operation of the hybrid power system. The modification process primarily involves connecting the battery to the DC bus through bidirectional DC/DC converters to enhance the controllability of the batteries. The improved topology of the hybrid fuel cell power system is illustrated in Fig.  2 .

Modified hybrid power system topology of the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ ship

With the aforementioned modifications, the batteries can be controlled through external control signals for voltage or current closed-loop control, which can enhance the controllability of the batteries. Therefore, voltage or current closed-loop controllers can be employed for the batteries and fuel cells, enabling reference power tracking and assisting the EMS in distributing power to the hybrid power system.

2.2 Energy management strategies

2.2.1 classic pi ems.

Early EMS based on classic PI and PID controllers have been proposed, featuring a simple and easy-to-implement control structure. The control principles are illustrated in Fig.  3 . In this study, the P gain was set to 200, and the I gain was set to 1.

Control principles of classic PI EMS

The current SOC of the battery and its reference SOC are compared, and a PI controller is employed to derive the battery’s reference power, which is then subtracted from the load power, yielding the computed reference power for the fuel cell. Subsequently, by dividing the reference power of the battery and fuel cell by the bus voltage, the theoretical current output for the fuel cell and battery is determined. This output, in turn, facilitates closed-loop control through current feedback. The primary objective of the PI-based EMS is to maintain the battery’s SOC at its designated level to alleviate stress on the battery and extend its operational lifespan. However, this control methodology has limitations. When the battery’s SOC falls below the reference value, the fuel cell operates according to the required load power or at maximum power. This feature can adversely affect the efficiency, hydrogen consumption rate, and longevity of the fuel cell.

2.2.2 State machine-based strategy

The state machine-based EMS is based on deterministic rules and adjusts the operation of the hybrid power system under varying loads through predefined control rules. The principles of the state machine-based energy management control strategy can be found in Fig.  4 , and the configuration of its principles is shown in Table  1 .

Principles of state machine-based EMS control

For hybrid fuel cell power systems, a state machine-based control strategy is typically devised on the basis of the desired power and battery SOC, and the operational constraints of the hybrid power system are considered. In this study, the maximum value for battery SOC (SOC max ) is set at 85%, while the minimum value (SOC min ) is 10%. Refining control rules is an effective approach for enhancing the performance of a state machine-based control strategy. However, an excessive number of rules can lead to frequent control changes, resulting in the unstable operation of the hybrid power system and increasing susceptibility to the influence of sudden load variations.

2.2.3 Fuzzy logic control strategy

In this study, the fuzzy logic controller has two input variables, namely, the battery’s SOC bat and power demand P demand , and one output variable, which is the required power for the fuel cell ( P FC ). The fuzzy controller employs IF-Then rules to establish a map between inputs and outputs. The control principles are illustrated in Fig.  5 .

Principles of fuzzy logic-based EMS control

This study utilized a fuzzy controller with 12 rules (Motapon et al. 2014 ). The details are provided in Table  2 .

The fuzzy controller uses trapezoidal membership functions for input and output selections (Fig.  6 ).

Fuzzy logic control membership functions

2.3 Local controller

2.3.1 pi controller.

The classic PI controller as a local controller has been integrated into energy management strategies. However, the classic PI control method is mainly based on obtaining reference current from the ratio of reference power to the bus voltage and achieves power distribution and control through current closed-loop control. The classic PI control method primarily collects current signals for closed-loop control without introducing reference voltage, leading to large bus voltage fluctuations. It is suitable for use in a semiactive topology, where energy storage devices are directly connected in parallel to the bus in a microgrid structure.

The microgrid structure of FCS Alsterwasser adopts a semiactive structure, where the fuel cell needs to be controlled through DC/DC boost and control without the need to control the battery, which is a type of PI controller. The PI controller cannot achieve simultaneous control of the fuel cell and battery.

