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What is a Theoretical Framework? | A Step-by-Step Guide

Published on 14 February 2020 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

A theoretical framework is a foundational review of existing theories that serves as a roadmap for developing the arguments you will use in your own work.

Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections, and make predictions. In a theoretical framework, you explain the existing theories that support your research, showing that your work is grounded in established ideas.

In other words, your theoretical framework justifies and contextualises your later research, and it’s a crucial first step for your research paper , thesis, or dissertation . A well-rounded theoretical framework sets you up for success later on in your research and writing process.

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Table of contents

Why do you need a theoretical framework, how to write a theoretical framework, structuring your theoretical framework, example of a theoretical framework, frequently asked questions about theoretical frameworks.

Before you start your own research, it’s crucial to familiarise yourself with the theories and models that other researchers have already developed. Your theoretical framework is your opportunity to present and explain what you’ve learned, situated within your future research topic.

There’s a good chance that many different theories about your topic already exist, especially if the topic is broad. In your theoretical framework, you will evaluate, compare, and select the most relevant ones.

By “framing” your research within a clearly defined field, you make the reader aware of the assumptions that inform your approach, showing the rationale behind your choices for later sections, like methodology and discussion . This part of your dissertation lays the foundations that will support your analysis, helping you interpret your results and make broader generalisations .

• In literature , a scholar using postmodernist literary theory would analyse The Great Gatsby differently than a scholar using Marxist literary theory.
• In psychology , a behaviourist approach to depression would involve different research methods and assumptions than a psychoanalytic approach.
• In economics , wealth inequality would be explained and interpreted differently based on a classical economics approach than based on a Keynesian economics one.

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To create your own theoretical framework, you can follow these three steps:

• Identifying your key concepts
• Evaluating and explaining relevant theories
• Showing how your research fits into existing research

1. Identify your key concepts

The first step is to pick out the key terms from your problem statement and research questions . Concepts often have multiple definitions, so your theoretical framework should also clearly define what you mean by each term.

To investigate this problem, you have identified and plan to focus on the following problem statement, objective, and research questions:

Problem : Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.

Objective : To increase the quantity of return customers.

Research question : How can the satisfaction of company X’s online customers be improved in order to increase the quantity of return customers?

2. Evaluate and explain relevant theories

By conducting a thorough literature review , you can determine how other researchers have defined these key concepts and drawn connections between them. As you write your theoretical framework, your aim is to compare and critically evaluate the approaches that different authors have taken.

After discussing different models and theories, you can establish the definitions that best fit your research and justify why. You can even combine theories from different fields to build your own unique framework if this better suits your topic.

Make sure to at least briefly mention each of the most important theories related to your key concepts. If there is a well-established theory that you don’t want to apply to your own research, explain why it isn’t suitable for your purposes.

3. Show how your research fits into existing research

Apart from summarising and discussing existing theories, your theoretical framework should show how your project will make use of these ideas and take them a step further.

You might aim to do one or more of the following:

• Test whether a theory holds in a specific, previously unexamined context
• Use an existing theory as a basis for interpreting your results
• Critique or challenge a theory
• Combine different theories in a new or unique way

A theoretical framework can sometimes be integrated into a literature review chapter , but it can also be included as its own chapter or section in your dissertation. As a rule of thumb, if your research involves dealing with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to include a separate theoretical framework chapter.

There are no fixed rules for structuring your theoretical framework, but it’s best to double-check with your department or institution to make sure they don’t have any formatting guidelines. The most important thing is to create a clear, logical structure. There are a few ways to do this:

• Draw on your research questions, structuring each section around a question or key concept
• Organise by theory cluster
• Organise by date

As in all other parts of your research paper , thesis, or dissertation , make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

To get a sense of what this part of your thesis or dissertation might look like, take a look at our full example .

While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work based on existing research, a conceptual framework allows you to draw your own conclusions, mapping out the variables you may use in your study and the interplay between them.

A literature review and a theoretical framework are not the same thing and cannot be used interchangeably. While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work, a literature review critically evaluates existing research relating to your topic. You’ll likely need both in your dissertation .

A theoretical framework can sometimes be integrated into a  literature review chapter , but it can also be included as its own chapter or section in your dissertation . As a rule of thumb, if your research involves dealing with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to include a separate theoretical framework chapter.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

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Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounded assumptions or predictions of behavior. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework encompasses not just the theory, but the narrative explanation about how the researcher engages in using the theory and its underlying assumptions to investigate the research problem. It is the structure of your paper that summarizes concepts, ideas, and theories derived from prior research studies and which was synthesized in order to form a conceptual basis for your analysis and interpretation of meaning found within your research.

Abend, Gabriel. "The Meaning of Theory." Sociological Theory 26 (June 2008): 173–199; Kivunja, Charles. "Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field." International Journal of Higher Education 7 (December 2018): 44-53; Swanson, Richard A. Theory Building in Applied Disciplines . San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers 2013; Varpio, Lara, Elise Paradis, Sebastian Uijtdehaage, and Meredith Young. "The Distinctions between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework." Academic Medicine 95 (July 2020): 989-994.

Importance of Theory and a Theoretical Framework

Theories can be unfamiliar to the beginning researcher because they are rarely applied in high school social studies curriculum and, as a result, can come across as unfamiliar and imprecise when first introduced as part of a writing assignment. However, in their most simplified form, a theory is simply a set of assumptions or predictions about something you think will happen based on existing evidence and that can be tested to see if those outcomes turn out to be true. Of course, it is slightly more deliberate than that, therefore, summarized from Kivunja (2018, p. 46), here are the essential characteristics of a theory.

• It is logical and coherent
• It has clear definitions of terms or variables, and has boundary conditions [i.e., it is not an open-ended statement]
• It has a domain where it applies
• It has clearly described relationships among variables
• It describes, explains, and makes specific predictions
• It comprises of concepts, themes, principles, and constructs
• It must have been based on empirical data [i.e., it is not a guess]
• It must have made claims that are subject to testing, been tested and verified
• It must be clear and concise
• Its assertions or predictions must be different and better than those in existing theories
• Its predictions must be general enough to be applicable to and understood within multiple contexts
• Its assertions or predictions are relevant, and if applied as predicted, will result in the predicted outcome
• The assertions and predictions are not immutable, but subject to revision and improvement as researchers use the theory to make sense of phenomena
• Its concepts and principles explain what is going on and why
• Its concepts and principles are substantive enough to enable us to predict a future

Given these characteristics, a theory can best be understood as the foundation from which you investigate assumptions or predictions derived from previous studies about the research problem, but in a way that leads to new knowledge and understanding as well as, in some cases, discovering how to improve the relevance of the theory itself or to argue that the theory is outdated and a new theory needs to be formulated based on new evidence.

A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.

The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature . You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways :

• An explicit statement of  theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
• The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
• Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
• Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
• The theoretical framework adds context around the theory itself based on how scholars had previously tested the theory in relation their overall research design [i.e., purpose of the study, methods of collecting data or information, methods of analysis, the time frame in which information is collected, study setting, and the methodological strategy used to conduct the research].

By virtue of its applicative nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Corvellec, Hervé, ed. What is Theory?: Answers from the Social and Cultural Sciences . Stockholm: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2013; Asher, Herbert B. Theory-Building and Data Analysis in the Social Sciences . Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1984; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kivunja, Charles. "Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field." International Journal of Higher Education 7 (2018): 44-53; Omodan, Bunmi Isaiah. "A Model for Selecting Theoretical Framework through Epistemology of Research Paradigms." African Journal of Inter/Multidisciplinary Studies 4 (2022): 275-285; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Jarvis, Peter. The Practitioner-Researcher. Developing Theory from Practice . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

I.  Developing the Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:

• Examine your thesis title and research problem . The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
• Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key variables in your research . Answer the question, "What factors contribute to the presumed effect?"
• Review related literature to find how scholars have addressed your research problem. Identify the assumptions from which the author(s) addressed the problem.
• List  the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories.
• Review key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
• Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint [framework] that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of concepts and variables according to given definitions and builds new knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.

II.  Purpose

Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To that end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.

• Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
• Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,
• Means for identifying and defining research problems,
• Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
• Ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated knowledge that are important and which facts are not,
• Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
• Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,
• Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a frame of reference for defining the boundaries of their profession, and
• Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice.

Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. “Theory-Building Research Methods.” In Swanson R. A. and E. F. Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice . (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Jacard, James and Jacob Jacoby. Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills: A Practical Guide for Social Scientists . New York: Guilford, 2010; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw. “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.

Structure and Writing Style

The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory , in which case, your work is expected to test the validity of that existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism Theory, which categorizes perceived differences among nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism Theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the disputed split between southern and northern Sudan that led to the creation of two nations?

However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived . Based upon the above example, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as an answer to two basic questions:

• What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the individual and the state relate during periods of conflict?"]
• Why is your approach a feasible solution? [i.e., justify the application of your choice of a particular theory and explain why alternative constructs were rejected. I could choose instead to test Instrumentalist or Circumstantialists models developed among ethnic conflict theorists that rely upon socio-economic-political factors to explain individual-state relations and to apply this theoretical model to periods of war between nations].

The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature and your course readings [summarized and analyzed in the next section of your paper] and the gaps in the research that emerge from the review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will likely not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature .

Just as a research problem in your paper requires contextualization and background information, a theory requires a framework for understanding its application to the topic being investigated. When writing and revising this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

• Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your study . This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown or it is borrowed from another discipline.
• Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks, concepts, models, or theories . As noted in the example above, there will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the theory you've chosen is the appropriate one.
• The present tense is used when writing about theory. Although the past tense can be used to describe the history of a theory or the role of key theorists, the construction of your theoretical framework is happening now.
• You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible . Later, your discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.
• Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitations of the theoretical framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation because the theory inadequately explains a certain phenomena].

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Conceptual Framework: What Do You Think is Going On? College of Engineering. University of Michigan; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Lynham, Susan A. “The General Method of Theory-Building Research in Applied Disciplines.” Advances in Developing Human Resources 4 (August 2002): 221-241; Tavallaei, Mehdi and Mansor Abu Talib. "A General Perspective on the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research." Journal of International Social Research 3 (Spring 2010); Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Weick, Karl E. “The Work of Theorizing.” In Theorizing in Social Science: The Context of Discovery . Richard Swedberg, editor. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), pp. 177-194.

Writing Tip

Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Other Disciplines

An increasingly important trend in the social and behavioral sciences is to think about and attempt to understand research problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. One way to do this is to not rely exclusively on the theories developed within your particular discipline, but to think about how an issue might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if you are a political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by female incumbents in state legislature campaigns, theories about the use of language could be derived, not only from political science, but linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular case, feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and hypotheses developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening and an effective way to be more engaged in the research topic.

CohenMiller, A. S. and P. Elizabeth Pate. "A Model for Developing Interdisciplinary Research Theoretical Frameworks." The Qualitative Researcher 24 (2019): 1211-1226; Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Undertheorize!

Do not leave the theory hanging out there in the introduction never to be mentioned again. Undertheorizing weakens your paper. The theoretical framework you describe should guide your study throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the review of pertinent literature and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the theoretical framework you chose supports analysis of the research problem or, if appropriate, how the theoretical framework was found to be inadequate in explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be afraid to propose your own theory based on your findings.

Yet Another Writing Tip

What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in newspapers and popular magazines and in non-academic settings. However, the difference between theory and hypothesis in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested assumptions that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory; critical race theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions are:

• A theory predicts events in a broad, general context;  a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
• A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among a set of scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis. About.com Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis. Slideshare presentation.

Still Yet Another Writing Tip

Be Prepared to Challenge the Validity of an Existing Theory

Theories are meant to be tested and their underlying assumptions challenged; they are not rigid or intransigent, but are meant to set forth general principles for explaining phenomena or predicting outcomes. Given this, testing theoretical assumptions is an important way that knowledge in any discipline develops and grows. If you're asked to apply an existing theory to a research problem, the analysis will likely include the expectation by your professor that you should offer modifications to the theory based on your research findings.

Indications that theoretical assumptions may need to be modified can include the following:

• Your findings suggest that the theory does not explain or account for current conditions or circumstances or the passage of time,
• The study reveals a finding that is incompatible with what the theory attempts to explain or predict, or
• Your analysis reveals that the theory overly generalizes behaviors or actions without taking into consideration specific factors revealed from your analysis [e.g., factors related to culture, nationality, history, gender, ethnicity, age, geographic location, legal norms or customs , religion, social class, socioeconomic status, etc.].

Philipsen, Kristian. "Theory Building: Using Abductive Search Strategies." In Collaborative Research Design: Working with Business for Meaningful Findings . Per Vagn Freytag and Louise Young, editors. (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018), pp. 45-71; Shepherd, Dean A. and Roy Suddaby. "Theory Building: A Review and Integration." Journal of Management 43 (2017): 59-86.

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The Lexington Review

A Journal of Scholarly Writing from the Baruch College Writing Center

Applying Existing Frameworks of Analysis to Your Essay

by Zefyr Lisowski

Applying a specific framework to analyze a text can be one of the trickiest, but most satisfying, aspects of writing an essay. It’s hard to achieve a balance between introducing a scholarly approach you’ll be drawing from and providing enough independent analysis to make an original argument. However, student writer Emma Paisley Schultz walks that line effectively in her essay “ Applications of Social Psychology to Real World Issues: Social Distancing and Mask Wearing. ”

We’ll be walking through some of what Paisley does especially well in this writing guide, but please consider reading Paisley’s essay in full—and of course try out these skills yourself, as well! We’ll walk through the first few paragraphs in particular to see how she applies the framework of social psychology to build her argument, and then jump forward in the essay to see it applied elsewhere.

Introducing the issue you want to analyze

At the onset of the pandemic in March 2020, people around the world were faced with immense fear, anxiety, and depression as they became increasingly concerned about the current and potential hardships they would face in the following months, which became years. COVID-19 would have the greatest direct impact on people’s social lives, forcing them to retreat inside their homes and socialize in ways they largely never had. Indeed, through each phase of the coronavirus, the greater American society has observed a huge range of behavioral responses to these tremendous lifestyle changes. 

Paisley uses her first paragraph to introduce the incident she plans to analyze—the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Note that she provides a specific date (March 2020) and describes the emotions felt by people during this time clearly (“immense fear, anxiety, and depression”). With this first paragraph, we still don’t quite see what her main thesis is—which is fine! Longer and more complex papers, of which this is one, can have a multiple-paragraph thesis—although that’s generally discouraged in shorter pieces. But even within this multi-paragraph thesis, the last sentence (“through each phase of the coronavirus, the greater American society has observed a huge range of behavioral responses to these tremendous lifestyle changes”) hints at some of the concerns this paper will address: namely, behavioral responses to the lifestyle changes brought about by the pandemic.

Introducing the framework of analysis you plan to use

In certain parts of the United States during those initial months, there were people partying on Florida’s beaches during their spring break as though no virus was killing thousands of their family members, friends, and neighbors. 14 At this same time, other Americans obsessively washed their hands, wore masks everywhere they went, and became borderline agoraphobic, refusing to leave their homes even for groceries and toilet paper. It is important to understand that people’s concerns about contracting the virus are closely linked with how valuable American society deemed them to be, considering that college-aged Floridian partygoers’ fearlessness stood in stark contrast to the trepidation of people with preexisting health conditions and elderly individuals residing in nursing homes. Through the lens of social psychology, it is interesting to theorize exactly why many of these social behaviors stood in great contrast to one another. By examining people’s behaviors with respect to mask-wearing and social distancing, social psychologists may better understand the impact of important psychological concepts like cognitive dissonance, confirmation bias, negativity bias, social comparison, persuasion, and conformity. 

The second paragraph expands on the behavioral responses alluded to in the previous paragraph by highlighting several specific responses Americans had: disregarding public safety to party versus retreating into homes to isolate. But that’s not all that the paragraph introduces. In the second half of the paragraph, Paisley lays out the key concepts the paper itself will focus on: “cognitive dissonance, confirmation bias, negativity bias, social comparison, persuasion, and conformity.” By introducing these concepts so clearly, Paisley provides a “road map” to her essay, helping us know where the paper is going and how to read it. (For more help structuring an essay, refer to our writing guide on signposting .)

