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Cities Keep Enforcing Curfews for Teens, Despite Evidence They Don’t Stop Crime

Curfews Don't Reduce Crime. But Cities Still Enforce Them

P hiladelphia has had a curfew for kids and teenagers since the 1950s, but faced with a second straight year of record homicides and surging violent crime , the city is doubling down on its efforts to get minors off the streets at night.

A new ordinance expanded the city’s 10 p.m. curfew to 16 and 17-year-olds (previously, they could be out until midnight), and police also stepped up enforcement of the curfew ordinances, community activists and residents tell TIME—picking up more kids and issuing more fines to parents.

For 14-year-old Brian Lemon in North Philly, this means that he’s been detained six times for curfew violations this year. One night, he says, cops picked him up less than 30 seconds after the 10 p.m. curfew, as he was walking home from a friend’s house. “They grabbed me like I killed somebody, like they saw me with a gun or something,” he says.

Most of the time officers just brought him home, but twice police issued $500 fines to his mother for allowing her son to be out late. He says the fines have been particularly hard to bear. “Most people probably don’t got that much money for your kids to just be outside. That’s enough money for food in the fridge and clothes on our backs,” Brian says.

Across the country, more local leaders and police are turning to curfews for teenagers in an effort to tamp down violent crime , which has surged across the country since 2020. This summer, Chicago expanded their youth curfew laws and increased enforcement by law enforcement. Other major cities, including Los Angeles, Houston, and Atlanta also have youth curfews in place.

Read more: U.S. Crime Is Still Dramatically Higher Than Before the Pandemic

In September, officials in Prince George’s County, Md., outside of Washington, D.C., began enforcing a 10 p.m. curfew for anyone under 17 on the weekdays, and midnight on weekends. The announcement was in response to Labor Day weekend violence where four people were killed in shootings, including a 15-year-old girl.

“At this point, these kids don’t just need a hug, they need to be held accountable,” County Executive Angela Alsobrooks said at a Sept. 5 press conference. “I know it’s not a popular thing to say, but it’s a fair question: Where are their parents? Where are the aunties, where are the uncles and other family members who are responsible for them?”

While it may sound like a common sense idea to get kids home and off the streets at night, researchers say that there is no evidence that curfews reduce crime. And community leaders worry that increasing police contact with teens from disadvantaged communities, especially Black teens, could lead to more arrests—and more kids being roped into the criminal justice system for minor infractions.

“There are a handful of studies that have been done on juvenile curfews and unfortunately the overall conclusion is they don’t really have an impact,” Dave Myers, the chair of the criminal justice department at the University of New Haven says. “They tend to be popular at face value. They sound good, look good, and are easy to implement but as far as an impact on crime it’s not there.”

Are curfews effective for stopping crime?

The crime numbers from before and after Philadelphia’s new curfew rules bear this out. In July 2022, when the updated curfew was in effect, most violent crimes did not decrease compared to the same month a year earlier, and certain crimes increased drastically. Robberies with a gun went up 72%, other types of robberies increased by 40%, and auto thefts went up 29%.

Brian Lemon says crime has always been a problem in his neighborhood, but this year he says he and others in the community have noticed a dramatic spike in violence—especially from juveniles.

“It’s a bunch of young kids, like 12-year-olds,” he says. “It’s eye-opening because I’m seeing a lot more armed robberies and [people] taking cars with guns. Before they used to just hop in the car and nobody gets harmed, but now people want to kill somebody and take the car.”

But, research casts doubt on the efficacy of juvenile curfews. A 2015 study by professors at the University of Virginia and Purdue University looked at the impact of youth curfews on gun violence in Washington D.C. Their analysis found the effect on public safety was “ambiguous,” and even suggested that curfews could increase the levels of violence.

“We find that, contrary to its goal of improving public safety, D.C.’s juvenile curfew increases the number of gunfire incidents by 69% [during curfew hours],” the study says. A 2016 study published by the Campbell Collaboration, a nonprofit criminal justice research group, found that these types of curfews do not reduce crime or victimization.

Studies also show that juvenile crime tends to happen during the day . It typically peaks after school hours, and drops dramatically at night.

So why are cities still turning to this tactic? “Nobody is really going to argue that it’s a good thing for kids to be out on the streets after 10 p.m.,” Myers of the University of New Haven says. “The problem is, that doesn’t translate into something like it’s going to have an effect on gun violence.”

Concerns about over-policing

Paul Elam is the Chief Strategy Officer for the Michigan Public Health Institute (MPHI), a nonprofit organization that works on issues including juvenile crime and community violence. He says curfews target a broad section of the population—in an effort to stop a handful of problem teenagers, who are likely to ignore curfews anyway. “For example, if we’re in a community that has 100,000 people the estimates are that there are only 30 to 40 that are carrying weapons and committing crimes,” Elam says. “In a general deterrence theory, a curfew just doesn’t make sense. There’s no data or theory that really supports the approach.”

In Philadelphia, the curfew rules have run into opposition from some community groups. “The reason a lot of us oppose the curfew is that it’s specific communities that become over-policed without having any real impact on crime,” James Aye, who runs a youth organization in Philadelphia called Yeah Philly that provides services for teens in the city who are exposed to poverty and violence. “The police have better things to be doing than worrying about some young people walking to and from the store.”

Aye says that the updates to the curfew enforcement didn’t include enough participation from community members, which is emblematic of the dynamic between poor minority communities and law enforcement.

Research suggests that when Black teens are in contact with police, even over minor infractions like curfew violations, it can have detrimental effects—including over-policing later in life. A Johns Hopkins University study published in 2021 in JAMA Pediatrics found that exposure to police is associated with several detrimental health outcomes for Black kids and teenagers, including mental health issues.

“Black youth in the U.S. experience disproportionate contact with police even when accounting for criminal or delinquent behavior, which some experts say is fueled by racism and discrimination,” the study says. “Evidence shows that police exposures are associated with adverse health outcomes for Black youth.”

Rather than police officers arresting and rounding up all the kids they find on the street after a curfew, experts and community members argue for more direct engagement with the community from law enforcement, as well as more proactive investigations to stem violent crime. That’s separate from addressing the socio-economic factors that play a role in crime and gun violence.

For kids and teens, participation in community-based programs or after-school activities has been shown to reduce the likelihood of criminal behavior, experts say.

For now, Brian, the 14-year-old in North Philly, says the police crackdown on Philadelphia’s curfew makes him and his friends feel targeted. “I feel as though our voices are not being heard and if it is being heard then people just don’t really care,” he says. “It makes Black kids feel like it’s not even worth talking about our experiences.”

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argumentative essay about curfew implementation in the time of pandemic

Coronavirus Pandemic

Measuring the effect of COVID-19-related night curfews in a bundled intervention within Germany

Samuel de Haas 1 ,
Georg Götz 1 &
Sven Heim 2

Scientific Reports volume 12 , Article number: 19732 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Health policy
Viral infection

We estimate the impact of local night curfews in Hesse, the fifth most populous federal state in Germany, on the growth of incidences of COVID-19 cases residing within the “second wave” of the pandemic. Thereby, we take advantage of the fact that all counties had the same measures in place with the only difference that some additionally had to implement night curfews due to state regulations. This allows us to identify the effect of night curfews as a salient part of a bundled intervention. In our case where different other measures are already in place, night curfews had at best a limited effect in slowing down the spread of the pandemic. The effect is not significantly different from zero.

Effects of government policies on the spread of COVID-19 worldwide

COVID-19 European regional tracker

Complexity of the COVID-19 pandemic in Maringá

Introduction.

Since the end of 2019 a new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 spreads rapidly over the whole world and in early 2020 the WHO declared COVID-19 a pandemic 1 . After a slowdown in the summer of 2020 the “second wave” of the pandemic hit Europe, including Germany, very hard. In order to limit virus transmission, German authorities declared a lockdown from November 2, 2020. Parts of that lockdown were several non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs). Besides the implementation of nationwide measures, such as the limitation of gatherings and business closures, some regions with very high infection rates additionally imposed night curfews. While at that time there was a broad consensus on the effectiveness of NPIs in general and curfews in particular (e.g. 2 , 3 ), the public debate about night curfews is highly controversial (e.g. 4 ).

Similarly, there is also no consensus in the academic literature on whether night curfews present an appropriate measure to combat the pandemic. While some authors find that they are beneficial 5 , other studies are inconclusive or even find negative effects 6 . However, typically multiple NPIs are imposed simultaneously which makes it challenging to isolate the effect of a single intervention 7 [Note that 5 also report corresponding problems concerning the isolation of the effects of night curfews (p. 10): “However, due to the broad nature of these interventions, they are also likely to interact with other active NPIs.”].

In this study we examine the effectiveness of night curfews by taking advantage of regional and time variation in their implementation. Based on the federal system of Germany, NPIs were not imposed at the national level and even within federal states some NPIs were not imposed in all counties. In our analysis we use Hesse, the fifth most populous federal state in Germany, as a case study to assess the effectiveness of night curfews from 9pm to 5am which were only introduced in some but not all counties during the second wave. Using this setup we take advantage of the fact that counties in Hesse had the same measures in place, e.g., mask-wearing policies, restrictions of social contacts, restaurant and retail store closure. The only difference was that some additionally had to implement night curfews as part of a bundled intervention, which included some minor NPIs, which were imposed simultaneously with a night curfew. The most important ones are an alcohol ban in certain major public urban areas and the prohibition of indoor individual sports (e.g. indoor tennis). In terms of effectiveness of these two measures, one has to take into account that the former banned outdoor alcohol consumption in winter times at a few well-defined spots, but not in others. As far as the later intervention is concerned, tennis playing in indoor courts hardly affects many people in Germany. Given the limited nature of these interventions, we didn’t further inquire into their possible isolated effect. Even though we are therefore not able to disentangle the effect of these different measures from the effect of the night curfew, it is obvious that the night curfew is the salient part of this bundled intervention. As we find that the effect of the joint measures is at best limited and not statistically different from zero, we conclude that this also holds for the effect of the night curfew in isolation. Of course, this conclusion is based on the reasonable assumption that the other measures do not increase the incidences. Finally, note that our identification strategy makes use of the fact that night curfews were implemented at different points in time and with different durations. This peculiarity allows us to identify a potential effect by using a control group when measuring the treatment effects.

