what is the title for phd student

What is a PhD? Advice for PhD students

How long does it take to get a doctorate degree how do you get into grad school are you qualified to do a phd answers to these questions and more.

What is a PhD?

A PhD, which stands for “doctor of philosophy”, is the most advanced academic degree. It’s earned through extensive research on a specific topic, demonstrating expertise and contributing new knowledge to the field.

What does “PhD” mean?

The term “PhD” is often used as a synonym for any doctoral-level qualification. Doctorate degrees can often be split into two categories: MPhil and PhD.

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An MPhil is similar to a PhD as it includes a research element (which is usually shorter and less in-depth than a PhD thesis, and often more akin to a dissertation undertaken at undergraduate or master’s level). 

MPhil students focus more on interpreting existing knowledge and theory and critically evaluating other people’s work rather than producing their own research. The precise nature and definition of an MPhil can vary among institutions and countries. 

A PhD, meanwhile, follows a more widely known and traditional route and requires students, often referred to as “candidates”, to produce their own work and research on a new area or topic to a high academic standard.

PhD requirements vary significantly among countries and institutions. The PhD, once completed, grants the successful candidate the title of “doctor of philosophy”, also called PhD or DPhil.

What is a professional doctorate?

A professional doctorate is a kind of degree that helps people become experts in their fields. Instead of focusing mainly on theory and research like a regular PhD, a professional doctorate is all about practical skills and knowledge.

This kind of doctorate is great for students who want to get better at their jobs in areas like teaching, healthcare, business, law or psychology. The courses and projects in these programmes are designed to tackle real problems you might face at work.

For example, you might have heard of the doctor of education (EdD), doctor of business administration (DBA), doctor of psychology (PsyD) or doctor of nursing practice (DNP). These programmes combine learning, hands-on projects and sometimes a thesis paper or essay to show you’re skilled at solving on-the-job challenges.

How long does it take to study a PhD?

The time required to complete a PhD can vary significantly based on several factors. Generally, a full-time PhD programme takes around three to six years to finish. However, it’s important to take into account individual circumstances and the nature of the research involved.

1. Full-time vs. part-time: If you’re studying full-time, dedicating most of your time to your studies, it usually takes about three to four years to complete a PhD. However, studying part-time while managing other commitments might extend the duration. Part-time PhDs can take around six to eight years, and sometimes even longer.

2. Nature of research: The complexity of your research proposal can influence the time required. Certain research questions may involve intricate experiments, extensive data collection or in-depth analysis, potentially leading to a longer completion timeline.

3. Field of study: The subject area you’re researching can also affect the necessary time. Some fields, such as sciences or engineering, might involve more hands-on work, while theoretical subjects might require more time for literature review and analysis.

4. Supervision and support: The guidance and availability of your academic supervisor can affect the pace of your research progress. Regular meetings and effective communication can help keep your studies on track.

5. Thesis writing: While the research phase is crucial, the stage of writing your thesis is equally significant. Organising and presenting your research findings in a clear and cohesive manner can take several months.

6. External commitments: Personal commitments, such as work, family or health-related factors, can influence your study time. Some students need to balance these alongside their PhD studies, potentially extending the duration.

7. External Funding: The availability of funding can also affect your study duration. Some funding might be linked to specific project timelines or research objectives.

So, although a PhD usually takes between three and six years of full-time study, with potential variations based on research complexity, enrolment as part-time or full-time, field of study and personal circumstances. It’s vital to have a realistic understanding of these factors when planning your PhD journey.

How long is a PhD in the UK?

In the UK, the length of a PhD programme typically ranges from three to four years of full-time study. As explained above, there are many factors to consider.

How long is a PhD in the US?

Similarly to the UK, in the United States, the duration of a PhD programme can vary widely depending on the field of study, research topic and individual circumstances. On average, a full-time PhD programme in the US typically takes between five and six years to complete.

Why does it take longer to study a PhD in the US?

PhD programmes generally take longer to complete in the US than in the UK due to various factors in the education systems and programme structures of each country:

1. Programme structure: UK PhD programmes often emphasise early, focused research from the first year, leading to shorter completion times. In contrast, US programmes commonly include more initial coursework in your first and second year and broader foundational training, which can extend the overall duration.

2. Course work requirements: Many US PhD programmes require a lot of course work, which can lengthen the time needed to finish. UK programmes tend to have fewer or no course work demands, allowing students to concentrate primarily on research skills.

3. Research funding: In the UK, PhD funding is often awarded with specific timeframes in mind, motivating completion of the research degree in the agreed duration. In the US, funding approaches can vary, requiring students to secure funding from multiple sources, potentially affecting their progress and completion time.

4. Teaching responsibilities: Some US PhD students take on teaching roles as part of their funding, dividing their time and potentially prolonging their studies.

5. Research approach: Differences in research methodologies and project scopes can affect the time needed for data collection, experimentation and analysis.

6. Academic culture: The US education system values a well-rounded education, including coursework and comprehensive exams. This can extend the time before full-time research begins. UK PhD programmes often prioritise independent research early on.

7. Part-time and work commitments: US PhD candidates might have more flexibility for part-time work or other commitments, which can affect research progress.

8. Dissertation requirements: US PhD programmes generally include a longer and more comprehensive dissertation, involving more chapters and a broader exploration of the research topic.

These variations in programme structures, funding models and academic cultures contribute to the differing completion times between the two countries.

What qualifications do you need for a PhD?

To be eligible for a PhD programme, certain educational qualifications are generally expected by universities. These qualifications serve as indicators of your readiness to engage in advanced research and contribute to the academic community.

First, an undergraduate or bachelor’s degree in a relevant field is typically the most common requirement. This degree provides you with a foundational understanding of the subject and introduces you to basic research methodologies. It serves as a starting point for your academic journey.

Do you need a master’s degree to get into a PhD programme?

In addition to an undergraduate degree, many PhD programmes also require candidates to hold postgraduate or master’s degrees, often in fields related to the intended PhD research. A master’s degree offers a deeper exploration of the subject matter and enhances your research skills. Possessing a master’s degree signifies a higher level of expertise and specialisation.

The combination of both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees demonstrates a solid academic background. This background is crucial before you engage in doctoral study because pursuing a PhD involves more than just knowledge; it requires advanced research abilities, critical thinking and the capacity to provide an original contribution and new insights into the chosen field of study.

While these qualifications are usually requested, there are exceptions. Some institutions offer direct-entry programmes that encompass bachelor’s, master’s and PhD degrees in a streamlined structure. This approach is often seen in scientific and engineering disciplines rather than humanities.

In exceptional cases, outstanding performance during undergraduate studies, coupled with a well-defined research proposal, might lead to direct entry into a PhD programme without requiring a master’s degree.

Admission requirements can vary between universities and programmes. Some institutions might have more flexible prerequisites, while others could have more stringent criteria. Make sure that you thoroughly research all admission requirements of the PhD programmes you’re interested in to ensure you provide the right information.

Are PhD entry requirements similar in other countries?

PhD entry requirements in Canada and Australia can be somewhat similar to those in the UK and the US, but there are also some differences. Just like in the UK and the US, having a bachelor’s degree followed by a master’s degree is a common way to qualify for a PhD in Canada and Australia. However, the exact rules can vary, such as how much research experience you need or the grades you should have.

In Canada and Australia, as in the UK and the US, international students usually need to show their English language skills through tests like IELTS or TOEFL. And, like in other places, you might need to give a research proposal to explain what you want to study for your PhD.

But remember, even though there are some similarities, each country has its own rules.

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How much does it cost to study a PhD?

The cost of pursuing a PhD can vary significantly between international and home (domestic) students, and it depends on the country, university and programme you choose.

United Kingdom (UK)

Home students in the UK often pay lower tuition fees compared with international students. Home students might also have access to government funding or subsidised tuition rates.

International students typically pay higher tuition fees, which can vary widely depending on the university and programme. Fees can range from around £10,000 to £25,000 or more per year.

United States (US)

PhD programme costs in the US can be quite high, especially for international students. Public universities often have lower tuition rates for in-state residents compared with out-of-state residents and international students.

Private universities in the US generally have higher tuition fees, and international students might be charged higher rates than domestic students.

Canadian universities often charge higher tuition fees for international students compared with domestic students.

Some universities offer funding packages that include tuition waivers and stipends for both domestic and international doctoral students.

In Australia, domestic students (Australian citizens and permanent residents) usually pay lower tuition fees than international students.

International students in Australia might have higher tuition fees, and costs can vary based on the university and programme.

Apart from tuition fees, other aspects play a role in the overall financial consideration:

PhD studentship: Many universities offer PhD studentships that provide financial support to research students, covering both tuition fees and a stipend for living expenses.

Stipend and housing: Stipends are designed to cover living expenses. Stipend amounts can vary depending on the university and location. If you’re studying in London in the UK, stipends might be higher to account for the higher living costs in the city. Some universities also offer subsidised or affordable housing options for doctoral students.

Tuition and stipend packages: Some PhD programmes provide funding packages that include both tuition waivers and stipends. These packages are to help relieve the financial burden on students during their doctoral studies.

Research the financial support options provided by the universities you’re interested in to make an informed decision about the cost of your PhD journey.

What funding options are available for PhD candidates?

PhD candidates have various funding options available to support their studies and research journeys. Some of these options include:

PhD scholarships: Scholarships are a common form of financial aid for PhD candidates. They are awarded based on academic merit, research potential or other specific criteria. Scholarships can cover tuition fees and provide a stipend for living expenses.

Bursaries: Bursaries are another form of financial assistance offered to students, including PhD candidates, based on financial need. They can help cover tuition fees or provide additional financial support.

In the UK, specific funding options are available:

Regional consortium: Some regions have research consortiums that offer funding opportunities for doctoral candidates. These collaborations can provide financial support for research projects aligned with specific regional needs.

UK research institute: Research councils in the UK often offer stipends to PhD candidates. These stipends cover living expenses and support research work.

University-based studentship: Many UK universities offer studentships. You can read more about these above.

In the USA, there are also funding options available:

Research assistantships (RAs): Many universities offer research assistantships where PhD candidates work on research projects under the guidance of faculty members. In exchange, they receive stipends and often have their tuition waived.

Teaching assistantships (TA): Teaching assistantships involve assisting professors in teaching undergraduate courses. In return, PhD candidates receive stipends and sometimes tuition remission.

Fellowships: Fellowships are competitive awards that provide financial support for PhD candidates. They can come from universities, government agencies, private foundations and other institutions. Fellowships can cover tuition, provide stipends and offer research or travel funds.

Graduate assistantships: Graduate assistantships include a range of roles, from research and teaching to administrative support. These positions often come with stipends and sometimes include tuition benefits.

External grants and fellowships: PhD candidates can apply for grants and fellowships from external organisations and foundations that support research careers in specific fields. Examples include the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Fulbright Programme.

Employer sponsorship: In some cases, employers might sponsor employees to pursue PhDs, especially if the research aligns with the company’s interests.

You can read about the current available scholarships for international students of all education levels on our website .

What does a PhD Involve?

How does a PhD work?

A PhD includes thorough academic research and significant contributions to your chosen field of study. The timeline for completing a PhD can significantly vary based on the country, college or university you attend and the specific subject you study.

The duration of a PhD programme can vary based on factors such as the institution’s requirements and the academic discipline you’re pursuing. For instance, the timeline for a PhD in a science-related field might differ from that of a humanities discipline.

UK PhD timeline example

Looking at a typical PhD degree in a London higher education institution, we can consider this example timeline.

In the initial year of your PhD, you’ll collaborate closely with your designated academic supervisor. This collaboration involves refining and solidifying your research proposal, which lays the foundation for your entire doctoral journey.

This is also the time to establish a comprehensive plan, complete with well-defined milestones and deadlines. A crucial aspect of this year is conducting an extensive literature review, immersing yourself in existing academic works to understand the landscape of your chosen research area. It’s important to make sure that your research idea is original and distinct from prior studies.

As you begin the second year, you’ll actively collect data and gather information related to your research topic. Simultaneously, you’ll initiate the process of crafting your thesis. This involves combining your research findings and analysis into sections of your thesis document.

This is also the phase where you might have opportunities to share your research insights at academic meetings, conferences or workshops. Depending on the programme, you might even engage in teaching activities. Some PhD candidates also begin contributing to academic journals or books, showcasing their findings to a broader audience.

The third year of a PhD programme often marks the final stage of your research efforts. This is when you dedicate substantial time to writing and finalising your complete thesis. Once your thesis is completed to the highest standard, you’ll submit it for thorough evaluation.

A significant milestone in the third year is the viva voce, an oral examination where you’ll defend your thesis before a panel of experts in your field. The viva voce is an opportunity to showcase your deep understanding of your research and defend your findings.

Why should you do a PhD?

For many people, acquiring a doctorate degree is the pinnacle of academic achievement, the culmination of years of commitment to higher education.

However, the act of pursuing a PhD can be a complex, frustrating, expensive and time-consuming exercise. But with the right preparation, some sound advice and a thorough understanding of the task at hand, your years as a doctoral student can be some of the most rewarding of your life. 

People choose to work towards a doctorate for many reasons. If you are looking to pursue an academic position, such as university lecturer or researcher, then a PhD is usually required.

Many people obtain a PhD as part of a partnership with an employer, particularly in scientific fields such as engineering, where their research can prove useful for companies.

In some cases, however, PhDs are simply down to an individual’s love of a subject and their desire to learn more about their field.

What are some benefits of studying a PhD?

Pursuing a PhD can have many benefits that extend beyond academic achievement, encompassing personal growth, professional advancement and meaningful contributions to knowledge.

One of the most notable benefits of a PhD is the potential for tenure in academia. Attaining tenure provides a level of job security that allows you to delve into long-term research projects and make enduring contributions to your field. It signifies a stage where you can explore innovative ideas and pursue in-depth research, fostering your academic legacy.