The next part of this paper will run through one of these concepts, seeing how it expands and connects to various responses during the pandemic. Let’s look at one now.

Applying a framework of analysis to a specific example

While intrinsic factors, like the confirmation and negativity biases, influenced people’s behavior, extrinsic forces were at play as well. To explain why some habitually wore masks while others did not, it is pertinent to understand the powers of persuasion at this time. Persuasion is the communication from a communicator to an audience about a particular issue or topic that aims to change the audience’s opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. 3 There are three major elements of persuasion: the source of the communication (also known as the communicator), the nature of the communication, and the characteristics and mindset of the audience. 6 The communicator of a persuasive message, for instance, has a great impact on how influential the message is on their audience. For New Yorkers, Governor Andrew Cuomo was one of these prominent communicators that had a great impact on them. Governor Cuomo established himself as a credible individual in the first few months of the pandemic, particularly when he began to hold regular televised conferences during which he informed the public about any updates with concern to the virus in New York… At these conferences, he spoke directly to the public, brought in experts to explain the science behind the nature of the virus and clarify any confusion, and offered graphs to demonstrate how social distancing would reduce the rate at which people were becoming infected. 5

In this excerpt from a later paragraph, Paisley briefly summarizes the previous two paragraphs, not excerpted here. (“While intrinsic factors, like the confirmation and negativity biases, influenced people’s behavior, extrinsic forces were at play as well.”) This is a great way to transition between paragraphs; by recapping what she said before, she’s then able to pivot, in the second half of the sentence, to describing what was left out of this earlier analysis (“extrinsic forces were at play as well”). Then, using concrete and well-cited language, she explains what the topic of the paragraph is—persuasion—and what its main parts are. Finally, she connects persuasion to a specific example for analysis— Gov. Cuomo’s initial televised COVID press conferences, which generated a popular goodwill for him before waves of scandals took down his administration. The rest of this paragraph goes on to analyze more specifically how Cuomo used persuasion during these conferences, but as a foundation, Paisley sets a great one here.

Let’s look at one more part of Paisley’s paper, her conclusion.

Writing an effective conclusion for your paper

From the partiers in Florida to the elderly in nursing homes to political figures like Andrew Cuomo, there were many social psychological influences to be observed during the COVID-19 pandemic. While social distancing and mask-wearing were largely abnormal before the pandemic, both of these social behaviors were pertinent to preventing more deaths, especially during a time where there were limited medical resources to support people. Even though vaccinations are now readily available, the effects of cognitive dissonance, confirmation bias, negativity bias, social comparison, persuasion, and conformity are still prevalent in people’s behaviors as a spectrum exists of individuals who are wholly comfortable returning to regular life and others who remain cautious against the virus, especially with the looming threat of stronger strains entering New York. No matter what the future has in store, reflecting upon why people acted irresponsibly and how people were convinced to act differently through social psychology is vitally important to understand how to save as many lives until the pandemic’s bitter end.

In this excerpt, Paisley repeats her thesis (“From the partiers in Florida to the elderly in nursing homes to political figures like Andrew Cuomo, there were many social psychological influences to be observed during the COVID-19 pandemic”), and then pivots to focusing on how these phenomena are still present today. Finally, she jumps forward to think about the future, while also repeating the importance of the work that she’s done in the paper—which is often a great strategy to end an essay on. The conclusion is often called the “so what” paragraph—it’s a place where you can lay out, more explicitly, why what you’re writing about is important, and how it can connect to the future as well.

Now that you’ve finished reading through this guide, practice applying an existing framework of analysis to your own writing!

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• Writing Tips

How to Make a Conceptual Framework

• 6-minute read
• 2nd January 2022

What is a conceptual framework? And why is it important?

A conceptual framework illustrates the relationship between the variables of a research question. It’s an outline of what you’d expect to find in a research project.

Conceptual frameworks should be constructed before data collection and are vital because they map out the actions needed in the study. This should be the first step of an undergraduate or graduate research project.

What Is In a Conceptual Framework?

In a conceptual framework, you’ll find a visual representation of the key concepts and relationships that are central to a research study or project . This can be in form of a diagram, flow chart, or any other visual representation. Overall, a conceptual framework serves as a guide for understanding the problem being studied and the methods being used to investigate it.

Steps to Developing the Perfect Conceptual Framework

• Pick a question
• Conduct a literature review
• Identify your variables
• Create your conceptual framework

1. Pick a Question

You should already have some idea of the broad area of your research project. Try to narrow down your research field to a manageable topic in terms of time and resources. From there, you need to formulate your research question. A research question answers the researcher’s query: “What do I want to know about my topic?” Research questions should be focused, concise, arguable and, ideally, should address a topic of importance within your field of research.

An example of a simple research question is: “What is the relationship between sunny days and ice cream sales?”

2. Conduct a Literature Review

A literature review is an analysis of the scholarly publications on a chosen topic. To undertake a literature review, search for articles with the same theme as your research question. Choose updated and relevant articles to analyze and use peer-reviewed and well-respected journals whenever possible.

For the above example, the literature review would investigate publications that discuss how ice cream sales are affected by the weather. The literature review should reveal the variables involved and any current hypotheses about this relationship.

3. Identify Your Variables

There are two key variables in every experiment: independent and dependent variables.

Independent Variables

The independent variable (otherwise known as the predictor or explanatory variable) is the expected cause of the experiment: what the scientist changes or changes on its own. In our example, the independent variable would be “the number of sunny days.”

Dependent Variables

The dependent variable (otherwise known as the response or outcome variable) is the expected effect of the experiment: what is being studied or measured. In our example, the dependent variable would be “the quantity of ice cream sold.”

Next, there are control variables.

Control Variables

A control variable is a variable that may impact the dependent variable but whose effects are not going to be measured in the research project. In our example, a control variable could be “the socioeconomic status of participants.” Control variables should be kept constant to isolate the effects of the other variables in the experiment.

Finally, there are intervening and extraneous variables.

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Intervening Variables

Intervening variables link the independent and dependent variables and clarify their connection. In our example, an intervening variable could be “temperature.”

Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables are any variables that are not being investigated but could impact the outcomes of the study. Some instances of extraneous variables for our example would be “the average price of ice cream” or “the number of varieties of ice cream available.” If you control an extraneous variable, it becomes a control variable.

4. Create Your Conceptual Framework

Having picked your research question, undertaken a literature review, and identified the relevant variables, it’s now time to construct your conceptual framework. Conceptual frameworks are clear and often visual representations of the relationships between variables.

We’ll start with the basics: the independent and dependent variables.

Our hypothesis is that the quantity of ice cream sold directly depends on the number of sunny days; hence, there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent variable (the number of sunny days) and the dependent and independent variable (the quantity of ice cream sold).

Next, introduce a control variable. Remember, this is anything that might directly affect the dependent variable but is not being measured in the experiment:

Finally, introduce the intervening and extraneous variables. 

The intervening variable (temperature) clarifies the relationship between the independent variable (the number of sunny days) and the dependent variable (the quantity of ice cream sold). Extraneous variables, such as the average price of ice cream, are variables that are not controlled and can potentially impact the dependent variable.

Are Conceptual Frameworks and Research Paradigms the Same?

In simple terms, the research paradigm is what informs your conceptual framework. In defining our research paradigm we ask the big questions—Is there an objective truth and how can we understand it? If we decide the answer is yes, we may be working with a positivist research paradigm and will choose to build a conceptual framework that displays the relationship between fixed variables. If not, we may be working with a constructivist research paradigm, and thus our conceptual framework will be more of a loose amalgamation of ideas, theories, and themes (a qualitative study). If this is confusing–don’t worry! We have an excellent blog post explaining research paradigms in more detail.

Where is the Conceptual Framework Located in a Thesis?

This will depend on your discipline, research type, and school’s guidelines, but most papers will include a section presenting the conceptual framework in the introduction, literature review, or opening chapter. It’s best to present your conceptual framework after presenting your research question, but before outlining your methodology.

Can a Conceptual Framework be Used in a Qualitative Study?