Data and methodology

Our data set is built from two sources. Daily information on incidences (cumulative number of newly transmitted cases per 100,000 inhabitants over the past 7 days) at the county level were downloaded from the website of the Robert Koch Institute (RKI) 8 . Hessischer Rundfunk, the regional public broadcasting agency collected information on local night curfews in Hesse consisting of start and end dates per county. Our period of investigation starts on November 18, 2020 (when the RKI data start) and ends on February 28, 2021. This period resides within the second wave in Hesse. There are 26 counties of which 15 had a night curfew during our observation period. The average duration of a night curfew was 28 days. Figure 1 and Table 1 illustrates the timing of each night curfew and shows whether or not a curfew has been implemented.

Night curfews in Hesse.

The counties that had nighttime curfews and those that did not are similar in terms of some major characteristics such as population, population density, unemployment rate, real disposable income per capita, male-to-female ratio and average age. This is tested in two one sided t -tests of these characteristics, as shown in Table 2 . The test statistics suggests that the counties that implemented nighttime curfews during our observation period and those that did not do not differ statistically in this regard.

To examine whether night curfews were effective in slowing down local incidence growth we apply a difference-in-differences approach. The idea is to asses whether incidence growth was smaller following a night curfew than it would have been in absence of it, by comparing the development of incidence growth in counties that have implemented night curfews with those that did not. A similar approach was used by 10 and 11 to examine the effects of several NPIs during the “first wave” in Germany.

As with all NPIs aiming to reduce incidences there is a notable time delay until a measure’s success can be evaluated. This is due to incubation period and delays in the recording and reporting of the incidence rates at the RKI website. The incubation period is assumed to be five days on average and the reporting lag adds two to nine days on top of that 12 . To account for the delay until night curfews actually unfold a measurable effect we move the start and end dates of each night curfew seven, fourteen and twenty-one days ahead of their real dates and construct a binary variable “Effective curfew” which is equal to one during this period and zero otherwise. In formal terms:

where i denotes counties and t days.

A major challenge in the identification of the effectiveness of night curfews comes from the fact that they have not been introduced randomly. On the contrary, night curfews have usually had to be implemented in counties in which the incidence exceeded a threshold of 200 on at least three consecutive days. [ https://web.archive.org/web/20210130130947/https://www.hessen.de/fuer-buerger/corona-hessen/das-hessische-eskalationskonzept-im-ampelsystem ] In other words, action was taken in counties with already higher incidences. While different incidence levels pre-curfew do not constitute a problem to identification, it may also be that incidence growth in counties that implemented night curfews already differed pre-curfew from those that did not implement a curfew. If the latter is the case the common trend assumption , i.e. homogeneity of incidence growth pre-curfew, would be violated and difference-in-differences estimation would fail to provide valid estimates of the the effectiveness of curfews.

To test the plausibility of the common trend assumption, we additionally include a binary variable into the model that indicates whether there were potential differences in pre-curfew developments. This variable is equal to one from seven days before the curfew actually starts until the “Effective curfew” ends. Before and after it is equal to zero. We label this variable “Incidence lead”. In formal terms:

Loosely speaking, the inclusion of the variable “Incidence lead” tests whether it is plausible to assume that the “common trend assumption” holds.

We further add a dummy which is equal to one for the post-curfew period of the treated counties, formally:

Thus, we are able to control whether the growth of incidences differ in the long run.

The three variables plus the actual curfew are illustrated in Fig. 2 .

Exemplary illustration of the timeline.

The empirical model we estimate can be written as:

where I denotes the incidence in county i at day t . $\beta _1$ is the coefficient of interest – the effect of the night curfew on the growth of incidences I . We further include fixed effects for each day in our sample $\gamma _t$ in order to control for general developments of the pandemic spread and for each county $\phi _i$ to control for time-invariant differences across counties that may effect the pandemic such as population density or demographic differences. Additionally, we include interactions of county fixed effects with a linear time trend in order to allow for different general developments over time across counties. Thereby, we accommodate potential trend differentials in our model. This allows us a valid identification of treatment effects even for heterogeneous infection dynamics across regions in the pre-treatment period 10 , 13 , 14 . $\varepsilon _{i,t}$ denotes the usual error term. In our empirical analysis we drop the county Waldeck-Frankenberg for two reasons. First, there were two curfews with the second curfew lasting only three days and started only four days after the first one. Second, there were substantial reporting problems during Christmas holidays as incidences shoot up by 209 from December 26 to 27 which is a 387% higher jump than in the county with the second highest jump. In a robustness check we also exclude Christmas holidays and New Year’s day from our data set because there were reporting problems. However, our results remain also fully robust as shown in the “Appendix” (Supplementary Information).

Before we present the results from the econometric analysis we illustrate the patterns descriptively. Statistically, incidence growth did not differ on average between counties that implemented a curfew and those that did not. It was $-0.24$ % on average in counties that implemented night curfews and $-0.23$ % in counties that did not, with standard deviations of 10.7% and 11.6%, respectively, during our observation period. We plot the difference in incidence growth between counties that have implemented a night curfew during our observation period and those that did not in Fig. 3 .

Additionally, we add a polynomial fit and the corresponding 95% confidence interval. As the confidence interval always covers the 0, the difference is not significantly different from zero.

Differences in incidence growth between counties that implemented night curfews and those that did not.

The results from the regression models from Eq. ( 4 ) are shown in Table 3 . In Column (1) we assume a delay of seven days between the actual start of the curfew until it gets effective. In Column (2) we assume a delay of fourteen days and twenty-one days in Column (3).

All models suggest that there is no evidence for differences in the dynamics of the virus' spread before the night curfews are implemented as indicated by the insignificant coefficients of “Incidence lead”. In other words we can assume common trends for growth rates of incidences in counties with and counties without night curfews. This is important as it enables a causal assessment whether night curfews did affect incidence growth.

The key variable of interest in this paper is the variable “Effective curfew”. Even though the coefficient of this variable is negative, it is never significant at conventional levels for the different specifications we analyse. Given the discussion of how meaningful a concept statistical significance is (for a recent survey see 15 ), we further investigate whether there might nevertheless be a small, but meaningful effect of night curfews by computing minimal detectable effects in the next section.

Note that the coefficient of the variable “After effective curfew” is also never significant. Thus, there do not seem to exist differences in the growth of incidences in the long run. Night curfews do not seem to have had a lasting effect after the curfew had ended.

Minimal detectable effects

The effects we found for “Effective curfew” are small and non-significant at conventional levels. However, our estimates may suffer from Type II error due to potentially insufficient statistical power. We therefore compute the minimal detectable effects (MDE) now. The MDE analysis suggests that with our data we can detect declines in incidence growth if they are smaller than $-1.5$ % at the 10% significance level for the model version with 7 days delay and $-1.6$ % and $-2.1$ %, respetively, for delays of 14 and 21 days. The whole ranges of detectable parameters are shown in Fig. 4 . As the variable incidence growth has a standard variation of 10.7 these values are still very small. This supports the finding that night curfews had at best a limited effect on incidence growth.

Minimal detectable effects. Notes : The solid horizontal line represents the line $10\%$ significance level.

Heterogeneous effects

We next analyze whether there were heterogeneous effects of the night curfew. We do this by re-estimating the model from Eq. ( 4 ) but this time with individually estimated parameters for each day included in the variable “Incidence lead” and individually estimated parameters for each of the first seven days of “Effective curfew” plus a further dummy which is equal to one for all remaining days of the effective curfew and a dummy which is equal to one for all days of the post-curfew period.

In other words,—with delays $X\in \{14,17,21\}$ —, the models we estimate can be written as:

The estimated coefficients and the corresponding confidence intervals of these estimations are presented in the three panels in Fig. 5 . Again, the observed patterns do not point towards different trends in the development of incidence growth before the curfew got effective which makes it plausible to assume that the common trend assumption holds. Also, again we do not find any evidence that the night curfews helped to mitigate the spread of the pandemic as all curfew coefficients are statistically insignificant.

Coefficients and confidence intervals of heterogeneity of effects analysis.

Discussion and conclusion

We estimate the impact of local night curfews in Hesse, Germany, on the growth rates of incidences of COVID-19 cases during the COVID-19 pandemic in this state. While our data set is limited to the federal state of Hesse, the analysis takes advantage of regional and time variation in the implementation of night curfews. Thus, we are able to overcome potential statistical problems that are related to estimations of benefits of NPIs. Our results suggest that night curfews have at best a limited effect in the fight against virus transmission when various other NPIs are already imposed. The general message is that you cannot take for granted that a night-time curfew has the effects derived in ‘international’ studies (e.g. 2 ), which estimate the effects of dozens of NPIs in samples consisting of multitude of countries with very different regions. At the same time, there is no indication that the night curfews from 9 pm to 5 am worsen the epidemic. They do not seem to increase incidences. The latter result seems to be important in connection with recent research based on experimental data 16 and mobility data 17 , respectively, which show that night curfews might fuel disease dynamics.

An obvious question regarding our findings is whether they are the consequence of a weak effect of a night curfew per se or due to an imperfect implementation. Here one has to note the specific nature of a night curfew. It is very easy to understand, to administer, to implement and, in a superficial view, also to monitor. For an example how the curfew was enforced see 18 . On the other hand, it seems next to impossible, at least in a democracy to prevent that especially young people circumvent the night curfew by simply staying with friends overnight. Violations seem unavoidable.