While not obligatory, the opportunity to collaborate on research projects with your supervisor is another valuable aspect of a PhD pursuit. These collaborations might even come with financial compensation, offering real-world experience, skill development and practical applications of your research. Engaging in such collaborations can enrich your research portfolio and refine your research methodologies.

A pivotal aspect of a PhD journey is the chance to publish your original research findings. By disseminating your work in academic journals or presenting it at conferences, you contribute to the expansion of knowledge within your field. These publications establish your expertise and reputation among peers and researchers worldwide, leaving a lasting impact.

The pursuit of a PhD can provide a unique platform to build a diverse network of colleagues, mentors and collaborators. Engaging with fellow researchers, attending conferences and participating in academic events offer opportunities to make valuable connections. This network can lead to collaborations, expose you to a spectrum of perspectives and pave the way for future research endeavours.

What is a PhD thesis? And what is a PhD viva?

A PhD thesis will be produced with help from an academic supervisor, usually one with expertise in your particular field of study. This thesis is the backbone of a PhD, and is the candidate’s opportunity to communicate their original research to others in their field (and a wider audience).  PhD students also have to explain their research project and defend their thesis in front of a panel of academics. This part of the process is often the most challenging, since writing a thesis is a major part of many undergraduate or master’s degrees, but having to defend it from criticism in real time is arguably more daunting.  This questioning is known as a “viva”, and examiners will pay particular attention to a PhD’s weaknesses either in terms of methodology or findings. Candidates will be expected to have a strong understanding of their subject areas and be able to justify specific elements of their research quickly and succinctly.

In rare cases, students going for a PhD may instead be awarded an MPhil if the academic standard of their work is not considered fully up to par but still strong enough to be deserving of a qualification.

Can you do a PhD part time? 

Many PhD and MPhil candidates choose to pursue their qualification part time, in order to allow time to work and earn while studying. This is especially true of older students, who might be returning to academia after working for a few years. 

When applying, you should always speak to the admissions team at your university to ensure this is possible and then continue to work with your supervisor to balance all your commitments. 

Can I do a PhD through distance learning?

This is something else that you will need to check with your university. Some institutions offer this option, depending on the nature of your research. 

You will need to be clear how many times you will need to travel to your university to meet with your supervisor throughout your PhD. 

Your PhD supervisor

Choosing the right PhD supervisor is essential if you want to get the most out of your PhD. Do your research into the faculty at the institution and ensure that you meet with your proposed supervisor (either virtually or in person) before fully committing. 

You need to know that not only do they have the right expertise and understanding of your research but also that your personalities won’t clash throughout your PhD. 

Remember, to complete your PhD, you will need a strong support network in place, and your supervisor is a key part of that network. 

Coping with PhD stress

If you do decide to embark on a doctorate, you may well encounter stress and anxiety. The work involved is often carried out alone, the hours can be long and many students can suffer from the pressure they feel is on their shoulders.

Ensuring that you check in regularly with your emotions and your workload is crucial to avoid burnout. If you have other commitments, such as a job or a family, then learning to balance these can feel overwhelming at times. 

Give yourself regular breaks, speak to your supervisor and ensure that you know what university resources and support systems are available to you in case you need to access them. 

Post-doctorate: what happens after you finish your PhD?

Many PhD graduates pursue a career in academia, while others will work in industry. Some might take time out, if they can afford to, to recover from the efforts of PhD study.

Whatever you choose to do, undertaking a PhD is a huge task that can open up a range of doors professionally. Just remember to take some time out to celebrate your achievement. 

How does a PhD affect salary and earning potential?

How much does a professor with a PhD make a year?

Professors with PhDs can earn different amounts depending on where they work and their experience. In the UK, a professor might make around £50,000 to £100,000 or more each year. In the US, it's between about $60,000 and $200,000 or even higher. The exact salary depends on things like the place they work, if they have tenure, and what they teach.

How much does a PhD add to salary?

Having a PhD can make your salary higher than if you had a lower degree. But exactly how much more you earn can change. On average, people with PhDs earn more than those with bachelor’s or master’s degrees. The increase in salary is influenced by many things, such as the job you do, where you work and what field you’re in.

In fields such as research, healthcare, technology and finance, your knowledge and skills from your PhD can potentially help you secure a higher salary position.

In the end, having a PhD can boost your earning potential and open doors to well-paying jobs, including professorships and special roles in different areas. But the exact effect on your salary is influenced by many things, so ensure you weigh the cost against the benefit.

How to choose a PhD programme?

Choosing a PhD programme involves defining your research interest, researching supervisors and programme reputation, evaluating funding options, reviewing programme structure, considering available resources, assessing networking opportunities, factoring in location and career outcomes, visiting the campus if possible and trusting your instincts.

How can I find available PhD programmes?

You can find available PhD programmes by visiting university websites, using online directories such as “FindAPhD”, checking professional associations, networking with professors and students, following universities on social media, attending career fairs and conferences, contacting universities directly and exploring research institutes’ websites.

How to apply for a PhD programme?

To apply for a PhD programme:

Research and select universities aligned with your interests.

Contact potential supervisors, sharing your proposal, CV and references.

Prepare application materials: research proposal, CV, recommendation letters and a writing sample.

Ensure you meet academic and language-proficiency requirements.

Complete an online application through the university’s portal.

Pay any required application fees.

Write a statement of purpose explaining your motivations.

Provide official transcripts of your academic records.

Submit standardised test scores if needed.

Some programmes may require an interview.

The admissions committee reviews applications and decides.

Apply for scholarships or assistantships.

Upon acceptance, review and respond to the offer letter.

Plan travel, accommodation and logistics accordingly.

Remember to research and follow each university’s specific application guidelines and deadlines.

How to apply for a PhD as an international student?

Many stages of the PhD application process are the same for international students as domestic students. However, there are sometimes some additional steps:

International students should apply for a student visa.

Take language proficiency tests such as TOEFL or IELTS if required.

Provide certificates if needed to validate your previous degrees.

Show evidence of sufficient funds for tuition and living expenses.

Check if you need health insurance for your chosen destination.

Translate and authenticate academic transcripts if necessary.

Attend orientation sessions for cultural adaptation.

Apply for university housing or explore off-campus options.

Familiarise yourself with international student support services.

Ben Osborne, the postgraduate student recruitment manager at the University of Sussex explains in detail how to apply for a PhD in the UK .

Giulia Evolvi, a lecturer in media and communication at Erasmus University, Rotterdam explains how to apply for a PhD in the US .

Finally, Samiul Hossain explores the question Is it possible to do a three-year PhD as an international student?

Q. What is a PhD? A. A PhD is the highest level of academic degree awarded by universities, involving in-depth research and a substantial thesis.

Q. What does “PhD” mean? A. “PhD” stands for doctor of philosophy, recognising expertise in a field.

Q. What is a professional doctorate? A. A professional doctorate emphasises practical application in fields such as education or healthcare.

Q. How long does it take to study a PhD? A. It takes between three and six years to study a full-time PhD programme.

Q. How long is a PhD in the UK? A. It takes around three to four years to study a full-time UK PhD.

Q. How long is a PhD in the US? A. It takes approximately five to six years to complete a full-time US PhD.

Q. Why does it take longer to study a PhD in the US? A. US programmes often include more course work and broader training.

Q. What qualifications do you need for a PhD? A. You usually need an undergraduate degree as a minimum requirement, although a master’s might be preferred.

Q. Do you need a master’s degree to get into a PhD programme? A. Master’s degrees are preferred but not always required.

Q. Are PhD entry requirements similar in other countries? A. Entry requirements are similar in many countries, but there may be additional requirements. Make sure to check the university website for specific details.

Q. How much does it cost to study a PhD? A. The cost of PhD programmes vary by country and university.

Q. What funding options are available for PhD candidates? A. Scholarships, assistantships, fellowships, grants, stipends are all funding options for PhD candidates.

Q. What does a PhD involve? A. PhDs involve research, seminars, thesis, literature review, data analysis and a PhD viva.

Q. Why should you do a PhD? A. There are many reasons to study a PhD including personal growth, research skills, contributions to academia and professional development.

Q. What are some benefits of studying a PhD? A. Benefits of graduating with a PhD include achieving tenure, collaborations with colleagues, publication of your work, and networking opportunities.

Q. What is a PhD thesis? A. A PhD thesis is a comprehensive document that showcases the original research conducted by a PhD candidate.

Q. What is a PhD viva? A. A PhD viva, also known as a viva voce or oral examination, is the final evaluation of a PhD candidate’s research and thesis where the panel asks questions, engages in discussions and assesses the depth of the candidate’s understanding and expertise.

Q. Can you do a PhD part-time? A. Yes, part-time options are available for PhDs.

Q. Can I do a PhD through distance learning? A. Some universities offer online PhDs; you can find out more on their websites.

Q. How to choose a PhD programme? A. You can find PhD programmes through research, by contacting faculty, checking resources and considering location.

Q. How can I find available PhD programme? A. You can find available PhD programmes on university sites, through directories and by networking.

Q. How to apply for a PhD programme A. To apply for a PhD programme, research suitable universities and programmes, get in touch with potential supervisors, gather required documents like transcripts and reference letters, complete the online application, pay any necessary fees and submit a statement of purpose and research proposal. If needed, meet language-proficiency criteria and attend interviews. After acceptance, explore funding choices, confirm your spot and get ready for the programme’s start.

Q. How to apply for a PhD as an international student A. To apply for a PhD as an international student, follow similar steps to domestic students, but you need to include securing a student visa and passing language requirements.

Q. What is a PhD dropout rate? A. The dropout rate from PhDs varies but is approximately 30-40 per cent.

Q. How does a PhD affect salary and earning potential? A. A PhD can boost earning potential, especially in research, technology, healthcare and academia. Impact varies by job, industry and location. Experience, skills and demand also influence salary.

Q. How to address a person with a PhD? A. When addressing someone with a PhD, it’s respectful to use “Dr”, followed by their last name, whether they have a PhD in an academic field or a professional doctorate. For instance, “Dr. Smith”.

Q. Is there a difference between a PhD and a doctorate? A. The terms “PhD” and “doctorate” are often used interchangeably, though a PhD is a specific type of doctorate focused on original research. A doctorate can refer more broadly to any doctoral-level degree, including professional doctorates with practical applications.

Q. What is the difference between a PhD and an MD? A. A PhD is a doctor of philosophy, awarded for academic research, while an MD is a doctor of medicine, focusing on medical practice. They lead to different career paths and involve distinct areas of study.

Q. What is the difference between a PhD and a professional doctorate? A. A PhD is an academic research-focused degree, while a professional doctorate emphasises applying research to practical fields such as education or business. PhDs often involve original research, while professional doctorates focus on real-world application.

Q. What is the difference between UK and US PhDs? A. The difference between UK and US PhDs lies mainly in structure and duration. UK PhDs often have shorter durations and a stronger emphasis on independent research from an early stage. US PhDs typically include more initial coursework and broader foundational training before full-time research begins.

Q. What is the difference between a PhD student and a candidate? A. A PhD student is actively studying and researching in a doctoral programme, while a PhD candidate has completed programme requirements except for the dissertation and is close to completion.

Q. What’s the difference between a PhD and an EdD? A. A PhD and an EdD (doctor of education) differ in focus. A PhD emphasises research and academic contributions, while an EdD focuses on applying research to practical educational issues.

Q. What’s the difference between a PhD and a DBA? A. A PhD and a DBA (doctor of business administration) differ in purpose. A PhD emphasises theoretical research and academia, while a DBA is practice-oriented, aimed at solving real business problems.

Q. What’s the difference between a PhD and a PsyD? A. A PhD and a PsyD (doctor of psychology) differ in emphasis. A PhD focuses on research and academia, while a PsyD emphasises clinical practice and applying psychological knowledge.

Q. What’s the difference between a PhD and an LLD? A. A PhD and an LLD (doctor of laws or Legum doctor) are distinct. A PhD is awarded in various disciplines, while an LLD is usually an honorary degree for significant contributions to law.

Q. What’s the difference between a PhD and an MD-PhD? A. A PhD and an MD-PhD differ. An MD-PhD is a dual degree combining medical training (MD) with research training (PhD).

Q. What is the Cambridge PhD? A. A Cambridge PhD involves original research guided by a supervisor, resulting in a thesis. It’s offered at the University of Cambridge .

Q. What is the Oxford DPhil? A. An Oxford DPhil is equivalent to a PhD and involves independent research leading to a thesis. The term “DPhil” is unique to the University of Oxford .

Q. What is the PhD programme acceptance rate? A. PhD acceptance rates vary by university, field and competition. Prestigious universities and competitive fields often have lower acceptance rates.

Q. What is a PhD supervisor? A. A PhD supervisor guides and supports a student’s research journey, providing expertise and feedback.

Q. What is a PhD panel? A. A PhD panel evaluates a candidate’s research, thesis and oral defence. It consists of experts in the field.

Q. What is a PhD stipend? A. A PhD stipend is a regular payment supporting living expenses during research, often tied to teaching or research assistant roles.

Q. What is a PhD progression assessment? A. A PhD progression assessment evaluates a student’s progress, often confirming their continuation in the programme.

Q. What is a PhD defence? A. A PhD defence, or viva, is the final oral examination where a candidate presents and defends their research findings and thesis before experts.

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American Academic Job Titles Explained

What's the difference between an assistant professor and an associate professor? What about an adjunct professor and a visiting assistant professor? Here's a breakdown of the most common academic job titles used in the USA and Canada.

PhD Student

A PhD is required to work as a professor or researcher in many fields in the US and Canada. Broady speaking, the path to a PhD consists of two to three years of coursework followed by qualification exams and then the writing and defending of a dissertation. Many North American PhD programs require that students to gain teaching experience as well, often as teaching assistants. PhD students do have to pay tuition at American and Canadian universities although many top programs include tuition waiver in their funding packages. PhDs can be funded by the university, external fellowships, personal loans, or a combination of the three. The amount of time it takes to earn a PhD depends on the field, but the average is six years. A Master’s degree is not always a necessary prerequisite for a PhD in North America. Many universities offer direct entry PhD programs which means that students are also awarded a Master’s degree after they have completed certain courses or exams.