Yes. Despite being less clear-cut than a quantitative study, all studies should present some form of a conceptual framework. Let’s say you were doing a study on care home practices and happiness, and you came across a “happiness model” constructed by a relevant theorist in your literature review. Your conceptual framework could be an outline or a visual depiction of how you will use this model to collect and interpret qualitative data for your own study (such as interview responses). Check out this useful resource showing other examples of conceptual frameworks for qualitative studies .

Expert Proofreading for Researchers

Whether you’re a seasoned academic or not, you will want your research paper to be error-free and fluently written. That’s where proofreading comes in. Our editors are on hand 24 hours a day to ensure your writing is concise, clear, and precise. Submit a free sample of your writing today to try our services.

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Writing With Purpose: The essential role of framework in successful academic essays

In academic writing , a well-structured and well-crafted framework is essential. It serves as the backbone of the essay, providing a clear and organized structure that supports the argument or idea being presented. Writing an academic essay without a proper framework is like attempting to build a house without a blueprint; it may be possible, but the end result is likely to be haphazard and unorganized. Let us discuss the five things you should know about the importance of framework when writing an academic essay.

The Purpose of the Essay

Without a clear understanding of the purpose, it is challenging to create a framework that effectively supports the argument or idea being presented. Therefore, it is essential to define the purpose of the essay in the introduction and to develop the framework with this purpose in mind.

For instance, if the purpose of the essay is to analyze a specific literary work, the framework should focus on the central themes and literary devices used in the work. Similarly, if the purpose is to present a persuasive argument, the framework should provide evidence and support for the argument being presented.

Thorough Research

The research should be of high quality, credible, and relevant to the topic being discussed. The literature should be integrated seamlessly into the framework, supporting the argument or idea presented in the essay.

It is also essential to consider the types of research needed to create a framework. The research could be primary, secondary, or tertiary, depending on the subject matter. For example, if the essay is about a historical event, primary sources such as diaries, journals, and newspapers from the time period would be necessary. However, if the essay is on a current event, secondary and tertiary sources, such as scholarly articles, books, and news reports, would be more appropriate.

Developing a Clear Thesis Statement

The thesis statement is the central idea or argument that the essay will be based on. It should be clear, concise, and specific. The thesis statement should be developed early on in the writing process and used to guide the development of the framework. The framework should be built around the thesis statement, providing evidence and support for the argument being presented.

A well-written thesis statement is critical for the success of the essay. It should be strong and compelling, providing a clear direction for the essay. A weak thesis statement will make it challenging to develop a framework and to present a persuasive argument.

Organizing the Framework Effectively

Organization is a crucial aspect of developing a successful framework. The organizational structure should be selected based on the purpose of the essay and the argument being presented. A well-organized framework allows the reader to easily follow the argument being presented and understand the connections between the different parts of the essay.

There are several types of organizational structures used in academic writing, such as chronological, cause-and-effect, and problem-solution structures. The choice of structure depends on the purpose of the essay and the argument being presented.

Using Evidence and Support

Evidence and support are essential for a successful academic essay. The evidence should come from credible sources and should be integrated seamlessly into the framework. Different types of evidence can be used, such as statistics, studies, and expert opinions. The evidence should support the argument being presented and should be used to persuade the reader of the validity of the argument.

It is also essential to consider the use of counterarguments and opposing views in the framework. Acknowledging and refuting opposing views strengthens the argument and demonstrates an understanding of the subject matter.

Editing Is a Crucial Aspect

When writing an academic essay, defining a clear framework is essential for conveying your argument or idea in a logical and structured way. However, even with a well-defined framework, the essay is not complete until it has gone through the editing process. Editing is a critical part of academic writing that ensures the essay is concise, coherent, and effective in communicating your message.

The importance of editing in defining the framework of your academic essay lies in its ability to refine and clarify your ideas. As you edit, you will identify areas where the framework may need to be adjusted or strengthened. This process of refinement is an essential step in creating a well-structured essay.

One of the main benefits of editing is that it helps to eliminate any unnecessary information that may distract from the central argument or idea. By removing superfluous information, you can create a more focused and coherent essay. This focus allows your reader to easily follow your argument and understand the connections between the different parts of your essay.

Editing also helps to identify any inconsistencies or contradictions in your framework. By reviewing your essay for logical flow and consistency, you can ensure that your argument is sound and that your framework supports your thesis statement.

Another crucial aspect of editing is ensuring that the language used in the essay is clear, concise, and effective. Word choice, sentence structure, and tone all play a role in communicating your message effectively. Careful editing helps to identify areas where the language could be improved to convey your argument more clearly.

Additionally, editing helps to eliminate errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. These errors can be distracting to the reader and detract from the credibility of your argument . Careful essay editing ensures that it is free from these errors and presents a professional and polished image.

A proper framework provides a clear and organized structure that supports the argument or idea being presented in the essay. The five things to consider when creating a framework are defining the purpose of the essay, conducting thorough research, developing a clear thesis statement, organizing the framework effectively, and using evidence and support to persuade the reader of the validity of the argument.

Defining the purpose of the essay is critical because it guides the development of the framework. Thorough research that is of high quality, credible, and relevant to the topic being discussed is necessary to create a strong framework. Developing a clear and concise thesis statement early on in the writing process is essential to guide the development of the framework.

Organizing the framework effectively ensures that the reader can easily follow the argument being presented and understand the connections between the different parts of the essay. Using evidence and support from credible sources persuades the reader of the validity of the argument. The use of counterarguments and opposing views demonstrates an understanding of the subject matter and strengthens the argument being presented.

In conclusion, a proper framework is essential in academic writing. By considering the purpose of the essay, conducting thorough research, developing a clear thesis statement, organizing the framework effectively, and using evidence and support, writers can create an essay that is well-structured and persuasive. A well-crafted framework is like a blueprint for a successful essay, providing a clear structure that supports the argument or idea being presented.

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31 Theoretical Framework Examples

A theoretical framework is a theory that can be applied to interpret and understand data in your research study.

A useful working definition comes from Connaway and Radford (2021):

“…a theoretical framework utilizes theory/theories and their constituent elements as the presumed ‘working model’ that drives the investigation and analysis of a social phenomenon.” (Connaway & Radford, 2021)

There are a range of theories that each look at the world through different lenses. Each will shape how we look at and interpret our data.

For example:

• Feminists look at the world through the lens of power and oppression of women. 
• Functionalists look at the world and see how the concepts and ideas in our societies have a role in maintaining social order. 
• Behaviorists look at the world and see how incentives – rewards and punishments – shape human behavior .
• Postmodernists look at the world and see how language and discourse shape belief systems .

When selecting a theoretical framework, we’re making a conscious decision about our approach and focus. For example, ‘feminism’ and ‘ critical theory ’ are theoretical frameworks that will focus on how power functions in society. This might be useful in a sociological or cultural studies analysis. But they won’t be so useful in a study of classroom learning, which might best be served by ‘behaviorism’ or ‘constructivism’ as your theoretical frames.

Theoretical Framework Examples

1. constructivism.

Scholarly Fields: Psychology, Education

Constructivism is a theory in educational psychology about how people think and learn.

It states that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.

When new information challenges past beliefs, cognitive dissonance occurs, which is overcome through processes of assimilation and accommodation until we develop a new understanding of what we observe, which is ideally a closer approximation of the truth.

It challenges the previously dominant concept in psychology, behaviorism , that states we learn best through rewards, punishments, and forming associations between concepts.

Example of Constructivism in the Classroom

A researcher examines how students learn about the concept of gravity in a physics classroom. The study would observe the process as the students first encounter basic information, then explore related concepts through hands-on experiments and classroom discussions. The focus of the study would be on how students construct their understanding utilizing prior knowledge and evolving their understanding through experience and reflection.

2. Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a learning theory in behavioral psychology that holds that behaviors are learned through association, trial and error.

This theory takes a principled stance that learning needs to be measurable . Inner cognitive states are not taken into account because thoughts are, to behaviorists, not possible to be measured. Therefore, the theory suggests that behavior must be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.

A famous behaviorist study is Pavlov’s study of how his dog learned to salivate when he heard a bell ringing, because the dog associated the bell with food. This is now known as a Pavlovian response .