Of course, usual caveats apply. The results may change with another data set. For instance, night curfews could have different effects for other regions. The same is true for the observation period: Our data cover the Christmas season, where a curfew might have fewer additional effects as people tend to stay home anyway. At the same time, it covers New Year’s Eve where the opposite holds. Note, however, that these problems cannot easily be solved by gathering further data and expanding the data set to all of Germany over the full time span of the pandemic. First, measures and policies have been taken and implemented on the level of the German federal states (“Länder”). There was quite some difference with respect to these policies across the states. In the public debate there was a lot of discussion about possibly adverse effects of such a ‘patchwork’ of regulations. Even though such a variance might in principle be a good thing for the researcher, in the case at hand there are too many different determinants which seem to matter. Hesse, for instance, does not border on any foreign country. In the second wave, e.g., incidences in those counties of Bavaria, Thuringia and Saxonia, which are located next to the border to the Czech Republic had particularly high incidences due to the high incidences in the Czech Republic, given a large number of commuters. At the same time, an extension of the observation period to the third wave seems not warranted, even though night-time curfews had also been implemented then. In the third wave vaccinations already had been available but the roll-out also differed across federal states in particular due to administrative reasons 19 . Different to anecdotal evidence from other federal states, where charismatic mayors seem to have had an effect on incidences, no such differences in local governance quality were reported. Hesse in general appears to be rather homogenous in terms of compliance with NPIs.

Finally, it should be emphasized that other minor NPIs such as alcohol ban in certain major urban areas or limitations of indoor individual sports (e.g. tennis) have been introduced simultaneously with night curfews. Thus, theoretically it is possible that some of these measures increase while others decrease incidence growth and sum up to null results. However, while this possibility cannot be excluded it may be a rather unrealistic explanation of our findings.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and are available publicly at the sources referred to, respectively (see references 8 , 9 ).

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Acknowledgements

We thank Jan Eggers for providing the historical curfew data. We also thank Benjamin de Haas, Johanna de Haas, Tomaso Duso, Lukas Jürgensmeier, Lars Feld, Kai Fischer, Pierre Fleckinger, Paul Heim, Reinhold Kosfeld, Walter Krämer, Ulrich Laitenberger, Wanda Mimra, Dominik Rehse, Dennis Rickert, Felix Vetter, and Peter Winker for helpful comments on earlier versions of the paper. The sole responsibility lies with the authors.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

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Samuel de Haas & Georg Götz

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S.d.H. and S.H. performed the empirical analysis. All three authors jointly wrote and reviewed the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Georg Götz .

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de Haas, S., Götz, G. & Heim, S. Measuring the effect of COVID-19-related night curfews in a bundled intervention within Germany. Sci Rep 12 , 19732 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-24086-9

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Why Are States Imposing Virus Curfews?

State and city leaders are trying to slow the spread of the coronavirus without full lockdowns. But whether curfews will help remains unclear.

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By Kwame Opam and Concepción de León

Cities, states and counties from Massachusetts to Colorado have imposed curfews on residents and businesses to try to curb the spread of the coronavirus , as caseloads reach new highs around the country.

The curfews, enacted by Republican and Democratic leaders, now affect residents in two of the country’s biggest states. In California on Thursday, Gov. Gavin Newsom ordered “ a limited stay-at-home order ” in dozens of counties, barring “nonessential work and gatherings” from 10 p.m. to 5 a.m. And in New York this month, Gov. Andrew M. Cuomo ordered bars, restaurants and gyms to close by 10 p.m.

Some cities, like Newark, have taken a more targeted approach, setting a curfew for residents in ZIP codes with soaring case numbers, and leaders in Europe have made similar moves, like a 10 p.m. curfew for pubs and restaurants in England.

But the patchwork response, with rules sometimes varying from town to town, also has some residents asking: What effect could a curfew have on a virus that seems to be everywhere, spreading day and night?

What’s the point of a curfew?

Nicholas Gradisar, the mayor of Pueblo, Colo., said his city’s curfew aimed to decrease mobility among those with the highest infection rate in the state, ages 20 to 50, who are also most likely to be out late at night. The city had a severe spike in cases after Labor Day and imposed a curfew the night before Halloween to try to prevent a similar increase. It was recently extended to Nov. 27.

“The rules for when bars are open are supposed to be that you can come down with your group and you don’t interact with others,” Mr. Gradisar said. But people are less likely to do this after a few hours of drinking, he added. “That’s how this virus spreads.”

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Local government responses for COVID-19 management in the Philippines

Affiliations.

1 Institute of Mathematical Sciences and Physics, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. [email protected].
2 University of the Philippines Resilience Institute, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. [email protected].
3 Institute of Mathematical Sciences and Physics, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.
4 University of the Philippines Resilience Institute, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines.
5 Faculty of Education, University of the Philippines Open University, Laguna, Philippines.
PMID: 34544423
PMCID: PMC8452379
DOI: 10.1186/s12889-021-11746-0

Background: Responses of subnational government units are crucial in the containment of the spread of pathogens in a country. To mitigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Philippine national government through its Inter-Agency Task Force on Emerging Infectious Diseases outlined different quarantine measures wherein each level has a corresponding degree of rigidity from keeping only the essential businesses open to allowing all establishments to operate at a certain capacity. Other measures also involve prohibiting individuals at a certain age bracket from going outside of their homes. The local government units (LGUs)-municipalities and provinces-can adopt any of these measures depending on the extent of the pandemic in their locality. The purpose is to keep the number of infections and mortality at bay while minimizing the economic impact of the pandemic. Some LGUs have demonstrated a remarkable response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this study is to identify notable non-pharmaceutical interventions of these outlying LGUs in the country using quantitative methods.

Methods: Data were taken from public databases such as Philippine Department of Health, Philippine Statistics Authority Census, and Google Community Mobility Reports. These are normalized using Z-transform. For each locality, infection and mortality data (dataset Y) were compared to the economic, health, and demographic data (dataset X) using Euclidean metric d=(x-y) 2 , where x∈X and y∈Y. If a data pair (x,y) exceeds, by two standard deviations, the mean of the Euclidean metric values between the sets X and Y, the pair is assumed to be a 'good' outlier.

Results: Our results showed that cluster of cities and provinces in Central Luzon (Region III), CALABARZON (Region IV-A), the National Capital Region (NCR), and Central Visayas (Region VII) are the 'good' outliers with respect to factors such as working population, population density, ICU beds, doctors on quarantine, number of frontliners and gross regional domestic product. Among metropolitan cities, Davao was a 'good' outlier with respect to demographic factors.

Conclusions: Strict border control, early implementation of lockdowns, establishment of quarantine facilities, effective communication to the public, and monitoring efforts were the defining factors that helped these LGUs curtail the harm that was brought by the pandemic. If these policies are to be standardized, it would help any country's preparedness for future health emergencies.

Keywords: COVID-19; Local government; Outlier; Policies; Quantitative methods.

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The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Outliers among the provinces in Mindanao with respect to COVID-19 cases and deaths

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Persuasive Essay Guide

Persuasive Essay About Covid19

How to Write a Persuasive Essay About Covid19 | Examples & Tips

14 min read

Steps to Write a Persuasive Essay About Covid-19

Here are the steps to help you write a persuasive essay on this topic, along with an example essay:

Step 1: Choose a Specific Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement should clearly state your position on a specific aspect of COVID-19. It should be debatable and clear. For example:

"COVID-19 vaccination mandates are necessary for public health and safety."

Step 2: Research and Gather Information

Collect reliable and up-to-date information from reputable sources to support your thesis statement. This may include statistics, expert opinions, and scientific studies. For instance:

COVID-19 vaccination effectiveness data
Information on vaccine mandates in different countries
Expert statements from health organizations like the WHO or CDC

Step 3: Outline Your Essay

Create a clear and organized outline to structure your essay. A persuasive essay typically follows this structure:

Introduction
Background Information
Body Paragraphs (with supporting evidence)
Counterarguments (addressing opposing views)

Step 4: Write the Introduction

In the introduction, grab your reader's attention and present your thesis statement. For example:

The COVID-19 pandemic has presented an unprecedented global challenge, and in the face of this crisis, many countries have debated the implementation of vaccination mandates. This essay argues that such mandates are essential for safeguarding public health and preventing further devastation caused by the virus.

Step 5: Provide Background Information

Offer context and background information to help your readers understand the issue better. For instance:

COVID-19, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, emerged in late 2019 and quickly spread worldwide, leading to millions of infections and deaths. Vaccination has proven to be an effective tool in curbing the virus's spread and severity.

Step 6: Develop Body Paragraphs

Each body paragraph should present a single point or piece of evidence that supports your thesis statement. Use clear topic sentences , evidence, and analysis. Here's an example:

One compelling reason for implementing COVID-19 vaccination mandates is the overwhelming evidence of vaccine effectiveness. According to a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine, the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines demonstrated an efficacy of over 90% in preventing symptomatic COVID-19 cases. This level of protection not only reduces the risk of infection but also minimizes the virus's impact on healthcare systems.

Step 7: Address Counterarguments

Acknowledge opposing viewpoints and refute them with strong counterarguments. This demonstrates that you've considered different perspectives. For example:

Some argue that vaccination mandates infringe on personal freedoms and autonomy. While individual freedom is a crucial aspect of democratic societies, public health measures have long been implemented to protect the collective well-being. Seatbelt laws, for example, are in place to save lives, even though they restrict personal choice.

Step 8: Write the Conclusion

Summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement in the conclusion. End with a strong call to action or thought-provoking statement. For instance:

In conclusion, COVID-19 vaccination mandates are a crucial step toward controlling the pandemic, protecting public health, and preventing further loss of life. The evidence overwhelmingly supports their effectiveness, and while concerns about personal freedoms are valid, they must be weighed against the greater good of society. It is our responsibility to take collective action to combat this global crisis and move toward a safer, healthier future.

Step 9: Revise and Proofread

Edit your essay for clarity, coherence, grammar, and spelling errors. Ensure that your argument flows logically.

Step 10: Cite Your Sources

Include proper citations and a bibliography page to give credit to your sources.

Remember to adjust your approach and arguments based on your target audience and the specific angle you want to take in your persuasive essay about COVID-19.