2.3.2 Droop controller

Droop control mainly consists of two types: voltage-power droop control, which describes the voltage-power relationship, and voltage-current (V-I) droop control, which describes the voltage-current relationship. In this study, the V-I droop control is employed to achieve power control based on droop characteristics among parallel distributed power sources. In DC microgrids, the droop characteristic curve reflects the relationship between the DC voltage and DC current of the power sources. In fuel cells, which can only discharge, the droop curve exists only in the first quadrant. In batteries that can charge and discharge, the droop curve typically exhibits characteristics in two quadrants, as illustrated in Fig.  7 .

Droop control principle

However, traditional droop controllers mainly use fixed droop coefficients, which renders tracking nonlinear reference power obtained from the EMS difficult. Therefore, these controllers cannot be directly applied to this study. This study intends to propose a droop controller based on dynamic virtual impedance as a local controller and compare its performance with a local controller based on the classic PI controller. According to the principle of traditional droop control, the power of an energy source is inversely proportional to the droop coefficient; that is, the droop coefficient decreases with increasing rated power. Depending on the operating state of different energy sources, the droop coefficient can be obtained according to the load power and the power of each energy source. The formula for calculating the droop coefficient is summarized in Eq. ( 1 ).

where \(k_{d}\) is the n- th distributed power source, \(p_{n}\) is the expected power of the n- th distributed power source, \(k_{adj}\) is the correction factor, and in the study, and \(k_{adj}\)  = 0.1. On the right-hand side of Eq. ( 1 ), the denominator is the load power, and the numerator is the load power minus the reference power of the energy source. p total refers to the total demand power, p bat represents the battery power.

3 Modeling and simulation implementation

3.1 ’fcs alsterwasser’ overview.

This article focuses on the world’s first fuel-cell cruise ship, the ’FCS Alsterwasser’. Owing to the widespread availability of its key technical parameters and navigation data, it has been widely used as a subject of study in maritime energy management research. Comprehensive information about this ship can be found in previous studies (Zhu et al. 2014 ; Choi et al. 2016 ). The primary parameters of the ship can be found in Table  3 .

The ship’s hybrid power system consists of a PEMFC and a set of lead-acid batteries, primarily relying on the fuel cell during cruising. During high-load operations, it uses a battery to reduce the output power of the fuel cell and extend its lifespan. The battery mainly serves a ’peak shaving’ function to stabilize the bus voltage. The primary parameters of the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ ship’s hybrid power system can be found in Table  4 .

3.2 Hybrid power system model

3.2.1 fuel cell.

The ’FCS Alsterwasser’ employs a PEMFC, which is a type of fuel cell with a well-established model that is widely studied and applied. As shown in Fig.  8 a, this study utilizes the fuel cell module provided by Matlab/Simulink for modeling purposes, configuring it as a detailed fuel cell model and defining the fuel cell parameters to simulate the fuel cell system. This model is then integrated into the hybrid power system. Detailed information about this module is provided in the documentation of Simulink and the associated reference literature.

FC model. a FC module; b FC equivalent circuit

The stack consists of several series-connected fuel cells. The equivalent circuit for a single fuel cell used in this module is provided in Fig.  8 b. The primary parameters for this model can be obtained from the fuel cell’s parameter table (Table  4 ). Considering the response time of the fuel cell, this model can represent the steady-state performance and dynamic behavior of the PEMFC. Additionally, the model considers the characteristics of the electrical and chemical aspects of the FC.

3.2.2 Battery

In this study, the primary focus is researching EMS performance, and the intricate characteristics of the battery are not considered. Constructing a battery model with dynamic properties is sufficient. Therefore, the battery model in Matlab/Simulink is utilized (Fig.  9 ). The model is configured according to the battery’s parameter information (Table  4 ).

Battery model

The voltage source of this battery model is defined as follows:

where V nom is the rated voltage and beta is a coefficient that can be adjusted to simulate battery characteristics.