Postdoctoral Researcher/Fellow/Scholar

After earning a PhD, the next step in the academic career path is often a postdoc. Postdocs used to just be part of the STEM career path, but these types of positions have started to become more common in the humanities as well. A postdoc is a continuation of a researcher’s training that allows them to further their professional development and start to transition from student to independent researcher. Postdocs also often take additional leadership or teaching responsibilities in their lab or department. These positions are usually two to three years and it is not unusual for a researcher to do more than one postdoc. In Canada postdocs must be within five years of earning their PhD, while there is no limit on how long you can be a postdoc in the United States.

Tenure Track

An academic on the “tenure track” is on the path to a permanent professor position at their university. They will be expected to go up for "review" five to seven years after they start their position at the university. The tenure committee will evaluates the quality of the candidate’s teaching, research, publication record, and service to the university. If the candidate is successful, they are awarded tenure which provides them lifetime employment at their university.

Assistant Professor

This is the entry-level tenure track position. The position comprises of teaching, research and service to the institution (such as being a member of various university committees) and different universities will emphasize different components more. Assistant professors typically teach anywhere from two to four courses per semester in addition to supervising graduate students. They are also expected to be active researchers and publish books, monographs, papers, and journal articles to meet their tenure requirements.

Associate Professor

An assistant professor who has been granted tenure is usually promoted to an associate professor, however, the rank doesn’t always mean the professor is tenured. An associate professor often has a national reputation as a scholar and is involved in service activities beyond their university.

This is the final destination of the tenure track. Five to seven years after receiving tenure, associate professors go through another review. If they are successful, they are promoted to full professor. Professors usually have a record of accomplishment that has established them as an international or national leader in their field.

Adjunct Professor

The number of adjunct professors has grown dramatically in the last 40 years. An adjunct professor is a part-time or non-permanent faculty member who is hired on a semester to semester basis to teach a particular course/courses. Adjuncts are often paid per course and as a result many adjuncts teach at multiple universities each semester.

An adjunct professor can also be someone whose primary appointment is in another department or at another university.

Visiting Assistant Professor (VAP)

This is a temporary appointment that can range from one semester to up to three years. These appointments are usually made to replace faculty on leave or to bring in someone who specializes in an area that the department currently lacks. VAPs often have a higher teaching load than tenured professors which can leave them with little time for their own research. These positions help entry-level academics gain more teaching experience and demonstrate their potential, but they are unlikely to turn into tenure track positions.

Lecturer/Instructor

In Canada and the United States, a lecturer/instructor is a non-tenure-track teaching position. They often have a teach more courses than tenure-track faculty and have with no research obligations. Lecturer/Instructor positions are more common in the humanities and many teach foreign languages. While lecturers hold advanced degrees, they do not always have PhDs.

It is important to note that the title of lecturer means something very different in the UK. A UK lecturer is closer to a North American assistant professor in that the position has teaching, research and service requirements. You can read more about academic titles in the UK  here . 

Research Assistant

This is a staff position rather than a faculty position. In contrast to a lecturer, a research assistant is primarily focused on research and has little to no teaching responsibilities. These positions are usually funded by grants or fellowships rather than by the university. While they may hold advanced degrees, research assistants are not required to have PhDs.

Research Associate/Scientist/Fellow

A research associate is distinguished by the fact that, unlike a research assistant, they have a PhD and have completed a postdoc. This is a more senior position in the lab with a more significant leadership and grant-writing role. A research associate is primarily a research position, though it may have some teaching responsibilities.

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• What is a PhD?

Written by Mark Bennett

A PhD is a doctoral research degree and the highest level of academic qualification you can achieve. The degree normally takes between three and four years of full-time work towards a thesis offering an original contribution to your subject.

This page explains what a PhD is, what it involves and what you need to know if you’re considering applying for a PhD research project , or enrolling on a doctoral programme .

On this page

The meaning of a phd.

The PhD can take on something of a mythic status. Are they only for geniuses? Do you have to discover something incredible? Does the qualification make you an academic? And are higher research degrees just for people who want to be academics?

Even the full title, ‘Doctor of Philosophy’, has a somewhat mysterious ring to it. Do you become a doctor? Yes, but not that kind of doctor. Do you have to study Philosophy? No (not unless you want to) .

So, before going any further, let's explain what the term 'PhD' actually means and what defines a doctorate.

What does PhD stand for?

PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. This is one of the highest level academic degrees that can be awarded. PhD is an abbreviation of the Latin term (Ph)ilosophiae (D)octor. Traditionally the term ‘philosophy’ does not refer to the subject but its original Greek meaning which roughly translates to ‘lover of wisdom’.

What is a doctorate?

A doctorate is any qualification that awards a doctoral degree. In order to qualify for one you need to produce advanced work that makes a significant new contribution to knowledge in your field. Doing so earns you the title 'Doctor' – hence the name.

So, is a PhD different to a doctorate? No. A PhD is a type of doctorate .

The PhD is the most common type of doctorate and is awarded in almost all subjects at universities around the world. Other doctorates tend to be more specialised or for more practical and professional projects.

Essentially, all PhDs are doctorates, but not all doctorates are PhDs.

Do you need a Masters to get a PhD?

Not necessarily. It's common for students in Arts and the Humanities to complete an MA (Master of Arts) before starting a PhD in order to acquire research experience and techniques. Students in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) don't always need an MS/MSc (Master of Science) to do a PhD as you'll gain training in lab techniques and other skills during your undergraduate degree.

Whether a Masters is a requirement for a PhD also varies by country. Australian PhDs may require a Masters as the equivalent of their own 'honours year' (where students work on research). US PhD programmes often include a Masters.

We have a whole guide dedicated to helping you decide whether a PhD without a Masters is the right route for you.

The origin of the PhD

Despite its name, the PhD isn't actually an Ancient Greek degree. Instead it's a much more recent development. The PhD as we know it was developed in nineteenth-century Germany, alongside the modern research university.

Higher education had traditionally focussed on mastery of an existing body of scholarship and the highest academic rank available was, appropriately enough, a Masters degree.

As the focus shifted more onto the production of new knowledge and ideas, the PhD degree was brought in to recognise those who demonstrated the necessary skills and expertise.

The PhD process – what's required to get a PhD?

The typical length of a PhD is three to four years full-time, or five to six years part-time.

Unlike most Masters courses (or all undergraduate programmes), a PhD is a pure research degree. But that doesn’t mean you’ll just spend years locked away in a library or laboratory. In fact, the modern PhD is a diverse and varied qualification with many different components.

Whereas the second or third year of a taught degree look quite a lot like the first (with more modules and coursework at a higher level) a PhD moves through a series of stages.

A typical PhD normally involves:

• Carrying out a literature review (a survey of current scholarship in your field).
• Conducting original research and collecting your results .
• Producing a thesis that presents your conclusions.
• Writing up your thesis and submitting it as a dissertation .
• Defending your thesis in an oral viva voce exam.

These stages vary a little between subjects and universities, but they tend to fall into the same sequence over the three years of a typical full-time PhD.

The first year of a PhD

The beginning of a PhD is all about finding your feet as a researcher and getting a solid grounding in the current scholarship that relates to your topic.

You’ll have initial meetings with your supervisor and discuss a plan of action based on your research proposal.

The first step in this will almost certainly be carrying out your literature review . With the guidance of your supervisor you’ll begin surveying and evaluating existing scholarship. This will help situate your research and ensure your work is original.

Your literature review will provide a logical jumping off point for the beginning of your own research and the gathering of results . This could involve designing and implementing experiments, or getting stuck into a pile of primary sources.

The year may end with an MPhil upgrade . This occurs when PhD students are initially registered for an MPhil degree and then ‘upgraded’ to PhD candidates upon making sufficient progress. You’ll submit material from your literature review, or a draft of your research findings and discuss these with members of your department in an upgrade exam . All being well, you’ll then continue with your research as a PhD student.

PhDs in other countries

The information on the page is based on the UK. Most countries follow a similar format, but there are some differences. In the USA , for example, PhD students complete reading assignments and examinations before beginning their research. You can find out more in our guides to PhD study around the world .

The second year of a PhD

Your second year will probably be when you do most of your core research. The process for this will vary depending on your field, but your main focus will be on gathering results from experiments, archival research, surveys or other means.

As your research develops, so will the thesis (or argument) you base upon it. You may even begin writing up chapters or other pieces that will eventually form part of your dissertation .

You’ll still be having regular meetings with your supervisor. They’ll check your progress, provide feedback on your ideas and probably read any drafts your produce.

The second year is also an important stage for your development as a scholar. You’ll be well versed in current research and have begun to collect some important data or develop insights of your own. But you won’t yet be faced with the demanding and time-intensive task of finalising your dissertation.

So, this part of your PhD is a perfect time to think about presenting your work at academic conferences , gaining teaching experience or perhaps even selecting some material for publication in an academic journal. You can read more about these kinds of activities below.

The third year of a PhD

The third year of a PhD is sometimes referred to as the writing up phase.

Traditionally, this is the final part of your doctorate, during which your main task will be pulling together your results and honing your thesis into a dissertation .

In reality, it’s not always as simple as that.

It’s not uncommon for final year PhD students to still be fine-tuning experiments, collecting results or chasing up a few extra sources. This is particularly likely if you spend part of your second year focussing on professional development.

In fact, some students actually take all or part of a fourth year to finalise their dissertation. Whether you are able to do this will depend on the terms of your enrolment – and perhaps your PhD funding .

Eventually though, you are going to be faced with writing up your thesis and submitting your dissertation.

Your supervisor will be very involved in this process. They’ll read through your final draft and let you know when they think your PhD is ready for submission.

All that’s left then is your final viva voce oral exam. This is a formal discussion and defence of your thesis involving at least one internal and external examiner. It’s normally the only assessment procedure for a PhD. Once you’ve passed, you’ve done it!

Looking for more information about the stages of a PhD?

How do you go about completing a literature review? What's it like to do PhD research? And what actually happens at an MPhil upgrade? You can find out more in our detailed guide to the PhD journey .

Doing a PhD – what's it actually like?

You can think of the ‘stages’ outlined above as the basic ‘roadmap’ for a PhD, but the actual ‘journey’ you’ll take as a research student involves a lot of other sights, a few optional destinations and at least one very important fellow passenger.

Carrying out research

Unsurprisingly, you’ll spend most of your time as a PhD researcher… researching your PhD. But this can involve a surprisingly wide range of activities.

The classic image of a student working away in the lab, or sitting with a pile of books in the library is true some of the time – particularly when you’re monitoring experiments or conducting your literature review.

Your PhD can take you much further afield though. You may find yourself visiting archives or facilities to examine their data or look at rare source materials. You could even have the opportunity to spend an extended period ‘in residence’ at a research centre or other institution beyond your university.

Research is also far from being a solitary activity. You’ll have regular discussions with your supervisor (see below) but you may also work with other students from time to time.

This is particularly likely if you’re part of a larger laboratory or workshop group studying the same broad area. But it’s also common to collaborate with students whose projects are more individual. You might work on shorter projects of joint interest, or be part of teams organising events and presentations.

Many universities also run regular internal presentation and discussion groups – a perfect way to get to know other PhD students in your department and offer feedback on each other’s work in progress.

Working with your supervisor

All PhD projects are completed with the guidance of at least one academic supervisor . They will be your main point of contact and support throughout the PhD.

Your supervisor will be an expert in your general area of research, but they won’t have researched on your exact topic before (if they had, your project wouldn’t be original enough for a PhD).

As such, it’s better to think of your supervisor as a mentor, rather than a teacher.

As a PhD student you’re now an independent and original scholar, pushing the boundaries of your field beyond what is currently known (and taught) about it. You’re doing all of this for the first time, of course. But your supervisor isn’t.

They’ll know what’s involved in managing an advanced research project over three years (or more). They’ll know how best to succeed, but they’ll also know what can go wrong and how to spot the warning signs before it does.

Perhaps most importantly, they’ll be someone with the time and expertise to listen to your ideas and help provide feedback and encouragement as you develop your thesis.

Exact supervision arrangements vary between universities and between projects:

• In Science and Technology projects it’s common for a supervisor to be the lead investigator on a wider research project, with responsibility for a laboratory or workshop that includes several PhD students and other researchers.
• In Arts and Humanities subjects, a supervisor’s research is more separate from their students’. They may supervise more than one PhD at a time, but each project is essentially separate.

It’s also becoming increasingly common for PhD students to have two (or more) supervisors. The first is usually responsible for guiding your academic research whilst the second is more concerned with the administration of your PhD – ensuring you complete any necessary training and stay on track with your project’s timetable.

However you’re supervised, you’ll have regular meetings to discuss work and check your progress. Your supervisor will also provide feedback on work during your PhD and will play an important role as you near completion: reading your final dissertation draft, helping you select an external examiner and (hopefully) taking you out for a celebratory drink afterwards!

Professional development, networking and communication

Traditionally, the PhD has been viewed as a training process, preparing students for careers in academic research.

As such, it often includes opportunities to pick up additional skills and experiences that are an important part of a scholarly CV. Academics don’t just do research after all. They also teach students, administrate departments – and supervise PhDs.

The modern PhD is also viewed as a more flexible qualification. Not all doctoral graduates end up working in higher education. Many follow alternative careers that are either related to their subject of specialism or draw upon the advanced research skills their PhD has developed.

PhD programmes have begun to reflect this. Many now emphasise transferrable skills or include specific training units designed to help students communicate and apply their research beyond the university.

What all of this means is that very few PhD experiences are just about researching and writing up a thesis.