Similarly, B.F. Skinner found that rewarding and punishing rats can lead them into learning how to navigate mazes at faster and faster speeds, demonstrating the observable effects of rewards and punishments in learning.

If you were to use Behaviorism as your theoretical framework, it would likely inform both your research question – where you may want to focus on a situation where you will measure changes in behaviors through rewards and punishments – as well as your research methods, where you’ll likely employ a quantitative research method that measures changes in behaviors, such as application of pre-tests and post-tests in an educational environment.

Example of a Study Using a Behaviorist Theoretical Framework

In a study using a behaviorist framework, a psychologist might investigate the effects of positive reinforcement on the classroom behavior of elementary school children. The experiment could involve implementing a rewards system for a selected behavior, such as raising a hand before speaking, and observing any changes in the frequency of this behavior. The behaviorist theoretical framework would guide the researcher’s expectation that the reinforcement (reward) would increase the occurrence of the desired behavior.

3. Psychoanalytic Theory

Scholarly Fields: Psychology, Social Work

Psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theories , originally proposed by Sigmund Freud, posit that human behavior is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego .

This theory might be used by a psychology student in their research project where they test patients’ behaviors, comparing them to Freud’s (or, for that matter, Carl Jung’s) theoretical ideas about stages of development, interaction between id, ego, and superego, or the power of the subconscious to affect thoughts and behavior.

This theoretical frame is rarely used today, although it acts as a foundation to subsequent theories that are held in higher esteem, such as psychosocial theory, explained next.

Example of a Study Using a Psychoanalytic Theoretical Framework

A researcher using a psychoanalytic framework might study the influence of early childhood experiences on adult relationship patterns. Through in-depth interviews, the study would examine participants’ recollections of their early relationships with their parents and the unconscious conflicts and defenses that may have arisen from these experiences. The study would then look for patterns in the participants’ current relationships that might reflect these early experiences and defense mechanisms.

4. Psychosocial Theory

Psychosocial theory builds upon (and, in some ways, rejects) Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. This theory maintains that subconscious thoughts affect behavior, but focuses on how early social interactions affect outcomes later in life.

Erik Erikson, a central figure in the history of psychosocial theory, theorized that humans go through roughly set-in-stone stages of life, where in each stage, we must overcome challenges like industry vs inferiority (where we need to learn to embrace an industrious and creative personality or else risk having an inferiority complex later in life).

Psychosocial theory can be applied in the study of how people develop psychological complexes in their lives and helps them overcome them by exploring the origins of these complexes.

Example of a Study Using a Psychosocial Theoretical Framework

A study based on a psychosocial framework could explore individual patients’ core challenges and relate them to Erikson’s psychosocial states. The psychosocial theory would guide the interpretation of the results, suggesting that past events, such as being berated by parents, can lead to increased psychological stress.

5. Feminist Theory

Scholarly Fields: Sociology, Cultural Studies, and more

Feminism is a social and political framework that analyzes the status of women and men in society with the purpose of using that knowledge to promote women’s rights and interests.

Generally, a person applying a feminist framework would have at the core of their research question an interest in how women are positioned in society in relation to men, and how their lives and personal agency is shaped and structured by a manufactured gender hirearchy.

Of course, within Feminism, there are a range of conflicting views and perspectives. The intersectional feminists are highly concerned with how black, working-class, and other marginalized women face compounding disadvantages; whereas other feminists might focus exclusively on gender in the workforce, or even how women’s rights intersect with, and are possibly impacted by, trans* rights.

Example of a Study Using a Feminist Theoretical Framework

A researcher could use a feminist theoretical framework to investigate gender bias in workplace promotions within a large corporation. The study might involve collecting and analyzing qualitative data and quantitative data on promotion rates, gender ratios in upper management, and employee experiences related to promotion opportunities. From a feminist perspective, the study would aim to identify any potential systemic inequalities and their impact on women’s career trajectories.

7. Conflict Theory

Scholarly Fields: Sociology, Cultural Studies

Conflict theory is a framework derived from Marxism’s teachings about the operation of power through economic and cultural apparatuses in a society.

It generally works to highlight the role of coercion and power, particularly as it relates to social class and possession of economic capital .

Generally, this approach will involve an examination of the ways the economy, policy documents, media, and so forth, distribute power in a capitalist context . Other conflict theorists might examine non-capitalist contexts, such as workers’ cooperatives with the intention of exploring possibilities for economic and cultural life in a post-capitalist society.

Example of a Study Using a Conflict Theory Framework

A sociologist might utilize conflict theory to study wealth and income disparities within a specific urban community. This study might involve the analysis of economic data, alongside a consideration of social and political structures in the community. The conflict theory would guide an understanding of how wealth and power disparities contribute to social tensions and conflict.

8. Functionalism

Scholarly Fields: Sociology (see the separate concept: Functionalism in Psychology )

Functionalism , based on the works of Durkheim. Merton and their contemporaries, is an approach to sociology that assumes each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society’s functioning as a whole.

Functionalism often leans on the analogy of the human body to describe society. Just as the human body has organs which each have a purpose (i.e. a function), each social institution also serves a function to support the whole.

So, a functionalist theoretical framework aims to examine social institutions and social structures (e.g. economic conditions, family relationships, religious practices, media outlets, etc.) to explore how they do or do not fulfill their purposes.

Building on Merton’s work in functionalism, many functionalist studies in sociology also explore how institutions have both manifest functions (intended purposes and consequences) and latent functions (unintended purposes and functions).

Key social institutions explored in functionalism in sociology include: the education system, hospitals, workplaces, factories, religion, and families.

Example of a Study Using a Functionalist Theoretical Framework

A  key question in functionalism is: “What is the role of this institution in upholding society, the status quo, and social hierarchies?” Following this approach, an educational researcher using a functionalist framework might study the role of schools in preparing students for various roles in society. They might collect data on curriculum, teaching methods, student performance, and post-graduation outcomes. Using a functionalist lens, the researcher would be interested in how each aspect of the education system contributes to the socialization process and preparation of individuals for adulthood and societal roles.

9. Symbolic Interactionism

Scholarly Fields: Sociology (see: symbolic interactionism in sociology )

The symbolic interaction theory states that the meaning we ascribe to objects, processes, ideas, concepts, and systems are subjective. They are constructed through language, words, and communication, and differ from context to context and culture to culture.

Symbolic interactionism is very common in qualitative research in the social sciences, especially work that involves interviews as a research method.

Symbolic interaction is a theoretical frame that challenges that of functionalism by focusing on microsociology rather than macrosociology .

Whereas functionalists are generally concerned with how social structures, institutions, and concepts have meaning on a social level , symbolic interactionists are concerned with how people make their own meanings of things in their surroundings.

For example, symbolic interactionism argues that people derive their understanding of their world through social interactions and personal experiences and interpretations.

Example of a Study Using a Symbolic Interactionist Framework

A researcher applying symbolic interactionist theory might investigate how medical patients and doctors negotiate understandings of illness during medical consultations. The study would likely involve observations and perhaps recordings of consultations, focusing on the language and symbols used by both parties. A symbolic interactionist approach would highlight how shared meanings and interpretations are built in these interactions, impacting the patient-doctor relationship and treatment decisions.

10. Postmodernism

Scholarly Fields: Sociology, Cultural Studies, Media Studies

Postmodern theory critiques social narratives, beliefs, and definitions, arguing that they’re historically, culturally and socially situated.

A key concept in postmodernism is discourse , which refers to how knowledge is constructed through language. The ways people talk about something constructs normative ideas about it (i.e. ideas, like gender, a socially constructed).

Postmodernists are therefore skeptical of truth-claims made about anything. Their research aims to demonstrate how truth-claims, such as “men are natural-born leaders” emerge through language and social narratives that normalize such as belief.

Postmodernism’s role, therefore. Is to highlight the relativity of truths and social narratives propagated by media and culture.

Example of a Study Using a Postmodern Theoretical Framework

A researcher using a postmodernist framework might conduct a study analyzing the portrayal of reality in contemporary television news. They might examine the selection and presentation of stories, the use of imagery and language, and the underlying assumptions about truth and objectivity. From a postmodernist perspective, the study would not be looking for an objective reality represented in the news but would explore how the news constructs multiple, subjective realities.