3.2.3 DC/DC converter

The voltage of the DC/DC converter component in the hybrid power system varies according to the current requirements of each power source. Therefore, an electronic circuit is needed to stabilize the power supply voltage while providing the required power. Given that this study does examine the dynamic behavior inside the DC/DC converter, an ideal bidirectional DC/DC converter module from Matlab/Simulink is used to regulate the output voltage of the PEMFC or battery, as shown in Fig.  10 .

DC/DC converter model

The ideal DC/DC model can simulate the dynamic behavior of the DC/DC converter and can implement current or voltage closed-loop control through external signals. In this study, the focus is on investigating the impact of different local control strategies on the EMS. Therefore, the DC/DC model facilitates the design of local controllers and EMS simulation studies.

3.2.4 Ship load

To simulate the typical ship conditions, this study utilizes the dynamic load module available in Matlab/Simulink (Fig.  11 ).

Dynamic load model

In this study, this module is configured as a DC load. The power consumption of this module will be equal to the input demand power signal if the power consumption of the module is greater than the minimum power consumption parameter value and the DC power source voltage exceeds the specified value of the minimum power source voltage parameter.

3.3 Navigational conditions

The data from a single navigational condition of the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ has been established as a typical condition in ship energy management research and has been widely used in testing various types of EMSs (Peng et al. 2023 ). This segment of navigational condition data can be found in Fig.  12 .

Navigational condition of the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ ship

The primary characteristics of this navigational condition data are as follows: (a) peak propulsion power is approximately 112 kW; (b) acceleration time is approximately 32 s (163–195 s); (c) cruise power is approximately 40 kW; (d) excluding auxiliary power during the cycle, the average power demand is approximately 41 kW. This power demand includes propulsion and auxiliary power and covers power requirements during various phases of ship operation, including sailing, docking, stopping, and acceleration, serving as a typical navigational condition for ships. The relatively short duration of this data segment hampers the comprehensive evaluation of the strategy’s performance. Thus, this study plans to test and evaluate the proposed method by continuously cycling this condition 10 times.

3.4 Simulation implementation

Based on the modeling described above, the hybrid power system model for the ’FCS Alsterwasser’ ship and the EMS model are obtained, as shown in Fig.  13 . The voltage, current, and power data for the battery, fuel cell, and load can be obtained through the sensor module. Through their interaction, the performance of the EMS can be evaluated.

Hybrid power system and EMS model

4 Results and discussion

4.1 simulation result.

This study has validated the proposed topological optimization and the effectiveness of the EMS through software simulations. Figures  14 and 15 , respectively, depict the current profiles of the battery and fuel cell, while Fig.  16 shows the SOC of the battery. The simulation results in the figures for the PI controller are based on the original topology, whereas the results for the droop controller are based on the improved topology.

Battery power

SOC of the battery

Based on Figs. 14 , 15 and 16 , the following observations can be analyzed:

Under the same EMS, different results are obtained when the PI controller or droop controller as the local controller is used. For example, when the PI controller is used, the direct control of the FC’s output power causes large fluctuations in the FC power because of repeated changes in the reference power output based on the fuzzy-based EMS. By contrast, the droop controller simultaneously controls the battery and the fuel cell, resulting in the suppression of fuel cell power fluctuations.

According to Fig.  14 , in the PI-based EMS, the battery is in a state of discharging before the 2000 s, during which the battery bears the entire load, and the fuel cell does not work. After the 2000 s, the battery SOC is maintained at approximately 60%, at which the fuel cell bears most of the power, and the battery frequently switches between charging and discharging as the load changes. The strategy based on the PI-based EMS evidently does not rationally allocate power between the battery and fuel cell, leading to large fluctuations in the battery and affecting its lifespan.

The principle of the state machine-based EMS is to determine the reference power for the battery and the fuel cell according to the magnitude of power. The designed scenarios include a relatively stable 41 kW load, repeated pulse loads, FC bearing all the power under steady loads, and batteries only serving as supplements under pulse loads. The reason is that the state machine-based EMS outputs reference power on the basis of predetermined rules, and the wide range of designed scenarios in this study makes balancing the output of the battery and fuel cell with this strategy difficult. Thus, the battery is not working during the steady demand phase.