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Examples of Persuasive Essay About COVID-19

When writing a persuasive essay about the COVID-19 pandemic, it’s important to consider how you want to present your argument. To help you get started, here are some example essays for you to read:

Here is another example explaining How COVID-19 has changed our lives essay:

The COVID-19 pandemic, which began in late 2019, has drastically altered the way we live. From work and education to social interactions and healthcare, every aspect of our daily routines has been impacted. Reflecting on these changes helps us understand their long-term implications.

COVID-19, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, is an infectious disease first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. It spreads through respiratory droplets and can range from mild symptoms like fever and cough to severe cases causing pneumonia and death. The rapid spread and severe health impacts have led to significant public health measures worldwide.

The pandemic shifted many to remote work and online education. While some enjoy the flexibility, others face challenges like limited access to technology and blurred boundaries between work and home.

Social distancing and lockdowns have led to increased isolation and mental health issues. However, the pandemic has also fostered community resilience, with people finding new ways to connect and support each other virtually.

Healthcare systems have faced significant challenges, leading to innovations in telemedicine and a focus on public health infrastructure. Heightened awareness of hygiene practices, like handwashing and mask-wearing, has helped reduce the spread of infectious diseases.

COVID-19 has caused severe economic repercussions, including business closures and job losses. While governments have implemented relief measures, the long-term effects are still uncertain. The pandemic has also accelerated trends like e-commerce and contactless payments.

The reduction in travel and industrial activities during lockdowns led to a temporary decrease in pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. This has sparked discussions about sustainable practices and the potential for a green recovery.

COVID-19 has reshaped our lives in numerous ways, affecting work, education, social interactions, healthcare, the economy, and the environment. As we adapt to this new normal, it is crucial to learn from these experiences and work towards a more resilient and equitable future.

Let’s look at another sample essay:

The COVID-19 pandemic has been a transformative event, reshaping every aspect of our lives. In my opinion, while the pandemic has brought immense challenges, it has also offered valuable lessons and opportunities for growth.

One of the most striking impacts has been on our healthcare systems. The pandemic exposed weaknesses and gaps, prompting a much-needed emphasis on public health infrastructure and the importance of preparedness. Innovations in telemedicine and vaccine development have been accelerated, showing the incredible potential of scientific collaboration.

Socially, the pandemic has highlighted the importance of community and human connection. While lockdowns and social distancing measures increased feelings of isolation, they also fostered a sense of solidarity. People found creative ways to stay connected and support each other, from virtual gatherings to community aid initiatives.

The shift to remote work and online education has been another significant change. This transition, though challenging, demonstrated the flexibility and adaptability of both individuals and organizations. It also underscored the importance of digital literacy and access to technology.

Economically, the pandemic has caused widespread disruption. Many businesses closed, and millions lost their jobs. However, it also prompted a reevaluation of business models and work practices. The accelerated adoption of e-commerce and remote work could lead to more sustainable and efficient ways of operating in the future.

In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic has been a profound and complex event. While it brought about considerable hardship, it also revealed the strength and resilience of individuals and communities. Moving forward, it is crucial to build on the lessons learned to create a more resilient and equitable world.

Check out some more PDF examples below:

Persuasive Essay About Covid-19 Pandemic

Sample Of Persuasive Essay About Covid-19

Persuasive Essay About Covid-19 In The Philippines - Example

If you're in search of a compelling persuasive essay on business, don't miss out on our “ persuasive essay about business ” blog!

Examples of Persuasive Essay About COVID-19 Vaccine

Covid19 vaccines are one of the ways to prevent the spread of COVID-19, but they have been a source of controversy. Different sides argue about the benefits or dangers of the new vaccines. Whatever your point of view is, writing a persuasive essay about it is a good way of organizing your thoughts and persuading others.

A persuasive essay about the COVID-19 vaccine could consider the benefits of getting vaccinated as well as the potential side effects.

Below are some examples of persuasive essays on getting vaccinated for Covid-19.

Covid19 Vaccine Persuasive Essay

Persuasive Essay on Covid Vaccines

Interested in thought-provoking discussions on abortion? Read our persuasive essay about abortion blog to eplore arguments!

Examples of Persuasive Essay About COVID-19 Integration

Covid19 has drastically changed the way people interact in schools, markets, and workplaces. In short, it has affected all aspects of life. However, people have started to learn to live with Covid19.

Writing a persuasive essay about it shouldn't be stressful. Read the sample essay below to get an idea for your own essay about Covid19 integration.

Persuasive Essay About Working From Home During Covid19

Searching for the topic of Online Education? Our persuasive essay about online education is a must-read.

Examples of Argumentative Essay About Covid 19

Covid-19 has been an ever-evolving issue, with new developments and discoveries being made on a daily basis.

Writing an argumentative essay about such an issue is both interesting and challenging. It allows you to evaluate different aspects of the pandemic, as well as consider potential solutions.

Here are some examples of argumentative essays on Covid19.

Argumentative Essay About Covid19 Sample

Argumentative Essay About Covid19 With Introduction Body and Conclusion

Looking for a persuasive take on the topic of smoking? You'll find it all related arguments in out Persuasive Essay About Smoking blog!

Examples of Persuasive Speeches About Covid-19

Do you need to prepare a speech about Covid19 and need examples? We have them for you!

Persuasive speeches about Covid-19 can provide the audience with valuable insights on how to best handle the pandemic. They can be used to advocate for specific changes in policies or simply raise awareness about the virus.

Check out some examples of persuasive speeches on Covid-19:

Persuasive Speech About Covid-19 Example

Persuasive Speech About Vaccine For Covid-19

You can also read persuasive essay examples on other topics to master your persuasive techniques!

Tips to Write a Persuasive Essay About Covid-19

Writing a persuasive essay about COVID-19 requires a thoughtful approach to present your arguments effectively.

Here are some tips to help you craft a compelling persuasive essay on this topic:

Choose a Specific Angle: Narrow your focus to a specific aspect of COVID-19, like vaccination or public health measures.
Provide Credible Sources: Support your arguments with reliable sources like scientific studies and government reports.
Use Persuasive Language: Employ ethos, pathos, and logos , and use vivid examples to make your points relatable.
Organize Your Essay: Create a solid persuasive essay outline and ensure a logical flow, with each paragraph focusing on a single point.
Emphasize Benefits: Highlight how your suggestions can improve public health, safety, or well-being.
Use Visuals: Incorporate graphs, charts, and statistics to reinforce your arguments.
Call to Action: End your essay conclusion with a strong call to action, encouraging readers to take a specific step.
Revise and Edit: Proofread for grammar, spelling, and clarity, ensuring smooth writing flow.
Seek Feedback: Have someone else review your essay for valuable insights and improvements.

Tough Essay Due? Hire Tough Writers!

Common Topics for a Persuasive Essay on COVID-19

Here are some persuasive essay topics on COVID-19:

The Importance of Vaccination Mandates for COVID-19 Control
Balancing Public Health and Personal Freedom During a Pandemic
The Economic Impact of Lockdowns vs. Public Health Benefits
The Role of Misinformation in Fueling Vaccine Hesitancy
Remote Learning vs. In-Person Education: What's Best for Students?
The Ethics of Vaccine Distribution: Prioritizing Vulnerable Populations
The Mental Health Crisis Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic
The Long-Term Effects of COVID-19 on Healthcare Systems
Global Cooperation vs. Vaccine Nationalism in Fighting the Pandemic
The Future of Telemedicine: Expanding Healthcare Access Post-COVID-19

In search of more inspiring topics for your next persuasive essay? Our persuasive essay topics blog has plenty of ideas!

To sum it up,

You have read good sample essays and got some helpful tips. You now have the tools you needed to write a persuasive essay about Covid-19. So don't let the doubts stop you, start writing!

If you need professional writing help, don't worry! We've got that for you as well.

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Frequently Asked Questions

What is a good title for a covid-19 essay.

A good title for a COVID-19 essay should be clear, engaging, and reflective of the essay's content. Examples include:

"The Impact of COVID-19 on Global Health"
"How COVID-19 Has Transformed Our Daily Lives"
"COVID-19: Lessons Learned and Future Implications"

How do I write an informative essay about COVID-19?

To write an informative essay about COVID-19, follow these steps:

Choose a specific focus: Select a particular aspect of COVID-19, such as its transmission, symptoms, or vaccines.
Research thoroughly: Gather information from credible sources like scientific journals and official health organizations.
Organize your content: Structure your essay with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
Present facts clearly: Use clear, concise language to convey information accurately.
Include visuals: Use charts or graphs to illustrate data and make your essay more engaging.

How do I write an expository essay about COVID-19?

To write an expository essay about COVID-19, follow these steps:

Select a clear topic: Focus on a specific question or issue related to COVID-19.
Conduct thorough research: Use reliable sources to gather information.
Create an outline: Organize your essay with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
Explain the topic: Use facts and examples to explain the chosen aspect of COVID-19 in detail.
Maintain objectivity: Present information in a neutral and unbiased manner.
Edit and revise: Proofread your essay for clarity, coherence, and accuracy.

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COVID-19: Early evening curfews and mobility

Alina velias.

a City, University of London, Northampton Square, EC1V 0HB, London, United Kingdom

Sotiris Georganas

Sotiris vandoros.

b King's College London, 30 Aldwych, London, WC2B 4BG, United Kingdom

c Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 677 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA

Associated Data

During the COVID-19 pandemic, some countries introduced early evening curfews. Several studies try to measure the effectiveness of such measures across different countries, but disentangling competing effects can be elusive. We examined the impact of an early evening curfew on mobility by studying a shift in curfews from 9pm to 6pm in Greece using Google mobility data. We followed a difference-in-differences (DiD) econometric approach, where we compared trends in mobility in residential spaces as well as groceries and pharmacies, before and after the introduction of the 6pm curfew in Attica with trends in three other comparable Regions. We found little or no evidence of an effect of the early curfew on daily mobility relating to groceries and pharmacies, and that an 18.75% reduction in hours where people were allowed to leave home led to a relatively small increase in time spent in residential spaces. This less-than-proportionate reduction in mobility outside the household suggests a possibility that the curfew led to more people coinciding in indoor public spaces, such as grocery shops – which constitutes a contagion risk factor. Results should be treated with caution, especially with regards to the magnitude of any effect, as Google mobility data do not report the time of the day, so the time density of activities cannot be estimated. Lockdowns and other measures are necessary to tackle Covid-19, but it is important to avoid substitution by activities that contribute further to spreading the virus. Interventions should therefore be based on a thorough analysis of human behaviour.