The likelihood is that you’ll also do some (or all) of the following during your PhD:

The work is usually paid and is increasingly accompanied by formal training and evaluation.

Conference presentation

As a PhD student you’ll be at the cutting edge of your field, doing original research and producing new results. This means that your work will be interest to other scholars and that your results could be worth presenting at academic conferences .

Doing this is very worthwhile, whatever your career plans. You’ll develop transferrable skills in public speaking and presenting, gain feedback on your results and begin to be recognised as an expert in your area.

Conferences are also great places to network with other students and academics.

Publication

As well as presenting your research, you may also have the opportunity to publish work in academic journals, books, or other media. This can be a challenging process.

Your work will be judged according to the same high standards as any other scholar’s and will normally go through extensive peer review processes. But it’s also highly rewarding. Seeing your work ‘in print’ is an incredible validation of your PhD research and a definite boost to your academic CV.

Public engagement and communication

Academic work may be associated with the myth of the ‘ivory tower’ – an insular community of experts focussing on obscure topics of little interest outside the university. But this is far from the case. More and more emphasis is being placed on the ‘impact’ of research and its wider benefits to the public – with funding decisions being made accordingly.

Thankfully, there are plenty of opportunities to try your hand at public engagement as a PhD student. Universities are often involved in local events and initiatives to communicate the benefits of their research, ranging from workshops in local schools to public lectures and presentations.

Some PhD programmes include structured training in order to help students with activities such as the above. Your supervisor may also be able to help by identifying suitable conferences and public engagement opportunities, or by involving you in appropriate university events and public engagement initiatives.

These experiences will be an important part of your development as a researchers - and will enhance the value of your PhD regardless of your career plans.

What is a PhD for – and who should study one?

So, you know what a PhD actually is, what’s involved in completing one and what you might get up to whilst you do. That just leaves one final question: should you do a PhD?

Unfortunately, it’s not a question we can answer for you.

A PhD is difficult and uniquely challenging. It requires at least three years of hard work and dedication after you’ve already completed an undergraduate degree (and probably a Masters degree too).

You’ll need to support yourself during those years and, whilst you will be building up an impressive set of skills, you won’t be directly progressing in a career.

But a PhD is also immensely rewarding. It’s your chance to make a genuine contribution to the sum of human knowledge and produce work that other researchers can (and will) build on in future. However obscure your topic feels, there’s really no such thing as a useless PhD.

A PhD is also something to be incredibly proud of. A proportionately tiny number of people go on to do academic work at this level. Whatever you end up doing after your doctorate you’ll have an impressive qualification – and a title to match. What’s more, non-academic careers and professions are increasingly recognising the unique skills and experience a PhD brings.

Other PhDs - do degree titles matter?

The PhD is the oldest and most common form of higher research degree, but a few alternatives are available. Some, such as the DPhil are essentially identical to a PhD. Others, such as the Professional Doctorate or DBA are slightly different. You can find out more in our guide to types of PhD .

Is a PhD for me?

There’s more advice on the value of a PhD – and good reasons for studying one – elsewhere in this section. But the following are some quick tips if you’re just beginning to consider a PhD.

Speak to your lecturers / tutors

The best people to ask about PhD study are people who’ve earned one. Ask staff at your current or previous university about their experience of doctoral research – what they enjoyed, what they didn’t and what their tips might be.

If you’re considering a PhD for an academic career, ask about that too. Are job prospects good in your field? And what’s it really like to work at a university?

Speak to current PhD students

Want to know what it’s like studying a PhD right now? Or what it’s like doing research at a particular university? Ask someone who knows.

Current PhD students were just like you a year or two ago and most will be happy to answer questions.

If you can’t get in touch with any students ‘face to face’, pop over to the Postgraduate Forum – you’ll find plenty of students there who are happy to chat about postgraduate research.

Take a look at advertised projects and programmes

This may seem like a strange suggestion. After all, you’re only going to study one PhD, so what’s the point of reading about lots of others?

Well, looking at the details of different PhD projects is a great way to get a general sense of what PhD research is like. You’ll see what different PhDs tend to have in common and what kinds of unique opportunity might be available to you.

And, with thousands of PhDs in our database , you’re already in a great place to start.

Read our other advice articles

Finally, you can also check out some of the other advice on the FindAPhD website. We’ve looked at some good (and bad) reasons for studying a PhD as well as the value of a doctorate to different career paths.

More generally, you can read our in-depth look at a typical PhD journey , or find out more about specific aspects of doctoral study such as working with a supervisor or writing your dissertation .

We add new articles all the time – the best way to stay up to date is by signing up for our free PhD opportunity newsletter .

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Head on over to our PhD search listings to learn what opportunities are on offer within your discipline.

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You may also like....

What happens during a typical PhD, and when? We've summarised the main milestones of a doctoral research journey.

The PhD thesis is the most important part of a doctoral degree. This page will introduce you to what you need to know about the PhD dissertation.

This page will give you an idea of what to expect from your routine as a PhD student, explaining how your daily life will look at you progress through a doctoral degree.

Our guide tells you everything about the application process for studying a PhD in the USA.

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Deciphering Degrees: An Introduction to Academic Titles

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At any institution of higher learning, there will be individuals with various types of degrees attached to their names. Professors and students alike all have different educational backgrounds, sometimes to the point where juggling all the different acronyms and titles can become confusing.

In this blog post, we’ll go over not only what goes into the various degrees you’ll encounter in higher education, but also provide advice on how to address people of various degrees, a skill you’ll need to have as you interact with individuals of all different education levels in high school, college, and beyond.

Why is it important to know about various degrees?

Degrees and titles are part of the language of higher education. Whether you are at a small liberal arts college or on campus at a larger university, you will hear them tossed around often. Understanding what exactly these degrees mean will not only help you feel more at home, but will also help you understand both your position as a student and others’.

What can degrees tell you?

The degree or title a person has, especially someone who is considered a professional or even an expert, can tell you a lot about their background and expertise. It says what kind of schooling and training they have had.

Furthermore, if the person is one of your professors, or someone teaching your class, it allows you to evaluate their background more carefully — you may be looking for a teacher who can speak to processes of going through higher education in their field. If you intend to get one or all of the degrees in that subject area eventually, it can help to know someone who can explain the process, as it may vary slightly in different fields (for example, some areas of study require extensive time in the lab, while others call for research abroad).

When Evaluating Professors: Terminal Degrees

When you are evaluating a professor on their degrees and titles, it is important to understand the concept of terminal degrees. In some fields, the highest university-given degree or professional degree available is not a doctoral degree. In other words, the “terminal” or end of the education track in that field may be a master’s degree. This phenomenon is emphasized more in the United States, however, and is not discussed as much overseas.

United States Degrees (Not Necessarily the Same in the Rest of the World)

Here, it should be noted that all of the degrees in this article refer to the standards in the United States only. Other countries may have different academic systems, degrees, and titles, that may or may not transfer to the United States’ system. If you plan on attending school abroad, you should look into the degrees of that country specifically, along with whether or not they are broadly recognized if you decide to pursue further studies in the United States.

What are the kinds of degrees one can have?

There are two broad categories that degrees can be broken into: graduate and undergraduate. Undergraduate degrees (associate and bachelor’s degrees) must be awarded before graduate study (master’s, doctoral, and professional degrees) begins, kind of like a prerequisite. Below, the specifics of each degree type are explained.

Associate Degree

An associate degree is awarded for about two years of academic study. These degrees are typically found in programs at community colleges. The abbreviations for this kind of degree depends greatly on the field of study. For example, AA stands for an Associate of Arts, AS stands for Associate of Science, and ABS stands for Associate of Business Science. You can usually identify an associate degree by the “A” at the beginning of the abbreviation.

Bachelor’s Degree

A bachelor’s degree is awarded for roughly four years of academic study, though it can range from three to seven years depending on the program and institution where it is completed. The bachelor’s degree is the standard degree level awarded by undergraduate colleges — it is not considered a graduate degree.

As with the associate degree, the full title of a bachelor’s degree and its abbreviation depend on the subject area in which the studies were conducted. Most common are the Bachelor of Arts (BA) and the Bachelor of Science (BS). Some schools with engineering programs also award the Bachelor of Science in Engineering (BSE). The BS can also be denoted another way: Sc.B. Additionally, at some schools you can get a BA in a science field — different schools have different options and requirements, so a BA does not rule out science as that person’s undergraduate field of study.

There are some other types of bachelor’s degrees as well, but they are rare in the United States and you will likely only encounter BA, BS, and occasionally BSE.

Master’s Degree

The master’s degree is a graduate degree for advanced, specialized study beyond the bachelor’s degree. Master’s degrees are usually awarded for one to three years of graduate study.

The two most common types of master’s degrees are the MA (Master of Arts) and the MS (Master of Science), but there are a wide range of specialized degrees in specific academic and profession fields. These include, but are not limited to MTS (Master of Theological Studies), MSW (Master of Social Work), MFA (Master of Fine Arts), MBA (Master of Business Administration), MPH (Master of Public Health), MPP (Master of Public Policy), and MDiv (Master of Divinity).

Like the bachelor’s degree, some master’s degrees are denoted in various ways. For example, the MS can also be written as Sc.M. Also, some professors may have a master’s degree as their highest degree. Regardless of their degrees and titles, you should always formally address them as “professor” if they have a post-secondary teaching role.

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Doctoral Degree (Academic)

The academic doctoral degree is a graduate degree awarded for extensive, highly specialized study and research. It usually takes five to ten years to complete, and often culminates in the completion of a major piece of research. This is called the doctoral dissertation, and is sometimes published as a book following graduation. The most common kind of doctoral degree is a PhD, but others exist, such as the DBA (Doctor of Business Administration).

Those who have received a doctoral degree are formally addressed as “doctor” or “professor.” The title used depends on their personal preference, but, in general, people with PhDs and similar doctoral degrees are less frequently referred to a “doctor” publicly. The title of doctor is more common for people with medical degrees (explained below). Your college-level classes may be taught by doctoral-degree candidates (another way to describe students in the doctoral program), and TAs are almost always graduate students as well.

Medical Degrees

Medical degrees are graduate-level degrees awarded for extensive, specific training in the medical profession. Doctors receive MDs (Doctor of Medicine), nurses receive MSN (Master of Science in Nursing) and other degrees (like the BSN, or Bachelor of Science in Nursing), dentists receive DDS (Doctor of Dental Surgery) or DMD (Doctor of Dental Medicine), and veterinarians receives DVM (Doctor of Veterinary Medicine). Furthermore, there are other degrees within more specialized fields.

You may also see these degrees among professors in science and health fields. There are practicing doctors (those who see patients), teaching doctors (those who teach students the art of medicine and how to see patients), and researching doctors (those who conduct research) — and some who are two or all three! When speaking to and about people with medical degrees, you should formally address doctors, dentists, and veterinarians as “doctor.”

Law Degrees

Most law students in the United States receive a JD (Juris Doctorate) for three years of legal study. Though this is technically a doctorate degree, it is more often regarded as a professional degree. Also, there is a higher research doctorate in law called the SJD (Doctor of Juridical Science).

People with a JD may write “JD” after their names. Those who actively work as attorneys may add “Esquire” or “Esq.” to their signatures, whether or not they have a JD. When talking to someone who teaches and has a law degree, you should always default to calling them “professor.”

Honorary Degrees

Honorary degrees, known as “Degree Honoris Causa,” are awarded by a college or university to a person that the college would like to specially honor. They are usually named as a doctoral degree, but are sometimes labeled a master’s degree — the exact titles vary because they do not reflect any actual level of study at that school.

Note that honorary degrees do not designate academic or professional study or qualification: You should not assume that a person with an honorary degree has studied what would actually be required to complete the degree. That said, the honorary degree is a sign of great respect and indicates that the person is highly respected by the college. In general, the recipient will not be referred to by the degree title by others — think of it more like an award that will connect them to that school but not change their status or actual qualifications.

There are many degrees, but if you understand them broadly — undergraduate and graduate, and the general types within each category (such as bachelor’s vs. associate’s, and academic doctoral versus medical) — you can get a general understanding of what kind of academic training a person has had.

When in doubt about how to address someone who teaches at your college or university, it is always best to default to “professor.” Those with medical degrees (often people found in the medical professions, like doctors, dentists, and vets) should usually be called “doctor.”

Don’t worry if it is confusing at first — this is all you need to know to start off, and as you make your way through college and academia, the divisions of degrees will become more clear. For now, read our CollegeVine guide Majors, Minors, and More: Which Degree Should You Pursue? to help you tackle your own college degree.

If you are looking to apply for your bachelor’s degree in science or a medical degree, check out our CollegeVine guides A Beginner’s Guide to 7-Year Med Programs and BS/MD Programs vs. Premed: Which One is Right for You?

Alternatively, if your interests are more in the arts, or you want a better understanding of dual-degree programs, read Dual Degree Music Programs: The Best of Both Worlds? , Liberal Arts vs. Professional Education: Which is Better? , and Are Combined Undergraduate/Graduate Programs Right for You?

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Can a PhD be called Doctor? Doctoral Degree Titles

If someone holds a PhD, they are able to call themselves Doctor. The doctor title is very prestigious and often projects expertise and respect in those who decide to use it.

A person with a PhD can be called Dr. However, many people with PhD degrees choose not to use their official titles unless they are communicating in an official capacity or are working in a professional role where they use their PhD.

I reserve the use my PhD title when I am giving a talk as it provides immediate credibility whereas, I do not often use my doctor title in many other instances.

When I first got my PhD I used my doctor title a lot more than I do now. I guess, the novelty has worn off and I have decided that it is not something that defines who I am as a person and, therefore, I would only use it in an official capacity.

Should PhDs use the title “doctor” after their doctorate? 

It is a personal choice for a PhD holder to use the title of “doctor”.

In many countries, it is common practice to use the title when referring to someone with a doctoral degree.