4.2 Power quality analysis

Based on simulation data, the analysis of the power results for the battery and fuel cell under different strategies, including their mean and standard deviation, is presented in Tables 5 and 6 .

According to Tables 5 and 6 , the following results can be analyzed:

Topological optimization improves the controllability of the battery and enhances the stability of the hybrid power system. When relying solely on the PI controller, the battery power experiences large fluctuations because the battery is directly connected to the bus. This connection results in passive energy supply and large power fluctuations. Nevertheless, adding a DC/DC converter considerably reduces these power fluctuations. In particular, the EMS based on the state machine and PI reduces battery power fluctuations by 94.6%.

As observed in Fig.  16 , the traditional PI controller stabilizes the SOC once it reaches the desired SOC value, at which the battery output power remains nearly zero, and the battery handles most of the load power. The state machine-based EMS primarily maintains the SOC at approximately 65%, while the fuzzy logic control allows the battery to fully discharge.

Performance varies when different local control strategies are integrated into the EMS. Energy management based on the state machine and PI effectively suppresses battery power fluctuations but is limited by the technical challenge posed by the fuel cell that handles most high-frequency fluctuations. This limitation is detrimental to the fuel cell’s lifespan and efficiency.

The results indicate that the EMS based on the combination of the state machine and droop control achieves balanced outcomes. This strategy maintains a high average output power for the fuel cell and minimizes power fluctuations, allowing the battery to handle the majority of high-frequency loads. This aligns with the predefined optimization goals. Notably, the battery power fluctuations decrease by 86.5%, and the fuel cell power fluctuations decrease by 16.2%.

The combination of fuzzy logic control and PI represents a relatively balanced control strategy. Compared with the combination of fuzzy logic control and droop control, the power fluctuations of the battery and fuel cell are enhanced because the fuzzy logic control continuously adjusts the reference power output, leading to frequent adjustments in the droop coefficients in the droop controller and intensifying the fluctuations.

5 Conclusions

Topological optimization improves the stability of the hybrid power system and enhances the controllability of the battery. When the PI controller alone is used, large power fluctuations occur because of the direct connection to the bus, leading to passive energy supply. However, integrating a DC/DC converter into the battery can greatly reduce power fluctuations, and the combination of the state machine-based EMS and PI reduces battery power fluctuations by 94.6%. Different local control strategies coupled with EMS lead to varying performance, and the combination of the state machine and droop control achieves balanced outcomes by minimizing power fluctuations in the battery and fuel cell. The combination of fuzzy logic control and PI represents a relatively balanced control strategy, while the combination of fuzzy logic control and droop control intensifies power fluctuations because of frequent adjustments.

This study primarily focuses on optimizing the topology and EMS of a fuel cell hybrid power system. By improving the topology and devising suitable energy management and local control strategies, the EMS based on the state machine and droop control achieves the most balanced results, demonstrating its suitability for hybrid fuel cell power systems. However, this research has some limitations.

The DC/DC converter used in this study employs an average value model, which cannot capture the current or voltage closed-loop control implemented based on PI or droop controllers. Thus, results are directly based on reference current or voltage, and the dynamic characteristics of the DC/DC converter are not considered.

This study solely focuses on the modification of the DC/DC converter while neglecting the optimization and modification of the capacities of the battery and fuel cell. It overlooks additional economic costs associated with these modifications, and thus, the simulation results are limited. A comprehensive evaluation of strategies should consider various factors to provide a holistic perspective.

This study conducts testing and analysis solely through software simulations without incorporating real-world testing and validation. Hardware-in-the-loop simulations are needed to validate the proposed topological optimization strategy and EMS in a real-world context.

Availability of data and materials

All data, models, and code generated or used during the study appear in the submitted article.

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Acknowledgements

This paper is supported by the 2020 Hubei Provincial Department of Education Science Research Program Guidance Project (Grant No. B2020252).