1. Background

There is an ongoing debate about non-pharmaceutical interventions and how effective they are in tackling the COVID-19 pandemic ( Brauner et al., 2021 ). Such measures are most often introduced jointly, so disentangling the competing effects of individual measures is challenging. Common measures that are introduced jointly include restrictions of movement, congregation and closures, for example of (a) schools and shops at the same time, (b) bars and restaurants (often closing both outdoors and indoors), or both (a) and (b). Governments often treat these measures as substitutes (e.g. stating that other measures such as curfews or restaurant closures would remain in place to allow re-opening of schools, which was seen as a priority), although potential complementarities between some of them cannot be ruled out. Finding appropriate control groups to disentangle the effects of individual measures is not straightforward.

An increasing number of studies suggest that the stringency of the lockdown measures does not always make a difference in infection prevalence or related deaths (e.g. Bonardi et al., 2020 argue that partial lockdowns were as effective in reducing the number of infections and deaths as stricter measures). Of course, such studies are often challenged by measurement and identification issues ( Goodman-Bacon and Marcus, 2020 ). Also, there are examples of evidence that the ‘signal’ (inducing voluntary behavior changes) is important in contrast to the actual regulation (mandated behavior changes) ( Herby, 2021 ). In general though, restricting one human activity often leads to substitution by others, as humans seek alternatives, and there may be a strictness level beyond which extra measures can actually backfire. In this paper we suggest that early evening curfews may be one of these cases, where excessive strictness might potentially lead to the opposite of the intended epidemiological result.

Why would reducing the time window during which people are allowed to leave their homes either fail to achieve the desired greater reduction in virus spread or, even, backfire by contributing towards the spread? One straightforward reason is that people do not fully reduce the activity proportionately to the strictness of measures – they reallocate part of it towards options that are still allowed. For example, mobile tracker data in the US shows a large reallocation of consumer activity from “nonessential” to “essential” businesses (note that definition of essential varies by country) as well as from restaurants and bars toward groceries and other food sellers ( Goolsbee and Syverson, 2021 ). Whilst overall the pandemic appears to have caused a change in online consumption patterns ( Alvarez et al., 2021 ) and a response of consumption to government stimuli ( Chetty et al., 2020 ), it would seem that essential consumption persisted at reasonable levels. Supermarkets, for instance, have been linked to higher likelihood of spreading the disease ( Shao et al., 2021 ). These studies do not measure the resulting congestion in the essential businesses, but this is likely to be high, resulting in greater risk of virus spread. Importantly, recent studies show that early evening curfews backfired in Toulouse (France) ( Dimeglio et al., 2021 ), had no effect in Hesse (Germany) ( Haas et al., 2021 ) and may elicit reactance ( Sprengholz et al., 2021 ).

In our study, we took advantage of within-country heterogeneity in the timing of the introduction of an early evening curfew to evaluate this measure in tackling the Covid-19 pandemic.

Our study focuses on the impact on mobility rather than disease outcomes. In other words, we study how curfews affect a Covid-19 risk factor (mobility, which may be associated with crowding) instead of Covid-19 cases or deaths. We followed this approach for a number of reasons. Linking COVID-19 cases with a particular intervention is particularly challenging and may be misleading due to the presence of different variants; there is dispersion in the time lag between infection and death; second-hand transmission may occur via asymptomatic people; and there is a strong time-varying bias in disease measurement, whether it is done by recorded cases or by test positivity rates ( Georganas et al., 2021 ).

While cross-country studies are very useful, they suffer from several drawbacks absent in our method. On the one hand countries differ in important characteristics that affect the performance of measures (availability of ICUs, the state of the health system), but crucially they also differ in the way they measure the pandemic itself. Recorded cases are biased and since testing methods are not homogeneous across countries, the bias is heterogeneous, differing greatly across countries ( Georganas et al., 2021 ). On the other hand, the measures are not the same across countries, and are seldom enacted alone within a specific country. Usually, a complicated bundle of measures is enacted on the same day (and some measures almost always come together, such as closing several levels of schooling along with other face-to-face activities) which greatly complicates isolating the effect of a single measure. In this paper we use evidence from a single European country to examine the effect of early curfews, using a difference-in-differences approach, comparing a region affected by the curfew to other regions.

2. Data and methods

While a 9pm-5am curfew applied in Greece since November 2020, a 6pm-5am weekend curfew was introduced on 6 February 2021 in the Attica region (which includes the capital city of Athens) as a response to increasing Covid-19 cases. The reason for the stricter curfew time was related to rising COVID-19 cases and hospitalisations, despite the existing social distancing measures and the 9pm curfew. These were attributed to too much movement in public areas in Athens, with concerns that people were meeting outdoors or paying a visit family and friends, and hanging out around coffee shops and bars offering drinks to go. Banning movement after 6pm on weekends, when many people don't work, directly affected their options to meet with others – but it also reduced the hours of the day that they could engage in activities, such as visiting grocery stores. Commuting to and from work was exempt from the curfew, but businesses that would normally have customers after 6pm would be directly affected (the government took separate financial measures for businesses and individuals affected by Covid-19 non-pharmaceutical interventions). We studied the impact of the 6pm curfew on human activity using mobility data from Google COVID-19 Community Mobility Reports (2021) over the period of 2 January – 28 February 2021.

2.1. COVID-19 community mobility reports data

Google mobility reports show daily-level movement trends by region, across different categories. These reports use aggregated, anonymized data from users who have turned on the Location History setting, The same kind of data are used to show popular times for places in Google Maps ( Google COVID-19 Community Mobility Reports, 2021 ). The category labels are: retail and recreation, groceries and pharmacies, parks, transit stations, workplaces, and residential. The residential category is measured in amount of time spent, while the other four categories are measured in number of visitors.

The data show the percentage change in visitor numbers to (or time spent in) categorized places compared to the baseline. According to the data source, each day's baseline is the median day-value for the corresponding day of the week, from the 5-week period Jan 2 – Feb 6, 2020 (before COVID-19 measures were introduced).

We use the raw daily percentage change from the baseline as our outcome variable. In particular, we focused on time spent at residential spaces, and time spent at groceries/pharmacies. Staying at home is considered a goal of lockdown measures, to limit the spread of the novel coronavirus; and it has been shown that indoor spaces such as supermarkets may facilitate transmission ( Shao et al., 2021 ). We considered the weekend mobility figures, since this is when the curfew policy differed between regions. Further details on the specifics of the dataset can be found in the Online Appendix.

Apple mobility trends reports are also available. However, these only cover driving, walking and commuting, and capture the volume of requests , rather than actual mobility. Furthermore, Apple made data available for Attica and Greece as a whole only, so the control group would include the treatment area. Despite these issues, any evidence we could get out of the Apple data points at exactly the same direction as the results using the Google data.

2.2. Difference-in-differences analysis

A simple before-after analysis to evaluate the impact of the policy on mobility in Attica may not be reliable, as other factors affecting mobility may change, which is why we used control groups: one in the main analysis (the Aegean Region) and two for additional robustness checks (the Epirus & Western Macedonia Region; and the Thessaly & Central Greece Region). Fig. 1 provides a map of the Regions of Greece.

Map of Regions in Greece. Treatment group: Attica (also known as Attiki). Control groups: Epirus-West Macedonia; Thessaly & Central Greece; Aegean.

We studied the difference in the differences in mobility between Attica and the control regions in the five weekends before (all weekends in January) and the four weekends after (all weekends in February) the introduction of the 6pm curfew in Attica using a difference-in-differences (DiD) ordinary least squares econometric estimator. A DiD model compares trends in the outcome in the treatment group and a control group before and after a particular intervention, and is used extensively in the literature for causal inference ( Kavetsos et al., 2021 ; Autor, 2003 ). In such empirical models, there is a treatment group dummy, which takes the value of 1 for the group that underwent a treatment; and a treatment period dummy, which takes the value of 1 for the time after the intervention. The interaction of the treatment group dummy and the treatment period dummy gives us the main variable of interest.

Finding an appropriate control group can be challenging. Some localised 6pm curfews did apply to small parts of the population in sub-areas of these control regions depending on local increases in COVID-19 cases in villages or towns, so our control groups are not absolutely perfect. However, we argue that these can still serve as appropriate control groups (see Fig. 2 for visual inspection of trends). In the Aegean region, 13.2% of the population on average was subject to a local 6pm curfew before this applied to the whole Attica Region, and 12.3% afterwards. As this applied to a small part of the population, and the percentage remained about the same, we argue that this can be used as an appropriate control group for our study.

Trends in mobility before and after the curfew, Attica and (1) Aegean, (2) Epirus & Western Macedonia, (3) Thessaly regions. The vertical line shows the introduction of the 6pm curfew in Attica.

We repeated the analysis using two additional control groups (separately, and within a single regression), which are perhaps not as suitable as the Aegean region, but still useful as a robustness check. 15.7% of the population on average in Epirus & Western Macedonia was subject to local 6pm curfews before the introduction of the measure in Attica, which decreased to 6.7% afterwards. This reduction in proportion of local populations under curfew could lead to an overestimate of any reduction in mobility in Attica, or of time spent in residential places. The corresponding figures in Thessaly & Central Greece were 6.8% on average before and 19.9% after, demonstrating a relative increase in proportion of local population under lockdown. Using this region as a control group may lead to an underestimate of any reduction in mobility in stores in Attica or of time spent in residential places.