The title of doctor holds a significant level of prestige, and it generally signifies a high level of education and expertise in a particular field. Which is why it is important to use it in an official capacity.

Those who have earned a PhD have spent many years researching, writing and defending their work and have earned the right to use the title if so desired.

The title of doctor can also be used by medical professionals, and it is important to clarify the intended meaning when using the title to avoid confusion.

The decision to use the title of doctor is a personal one that should be made with an understanding of its significance and potential implications.

Even though the original use of the doctor title was for scholars, nowadays there are several different professional qualifications that can use the doctor title.

There are many honorific doctor titles, including those found in the table below.

The use of the doctor term for many healthcare-related qualifications can cause a fair bit of confusion about what qualification the person has achieved.

If you have any doubt about what degree a person holds look at the letters after their name.

If you want to know more about the doctor title check out my other article:

• How to use the PhD title and all the little doctorate “rules”
• Is a PhD a Doctor? [The full guide]

When can a PhD student be called doctor? After their dissertation?

A PhD student can be called doctor after successfully completing all the requirements of their program, including passing their dissertation defense.

More specifically, many universities only allow you to use the doctoral title after confirmation of your degree.

The University of Adelaide says that you can use it from your conferral date:

Students can be conferred on one of five dates during the year and for PhD students the conferral date will be the first available following the completion of all the academic requirements of your degree, including final thesis lodgement and the disbursement of any outstanding financial obligations to the University.

Personally, I felt comfortable using the doctor title as soon as I receive my notification letter from the University referring to me as Dr Stapleton. It was from this moment that I started using the doctor title.

There would be nothing wrong with someone using the doctor title after they have successfully defended their PhD – it just comes down to a matter of personal preference.

The title “Doctor” can still be used informally for those who hold other doctoral degrees such as a JD (Doctor of Law) or an EdD (Doctor of Education).

A PhD student can only be referred as a “Doctor” upon the completion of their doctoral program and after receiving their degree.

Why is PhD called doctor of philosophy?

A Ph.D. is called a Doctor of Philosophy because historically, philosophy was considered the foundation of all knowledge.

The word “philosophy” itself means the love of wisdom, and the pursuit of truth through reason and logic.

In medieval Europe, philosophy encompassed all forms of intellectual inquiry, including:

• mathematics,
• and history.

As universities developed and specialized in particular disciplines, the title of Doctor of Philosophy became associated with the highest level of academic achievement in any field.

This means that a Ph.D. is not limited to the study of philosophy but refers to any individual who has demonstrated the ability to conduct original research in their chosen field and make a significant contribution to advancing knowledge.

A Ph.D. signifies not only mastery of a specific subject but also the ability to think deeply and critically about complex problems. There are now many professional doctorates that include the doctor titleIn recognition of the hard work and deep thinking required to complete.

Wrapping up

Yes, PhD holders can be called Doctor.

Once you’ve completed a PhD and been conferred by your university and institution you can officially use the Dr title before your name and the PhD tag after your name.

Many doctoral degree holders only use their academic title in official settings such as academia and official duties.

Even though I was very excited about receiving my doctor title, after a couple of years the novelty wears off and I only use my official titles in the same way that someone would want to include Mr, Mrs, or Ms.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

Thank you for visiting Academia Insider.

We are here to help you navigate Academia as painlessly as possible. We are supported by our readers and by visiting you are helping us earn a small amount through ads and affiliate revenue - Thank you!

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Abbreviations and Titles All College Students Should Know

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Some abbreviations are appropriate in academic writing , while others are not appropriate. Below you'll find a list of abbreviations you are likely to use in your experience as a student.

Abbreviations for College Degrees

Note: The APA doesn't recommend using periods with degrees. Be sure to consult your style guide as recommended styling may vary. 

Associate of Arts: A two-year degree in any specific liberal art or a general degree covering a mix of courses in liberal arts and sciences. It is acceptable to use the A.A. abbreviation in place of the full degree name. For example, Alfred earned an A.A. at the local community college .

Associate of Applied Science: A two-year degree in a technical or science field. Example: Dorothy earned an A.A.S. in culinary arts after she earned her high school degree.

All But Dissertation: This refers to a student who has completed all the requirements for a Ph.D. except for the dissertation. It is used primarily in reference to doctoral candidates whose dissertation is in progress, to state that the candidate is eligible to apply for positions that require a Ph.D. The abbreviation is acceptable in place of the full expression.

Associate of Fine Arts: A two-year degree in a field of creative art such as painting, sculpting, photography, theater, and fashion design . The abbreviation is acceptable in all but very formal writing.

Bachelor of Arts: An undergraduate, four-year degree in liberal arts or sciences. The abbreviation is acceptable in all but very formal writing.

Bachelor of Fine Arts: A four-year, undergraduate degree in a field of creative art. The abbreviation is acceptable in all but very formal writing.

Bachelor of Science: A four-year, undergraduate degree in a science. The abbreviation is acceptable in all but very formal writing.

Note: Students enter college for the first time as undergraduates pursuing either a two-year (associate's) or a four-year (bachelor's) degree. Many universities have a separate college within called a graduate school, where students may choose to continue their education to pursue a higher degree.

Master of Arts: The master's degree is a degree earned in graduate school. The M.A. is a master's degree in one of the liberal arts awarded to students who study one or two years after earning a bachelor's degree.

Master of Education: The master's degree awarded to a student pursuing an advanced degree in the field of education.

Master of Science: The master's degree awarded to a student pursuing an advanced degree in science or technology.

Abbreviations for Titles

Doctor: When referring to a college professor, the title usually refers to a Doctor of Philosophy, the highest degree in many fields. (In some fields of study the master's degree is the highest possible degree.) It is generally acceptable (preferable) to abbreviate this title when addressing professors in writing and when conducting academic and non-academic writing.

Esquire: Historically, the abbreviation Esq. has been used as a title of courtesy and respect. In the United States, the title is generally used as a title for lawyers, after the full name.

• Example: John Hendrik, Esq.

It is appropriate to use the abbreviation Esq. in formal and academic writing.

Professor: When referring to a professor in nonacademic and informal writing, it is acceptable to abbreviate when you use the full name. It is best to use the full title before a surname alone. Example:

• I'll invite Prof. Johnson to appear as a speaker at our next meeting.
• Professor Mark Johnson is speaking at our next meeting.

Mr. and Mrs.

The abbreviations Mr. and Mrs. are shortened versions of mister and mistress. Both terms, when spelled out, are considered antiquated and outdated when it comes to academic writing. However, the term mister is still used in very formal writing (formal invitations) and military writing. Do not use mister or mistress when addressing a teacher, a professor, or a potential employer.

Doctor of Philosophy: As a title, the Ph.D . comes after the name of a professor who has earned the highest degree awarded by a graduate school. The degree may be called a doctoral degree or a doctorate.

• Example: Sara Edwards, Ph.D.

You would address a person who signs correspondence as "Sara Edwards, Ph.D." as Dr. Edwards.

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Formal title for senior PhD student

Hey guys. A professor who guides you during your masters or PhD is called a PI, but what is the graduate student (PhD or post-doc) that directly guides you called? Like the PhD students in the PIs lab who actually teach to stuff. Do they have any formal title? Like a "graduate guide" or something?

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What will be the job title for PhD student

I am doing full time PhD and receive scholarship from university. I want to add that as a work experience. What job title will be appreciate for making resume for industry job?

• software-industry

• 6 PhD goes under education. Unless I am missing something. –  user10399 Commented Sep 18, 2019 at 13:17
• 5 PhD Candidate is pretty standard. –  AffableAmbler Commented Sep 18, 2019 at 13:18
• In Germany, where PhD students are often actual employees, you'd list this as "Scientific Employee" or maybe "Junior Researcher". –  user29390 Commented Sep 18, 2019 at 13:46
• PhDs, although they fall within 'Academia', are not 'School'... They are often paid positions (be that paid by a company/ industry body, or funded through grants). Their main purpose is not to educate the individual (although this undoubtedly is a large incentive for the individual- they WILL learn through doing one), but to contribute new/ previously unresearched material/ information to a particular field/ topic. –  Noble-Surfer Commented Sep 18, 2019 at 13:50
• 1 Not sure why this is down voted. Most resources that give advice for going from academia to industry explicitly state that you should list the work done as a PhD as work experience and the PhD (the title/diploma) in your education section. Personally, I would simply use "PhD Student" and add bullet points to describe the position. –  kantadou Commented Apr 8, 2020 at 9:06

5 Answers 5

Put PhD Candidate. Contrary to what others suggest here IMHO it is not lying to put it under work experience (where I am from it is considered a job and you get the normal job benefits).

It might depend on the rest of your resume and the exact job you are applying for whether it is better to put it under education or work experience. I have gone both ways in the past (on separate occasions ofcourse)

• ^ This is definitely the correct answer - Other suggested titles are misleading. I would argue it's education, but depending on the nature of the PhD and the job you're applying for - OP's approach may be appropriate. –  Richard Roberts Commented Sep 18, 2019 at 13:51
• 1 Aadnan -- "OP" means "original poster". "PhD Candidate" is never the correct work experience title. One can be a "research assistant" or "teaching assistant" while working on a PhD, but "PhD Candidate" doesn't indicate the work which was performed. –  Julie in Austin Commented Sep 18, 2019 at 14:48
• 2 @JulieinAustin It might be good to make it PhD Candidate in ... but in the end I think a PhD is at least equivalent to a traineeship (a long traineeship). And many people would put that under work experience as well –  user180146 Commented Sep 18, 2019 at 18:40
• 1 @user180146 - "training" is still education. If there is work involved, the correct job title (and contrary to what you wrote, the OP asked for a "job title") would be the working role. If someone interns as an electronic lab technician while earning a BSEE, the correct job title is "Electronic Lab Technician" not "BSEE Candidate" or "Intern". A PhD Candidate in some field performing lab research is a "Research Assistant" and the tasks performed are the work.The connection between the PhD and the lab research work is obvious from the dates. –  Julie in Austin Commented Sep 21, 2019 at 6:41
• 1 @JulieinAustin "PhD Candidate" may well be the correct job title to put, just like you might put "Electrical Apprentice" for the time you spent doing an apprenticeship for your Certificate IV to become an Electrician. –  nick012000 Commented Dec 29, 2021 at 9:46

When I was doing my PhD we were known as Post Graduate Researchers - which is indeed what we were doing. In my country (UK) PhD candidates occupy a funny grey area between 'student' and 'real job'. Sometimes it can be advantageous to refer to yourself as a student (e.g. you don't pay council tax) and other times it is better to refer to yourself as a researcher (e.g. to a letting agent who refuses to let to students).

Your job title needs to reflect the actual work performed. Being a PhD Candidate may be hard work, but your education belongs under the "Education" section of your resume.

Typically a PhD candidate is performing actual research of some form within their chosen field. If you are a research assistant, you use that and you describe the nature of the work you performed, your responsibilities, achievements, and so forth within the normal format for "work experience".

Your status as a PhD candidate goes under education, along with any other graduate or undergraduate degrees you've earned. You may also want to list where you are in the PhD process.

Both previous answers are valid, but to add more perspective:

What are your tasks under your PhD program?

As far as you only:

• Attend classes, and perform course assignments
• Write papers
• Conduct research for your thesis
• Prepare/review/defend/publish your thesis

This is just academic experience in my book and should go under "education".

If by happenstance of your program you are also expected to:

• Advise students.
• Conduct experiments designed by other people with a minimally formal process.
• Prepare requests for proposals and analyze received technical proposals from companies.
• Perform any work that is not listed above, and is not tied to your thesis, but is tied to your stipend.
• Review industry-relevant requirements related to the products of the team's research.

Then those can be work experiences, and should be minimally described in a CV if you want to justify calling your PhD time "work experience".

To be clear, academic and work experiences are both highly valuable, and I'm not claiming one is better than the other, but they are different and any sane person should recognize them as such.

When a PhD is just NOT work experience

I've known PhD students that did not do anything worth calling "work experience", and once they got into industry jobs, they were effectively at their "first job", feeling and acting as such. I've also seen PhD candidates who had lots of experiences that were professionally relevant, those are fairly rare where I live though.

Also, an advisor might manage your work just like your future boss would, but I've seen many who had a "laissez-faire" or "hands-off" attitude towards their students, thus giving an amount of freedom and autonomy that one would hardly be granted when starting an entry-level job. Having work experience also means dealing with a boss or clients.

Though, in my country, people often believe that having a PhD is a disadvantage in one's CV. As many companies have no use for the research experience and expect the candidate to be entitled, inexperienced, and under-deliver. I don't agree with this view, but the fact that many "PhD Candidates" are looking for jobs and leaving their thesis incomplete (thus not achieving the title) surely does not help fight the stereotype.

When a PhD is valuable

On a different note, many engineers I've known are basically unable to perform research-related tasks, such as properly reviewing scientific literature, replicating a paper, and creating new methods and tools to solve a problem. They usually rely on experience/tips/consultants to replace the need for any of those. And many workplaces are fine with their employees having such limitations.

To do a real PhD means to be paid to lead a scientific research project, from the first year. It's a full time job, and goes under work experience. Many universities leave PhD students in a grey area where they are not students but they are not staff either, to make sure PhD students can't make any claim regarding pensions, etc.

When I am hiring somebody with a PhD, I expect the CV to show the research work conducted under the work experience section.

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Degree In Sight

What’s in a title?

Students’ titles outside academia should reflect their training as accurately as possible, say ethics experts.

By Zak Stambor

When Colorado State University counseling psychology graduate student Serenity Chambers began an externship at Front Range Community College in Fort Collins, Colo., she ran into a conundrum: Because the site had never before housed a counseling psychology graduate student, she had no idea what her title should be or how to explain her training.

"It was tough because if I called myself a counselor, people would think that I'm a career or academic counselor," she says. "So the trick was to come up with another title that reflected my role and training."