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Niu, L., Xiao, L. Optimization of topology and energy management in fuel cell cruise ship hybrid power systems. Intell. Mar. Technol. Syst. 2 , 12 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44295-024-00026-3

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The Radio Frequency Identification System for Events Research Paper

Introduction.

An event management system or software helps organizations plan, execute and report on events for the success of their business. Event organizers create these systems to monitor the events’ progress, improve their service delivery, and correct the noted flaws. They improve with technological advancement, meaning that event organizers must upgrade their software to maximize their functioning. Examples of this software include Eventbrite, Ticket Tailor, Cvent, and Eventzilla. These are mainly used for registration and ticket processes. Data from the software is collected and saved online. Organizations can capture a wide range of information from the software. For instance, Ticket Tailor is an app that people use to buy tickets online and give their feedback and complaints.

Due to advancements in tecnology, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is an intelligent system that was innovated as the latest event management system. It is a tag attached to objects, such as wristwatches, with information about a specific individual for identification. It is worn at the wrist, just like any other event ticket. They are electronically charged and scanned using smartphones. Critical information such as credit card and bank account numbers are copied in the tag, and it only needs one to swipe to use it (Bennett, 2013). Except these are electronic and can collect information and pay for expenses inside the events. Event organizers have swiftly diverted to using the RFID due to its easier accessibility and user-friendly usage.

However, anything mediated has its downsides, especially when it involves uploading massive amounts of information about individuals into the organizational database. RFID involves tracking individuals’ movements and payments, which makes it vulnerable for their data to be accessed by third parties, popularly known as hackers (Van Winkle, 2022). Even though the tag is built with unhackable encryption, there must be a possibility of viruses, reverse engineering, or a cyber-attack. In today’s world, anything connected to the internet is prone to cyber-attacks, including the Radio Frequency Identification system (Bennet, 2013). People can access information, for instance, locations, residential areas, and the individuals’ credit card and bank account details using the interface (Corporate Finance Institute, 20220. Technological systems reduce the risks of human errors in the organization.

The Head of Marketing Media, Resort Operations, and The Head of Corporate Information Technology of the Resort Operations at Padgett-Beale, Inc. believe that the organization needs the Radio Frequency Identification system (Bennett, 2013). The system’s main advantage is that the organization has broad exposure to information, such as the preferences of the customers, where they can use the information to improve their event experience (De Groot, 2022) The interface also reduces the number of infrastructures that the personnel have to monitor directly since it can be set to operate automatically (Allen et al., 2022). The information collected is accurate, as well as the payments made. The system also guarantees the safety of the participants on the event grounds since the tags can then be tracked to the last known location of an individual.

Analysis Section

Chosen use case.

Managing adult attendees at music festivals is the use of the RFID bands, which this paper focuses on. Adults are more likely to collect much information in music festivals and concerts than children who collect less. Adults can spend money from their accounts and credit cards to buy tickets, food, and drinks and pay for other events (Van Winkle, 2022). They are also more capable of expressing their preferences, which is permanent, than children, who provide substantial data variations. Therefore, RFID tags are more beneficial to the organization when used by adults due to the wide range of uses. Regardless, anyone in an event can get an RFID wristband, which would provide information from people of all ages.

Information Collected from the RFID system

The information that can be collected from the RFID system from adults in music festivals is financial, taste, and preferences of drinks and meals, their exact location, the participant’s demographics, and their expenditure. The financial information accessed is bank account numbers and balances, credit card pins, and the amount they are willing to spend on a particular festival (Van Winkle, 2022). The tastes and preferences of drinks and meals are obtained from the varieties or combinations the participants paid for. It is also easy to track a pattern using the previous information from earlier festivals.

The RFID can tell the participant’s location, including where they could be found, and predictions of their next move (Allen et al., 2013). The participant’s demographics are interpreted from their patterns and behavior during the festivals. Their expenditure is obtained by the total payments made during a particular event (Steele, 2022). This information is collected, stored, processed, and transmitted to assist the organization in improving future events.