In the DiD model, the dependent variable is the percentage change in time spent in a particular type of location compared to the baseline. In one model we study groceries and pharmacies, and in the other we study residential spaces. We included a dummy variable for the Attica region which is the treatment group (1 for observations on Attica and 0 for the control group), and a dummy variable which takes the value of one in the post-treatment period (from 6 February onwards) and zero otherwise. The interaction between the two shows whether the intervention had an effect on relative trends. We used robust standard errors in regressions. Summary statistics are presented in Table 1 .

Summary statistics.

Variable	Mean	Std. Dev.	Min	Max
Attica Region dummy variable	0.50	0.51	0	1
Post-intervention dummy variable (week 6 onwards)	0.44	0.50	0	1
Difference-in-difference interaction term	0.22	0.42	0	1
Attica
Time spent in residential spaces	12.39	2.17	9	17
Grocery & pharmacy mobility	−2.06	26.64	−67	66
Aegean
Time spent in residential spaces	7.33	2.68	3	13
Grocery & pharmacy mobility	−1.33	18.96	−58	41
Epirus & Western Macedonia
Time spent in residential spaces	9.33	3.20	4	15
Grocery & pharmacy mobility	4.67	27.77	−67	81
Thessaly& Central Greece
Time spent in residential spaces	9.44	2.81	4	14
Grocery & pharmacy mobility	0.00	25.33	−62	63

Fig. 2 shows the trends in mobility in the treatment and control regions before and after the 6pm curfew intervention. What matters in a DiD model is that the control and treatment groups demonstrate common trends before the treatment. A visual observation of the graphs suggests the presence of similar trends in mobility with regards to groceries and pharmacies (Panel A), and residential spaces (panel B) – although this is not directly testable. The trends in other related variables such as daily case counts and deaths over the period of study can be found in the Appendix ( Figures A1 and A2 ). Of course, Attica includes the capital city of Athens, and in that sense is more urban than the control groups. Nevertheless, control groups are often different than treatment groups, and what matters is the relative change rather than the absolute characteristics. For example, different countries or US States with different characteristics have been used in the literature when performing DiD analyses ( Kavetsos et al., 2021 ; Kim and Albert Kim, 2018 ; Card and Krueger, 1994 ). In any case, an assumption of this analysis is that in the absence of the 6pm curfew in Attica, the trends between Attica and control regions would remain similar (and we have no reason to believe that something other than the 6pm intervention coincided with the treatment and would have distorted the common pre-treatment trends).

On top of the traditional DiD which basically averages between treated and non-treated periods and regions, we take advantage of the recent advancements in econometrics, applying synthetic DiD (SDiD) to our data ( Arkhangelsky et al., 2018 ). The primary difference is that it allows to construct the control by putting differential weights on both control units (regions) and pre-treatment time periods – rather than averaging over them as the standard DiD model would. The goal of the differential weighting is to match the pre-treatment trend of the treated region as closely as possible using the weighted combination of controls – and then use the same weights to extend the trend into the treatment period. The literature offers an a-theoretic selection tool for such weight selection, where the model automatically selects the combination of control regions and periods that best matches the pre-treatment trend in Attica.

The results of the DiD regressions using the Aegean region as a control are presented in Table 2 . When considering the effect on time spent in groceries and pharmacies (column 1), the coefficient of the DiD interaction term, that shows the difference in the differences between the two regions, is statistically insignificant [coeff: −13.55; 95%CI -42.723 to 15.623]. This suggests that there was no change in the relative trends in visits to groceries and pharmacies in Attica compared to the control group after the intervention. Column 2 shows the results of the model with time spent at residential spaces as outcome. The DiD interaction term is positive and statistically significant [coeff: 4.4; 95%CI 1.688 to 7.112], suggesting that the relative increase in time spent at residential spaces after the 6pm curfew was only 4.4 percentage points. The results of the econometric analysis show that a reduction in the time when people were allowed to go outside by 3 h (an 18.75% decrease) led to a 4.4 percentage point increase in time spent at home and had no effect on time spent in groceries or pharmacies, in relative terms.

Results of the Difference-in-Differences regressions (using Aegean Region as a control group).

	grocery & pharmacy	residential
DiD interaction term (Attica*week 6 onwards)	−13.55	4.4***
DiD interaction term (Attica*week 6 onwards)	[-42.723 to 15.623]	[1.688 to 7.112]
Week 6 onwards (treatment period)	5.325	−3.975***
Week 6 onwards (treatment period)	[-11.856 to 22.506]	[-5.742 to −2.208]
Attica dummy variable (treatment group)	5.3	3.1***
Attica dummy variable (treatment group)	[-22.785 to 33.385]	[1.114 to 5.086]
Constant term	−3.7	9.1***
Constant term	[-19.547 to 12.147]	[8.022 to 10.178]
Observations	36	36
R-squared	0.024	0.696
F-statistic	1.6	26.46

The dependent variable is the change in time spent in the two types of locations compared to the baseline. Robust 95% confidence intervals in brackets. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Three robustness checks using two more Regions as control groups (separately, and in the same regression with the Aegean) confirm the results of the main analysis. We get similar results when using the Epirus & Western Macedonia Region as control group ( Table A1 , Online Appendix). The model examining mobility in groceries and pharmacies yields statistically insignificant results, as in the main model, and in the model examining time spent residential spaces, the DiD coefficient is positive and statistically significant [coeff: 4.625; 95%CI 1.412 to 7.838], but slightly larger than in the main model, as expected. Table A2 in the Online Appendix presents the DiD results of the model using Thessaly as a control group,. When studying the effect on mobility relating to groceries and pharmacies, the coefficient of the DiD interaction term remains statistically insignificant, as in the main analysis. In the model studying residential spaces, the DiD interaction term is positive but statistically significant at the 10% level only, with a smaller magnitude than in the main analysis, as expected [coeff: 3.025; 95%CI -0.275 to 6.325]. As discussed above, this can be expected given that Thessaly had a larger proportion of population under curfew than the other control groups. The regression including all three regions as control gives consistent results ( Table A3 in the Appendix). Additionally, we conduct a robustness check with the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation applied to the dependent variables, obtaining estimates highly consistent in direction and significance with those reported above ( Tables A4 and A5 in the Appendix). Results using synthetic controls (SDiD), which are in the same direction as the results of the baseline model, are presented in the Online Appendix (Section A1 and Figures A3 and A4 ).

4. Discussion

We found that the 6pm instead of 9pm curfew in Athens appears to have led to a 4.4 percentage point relative increase in time spent at home and had no effect on time spent in groceries and pharmacies. Considering that this was a result of an 18.75% reduction in hours where people were allowed to leave home, and the percentage change in mobility seems to be smaller than the percentage change in time, the early curfew may have led to greater crowding. Especially with regards to grocery stores, the same level of mobility appears to be concentrated in fewer hours of the day. If more people were present simultaneously in high-risk places such as supermarkets (instead of being spread over more hours during the day), the curfew may have led to greater disease transmission. The percentage increase in time spent at residential spaces was lower than the percentage change in time permitted to leave home due to the curfew. Apparently, following the introduction of the 6pm curfew, people did not reduce their activities proportionately to the time that they were allowed to leave home.

Finding the exact impact is not straightforward, as Google mobility data do not show at what time of the day these activities took place, or the density of activities during the day. Of course, not all hours in the day demonstrate the same level of mobility, so this 18.75% reduction in hours when people were free to leave their homes does not reflect differences in density.

Our findings add to important existing evidence from Toulouse ( Dimeglio et al., 2021 ) that suggests that a 6pm curfew backfired, and to a paper on the German Land of Hesse that found no evidence that night curfews had an effect on disease transmission ( Haas et al., 2021 ). Another recent study argues evening curfews may elicit reactance ( Sprengholz et al., 2021 ). Interestingly, we find little or no evidence of a decrease in mobility at essential businesses such as groceries and pharmacies despite the lower number of hours that people could spend in stores. This is broadly in line with Chetty et al. (2020) finding of the lower income households increasing consumption in response to government stimulus.

The outcome variable in this study is mobility rather than infections. Although certain environments such as supermarkets have a higher likelihood of spreading the disease ( Shao et al., 2021 ), our data do not show the actual impact on Covid-19. However, such an effect would be extremely challenging to disentangle, even with clinical data for the following reasons: (a) Other factors such as variants that may be more transmissible may apply, distorting the effect on actual health outcomes; (b) there is dispersion in the time lag between infection and symptoms or hospitalisation or death; (c) the effect might show via second-hand transmission (for example, individuals who first contract SARS-CoV-2 may be younger people who are often asymptomatic ( Kelvin and Halperin, 2020 ), and may pass the virus on to others with a longer lag); (d) due to bias in disease prevalence measurement ( Georganas et al., 2021 ). Future research can examine the complicated relationship between curfews, mobility and COVID-19 cases at the regional level, taking into account the aforementioned empirical challenges.

Aside of challenges to measurement, evaluating the effect of counter-Covid-19 measures on cases is sensitive to factors undermining the validity of estimates, such as effects driven by anticipation of measures, reverse causality, and spillovers ( Goodman-Bacon and Marcus, 2020 ). Indeed, it is very plausible that people may change behaviour in response to factors other than governmental restrictions, such as case counts. Note that in our case this would lead to an underestimate of the effect of the curfew, as follows. If rising cases in Attica (treated) region led people to staying at home more and avoiding indoor public spaces (such as grocery shops and pharmacies) – what we are estimating is a joint effect of the curfew (law) and rising cases (fear). Should the curfew be effective, we would see reduction in mobility outside the residence greater than proportionate to the decrease in time allowed. We also consider an alternative possibility, where rising cases in the control regions would motivate people to stay at home more despite the lack of governmental intervention in form of curfew. This would lead to a smaller difference in mobility between treated and control regions, but attributable to fear, rather than to the effect of the curfew.

This study is subject to limitations. We cannot directly calculate the impact on crowding as Google mobility data are not available by time of the day – so the magnitude of any reported effect should be interpreted with caution. For example, while we do not find a sufficient overall decrease in mobility, it may have decreased more in some parts of the day (e.g. early mornings) with majority of outdoors mobility (and the resulting crowding) concentrating in later part of the day (e.g. just before grocery stores close). Nevertheless, daily averages are still informative. Furthermore, as discussed, small parts of the population in control groups lived in sub-regions that were subject to local lockdowns. It is also worth mentioning that many stores are closed on Sundays. Finally, our study focuses on mobility rather than infections.