Chambers and her supervisor eventually settled on counselor/psychotherapist to emphasize both her counseling training and diagnostic approach. Yet even before she started the job, a college administrator rejected the title "psychotherapist" because it suggested Chambers had already earned her degree. Chambers and her adviser swiftly changed the title to personal counselor.

Her confusion over how to characterize her training is not unique, says Gary Schoener, a licensed psychologist and executive director of the Walk-In Counseling Center in Minneapolis. Many psychology graduate programs don't discuss the topic in the classroom, he says, which leaves students unsure of how to describe their credentials.

That's why APA President and Ethics & Behavior Editor Gerald P. Koocher, PhD, urges students to be as clear and succinct about their current position and past experience as possible.

"The ethical way for students to refer to themselves is whatever term applies to their current status and then to explain what that term means," he says.

In doing so, students can head off any confusion and misunderstandings, he says.

A STANDARD INTRODUCTION

When on internship or practicum, students should ask about their agency's policies on how to identify themselves to clients before their first client encounter, says Schoener.

For instance, supervisors at the Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System lead a professional behavior orientation that instructs trainees in introductions to provide their name, whether they are a practicum student, intern or postdoc, and their supervisor's name and contact information.

"Patients need to know that they're working with a student, not a licensed professional staff member," says Jeanette Hsu, PhD, psychology service training director at the VA Palo Alto.

She adds that in written communications, students should include their supervisor's name and contact information in case clients want to contact them.

At Schoener's center, he urges students to develop and practice an introduction with the same components that is also crisp and to the point. For instance, he suggests an introduction along the lines of, "My name is Gary Schoener, and I am an intern here who is supervised by Bob Smith. Here is his card. You are welcome to contact him at any time."

"You need to be clear," Schoener says. "The job of the therapist is to get moving by establishing rapport and getting down to business as soon as possible. It behooves you to not waste time telling them about yourself. That's not what they came for."

He adds that students should be prepared for inquisitive clients who will seek additional information about training and qualifications. Students who are unclear about their background could undermine their clients' confidence in the relationship, he says.

NOTE YOUR EXPERIENCE

Although titles vary greatly depending on site and circumstance, a title students should never use is "PhD candidate" or "doctoral candidate," says Koocher.

The reason, he says, is that candidacy status may not mean much to the public, whose lack of understanding of psychology and academia may even cause them to confuse psychology and psychiatry. Although PhD or doctoral candidate may have meaning within an academic department, candidacy status varies by institution, and can indicate anything from first-year graduate students to students finishing their dissertation, he says.

Moreover, when students state that they are PhD candidates they may be in violation of two principles in APA's Ethics Code-"Informed consent to therapy," which requires trainees to inform clients that they are in training and being supervised, and "Avoidance of false or deceptive statements," which prohibits psychologists from misrepresenting their training, competence, academic degrees or credentials--says Stephen Behnke, JD, PhD, director of APA's Ethics Office.

That's why Chambers now uses her introduction as an opportunity to educate clients who ask questions about her experience.

"I like to emphasize my training," she says. "I tell them that even though I'm not licensed yet that doesn't mean that I don't have experience--I have more than 3,000 hours of experience over the past five years."

Chambers, like many other graduate students, also notes her master's degree in written communication with clients.

Even in other types of programs, students such as Brad Brummel, an industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology student at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, can note their master's degrees to lend credibility to their work.

"Since I earned a master's degree, I note my degree as I say that I'm an I/O psychology doctoral student," he says.

He says that most people I/O students consult for are more concerned about their prior business experience than the status of their academic training.

Even so, Brummel makes certain that he's accurate when he presents himself. "You shouldn't say PhD expected or anything like that," he says. "Because you don't want to misrepresent who you are."

For more information about title-related issues, visit APA's Ethics Office Web site at www.apa.org/ethics .

ZakStambor is a former staff writer.

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Department of Geography

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

The Ph.D. is a different kind of degree from the master’s degree. A doctoral candidate in geography must be capable of making original contributions to knowledge and scholarship. For the students to make such contributions, they must concentrate on a narrow and clearly defined field of study. We require, however, that doctoral candidates know more of geography than their particular specialties; thus, any aspirant for a doctorate must obtain master’s training or its equivalent before being admitted to doctoral candidacy. In short, admission to doctoral candidacy is official recognition that a student’s general foundation in the breadth of geography is satisfactory. Students then devote their attention to developing depth in chosen specialties.

The general requirements for a doctoral degree in geography are more rigorous than those for a master’s degree. At the same time, the greater flexibility of the doctoral program allows advanced students to pursue programs of study tailored to their special interests and needs.

Progress through the degree is marked by: 

• Successful performance in a verbal qualifying exam; 
• Four-day written comprehensive exam, with a verbal portion after the written answers have been assessed by the committee;  
• Formal dissertation proposal; and 
• Verbal defense of a completed dissertation.

The four-year Ph.D. program is reserved for students who have a master’s degree from another graduate program. That can be another geography program at another university, a non-geography program at another university, or a non-geography program at Penn State.

Students entering the four-year Ph.D. program must take the doctoral qualifying exam in their first year. A committee from three of the four fields of geography and formally appointed by the Graduate Program Officer will administer the qualifying exam. The qualifying exam can take place any time during the year, but students in the four-year Ph.D. program typically take it during spring semester.

Students in the four-year Ph.D. program complete a comprehensive exam and defend their dissertation proposal in the second year. Depending on the needs of their research, and in agreement with their doctoral committee, students can fulfill these two requirements in either order. Once students have successfully passed their comprehensive exam and defended their proposal, they typically take two years to research, write, and defend their dissertations.

Our online Graduate Student Handbook explains the program requirements for all degrees.

Department of History

Ph.d. program overview.

The Ph.D. program in History trains students in the skills of conducting original historical research and crafting original historical arguments. In the course of their work as historians, Brown scholars draw on a wide range of methods and engage with a variety of audiences. While training emphasizes the core skills of academic research, writing, and teaching at the college and university level, the program’s goals do not end there. Many Brown Ph.D. students explore teaching and writing for different settings and prepare for a breadth of careers that value the skills that obtaining a Ph.D. in History entails.

Students are expected to complete Brown’s Ph.D. program in five to six years. As a mid-sized program, the department values and cultivates attentive and hands-on faculty who work closely with students throughout their progress towards a degree. Critically, students in an entering cohort proceed through the program together, so that discussions across fields, geographies, and chronologies are built into the Ph.D. program.

Students accepted into the History Ph.D. program who remain in good standing are guaranteed funding for six years. Ph.D. students not supported by external fellowships work typically as teaching assistants in the second, third, and fifth (and, if relevant, a portion of the sixth) years of their program. There are also opportunities to apply for conference, research, and study grants either through the History Department or the Graduate School.

The information presented here is a summary of the Ph.D. program. For a more detailed description, see the Department of History Graduate Handbook. Prospective students should also read carefully the information supplied on the website of Brown’s Graduate School.

The Program is divided into two stages:

Stage 1: Coursework and preparation for the Preliminary Exams (Years 1-3)

During the first and second years, students take seminars that introduce the major historiographical questions and methodologies of various subfields and develop their research skills. They identify the three fields for their Preliminary Exams and begin preparation for the exams, which are usually taken in December of the third year. Students are expected to teach as teaching assistants in their second and third years.

History offers five types of Ph.D. courses, typically to be completed within the first three years of a student’s program:

1)    Required seminars (4): "History Now" features cutting-edge historical research and writing, including that being written by History faculty members; "The Roots of History" traces the development of the historical profession, focusing on the major methodological and theoretical landmarks in that development; an advanced workshop, "Writing History," guides students through the writing of a publishable paper; a Dissertation Prospectus Seminar culminates in the student’s defense of the dissertation plan and proposal.

2)    Field Seminars offer a broad overview of the historiography of particular fields (e.g., Early Modern Europe, Modern East Asia).

3)    Thematic Seminars provide opportunities to explore a particular theme or methodological frame from a transnational and transtemporal perspective.

4)    Special Topics Seminars focus on the historiography of a particular nation or region, historical "event," or historiographical debate. They allow for focused, close training, including in specialized skills and readings in languages other than English.

5)    Independent Study courses, by arrangement with the instructor, offer students, individually or in small groups, opportunities to explore special interests in depth.

In addition, students will receive course credit for attending "The Practice of History," a series of professionalization workshops that provide guidance in grant-writing, applying for jobs, developing inclusive teaching practices, constructing effective syllabuses, etc.

Students typically take four courses per semester. Up to two graduate courses (exclusive of language courses) may be taken outside the department.

A typical schedule looks like this:

* Can be filled in a number of ways, including a language course, a 1000-level class, an independent study, a 2000-level class, or with a placeholder independent study with the DGS (HIST2910)

Preliminary Examinations 

By the end of the first semester, students should have identified three fields (one major and two minor); these are usually subfields of the primary and secondary fields listed under Fields of Study ). These will be the areas examined in the Preliminary Examinations—three written and one oral exam—usually completed by the end of the fifth semester.

Language Requirement

Language requirements are set by the fields of study. They must be completed before the preliminary examinations are taken at the end of the fifth semester.

Stage 2: Prospectus and advancement to candidacy (Years 3-5/6)

After the successful completion of all coursework, the language requirement, and the preliminary examinations, the student, usually during the course of the sixth semester, develops a dissertation prospectus. Once the prospectus is approved by the student’s dissertation committee, the student devotes full effort (outside of work as a Teaching Assistant) to researching and writing the dissertation.

In the sixth semester, students take the Dissertation Prospectus Seminar, which provides a collaborative structure for the process of identifying viable dissertation projects, selecting a Dissertation Committee, articulating the project in the form of a dissertation prospectus, and, when appropriate, developing grant proposals based on the prospectus. The prospectus, in roughly 15 to 20 pages, states the dissertation topic, sets it in the context of the relevant secondary historical literature, explains the significance of the study, outlines the methodology to be followed, describes the types of primary sources to be used, and provides a tentative chapter outline, a bibliography, and a research plan. During the Dissertation Prospectus Defense, usually held in May or June, the Dissertation Committee reviews the prospectus and provides suggestions and advice to the student. Once the prospectus is approved, the student proceeds to conduct research on the dissertation.

Dissertation

Dissertations can vary significantly between students and among subfields. Students should consult regularly with their advisors during the dissertation research and writing process, to report progress and to ensure agreement on expectations for the dissertation. The most basic standard for a dissertation is that it makes an original contribution to the body of relevant scholarship in its field. The doctoral dissertation should be completed within four years after the student passes the preliminary examinations.

The Dissertation Defense is conducted by the graduate advisor and other members of the Dissertation Committee. Its purpose is to provide a forum for a general discussion of the dissertation—its strengths and weaknesses as a contribution to knowledge and its future prospects.  If the dissertation is approved by the Dissertation Committee, the student has completed the final requirement of the Ph.D. program and can prepare to graduate.

Candidates for the Ph.D. must normally demonstrate satisfactory performance as a Teaching Assistant in undergraduate courses at Brown, or in teaching at another institution approved by the department. A Teaching Assistant usually works as a grader and section discussion leader under the guidance of the faculty member teaching the course. Ph.D. students not supported by external fellowships typically work as Teaching Assistants in the second, third, and fifth years of their program, and one semester in their sixth year. Explanation of the rights and responsibilities of teaching assistants may be found in the Department of History Graduate Handbook.

The written exam for each individual field may consist of (1) a timed, written, closed or open book exam, (2) a long essay or series of shorter essays, or (3) a draft syllabus and one or several course lectures. (Other potential outcomes must be approved ahead of time by the DGS.) The written exam may be completed (1) when the student finishes reading for a field, leaving only the oral portion for December, or (2) immediately before the oral exam in December. The oral exam, which normally takes place in December of the third year, is two hours long and consists of all three exam committee members querying the student regarding the written exams, the field at large, and/or any materials from the exam list. For more details on the preliminary exams, see the History Graduate Student Handbook.

Summary of Exam Process

• May 19 : Fields Declaration Form submitted to the student’s primary advisor (who will normally be the chair of the exam committee), the DGS, and the graduate program administrator
• Summer: Students should initiate conversations with examiners regarding lists and procedures. 
• January : Preparation for the preliminarily exam should begin in earnest, continuing through the summer and fall. Students should enroll for an Independent Study in semester 4 with their primary advisor or other examiner (see above).
• March 31 : Submission of Fields Planning Form , along with drafts of the three field lists and a progress report on language and all other requirements
• September : Graduate program administrator circulates information about the oral portion of the exam.
• November : Graduate program administrator circulates schedules for the oral exams, along with all submitted written exam responses.
• Early to mid-December : Oral exams are conducted. 

Sample Exam Preparation Schedule Note : This is intended only to provide a rough framework for exam preparation; individual exam processes may vary, depending on examiner and student availability and preference.

• January : Initiate reading for Field 1 (usually major field, as part of IS)
• April : Complete written exam for Field 1
• May : Initiate reading for Field 2
• July : Complete written exam for Field 2
• August : Initiate reading for Field 3
• October : Complete written exam for Field 3
• November : Review Fields 1, 2, and 3 in preparation for oral exam

December : Complete oral exams

The capstone project of the Ph.D. program is the Doctoral Dissertation. The Department’s required core course sequence concludes with the Dissertation Prospectus Seminar, which students take in the sixth semester, usually after passing their Preliminary Exams.

The Dissertation Prospectus Seminar (spring semester of the third year) provides a shared structure for the process of identifying viable dissertation projects, selecting a dissertation committee, articulating the project in the form of a dissertation prospectus, and, where appropriate, developing grant proposals based on the prospectus. The dissertation committee, the selection of which is a requirement of the course, consists of a chair and at least two additional Brown faculty members. 