Compliance Issues

Compliance issues related to using RFID bands to make and track mobile purchases include corruption and illegal practices, privacy breaches, process risks, workplace safety, and environmental concerns. Since the financial information is linked to the RFID bands, it is easier for the organization to go through a breach in the system (Bennett, 2013). Corruption is associated with laundering money from the participants or the organization through loopholes in the interface (Ecommerce Guide). Privacy breaches are the risk of the participant’s personal information, such as social security numbers, residents of the participants, and other details falling into the wrong hands (Allen et al., 2022). They are always associated with cyber-attacks and the malicious spread of unwanted elements in the software. It poses a threat to the participant’s information being exposed and endangering their lives and assets.

Since the RFID interface has a lot of critics and issues, it might lead to it being shut down for security purposes. Therefore, the process risks are associated with the organization using the wrong and risky ways to pass the usage of the system (Token RFID). It depends on the authenticity of the license and other government regularities. It also depends on whether the interface provides a good and safe environment for the employees (Allen et al., 2022). It is not the participant’s information in the system but the employee’s and the staff’s. Therefore, they should be assured that the use of the interface does not have any other effects, primarily on employee performance in the organization.

Another compliance issue involved environmental hazards posed by the use of the interface. RFID poses security threats not only to the participants but also to the community at large. For instance, when a third party is exposed to that wide range of information, the interface is insecure (Bennett, 2013). The public must be convinced to give in to using a system that they can trust. If the bands are disposable, the organization should ensure the people that they shall not pose any environmental hazards, such as the emission of dangerous gas by the tags or environmental cleanliness (Allen et al., 2022). The use of any interface might cause insecurity in the area. Therefore, strategies should be laid out to ensure that the participant’s information and their lives are safe.

Privacy and Security Issues

The main security concern associated with the RFID system of events management is duplication of the interface. It would be challenging for the customer to know the original and duplicated ones. Individuals or hackers might create a duplicate system for malicious purposes to scam unsuspected adults from music festivals (Allen et al., 2022). Therefore, the uncertainty that the RFID bands are being used can cause panic and distrust from the customers since it would pose a danger to the participants (Square). Hackers use malicious bands to obtain information from the individual. When they get a hold of crucial information, the security of the customer is compromised.

Another privacy issue is tracking the customer’s location. Since the bands can serve as trackers, a hacker can track a certain person with it. This exposes their location which threatens their safety (Tappit). The hacker can use information obtained from the band such as the bank accounts credit and debit cards in to coerce the user into doing their bidding.

RFID tags are vulnerable to manipulation by cyber attackers. This can be done through the study of their power consumption. During the upgrade of the tags, the cyber attackers hijack the process and gains access to the tag’s upgrade process. It also assists them in carrying out time-based attacks when the encryptions are down (Van Winkle, 2022). It comes after a keen study of the patterns of RFID tags. The organization might avail them to the participants in the events without knowing that their functionality has been altered (Oracle). The hackers are then granted access to tons of information and the organization’s servers and database.

Not all organizations have the secure network systems required to ensure that data from the RFID bands are specific. Cyber attackers can use these poor encryptions and networks to access the organization’s cloud (Bennett, 2013). Therefore, if the organization’s web is not secure, it can threaten the participant’s information. The attackers can also record the signals sent from the participant’s band to the organization’s server. It would help them study the movement and be able to hijack it when it is sent again (Bennet, 2013). If the organization has different variables of the signals transmitted so that no password is sent twice, it can also be a security threat.

The virus is considered a future security threat to RFID tags. Anyone possessing an RFID tag can plant a virus, which is more effective due to the insecure network and low storage of the tags. This virus makes it possible for it to be read by a third party (Van Winkle, 2022). They can also access the organization’s system, depriving them of valuable data. It is easy to plant a virus in the tag since any adult entering the festival can use it, and the information can be transmitted to the same server. This also makes it possible for the virus to spread faster.