We were not able to consider smaller geographic areas due to data availability constraints, and we also do not have any information on purchases made – which may have been affected by the pandemic ( Alvarez et al., 2021 ). Future research can take purchasing behaviour into account, if such data become available.

Whilst Google mobility data have been used by multiple studies (including comparison of mobility trends between and within countries, Chan, 2020 ; evaluation of social distancing on regional levels within countries, Cot et al., 2021 ; Wielechowski et al., 2020 ; nowcasting economic activity, Sampi Bravo and Jooste, 2020 ) - the absence of disclosure by dataset owners of the proportion of smartphone users whose location history is recorded, is a weak point of this literature. As a consequence, our ability to assess the representativeness of this subset of population is limited. However, note that Google's policy for anonymising the data results in gaps on the days which lack “enough data to confidently and anonymously estimate the change from the baseline” – which is also a median value over a 5-week period (see Appendix for details on the dataset). Since there are no such gaps for any of the regions of Greece over the period of interest, we are confident that the dataset captures a substantial proportion of the population.

Our findings are relevant to areas that are still fighting COVID-19 but also to the next pandemic or any contagious disease (e.g. Ebola). Overall, non-pharmaceutical interventions were necessary to tackle Covid-19, but any measures should be carefully designed and should be based on a thorough analysis of human behaviour, that anticipates substitution of activities. Decisions on what sort of interventions are introduced should be based on empirical evidence, and constantly re-evaluated and adjusted when necessary to prevent backfiring. It seems that some measures can occasionally be too strict, even if containing the disease is the only goal.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Appendix A Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114538 .

Authors’ contributions

Study concept and design: SV, AV and SG. Statistical analysis: AV, SV and SG. Interpretation of results: AV, SV and SG. Drafting of manuscript: AV, SV and SG. Critical revision: SV, AV and SG.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article:

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Are ‘24-hour curfews’ legal?

Several local government units (LGU) have imposed curfews in line with the national government's measures to minimize the spread of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), which has so far infected 501 people in the Philippines.

Muntinlupa City, for one, has passed an ordinance on what it called a "24-hour curfew," in which no one is allowed to go out of the house "unless he/she falls under the exemptions provided by law or ordinance."

For the first offense, violators stand to be placed on the barangay blotter and lose benefits from the city government, like scholarships and zero-interest loans. For the "last offense," violators' "relief goods and other assistance" during the quarantine period will be withheld.

Is this allowed?

Justice Secretary Menardo Guevarra, a member of the Inter-Agency Task Force on top of the government response to COVID-19, said: "The total lockdown in Luzon is in effect a 24-hour curfew. No one leaves the house, unless covered by the exceptions/exemptions."

He is referring to the "enhanced community quarantine" that President Rodrigo Duterte declared over the Philippines' largest island, effective until midnight of April 13.

Under the Luzon quarantine , mass gatherings are prohibited, public transportation is suspended, and only one person per household is allowed to go out to access basic necessities, among several other provisions.

Human rights lawyers have warned against the imposition of "24-hour curfews."

"Siyempre nakikiusap tayong manatili lahat sa bahay, pero labag na sa Konstitusyon ang ordinansang ito. Ang "24-hour curfew" ay outright denial of the right to travel and freedom of movement," lawyer Chel Diokno said of Muntinlupa's ordinance.

Diokno, the national chairperson of the Free Legal Assistance Group, also said minors cannot be penalized for curfew violations under the Comprehensive Juvenile Justice Act.

"Dapat dalhin sila sa kanilang bahay o i-turn over sa kanilang mga magulang," he said in a Facebook post.

For its part, the National Union of Peoples' Lawyers (NUPL) said curfews "cannot be arbitrary, excessive or disproportionate."

"Measured by these standards, the 24-hour blanket curfews with vague or no exceptions or exemptions issued through ordinances by some local government units are open to serious legal challenge," the NUPL said.

The 1987 Constitution prohibits the impairment of the right to travel but provides some exceptions.

Section 6 of the Bill of Rights says: "The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by law shall not be impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to travel be impaired except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health, as may be provided by law."

The NUPL said penalties for curfew violators must be "proportionate, specific and definite," and cannot be "arbitrary" or amounting to "cruel, degrading or unusual treatment or punishment."

"If these are not observed, the penalties can be legally challenged. Most of all, the penalties must be just and humane. In this context, the ordinance issued by some local government units cancelling for instance scholarship benefits are legally infirm," an NUPL bulletin states.

According to the NUPL, the following can impose curfews in the exercise of police power: Sangguniang Barangay, Municipal or City Councils, or Provincial Boards through valid ordinances in their territories, Congress through a valid law in defined areas, or the president through an executive issuance in defined territories or specific areas.

"The Cabinet secretaries, appointive (i.e. not elected) presidential advisers, local government unit (LGU) heads, MMDA, PNP, AFP are not empowered by themselves and do not have the unilateral authority to impose curfews," the NUPL said.

"They can generally only enforce valid curfews imposed by the proper authorities above through issuances that comply with procedural and substantive requirements," they added.

In Manila, which has a curfew from 8 p.m. to 5 a.m., inquest prosecutors have as of last week ordered the release of at least 20 people who were arrested for violating the city's curfew ordinance and for other offenses, mostly serious disobedience of authorities.

As for specific periods of time in which residents can go out, the Department of the Interior and Local Government has said it has set no policy on window hours , but the Philippine National Police said LGUs may implement their own . — RSJ, GMA News

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Read these 12 moving essays about life during coronavirus

Artists, novelists, critics, and essayists are writing the first draft of history.

by Alissa Wilkinson

The world is grappling with an invisible, deadly enemy, trying to understand how to live with the threat posed by a virus . For some writers, the only way forward is to put pen to paper, trying to conceptualize and document what it feels like to continue living as countries are under lockdown and regular life seems to have ground to a halt.

So as the coronavirus pandemic has stretched around the world, it’s sparked a crop of diary entries and essays that describe how life has changed. Novelists, critics, artists, and journalists have put words to the feelings many are experiencing. The result is a first draft of how we’ll someday remember this time, filled with uncertainty and pain and fear as well as small moments of hope and humanity.

The Vox guide to navigating the coronavirus crisis

At the New York Review of Books, Ali Bhutto writes that in Karachi, Pakistan, the government-imposed curfew due to the virus is “eerily reminiscent of past military clampdowns”:

Beneath the quiet calm lies a sense that society has been unhinged and that the usual rules no longer apply. Small groups of pedestrians look on from the shadows, like an audience watching a spectacle slowly unfolding. People pause on street corners and in the shade of trees, under the watchful gaze of the paramilitary forces and the police.

His essay concludes with the sobering note that “in the minds of many, Covid-19 is just another life-threatening hazard in a city that stumbles from one crisis to another.”

Writing from Chattanooga, novelist Jamie Quatro documents the mixed ways her neighbors have been responding to the threat, and the frustration of conflicting direction, or no direction at all, from local, state, and federal leaders:

Whiplash, trying to keep up with who’s ordering what. We’re already experiencing enough chaos without this back-and-forth. Why didn’t the federal government issue a nationwide shelter-in-place at the get-go, the way other countries did? What happens when one state’s shelter-in-place ends, while others continue? Do states still under quarantine close their borders? We are still one nation, not fifty individual countries. Right?

A syllabus for the end of the world

Award-winning photojournalist Alessio Mamo, quarantined with his partner Marta in Sicily after she tested positive for the virus, accompanies his photographs in the Guardian of their confinement with a reflection on being confined :

The doctors asked me to take a second test, but again I tested negative. Perhaps I’m immune? The days dragged on in my apartment, in black and white, like my photos. Sometimes we tried to smile, imagining that I was asymptomatic, because I was the virus. Our smiles seemed to bring good news. My mother left hospital, but I won’t be able to see her for weeks. Marta started breathing well again, and so did I. I would have liked to photograph my country in the midst of this emergency, the battles that the doctors wage on the frontline, the hospitals pushed to their limits, Italy on its knees fighting an invisible enemy. That enemy, a day in March, knocked on my door instead.

In the New York Times Magazine, deputy editor Jessica Lustig writes with devastating clarity about her family’s life in Brooklyn while her husband battled the virus, weeks before most people began taking the threat seriously:

At the door of the clinic, we stand looking out at two older women chatting outside the doorway, oblivious. Do I wave them away? Call out that they should get far away, go home, wash their hands, stay inside? Instead we just stand there, awkwardly, until they move on. Only then do we step outside to begin the long three-block walk home. I point out the early magnolia, the forsythia. T says he is cold. The untrimmed hairs on his neck, under his beard, are white. The few people walking past us on the sidewalk don’t know that we are visitors from the future. A vision, a premonition, a walking visitation. This will be them: Either T, in the mask, or — if they’re lucky — me, tending to him.

Essayist Leslie Jamison writes in the New York Review of Books about being shut away alone in her New York City apartment with her 2-year-old daughter since she became sick:

The virus. Its sinewy, intimate name. What does it feel like in my body today? Shivering under blankets. A hot itch behind the eyes. Three sweatshirts in the middle of the day. My daughter trying to pull another blanket over my body with her tiny arms. An ache in the muscles that somehow makes it hard to lie still. This loss of taste has become a kind of sensory quarantine. It’s as if the quarantine keeps inching closer and closer to my insides. First I lost the touch of other bodies; then I lost the air; now I’ve lost the taste of bananas. Nothing about any of these losses is particularly unique. I’ve made a schedule so I won’t go insane with the toddler. Five days ago, I wrote Walk/Adventure! on it, next to a cut-out illustration of a tiger—as if we’d see tigers on our walks. It was good to keep possibility alive.