List of Additional Theoretical Frameworks

In communication studies.

• Uses and Gratifications Theory
• Agenda-Setting Theory
• Spiral of Silence Theory
• Cultivation Theory
• Muted Group Theory

In Psychology

• Cognitive Development Theory
• Evolutionary psychology
• Socio-cultural Theory

In Sociology

• Social Action Theory
• Poststructuralism
• Labeling Theory
• Strain Theory
• Differential Opportunity Theory
• Differential Association Theory
• Postcolonialism

In Economics

• Keynesian Economics
• Neoclassical Economics
• Marxist Economics
• Behavioral Economics

Choosing a theoretical framework is an early step in developing your research study. Once it is selected, it will go on to inform your research methodology and methods of data collection and analysis. Furthermore, in your analysis chapters of your dissertation, you will be regularly leaning upon the ideas and concepts within your chosen theoretical framework to shed light on your observations. Academic research that uses theoretical frameworks is all about using theory to interpret the world and shed new light on phenomena. With theory, we can develop a cohesive understanding of our subjects and construct detailed, well-thought-out arguments throughout our work.

Anfara Jr, V. A., & Mertz, N. T. (Eds.). (2014). Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research . Sage publications.

Borsboom, D., van der Maas, H. L., Dalege, J., Kievit, R. A., & Haig, B. D. (2021). Theory construction methodology: A practical framework for building theories in psychology.  Perspectives on Psychological Science ,  16 (4), 756-766.

Connaway, L. S., & Radford, M. L. (2016). Research methods in library and information science . Los Angeles: ABC-CLIO.

Given, L. M. (Ed.). (2008). The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods . Sage publications.

Gelso, C. J. (2006). Applying theories to research.  The psychology research handbook: A guide for graduate students and research assistants ,  455 .

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 5 Top Tips for Succeeding at University
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Dr. Drew: I am glad I found your site and this article on TF. I have found TF to be the most difficult & challenging concept for and for the research process. I will be re-reding it several times today and making sure i completely understand it. Thanks Ken, EdD student

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The Seeds We Sow

Supporting blooming minds, sharing teacher finds, building a framework for essay writing.

July 6, 2016

When you tell your students they’ll be writing an essay in class, do you initially get a classroom full of smiling, happy faces, or do you hear the audible sound of dread spread through the room? That may be a little exaggerated, but for most teachers, the word “essay” doesn’t typically bring about the most positive of emotions in students.

Essay writing can cause a good deal of stress for some young writers, simply because they’re not confident with their writing abilities and/or the framework of essay writing. Here are 6 steps you can implement into your essay-writing routine to build a stronger framework for your students.

The thesis statement is a very important part of almost any essay. It is what gives the essay a foundation and direction. The topic, a claim about the topic, and a few points to support it are all parts of a a strong thesis, and it’s important for students to realize that these sentences contain the focus of the essay and tell the reader what it’s going to be about.

Here are some features of a strong thesis:

• A strong thesis expresses one main idea
• A strong thesis expresses a clear, specific point of view
• A strong thesis makes a bold claim (it’s OK if the reader disagrees with it)
• A strong thesis is original
• A strong thesis invites discussion (they don’t just state the obvious)

A weak thesis will only cause the rest of the essay to fall apart, so be sure to help your students, through modeling and examples, to know what a strong thesis needs and how to write one.

An essay outline is a road map to follow. It can be written before or after a thesis statement, and it serves as a guide to following through to the final writing product. There are many graphic organizers that aid students in creating a basic essay outline, but as long as students understand what needs to be included in an outline, they really can create their own; some printable organizers can be too restrictive.

Here’s what to include in a good essay outline:

• Introduction- including something to get the reader’s interest
• Thesis statement- usually a statement that has three points you’re going to talk about in your essay
• Body of the essay- usually includes a paragraph dedicated to each of the three points you’re going to talk about
• Supporting details and evidence- found within the body of the essay for each paragraph; two or three pieces of evidence, facts, details, and examples for each point that support what you’re talking about
• Conclusion- a summary, or fresh restate, of the thesis statement; includes a meaningful “wrap-up” to give the essay greater meaning by reinforcing the main idea (remember that a conclusion is not a place to bring up new ideas)

To keep an essay strong, word choice is key; words that are expressive, creative, interesting, and effective keep an essay from falling apart. Using descriptive words allows an author to show and not just tell.

Here are some keys to using descriptive words to keep any essay strong:

• use vivid sensory details where you can (paint a picture and appeal to your reader’s senses)
• make use of figurative language, when appropriate, to help paint that picture
• use specific nouns, adjectives, and strong action verbs
• keep descriptive writing organized (chronological, spatial, and order of importance)

The real meat of any paragraph comes in the supporting details.  A paragraph topic sentence without the supporting details is like a sandwich with only the bread; the good stuff comes with the descriptions, facts, evidence, and examples that back up the claim.

Here are some important points to consider when adding effective supporting details to any essay:

• if you make a statement, just remember you need to be able support it
• supporting details should be convincing
• facts and statistics aren’t the only things that can support a claim
• remember examples are sometimes more interesting for a reader; tell a story from your own experience or make something up–as long as it illustrates your point
• don’t include details that do nothing to support the topic/claim

After an essay is written, taking a small break is always a good idea. Encourage students to take time away from their essay for a brief time so they can return to it with a fresh set of eyes. Most likely when they return to it, they’ll be able to look at it in a different way, and when it’s time for revisions and editing, they’ll be more open to making the changes needed for improvement. Just remember, sometimes our brains just need a little break!

Here are some easy and quiet break suggestions you can implement into your essay-writing routine:

• going to get a drink
• taking a small, quiet walk around the room
• reading for a few minutes
• working on something else for a minute or two

The last step in essay writing is the double-checking (or triple or quadruple-checking, for that matter). This is the part where you need to check, check, check. Students need to understand that once an essay is written, it most likely needs some editing and revisions. They need to understand this is a necessary part of the writing process; it’s not because they’ve failed to do it right the first time.

Here are some ways you can help your students with revisions and editing:

• don’t just require students take time to complete revisions–you most likely will not see improved writing
• provide specific comments
• ask questions directed at specific content
• design writing activities or lessons that help students to establish a purpose
• motivate students to make revisions because of the intended publication of the essay (whether it be reading finished works to the class, posting on a classroom blog or other social place, creating a finished work for a classroom library, sharing with a partner or small group, etc.)

I hope these six simple steps will help you and your students to build a stronger framework for essay writing. To help you get started in your classroom today, I’ve included a  downloadable note-taking visual your students will be able to add to their writing journals or folders. All you have to do is teach the mini-lesson(s) so they have the information to add to their step-by-step visual.

Happy writing!

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Essence of Interpretive Framework Essay (Critical Writing)

Essence of interpretive framework, multidimensional interpretive framework, objective framework, contextualization framework.

Interpretation of results is a fundamentally vital part of a research study since it provides a basis for researchers to make conclusions (Schram, 2006). Consequently, they must choose a framework which allows them to interpret the results in a reliable, informative and valid manner (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008). Otherwise, if they choose a framework that interprets the results on the basis of personal experiences and culture, the interpretation becomes biased as well as unreliable (Shank, 2006). They must, therefore, ensure that the interpretive framework focus on understanding the results rather than making personal views and opinions. In regard to the envisioned research, which will focus on the plight of Malaysian migrant workers, it will use various frameworks which ensure a broad interpretation of the results.

First, it will involve multidimensional interpretive framework which analyses the data in multiple perspectives (Smith, 2010). In this case, the researcher divides data into various sets according to the number of population segments (Smith, 2010). In regard to the envisioned research, the framework allows categorization of data into three sets which include data from religious leaders, NGO officials and Government officials.

These divisions allow unique treatment for each data set because each group has different sets of opinions. For example, church leaders might take on an activist perspective against the government while the government officials might defend it against any allegations relating to harassment of migrant workers. As a result, the framework divides the data sets to allow separate interpretation and harmonize the analysis to give an integrated conclusion. If researchers integrate the data sets and conduct a single interpretation, they might omit important information since the groups take different position in the society. This implies that the public cannot rely on the findings of that research since it does not consider the different perspectives of the respondents.