Laws Affecting the Implementation of the RFID System

Many countries outside America still need to pass laws that govern the usage and implementation of RFID tags. However, there are electronic bills passed by the American government to control the use of tags. New Hampshire’s House of Representatives passed laws that dictated that organizations minimize using RFID and other tracking systems (Allen et al., 202). Michigan imposed a certain fee on organizations intending to use the RFID system, discouraging people from implementing the software (Bennet, 2013). The United States enacted the law to scan everything with tags, such as wristbands, as well as the imposition of bar codes.

Recommendations

The organization should conduct background research on the people possessing the RFID wristbands to determine whether they have hacker histories or pose any harm. This would assist them in being aware of their customers (Inc.com). They should also carry out their processes, such as registration and ticketing through the tags, in a secure network to keep the information from being prone to cyber-attack (Allen et al., 2022). The organization should also pass policies protecting the accessibility of the tags and information, such as laws against corruption in the organization, wrongful use of the participant’s knowledge, and money laundering. They should establish the consequences of these actions.

The organization should also endeavor to improve the technology, which will pave the way to a more secure form of using the tags. With its technological advances, an organization would be open to modifying tags with more security protocols (Van Winkle, 2022). The organization should restrict the number of employees who have access to the information gained from the participants. They should also employ experienced and trustworthy employees who can handle that much information without taking advantage of the access (Van Winkle, 2022).

Adults give a wide range of information that can be helpful to the organization. They use this information to improve the failed areas and maintain certain practices according to the participant’s tastes and preferences. For instance, if there were more soda purchases than water at a music festival, the event organizers would conclude that the audience prefers soda to water. The bands worn by parents can be connected to their children’s in the event, which might help track them down if they got lost. All information is directed to a secure database. The organization has access to this and other ranges of information. This explains why the IT governance board should consider the following recommendations for the safety of the data: they should establish restrictions to information, carry out a background check on participants of the festival, ensure a secure network around the organization, pass policies to govern the protection of the information, advance technologically and improve security protocols of the data. They should also upgrade the bands from time to time, which is equivalent to rewriting encryptions which makes it impossible for the hackers to interfere.

8 benefits of using RFID wristbands for resorts & attractions | ID&C US blog . (n.d.). Web.

Allen, J., Harris, R., Jago, L., Tantrai, A., Jonson, P., & D’Arcy, E. (2022). Festival and special event management . John Wiley & Sons.

Bennett, C. (2013). RFID wristbands vs NFC apps: What’s winning the contactless battle? TechRadar. Web.

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Oracle | Cloud Applications and Cloud. Financial management . (n.d.). Platform. Web.

Square, Payment platform – in-person & online payment gateway | Square . (n.d.). Web.

Steele, J. (2022). Credit card fraud and ID theft statistics . CreditCards.com. Web.

Tappit. Tappit launches cashless RFID wristband safety functionality . (n.d.). Cashless Payment Systems for Events and Venues. Web.

Token RFID. The beginner’s guide to RFID technology for events | Token blog . (2018). Web.

Ecommerce Guide. What is ecommerce? Benefits, stats and history of electronic commerce . Web.

Van Winkle, C. M. (2022). Information and Communication Technology for Events. In Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing . Edward Elgar Publishing

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Virtual fence (VF) is the use of a global positioning system (GPS) to dictate where on the landscape livestock can graze without relying on traditional physical fence such as barbed wire. The recent acceleration in the development and adoption of VF technology for grazing management has been characterized by the evolution of divergent terminology. Different research and commercial entities have adopted terms and definitions independently. Some terms and definitions are inherently problematic, while others are more aligned, and the simple fact that differences exist contributes to confusion in communication among scientists, producers, land managers, manufacturers, government agencies, and the public. In this paper, we propose a standard terminology determined during a 2-d in-service workshop at the annual meeting of the Society of Rangeland Management in February 2023. Standard terminology will aid in efficient and effective communication among all entities and interested parties.

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