The dissertation committee will be responsible for evaluating the student's dissertation prospectus, to be presented no later than the end of the sixth semester. This usually takes the form of a dissertation prospectus defense, which is an important moment to bring together the dissertation committee to provide input and advice on the prospectus as well as the next steps of research and writing.

After passing the preliminary exams and obtaining approval of their dissertation prospectus by the dissertation committee, Ph.D. candidates are encouraged to proceed with speed and efficiency into the research process. During the research and writing of the thesis, it is the student's responsibility to regularly provide the graduate advisor with evidence of satisfactory progress towards completion. The doctoral dissertation should be completed within four years after the student passes the preliminary exams.

The department expects each student to have a dissertation defense The defense will normally be conducted by the graduate advisor and dissertation committee members, whether in person or via video conference. If the candidate wishes, other graduate students may attend and participate in the discussion.

A Dissertation Defense form must be filled out by the student and submitted to the Department staff. This form should be filed at the same time as the submission of the penultimate version of the dissertation, on March 15 for a May graduation, or no later than one month prior to the dissertation defense date if an October or February graduation. 

If the dissertation is approved by the dissertation committee, the student has completed the final requirement of the Ph.D. and is permitted to proceed with preparations for graduation. Students are permitted by the Graduate School to graduate (having fulfilled all requirements) at three points during the year: October, February, and May. Students who wish to take part in Commencement ceremonies may elect to walk in May following their graduation (or at the time of their graduation, if in May). Brown University Commencement usually takes place the Sunday before Memorial Day. There is a separate Graduate School Ceremony as well as a Department Ceremony that graduate students are especially encouraged to attend.

Amy G. Remensnyder

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What's my professional title while working full time on my PhD?

After encountering a few official forms to fill out (tax, medical, LinkedIn, job applications), I don't know what my official job title is during my PhD. There doesn't seem to be a standard for this. I don't think "student" accurately reflects my role, because I'm doing research and getting a small stipend for it. What should I put down as my occupation?

• united-states

• 3 Do you mean your official title for immigration, tax forms, your business card, professional webpage...? Is this more for Europe or the US? –  smci Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 8:46
• 7 "Apprentice ninja" –  JeffE Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 15:54
• @smci For the US, and how I represent myself to non-academic entities –  Josh Hibschman Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 17:58
• 5 I don't understand how people were able to answer without any information about location or the precise status.... –  user9646 Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 18:22

6 Answers 6

Your professional title is Ph.D. student, or doctoral student, or just student.

• 2 What about doctorand(us)? –  Patric Hartmann Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 21:34
• 3 @PatricHartmann I've never head anybody use those before. Apparently, Doctorandus is a title in the Netherlands and Belgium, but I been have a number of colleagues from both countries and have spent time in both, and have never heard anyone actual use the word. Even in the ultra-formal procedures of the Dutch thesis defense where I served as an examiner, we called the candidate "waarde promovendus," and not doctorandus. –  jakebeal Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 22:43
• I can't speak for those places but my institution, which is located in Switzerland, uses these titles on a regular basis, also as an address during defence. –  Patric Hartmann Commented Feb 23, 2015 at 20:01
• 1 In Belgium the title doctorandus (f. doctoranda ) is definitely used to refer to a PhD student. At least in social and human sciences. –  Bram Vanroy Commented Apr 20, 2017 at 17:46

There's really three different things mixed up here.

Your job title , as an employee, is whatever it says on your paychecks. Maybe "Teaching Assistant" or "Research Assistant" or something similar. This is what you should list on job applications, etc, under "employment". No choice here.

Your educational status is "graduate student", "PhD student", or the like. You could also use language like "PhD (in progress)" or "PhD (expected completion 20xx)". You might be a "PhD candidate" but defer to your institution's rules as to if and when they consider you to have that status.

Your occupation is just a word to describe the field you are in and the type of work you do. So you could list "biologist", "historian", "physicist", etc, as appropriate. You could also choose something more generic like "researcher", "educator", "scientist".

For tax forms in particular, I don't think it makes a lot of difference how you describe your occupation. I don't actually know how they use this information (maybe a good question for Money.SE), but I've always assumed it was mainly that if you gave your occupation as "oil baron" or "railroad tycoon" and then reported a tiny income, they'd probably audit you.

• 2 Occupation usually means your job or being a student. Maybe profession is a better word for your third point? –  Kimball Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 9:13
• 1 I would consider it a stretch for a graduate student to declare that they are already a scientist, educator, etc: they are studying to become such, but are not yet there. –  jakebeal Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 15:01
• 5 What's a "paycheck"? Oh, you mean those annoying pieces of paper we used to have to take to the bank? They never include my job title. –  JeffE Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 15:53
• 2 @jakebeal I've published papers, attended conferences, and contributed to science before starting a PhD program. I don't see why one would lose the status of "researcher" after starting a PhD program. –  Azor Ahai -him- Commented May 3, 2019 at 21:30

During the time I was studying for my PhD, I put "Student" as my occupation on my income tax forms, even when I was being paid as a TA or GSR. That was after my industry career, so I had a more complicated financial situation. The returns were prepared by a tax-specialist CPA who agreed with "Student".

I had a lesser form of the "oil baron" issue Nate Eldredge mentioned: the change in occupation from "Computer Architect" to "Student" explained both the disappearance of the relatively high wages I had been reporting, and the appearance of educational expenses.

Your department may employ you as a "graduate teaching assistant" or "graduate research assistant" . In the US, at least, these title will be understood to imply that you are a student.

• 1 In this vein, in my graduate university students were "graduate student researchers", or GSRs. –  eykanal Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 2:26
• 2 It might be understood by academics but it won't be understood by anyone else. For example, every time I travel to the US, the immigration guys ask what I do for a living. I tell them I'm a researcher at a university (I'm a postdoc) and they invariably reply, "Oh, you're a PhD student?" because I didn't say I was a prof and the only people at universities are profs, grad students and undergrads, right? Also, "graduate research assistant" sounds, to my British ears, like a postdoc-type role for somebody who doesn't have a PhD. –  David Richerby Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 8:39
• @DavidRicherby: I fail to see any distinction between doctoral research and "postdoc-type role for somebody who doesn't have a PhD". –  Ben Voigt Commented Feb 22, 2015 at 23:16
• 1 @BenVoigt Doctoral research gets you a PhD; a postdoc-type role doesn't. –  David Richerby Commented Feb 23, 2015 at 1:00
• @DavidRicherby: Being in a doctoral degree program and completing its requirements gets you a PhD. The research is just one of the requirements, and the associated tasks are really no different from the postdoc-type role you mention. –  Ben Voigt Commented Feb 23, 2015 at 1:02

Since you mention title for tax purposes and similar, if I were you I would assume the title of whatever your "job" functions are. Generally, in the case of a PhD candidate, you are usually either a "Assistant Lecturer" or "Doctoral Candidate Research Assistant." Otherwise, you are a Doctoral Candidate, which I would use to explain my job title, rather than student.

You may not like it, but it is: student.

• I served three stints as my department’s grad program director. Graduate students were simply that until they passed the several qualification requirements for admission to PhD candidacy. Those who passed were then PhD candidates. And have an upvote, what the hell. –  Ed V Commented Dec 28, 2021 at 21:59

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Title Page Setup

A title page is required for all APA Style papers. There are both student and professional versions of the title page. Students should use the student version of the title page unless their instructor or institution has requested they use the professional version. APA provides a student title page guide (PDF, 199KB) to assist students in creating their title pages.

Student title page

The student title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation, course number and name for which the paper is being submitted, instructor name, assignment due date, and page number, as shown in this example.

Title page setup is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 2.3 and the Concise Guide Section 1.6

Related handouts

• Student Title Page Guide (PDF, 263KB)
• Student Paper Setup Guide (PDF, 3MB)

Student papers do not include a running head unless requested by the instructor or institution.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the student title page.

Professional title page

The professional title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation(s), author note, running head, and page number, as shown in the following example.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the professional title page.

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Choosing the Right Path in Advanced Healthcare Education: Master’s or Doctorate?

If you already have a master’s degree in your healthcare profession, should you continue on for a terminal degree? Understanding the distinctions between a Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) degree, a Master's degree, and a PhD is crucial for making an informed decision. As a graduate school focused exclusively in the health professions, we have the expertise to help you decide what degree might be best for your career and life goals.

Understanding the DHSc Degree

A Doctor of Health Science (DHSc) degree is designed for healthcare practitioners and leaders who aim to enhance their knowledge, assume leadership roles, and drive innovation in the healthcare industry. You also may want to obtain a doctoral degree before your professional organization (e.g., PA) mandates an entry-level doctorate, to compete with peers or peer professions in similar roles, or to prepare for entry into academia. The DHSc degree focuses on the practical application of theoretical knowledge, preparing graduates to address real-world challenges in healthcare settings.

Masters or Doctorate: Key Differences

Master's Degree in Healthcare

A Master's degree in healthcare, such as a Master of Public Health (MPH) or a Master of Health Administration (MHA), is typically pursued by those looking to gain specialized knowledge and skills in specific areas of healthcare. These programs usually take two years to complete and are designed to provide a deep dive into particular fields.

• Shorter Duration : Typically completed in 1-2 years.
• Specialized Knowledge: Focuses on specific areas like public health, administration, or clinical practice.
• Immediate Applicability : Often provides skills that can be directly applied to current job roles.
• Limited Scope : May not cover the broad range of topics necessary for high-level leadership roles.
• Career Advancement : While valuable, may not open as many doors for advancement as a doctorate.
• Professional Requirements : Your professional healthcare organization may require a doctoral level degree to practice in your field.

Doctorate in Health Science (DHSc)

A DHSc degree, on the other hand, is designed to prepare healthcare professionals for advanced leadership roles, research, and teaching positions. This program is ideal for those who wish to combine clinical expertise with leadership and research capabilities. The program is not a research doctorate program and does not involve a dissertation.  

• Comprehensive Curriculum : Covers a wide range of topics, including leadership, research, and clinical practice.
• Career Advancement : Opens up higher-level positions in clinical practice, administration, academia, and research.
• Leadership Focus : Emphasizes skills necessary for managing healthcare organizations and leading multidisciplinary teams.
• Higher Cost: More expensive than a master's degree.

DHSc Degree or PhD: Which is Right for You?

PhD in Health Sciences

A PhD in Health Sciences is a research-intensive degree aimed at those who wish to pursue a career in academia or advanced research. This degree focuses on creating new knowledge and contributing to the academic field through original research.

• Research Focus : Ideal for those interested in conducting original research and contributing to academic knowledge.
• Academic Careers: Prepares graduates for tenure-track positions and advanced research roles.
• Funding Opportunities : Often includes opportunities for research grants and fellowships.
• Lengthy Commitment : Typically takes 4-7 years to complete and often require in-person training or time away from one’s professional career to complete
• Narrow Focus : May not provide the practical skills needed for leadership roles in clinical or administrative settings.
• Limited Immediate Applicability : The research focus might not translate directly to practical applications in the healthcare industry.

DHSc Degree

In contrast, the DHSc degree is tailored for healthcare professionals who wish to integrate clinical practice with leadership and research. It balances theoretical knowledge with practical application, making it a versatile choice for those looking to advance their careers in various healthcare settings.

• Balanced Curriculum : Combines leadership, clinical practice, and research.
• Practical Application : Designed to address real-world healthcare challenges.
• Versatility : Prepares graduates for roles in advanced clinical practice, administration, clinical leadership, and education.
• Less Research-Intensive: While it includes research and quality improvement components, it is not as focused on original research as a PhD.

Deciding between a Master's, a DHSc degree, and a PhD in healthcare depends on your career goals, interests, and the type of impact you wish to make. The DHSc degree stands out for its balanced approach, combining leadership, clinical practice, and research, making it a versatile and practical choice for advancing your career.

The question of "masters vs. doctorate" and "is a PhD/doctorate worth it" ultimately comes down to your professional aspirations. If you are looking to enhance your clinical expertise while gaining leadership and research skills, the DHSc degree offers unique advantages. And with MGH Institute of Health Professions offering a top-tier DHSc program , you can be assured of receiving a high-quality education  founded on principles of interprofessional collaboration and practice in the delivery of healthcare and health professions education.

Take the next step

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I was drowning in $370,000 of student loan debt with my salary as a teacher. Then, it was all forgiven.

• I had massive student loan debt due to a combination of low teacher pay and accumulating interest.
• Thanks to recent changes to student loan repayment programs, my $370,000 in loan debt was forgiven.
• However, not everyone should count on student loan forgiveness.

This spring, I received some of the best news of my life: My $370,000 in student loan debt was forgiven.

For over a decade, my loans were an albatross. The amount of debt I owed was so massive that I felt nauseated every time I looked at my balance. I had no idea how I'd ever pay off that much money, and the burden of making payments on my meager teacher's income was a constant struggle.

I got some relief when the COVID-19 pandemic brought a yearslong, interest-free payment pause. But I knew that would end at some point. I couldn't stick my head in the sand forever.

Fortunately, the US Department of Education made some changes to student loan repayment , and the day came when my debt was forgiven. I finally felt free.

How I got into this much debt

Between my undergrad studies and my combined MA/Ph.D. program, I borrowed about $238,000. This was a massive amount on its own — but not unheard of for 10 years of higher education .

Related stories

Teaching wasn't always on my radar. I graduated with a BA in criminal justice and political science, but by graduation, I knew I no longer wanted to work in that field. So, I took a short detour through law school, but that wasn't for me either.

While trying to figure out my next steps, I got a job as a substitute teacher . That was when I discovered a passion for teaching.

Subbing also taught me I had no interest in managing behavior. But teaching college meant I'd be teaching adults, so I shouldn't have to worry about classroom management. Even better, it also meant pursuing my love of research and writing. But becoming a full-time professor typically required a Ph.D., so it was back to school for me.

Unfortunately, I had no idea until well after I graduated how difficult it is to land a professorship. Thanks to an oversaturated job market , only a tiny fraction of those who earn doctorates to become professors ever get to be one.