Smith (2010) he argues that another interpretive framework which could allow reasonable interpretation is an objective interpretive framework. He contends that the framework allows researchers to interpret qualitative data by focusing on the objective of the study rather than their subjective ideologies (Smith, 2010). This implies that they should not interpret the result according to their feelings, culture and believes. Instead, they should seek to understand the issues that the respondents have raised to a fairly high degree of understanding clarity (Smith, 2010). For example, a female researcher should not conclude that the government officials are inhuman because they treat her fellow women harshly.

That conclusion means that she has made that conclusion because she is concerned about her fellow. Instead, she should seek to understand why the government denies the migrant worker some privileges while the native citizens enjoy those opportunities. In respect to objective interpretive framework, she could obtain various reasons before making the final conclusion about the oppression of migrant workers (Smith, 2010).

Nonetheless, some researchers have criticized this framework arguing that people cannot practice it in the real world (Smith, 2010). Further, they contend that human interpretation cannot become free from personal experiences, culture and believes. However, when applying objectivity, theorists recommend that researchers should embrace commitment to objectivity (Smith, 2010). This implies that although they might not attain complete objectivity, they could attain substantial level of objectivism. As a result, the substantial objectivism allows considerable reliability of the results.

Lastly, this research will involve contextualization when interpreting data. Contextualization is a framework in which the researchers analyses the relationship between the data that they have obtained and the broad context (Smith, 2010). While considering the envisioned research, a researcher must create the relationship between the opinions that are given by the respondents and the entire migration autonomy. For example, if they realize that 10 percent are against oppression of migrant women, they should contextualize that data and conclude that the oppression does not have moral support.

Schram, T. (2006). Conceptualizing and proposing qualitative research . Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hal.

Shank, G. (2006). Qualitative research: A personal skills approach . Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Smith, M. (2010). Research methods in sport . Exeter, U.K.: Learning Matters Ltd.

Trochim, W., & Donnelly, J. (2008). The research methods knowledge base . Mason, Ohio: Cengage Learning.

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Ethical Frameworks, Essay Example

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Ethics cover a wide field in study of philosophy. However, it narrows down to a few major principles, which can then be divided into various groupings depending on the basic theme. The social ethical conducts thus narrows to three distinct values, which considers the rights of masses, the individual rights and gives focus on the principle of distributive justice.

The society today is filled with a number of ethical decision-making frameworks, which enable people to come up with valid conclusions regarding certain phenomenon in the social setting. Each group normally implements the ethical framework that best suites its social culture. This assignment basically focuses on the utilitarianism principle, principle-based ethics, and natural law ethics. These principles function as below:

Utilitarianism principle

The utilitarianism principle seeks to do greater justice to the large number of people. In this principle, certain human rights are given up to ensure protection of the general masses. In most cases, it is considered hedonistic when the resulting impact has no negative consequences on the affected parties (Ferrell, Fraedrich, and Linda 19). Under this ethical framework, the moral impact of any action is considered by the expected outcome. This implies that for an action to qualify the principle of utilitarianism there has to be an element of positive outcome. Below is an instance of application of the utilitarianism principle.

One such case can be when a given country decides to capture and enslave people from their neighboring countries or communities. The captured persons can be made to work in firms and industries, which in the end may largely benefit the people of the given country. This may be a productive and a very cost effective method of getting cheap labor. The utilitarianism principle can be applied to justify such an act, by claiming that it does not bring justice to the affected parties. It does not abide by the cornerstone principles of utilitarianism that “you should do to others what you may want them to do to you”. This principle therefore sacrifices the law that may dictate the punishment given to such people and justifies that such persons are also humans and need equal treatment as other humans. Such acts are immoral regardless of the long term benefits that they stand to bring to the given state. In this instance, the general law regarding the treatment of such captured persons may be sacrificed in favor of the utilitarianism principle, which justifies certain acts.

Principle based ethics

This principle puts focus on thinking that is based on certain defined principles that are in the methodology of making the ethical decisions. This form of thinking or principles normally guides the code of conducts for nurses, social workers, and physicians among others. It is based on strictly laid down principles that are regulated by a given body or social norms. It is often confused with utility-based ethics because both lay emphasis on the outcome of the decisions made.

Many instances of this principle are often related to deontology, which demands that people need to adhere to their responsibilities when dealing with various ethical dilemmas. This infers that an individual will have to do what they are needed to do to uphold their duty.

One instance of such is the case of security personnel in a country. These persons often swear to ensure protection of the citizens at all times regardless of the situation in place. Therefore, to uphold their duties, they must present themselves to offer protection to the concerned persons regardless of the nature of danger they are facing. Under this, the principle based ethics demands that these people lay down or risk their lives in favor of the individuals they have sworn to help.

The principle based ethics demands consistent and strict decision making to make certain that their obligations and duties are fulfilled. In many cases, the principle-based ethics often brings in consequences for not fulfilling the stated obligations. This means that failure to obey what is demanded will lead to some punishment. For instance, a doctor holds the duty of ensuring the safety and wellbeing of their patients. In cases where this is breached, the doctor will be held accountable for the results of their negligence. This binding element ensures consistency of the highest levels when dealing with such principles.

Despite the fact that this principle has various positive attributes, it has a few faults that may make them not perfectly applicable. For instance, in some cases, it lacks the rationale for deciding or defining individual’s duties; an illustration of such, is where a businessperson chooses that he will always be attending meetings on time. Such a decision is considered good but the rational through whom the person followed when making the decision may not be clear. Such things are among the limitations that this principle holds in place.

Natural law ethics

The natural law ethics dwells on various paradigms, which include the facts that it is given by God, it is authoritatively binding on all human beings and naturally acknowledged by all human beings. Furthermore, it holds that good comes after right and there are ways through which various actions can be captured and made into general rules (Husted, James and Gladys 28).

One case that has for so long been debated is the issue of abortion. Many liberals have raised concerns that it is a brutal act to let a woman die so that the unborn child may live. Abortion ought to be permitted in cases where the life and health of the woman is at stake or in other cases, where the victim has undergone rape or incest. Conservatives on the other hand argue that abortion is illegal since it is immoral to kill an innocent unborn child no matter the circumstance. The natural law ethics can be applied in this case to justify whether abortion is right or wrong and the circumstances under which it should be perfumed.

According to godly beliefs, it is important to protect life of an individual, in this case both the woman and the unborn child. However the life of the woman is more important than that of the child since it is still a fetus. In regards to natural law, the mother plays a major role in any family upkeep and should always be there to care for the other children. It is therefore reasonable, on the argument that the good results and benefits of having the mother will follow the decision to perform the abortion. In many countries, such considerations have been used to implement the various laws on abortion and whether it should be made legal in any given social setting and at what instances. In this instance, the natural law ethics can easily lead to formation of laws that govern such.

Works Cited

Ferrell, O C, John Fraedrich, and Linda Ferrell. Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases . Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning, 2011. Print.

Husted, James H, and Gladys L. Husted. Ethical Decision Making in Nursing and Health Care: The Symphonological Approach . New York: Springer Pub. Co, 2008. Print.

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Dsm 5 Autism Spectrum Disorder

This essay about the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), discusses the significant changes in the classification of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The shift from multiple distinct categories to a unified spectrum approach reflects a more accurate representation of the diverse manifestations of autism. It highlights how the DSM-5 emphasizes two primary diagnostic criteria: challenges in social communication and repetitive behavioral patterns, including sensory sensitivities. The essay also addresses the implications of these changes for personalized treatment and the broader acceptance of neurodiversity. Concerns about the consistency of diagnoses under the new criteria are discussed, underscoring the need for ongoing adjustments in the diagnostic process to better encompass the full range of autistic experiences. Overall, the essay evaluates how the updated DSM-5 criteria lead to a deeper understanding and improved support for individuals with ASD.

How it works

The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) marks a notable advancement in the way mental health professionals understand and approach Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). This latest edition has redefined the framework for diagnosing autism, broadening our perspective and enhancing the way support is provided to individuals across the spectrum.

In earlier iterations like the DSM-IV, autism was fragmented into several distinct categories, such as Asperger’s Syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). However, the DSM-5 consolidates these into a single category: ASD.

This consolidation is based on the realization that autism manifests through a continuum of symptoms rather than discrete blocks, making a spectrum approach more reflective of the true nature of these experiences.

The criteria for diagnosing ASD in DSM-5 focus heavily on two primary areas: persistent challenges in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, and patterns of behavior that are restricted and repetitive. This framework acknowledges that while some may face significant challenges in social situations, others might be more affected by sensory sensitivities or inflexible adherence to routines. Including these varied experiences under one category allows for a more nuanced understanding of each individual’s needs.

One significant addition in DSM-5 is the greater emphasis on sensory sensitivities. This new diagnostic element recognizes that sensory experiences—how individuals perceive touch, sound, and light, for example—can greatly impact their social and emotional lives. By considering these factors, the DSM-5 addresses aspects of ASD that were previously underappreciated, allowing for a more comprehensive approach to care.

The adoption of a spectrum-based classification also influences how treatments are designed and implemented. It paves the way for customized support plans that are more closely aligned with the diverse strengths and challenges of individuals with ASD. This tailored approach not only optimizes developmental outcomes but also enhances quality of life, promoting a higher level of inclusion and participation in society.

Despite these improvements, the transition to the DSM-5 criteria has sparked discussions and concerns, particularly regarding the consistency of diagnoses. Some argue that the broader framework might exclude individuals who would have been diagnosed under the more segmented DSM-IV approach. These debates underscore the importance of continued refinement in diagnostic processes, ensuring they capture the full range of autism experiences without narrowing the scope of who receives support.

Reflecting on the changes brought about by the DSM-5, it’s clear that the updated diagnostic criteria represent more than just medical terminology adjustments—they signify a deeper understanding of autism as a diverse and complex experience. This evolution in thought and practice not only helps medical professionals and educators provide better support but also aligns more closely with the advocacy community’s push for recognition and acceptance of neurodiversity.

In sum, the shift to a spectrum-based view in DSM-5 enhances our approach to understanding and supporting individuals with autism. It brings us closer to a society that values and integrates the unique perspectives and abilities of all its members, acknowledging that diversity in human experience enriches us all.

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NPR in Turmoil After It Is Accused of Liberal Bias

An essay from an editor at the broadcaster has generated a firestorm of criticism about the network on social media, especially among conservatives.

By Benjamin Mullin and Katie Robertson

NPR is facing both internal tumult and a fusillade of attacks by prominent conservatives this week after a senior editor publicly claimed the broadcaster had allowed liberal bias to affect its coverage, risking its trust with audiences.

Uri Berliner, a senior business editor who has worked at NPR for 25 years, wrote in an essay published Tuesday by The Free Press, a popular Substack publication, that “people at every level of NPR have comfortably coalesced around the progressive worldview.”

Mr. Berliner, a Peabody Award-winning journalist, castigated NPR for what he said was a litany of journalistic missteps around coverage of several major news events, including the origins of Covid-19 and the war in Gaza. He also said the internal culture at NPR had placed race and identity as “paramount in nearly every aspect of the workplace.”

Mr. Berliner’s essay has ignited a firestorm of criticism of NPR on social media, especially among conservatives who have long accused the network of political bias in its reporting. Former President Donald J. Trump took to his social media platform, Truth Social, to argue that NPR’s government funding should be rescinded, an argument he has made in the past.

NPR has forcefully pushed back on Mr. Berliner’s accusations and the criticism.

“We’re proud to stand behind the exceptional work that our desks and shows do to cover a wide range of challenging stories,” Edith Chapin, the organization’s editor in chief, said in an email to staff on Tuesday. “We believe that inclusion — among our staff, with our sourcing, and in our overall coverage — is critical to telling the nuanced stories of this country and our world.” Some other NPR journalists also criticized the essay publicly, including Eric Deggans, its TV critic, who faulted Mr. Berliner for not giving NPR an opportunity to comment on the piece.

In an interview on Thursday, Mr. Berliner expressed no regrets about publishing the essay, saying he loved NPR and hoped to make it better by airing criticisms that have gone unheeded by leaders for years. He called NPR a “national trust” that people rely on for fair reporting and superb storytelling.

“I decided to go out and publish it in hopes that something would change, and that we get a broader conversation going about how the news is covered,” Mr. Berliner said.

He said he had not been disciplined by managers, though he said he had received a note from his supervisor reminding him that NPR requires employees to clear speaking appearances and media requests with standards and media relations. He said he didn’t run his remarks to The New York Times by network spokespeople.

When the hosts of NPR’s biggest shows, including “Morning Edition” and “All Things Considered,” convened on Wednesday afternoon for a long-scheduled meet-and-greet with the network’s new chief executive, Katherine Maher , conversation soon turned to Mr. Berliner’s essay, according to two people with knowledge of the meeting. During the lunch, Ms. Chapin told the hosts that she didn’t want Mr. Berliner to become a “martyr,” the people said.

Mr. Berliner’s essay also sent critical Slack messages whizzing through some of the same employee affinity groups focused on racial and sexual identity that he cited in his essay. In one group, several staff members disputed Mr. Berliner’s points about a lack of ideological diversity and said efforts to recruit more people of color would make NPR’s journalism better.

On Wednesday, staff members from “Morning Edition” convened to discuss the fallout from Mr. Berliner’s essay. During the meeting, an NPR producer took issue with Mr. Berliner’s argument for why NPR’s listenership has fallen off, describing a variety of factors that have contributed to the change.

Mr. Berliner’s remarks prompted vehement pushback from several news executives. Tony Cavin, NPR’s managing editor of standards and practices, said in an interview that he rejected all of Mr. Berliner’s claims of unfairness, adding that his remarks would probably make it harder for NPR journalists to do their jobs.

“The next time one of our people calls up a Republican congressman or something and tries to get an answer from them, they may well say, ‘Oh, I read these stories, you guys aren’t fair, so I’m not going to talk to you,’” Mr. Cavin said.

Some journalists have defended Mr. Berliner’s essay. Jeffrey A. Dvorkin, NPR’s former ombudsman, said Mr. Berliner was “not wrong” on social media. Chuck Holmes, a former managing editor at NPR, called Mr. Berliner’s essay “brave” on Facebook.

Mr. Berliner’s criticism was the latest salvo within NPR, which is no stranger to internal division. In October, Mr. Berliner took part in a lengthy debate over whether NPR should defer to language proposed by the Arab and Middle Eastern Journalists Association while covering the conflict in Gaza.

“We don’t need to rely on an advocacy group’s guidance,” Mr. Berliner wrote, according to a copy of the email exchange viewed by The Times. “Our job is to seek out the facts and report them.” The debate didn’t change NPR’s language guidance, which is made by editors who weren’t part of the discussion. And in a statement on Thursday, the Arab and Middle Eastern Journalists Association said it is a professional association for journalists, not a political advocacy group.

Mr. Berliner’s public criticism has highlighted broader concerns within NPR about the public broadcaster’s mission amid continued financial struggles. Last year, NPR cut 10 percent of its staff and canceled four podcasts, including the popular “Invisibilia,” as it tried to make up for a $30 million budget shortfall. Listeners have drifted away from traditional radio to podcasts, and the advertising market has been unsteady.

In his essay, Mr. Berliner laid some of the blame at the feet of NPR’s former chief executive, John Lansing, who said he was retiring at the end of last year after four years in the role. He was replaced by Ms. Maher, who started on March 25.

During a meeting with employees in her first week, Ms. Maher was asked what she thought about decisions to give a platform to political figures like Ronna McDaniel, the former Republican Party chair whose position as a political analyst at NBC News became untenable after an on-air revolt from hosts who criticized her efforts to undermine the 2020 election.

“I think that this conversation has been one that does not have an easy answer,” Ms. Maher responded.

Benjamin Mullin reports on the major companies behind news and entertainment. Contact Ben securely on Signal at +1 530-961-3223 or email at [email protected] . More about Benjamin Mullin

Katie Robertson covers the media industry for The Times. Email:  [email protected]   More about Katie Robertson

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