But I didn't learn this until after I'd borrowed multiple six figures to get an education for a job I'd never have. I spent most of my academic career as an adjunct lecturer, working at multiple schools to earn barely above minimum wage .

Meanwhile, I enrolled my student loans in an income-driven repayment plan. As a poorly paid adjunct, my income-based payments were lower than the interest due on my loans, which at one point amounted to as much as $2,000 a month. Thus, my loans ballooned during the decade after my graduation, accruing $132,000 in interest.

The role of luck

I didn't think I'd ever be able to climb out of that much debt, especially since it wasn't fixed debt like a mortgage or a car loan. Instead, thanks to negative amortization, which happens when you pay less than the amount of interest due, my loans continued to grow despite making payments.

Additionally, as an adjunct, I didn't qualify for Public Service Loan Forgiveness , which comes with a shorter repayment term and tax-free forgiveness. Even though adjuncts often work 60-plus hours a week, adjunct hours were reported as classroom hours and didn't include all the additional time spent on class prep and grading.

But new fixes to the student loan system eliminated these barriers for me. For one, the new income-driven SAVE plan eliminates negative amortization, which means borrowers' loans won't grow if their payments are less than the interest due.

Additionally, the Department of Education closed the loophole for adjuncts by introducing its own method for calculating teaching hours. When I heard that news, I literally sat down and cried.

Next, the temporary recount meant that the years I'd spent in economic hardship deferment would count toward my total number of required payments.

Because of all these changes, I received a letter in the spring of 2024 announcing, "Congratulations! Your loans are forgiven."

It felt like I'd won the lottery.

You shouldn't bank on the same luck

Several pieces had to fall into place for my loans to be forgiven. This included pandemic-era relief and an administration that was friendly toward student loan forgiveness.

As an English teacher and the director of the writing center at a small liberal arts college, I work with students who borrow six figures or more to get an education. I feel for them, as college has become prohibitively expensive, and student loans help keep college accessible.

Yet student loan debt can become a huge financial burden that impacts students' ability to do things like buy a home, have children, or build savings. Certainly, if I had the chance to do it all over again, I would have made different choices, and I hope my students do too.

Watch: Why student loans aren't canceled, and what Biden's going to do about it

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Details emerge after doctor raped and murdered in India as thousands protest

August 15, 2024 / 6:32 AM EDT / CBS/AFP

Thousands took to the streets of Kolkata early Thursday to condemn the rape and murder of a local doctor , demanding justice for the victim and an end to the chronic issue of violence against women in Indian society.

The discovery of the 31-year-old's brutalized body last week at a state-run hospital has sparked nationwide protests, with Prime Minister Narendra Modi demanding swift punishment for those who commit "monstrous" deeds against women.

Large crowds marched through the streets of Kolkata in West Bengal to condemn the killing, with a candlelight rally at midnight coinciding with the start of India's independence day celebrations on Thursday.

The protesters in Kolkata, who marched under the slogan "reclaim the night", called for a wider tackling of violence against women and held up handwritten signs demanding action.

"We want justice," read one sign at the rally. "Hang the rapist, save the women," read another.

"The atrocities against women do not stop," midnight marcher Monalisa Guha told Kolkata's The Telegraph newspaper.

"We face harassment almost on a daily basis," another marcher, Sangeeta Halder, told the daily. "But not stepping out because of fear is not the solution."

"Monstrous behavior against women"

Modi, speaking in New Delhi on Thursday morning at independence day celebrations, did not specifically reference the Kolkata murder, but expressed his "pain" at violence against women.

"There is anger for atrocities committed against our mothers and sisters, there is anger in the nation about that," he said.

"Crimes against women should be quickly investigated; monstrous behavior against women should be severely and quickly punished," he added. "That is essential for creating deterrence and confidence in the society."

Doctors are also demanding swift justice and better workplace security in the wake of the killing, with those in government hospitals across several states on Monday halting elective services "indefinitely" in protest.

Protests have since occurred in several other hospitals across the country, including in the capital.

"Doctors nationwide are questioning what is so difficult about enacting a law for our security," Dhruv Chauhan, from the Indian Medical Association's Junior Doctors' Network, told the Press Trust of India news agency. "The strike will continue until all demands are formally met."

The Telegraph on Thursday praised the "spirited public protests" across India.

"Hearteningly, doctors and medical organizations are not the only ones involved," it said in an editorial. "The ranks of the protesters have been swelled by people from all walks of life."

Police accused of mishandling case

Indian media have reported the murdered doctor was found in the teaching hospital's seminar hall, suggesting she had gone there for a brief rest during a long shift.

An autopsy has confirmed sexual assault, and in a petition to the court, the victim's parents have said that they suspected their daughter was gang-raped, according to Indian broadcaster NDTV.  

Though police have detained a man who worked at the hospital helping people navigate busy queues, officers have been accused of mishandling the case.

Kolkata's High Court on Tuesday transferred the case to the elite Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) to "inspire public confidence."

In the early hours of Thursday, a mob of some 40 people angry at authorities' handling of the case stormed the grounds of the R.G. Kar Medical College and Hospital, the site of the murder.

The men smashed property and hurled stones at police, who fired tear gas in response, authorities said.

West Bengal lawmaker Abhishek Banerjee, from the Trinamool Congress party, condemned the "hooliganism and vandalism," but said "the demands of the protesting doctors are fair and justified."

History of sexual violence in India

Sexual violence against women is a widespread problem in India. An average of nearly 90 rapes a day were reported in India in 2022, according to  data  from the National Crime Records Bureau.

That year, police  arrested 11 people  after the alleged brutal gang rape and torture of a young woman that included her being paraded through the streets of Dehli. Also in 2022, a police officer in India was arrested after being  accused of raping  a 13-year-old girl who went to his station to report she had been gang-raped.

In March 2024, multiple Indian men were arrested after the  gang rape of a Spanish tourist  on a motorbike trip with her husband.

For many, the gruesome nature of the attack has invoked comparisons with the horrific 2012 gang rape and murder  of a young woman on a Delhi bus.

The woman became a symbol of the socially conservative country's failure to tackle sexual violence against women.

Her death sparked huge, and at times violent, demonstrations in Delhi and elsewhere.

Under pressure, the government introduced harsher penalties for rapists, and the death penalty for repeat offenders.

Several new sexual offences were also introduced, including stalking and jail sentences for officials who failed to register rape complaints.

• Sexual Violence

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Olympic Breakdancer Raygun Has PhD in Breakdancing?

Rachael gunn earned a zero in breakdancing at the paris 2024 olympic games., aleksandra wrona, published aug. 13, 2024.

About this rating

Gunn's Ph.D. thesis, titled "Deterritorializing Gender in Sydney's Breakdancing Scene: a B-girl's Experience of B-boying," did cover the topic of breakdancing. However ...

... Gunn earned her Ph.D. in cultural studies. Moreover, a "PhD in breakdancing" does not exist as an academic discipline.

On Aug. 10, 2024, a rumor spread on social media that Rachael Gunn (also known as "Raygun"), an Australian breakdancer who competed in the 2024 Paris Olympics, had a Ph.D. in breakdancing. "This australian breakdancer has a PhD in breakdancing and dance culture and was a ballroom dancer before taking up breaking. I don't even know what to say," one X post on the topic read .

"Australian Olympic breakdancer Rachael Gunn has a PhD in breakdancing and dance culture," one X user wrote , while another asked, "Who did we send? Raygun, a 36-year-old full-time lecturer at Sydney's Macquarie University, completed a PhD in breaking culture and is a lecturer in media, creative arts, literature and language," another X user wrote .

The claim also spread on other social media platforms, such as Reddit and Instagram . 

"Is she the best break dancer? No. But I have so much respect for going on an international stage to do something you love even if you're not very skilled at it," one Instagram user commented , adding that, "And, I'm pretty sure she's using this as a research endeavor and will be writing about all our reactions to her performance. Can't wait to read it!"

In short, Gunn's Ph.D. thesis, titled "Deterritorializing Gender in Sydney's Breakdancing Scene: A B-girl's Experience of B-boying," indeed focused on the topic of breakdancing. However, Gunn earned her Ph.D. in cultural studies, not in breakdancing. Furthermore, it's important to note that a "PhD in breakdancing" does not exist as an academic discipline. 

Since Gunn's research focused on the breakdancing community, but her degree is actually in the broader field of cultural studies, we have rated this claim as a "Mixture" of truths.

Gunn "secured Australia's first ever Olympic spot in the B-Girl competition at Paris 2024 by winning the QMS Oceania Championships in Sydney, NSW, Australia," the Olympics official website informed . 

Gunn earned a zero in breakdancing at the Paris 2024 Olympic Games and clips of her routine went viral on social media, with numerous users creating memes or mocking dancer's moves. "As well as criticising her attire, social media users mocked the Australian's routine as she bounced around on stage like a kangaroo and stood on her head at times," BBC article on the topic read . 

The website of the Macquarie University informed Gunn "is an interdisciplinary and practice-based researcher interested in the cultural politics of breaking" and holds a Ph.D. in cultural studies, as well as a bachelor of arts degree (Hons) in contemporary music: 

Rachael Gunn is an interdisciplinary and practice-based researcher interested in the cultural politics of breaking. She holds a PhD in Cultural Studies (2017) and a BA (Hons) in Contemporary Music (2009) from Macquarie University. Her work draws on cultural theory, dance studies, popular music studies, media, and ethnography. Rachael is a practising breaker and goes by the name of 'Raygun'. She was the Australian Breaking Association top ranked bgirl in 2020 and 2021, and represented Australia at the World Breaking Championships in Paris in 2021, in Seoul in 2022, and in Leuven (Belgium) in 2023. She won the Oceania Breaking Championships in 2023.

Gunn's biography further revealed that she is a member of the Macquarie University Performance and Expertise Reasearch Centre, and has a range of teaching experience at undergraduate and postgraduate levels "across the areas of media, creative industries, music, dance, cultural studies, and work-integrated learning." 

Moreover, it informed her research interests included, "Breaking, street dance, and hip-hop culture; youth cultures/scenes; constructions of the dancing body; politics of gender and gender performance; ethnography; the methodological dynamics between theory and practice."

Gunn earned her Ph.D. from the Department of Media, Music, Communications, and Cultural Studies within the Faculty of Arts at Macquarie University. Below, you can find the abstract of her paper, shared by the official website of Macquarie University:

This thesis critically interrogates how masculinist practices of breakdancing offers a site for the transgression of gendered norms. Drawing on my own experiences as a female within the male-dominated breakdancing scene in Sydney, first as a spectator, then as an active crew member, this thesis questions why so few female participants engage in this creative space, and how breakdancing might be the space to displace and deterritorialise gender. I use analytic autoetthnography and interviews with scene members in collaboration with theoretical frameworks offered by Deleuze and Guttari, Butler, Bourdieu and other feminist and post-structuralist philosophers, to critically examine how the capacities of bodies are constituted and shaped in Sydney's breakdancing scene, and to also locate the potentiality for moments of transgression. In other words, I conceptualize the breaking body as not a 'body' constituted through regulations and assumptions, but as an assemblage open to new rhizomatic connections. Breaking is a space that embraces difference, whereby the rituals of the dance not only augment its capacity to deterritorialize the body, but also facilitate new possibilities for performativities beyond the confines of dominant modes of thought and normative gender construction. Consequently, this thesis attempts to contribute to what I perceive as a significant gap in scholarship on hip-hop, breakdancing, and autoethnographic explorations of Deleuze-Guattarian theory.

In a response to online criticism of her Olympics performance, Gunn wrote on her Instagram profile: "Don't be afraid to be different, go out there and represent yourself, you never know where that's gonna take you":

We have recently investigated other 2024 Paris Olympics' -related rumors, such as:

• Lifeguards Are Present at Olympic Swimming Competitions?
• Hobby Lobby Pulled $50M in Ads from 2024 Paris Olympics?
• 2024 Paris Olympics Are 'Lowest-Rated' Games in Modern History?

Gunn, Rachael Louise. Deterritorializing Gender in Sydney's Breakdancing Scene: A B-Girl's Experience of B-Boying. 2022. Macquarie University, thesis. figshare.mq.edu.au, https://doi.org/10.25949/19433291.v1.

---. Deterritorializing Gender in Sydney's Breakdancing Scene: A B-Girl's Experience of B-Boying. 2022. Macquarie University, thesis. figshare.mq.edu.au, https://doi.org/10.25949/19433291.v1.

Ibrahim, Nur. "Lifeguards Are Present at Olympic Swimming Competitions?" Snopes, 8 Aug. 2024, https://www.snopes.com//fact-check/lifeguards-paris-olympics-swimming/.

"Olympic Breaking: Criticism of Viral Breakdancer Rachael Gunn - Raygun - Condemned by Australia Team." BBC Sport, 10 Aug. 2024, https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/articles/c2dgxp5n3rlo.

ORCID. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1069-4021. Accessed 12 Aug. 2024.

Paris 2024. https://olympics.com/en/paris-2024/athlete/-raygun_1940107. Accessed 12 Aug. 2024.

Saunders, Grant Leigh, and Rachael Gunn. "Australia." Global Hip Hop Studies, vol. 3, no. 1–2, Dec. 2023, pp. 23–32. Macquarie University, https://doi.org/10.1386/ghhs_00060_1.

Wazer, Caroline. "2024 Paris Olympics Are 'Lowest-Rated' Games in Modern History?" Snopes, 1 Aug. 2024, https://www.snopes.com//fact-check/paris-olympics-lowest-rated-games/.

---. "Hobby Lobby Pulled $50M in Ads from 2024 Paris Olympics?" Snopes, 8 Aug. 2024, https://www.snopes.com//fact-check/olympics-hobby-lobby-ads/.

By Aleksandra Wrona

Aleksandra Wrona is a reporting fellow for Snopes, based in the Warsaw, Poland, area.

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