At Literary Hub, novelist Heidi Pitlor writes about the elastic nature of time during her family’s quarantine in Massachusetts:

During a shutdown, the things that mark our days—commuting to work, sending our kids to school, having a drink with friends—vanish and time takes on a flat, seamless quality. Without some self-imposed structure, it’s easy to feel a little untethered. A friend recently posted on Facebook: “For those who have lost track, today is Blursday the fortyteenth of Maprilay.” ... Giving shape to time is especially important now, when the future is so shapeless. We do not know whether the virus will continue to rage for weeks or months or, lord help us, on and off for years. We do not know when we will feel safe again. And so many of us, minus those who are gifted at compartmentalization or denial, remain largely captive to fear. We may stay this way if we do not create at least the illusion of movement in our lives, our long days spent with ourselves or partners or families.

What day is it today?

Novelist Lauren Groff writes at the New York Review of Books about trying to escape the prison of her fears while sequestered at home in Gainesville, Florida:

Some people have imaginations sparked only by what they can see; I blame this blinkered empiricism for the parks overwhelmed with people, the bars, until a few nights ago, thickly thronged. My imagination is the opposite. I fear everything invisible to me. From the enclosure of my house, I am afraid of the suffering that isn’t present before me, the people running out of money and food or drowning in the fluid in their lungs, the deaths of health-care workers now growing ill while performing their duties. I fear the federal government, which the right wing has so—intentionally—weakened that not only is it insufficient to help its people, it is actively standing in help’s way. I fear we won’t sufficiently punish the right. I fear leaving the house and spreading the disease. I fear what this time of fear is doing to my children, their imaginations, and their souls.

At ArtForum , Berlin-based critic and writer Kristian Vistrup Madsen reflects on martinis, melancholia, and Finnish artist Jaakko Pallasvuo’s 2018 graphic novel Retreat , in which three young people exile themselves in the woods:

In melancholia, the shape of what is ending, and its temporality, is sprawling and incomprehensible. The ambivalence makes it hard to bear. The world of Retreat is rendered in lush pink and purple watercolors, which dissolve into wild and messy abstractions. In apocalypse, the divisions established in genesis bleed back out. My own Corona-retreat is similarly soft, color-field like, each day a blurred succession of quarantinis, YouTube–yoga, and televized press conferences. As restrictions mount, so does abstraction. For now, I’m still rooting for love to save the world.

At the Paris Review , Matt Levin writes about reading Virginia Woolf’s novel The Waves during quarantine:

A retreat, a quarantine, a sickness—they simultaneously distort and clarify, curtail and expand. It is an ideal state in which to read literature with a reputation for difficulty and inaccessibility, those hermetic books shorn of the handholds of conventional plot or characterization or description. A novel like Virginia Woolf’s The Waves is perfect for the state of interiority induced by quarantine—a story of three men and three women, meeting after the death of a mutual friend, told entirely in the overlapping internal monologues of the six, interspersed only with sections of pure, achingly beautiful descriptions of the natural world, a day’s procession and recession of light and waves. The novel is, in my mind’s eye, a perfectly spherical object. It is translucent and shimmering and infinitely fragile, prone to shatter at the slightest disturbance. It is not a book that can be read in snatches on the subway—it demands total absorption. Though it revels in a stark emotional nakedness, the book remains aloof, remote in its own deep self-absorption.

Vox is starting a book club. Come read with us!

In an essay for the Financial Times, novelist Arundhati Roy writes with anger about Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s anemic response to the threat, but also offers a glimmer of hope for the future:

Historically, pandemics have forced humans to break with the past and imagine their world anew. This one is no different. It is a portal, a gateway between one world and the next. We can choose to walk through it, dragging the carcasses of our prejudice and hatred, our avarice, our data banks and dead ideas, our dead rivers and smoky skies behind us. Or we can walk through lightly, with little luggage, ready to imagine another world. And ready to fight for it.

From Boston, Nora Caplan-Bricker writes in The Point about the strange contraction of space under quarantine, in which a friend in Beirut is as close as the one around the corner in the same city:

It’s a nice illusion—nice to feel like we’re in it together, even if my real world has shrunk to one person, my husband, who sits with his laptop in the other room. It’s nice in the same way as reading those essays that reframe social distancing as solidarity. “We must begin to see the negative space as clearly as the positive, to know what we don’t do is also brilliant and full of love,” the poet Anne Boyer wrote on March 10th, the day that Massachusetts declared a state of emergency. If you squint, you could almost make sense of this quarantine as an effort to flatten, along with the curve, the distinctions we make between our bonds with others. Right now, I care for my neighbor in the same way I demonstrate love for my mother: in all instances, I stay away. And in moments this month, I have loved strangers with an intensity that is new to me. On March 14th, the Saturday night after the end of life as we knew it, I went out with my dog and found the street silent: no lines for restaurants, no children on bicycles, no couples strolling with little cups of ice cream. It had taken the combined will of thousands of people to deliver such a sudden and complete emptiness. I felt so grateful, and so bereft.

And on his own website, musician and artist David Byrne writes about rediscovering the value of working for collective good , saying that “what is happening now is an opportunity to learn how to change our behavior”:

In emergencies, citizens can suddenly cooperate and collaborate. Change can happen. We’re going to need to work together as the effects of climate change ramp up. In order for capitalism to survive in any form, we will have to be a little more socialist. Here is an opportunity for us to see things differently — to see that we really are all connected — and adjust our behavior accordingly. Are we willing to do this? Is this moment an opportunity to see how truly interdependent we all are? To live in a world that is different and better than the one we live in now? We might be too far down the road to test every asymptomatic person, but a change in our mindsets, in how we view our neighbors, could lay the groundwork for the collective action we’ll need to deal with other global crises. The time to see how connected we all are is now.

The portrait these writers paint of a world under quarantine is multifaceted. Our worlds have contracted to the confines of our homes, and yet in some ways we’re more connected than ever to one another. We feel fear and boredom, anger and gratitude, frustration and strange peace. Uncertainty drives us to find metaphors and images that will let us wrap our minds around what is happening.

Yet there’s no single “what” that is happening. Everyone is contending with the pandemic and its effects from different places and in different ways. Reading others’ experiences — even the most frightening ones — can help alleviate the loneliness and dread, a little, and remind us that what we’re going through is both unique and shared by all.

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How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips

Published on July 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement . The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

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When do you write an argumentative essay, approaches to argumentative essays, introducing your argument, the body: developing your argument, concluding your argument, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about argumentative essays.

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective, and why.
Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

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An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments

The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for the argument:

Make a claim
Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures. You might:

Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be better spent on other approaches
Cite data to support your claim
Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments

The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
Highlight the problems with this position
Present your own position , showing how it addresses these problems
Suggest a possible compromise —what elements of your position would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia
Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using an introduction , a body , and a conclusion .

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction . The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information, present your thesis statement , and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Each of these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Ad hominem fallacy
Post hoc fallacy
Appeal to authority fallacy
False cause fallacy
Sunk cost fallacy

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An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, July 23). How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/argumentative-essay/

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School Education /

Essay On Covid-19: 100, 200 and 300 Words

Updated on
Apr 30, 2024

COVID-19, also known as the Coronavirus, is a global pandemic that has affected people all around the world. It first emerged in a lab in Wuhan, China, in late 2019 and quickly spread to countries around the world. This virus was reportedly caused by SARS-CoV-2. Since then, it has spread rapidly to many countries, causing widespread illness and impacting our lives in numerous ways. This blog talks about the details of this virus and also drafts an essay on COVID-19 in 100, 200 and 300 words for students and professionals.

Table of Contents

1 Essay On COVID-19 in English 100 Words
2 Essay On COVID-19 in 200 Words
3 Essay On COVID-19 in 300 Words
4 Short Essay on Covid-19

Essay On COVID-19 in English 100 Words

COVID-19, also known as the coronavirus, is a global pandemic. It started in late 2019 and has affected people all around the world. The virus spreads very quickly through someone’s sneeze and respiratory issues.

COVID-19 has had a significant impact on our lives, with lockdowns, travel restrictions, and changes in daily routines. To prevent the spread of COVID-19, we should wear masks, practice social distancing, and wash our hands frequently.

People should follow social distancing and other safety guidelines and also learn the tricks to be safe stay healthy and work the whole challenging time.

Also Read: National Safe Motherhood Day 2023

Essay On COVID-19 in 200 Words

COVID-19 also known as coronavirus, became a global health crisis in early 2020 and impacted mankind around the world. This virus is said to have originated in Wuhan, China in late 2019. It belongs to the coronavirus family and causes flu-like symptoms. It impacted the healthcare systems, economies and the daily lives of people all over the world.

The most crucial aspect of COVID-19 is its highly spreadable nature. It is a communicable disease that spreads through various means such as coughs from infected persons, sneezes and communication. Due to its easy transmission leading to its outbreaks, there were many measures taken by the government from all over the world such as Lockdowns, Social Distancing, and wearing masks.

There are many changes throughout the economic systems, and also in daily routines. Other measures such as schools opting for Online schooling, Remote work options available and restrictions on travel throughout the country and internationally. Subsequently, to cure and top its outbreak, the government started its vaccine campaigns, and other preventive measures.

In conclusion, COVID-19 tested the patience and resilience of the mankind. This pandemic has taught people the importance of patience, effort and humbleness.

Essay On COVID-19 in 300 Words

COVID-19, also known as the coronavirus, is a serious and contagious disease that has affected people worldwide. It was first discovered in late 2019 in Cina and then got spread in the whole world. It had a major impact on people’s life, their school, work and daily lives.

COVID-19 is primarily transmitted from person to person through respiratory droplets produced and through sneezes, and coughs of an infected person. It can spread to thousands of people because of its highly contagious nature. To cure the widespread of this virus, there are thousands of steps taken by the people and the government.

Wearing masks is one of the essential precautions to prevent the virus from spreading. Social distancing is another vital practice, which involves maintaining a safe distance from others to minimize close contact.

Very frequent handwashing is also very important to stop the spread of this virus. Proper hand hygiene can help remove any potential virus particles from our hands, reducing the risk of infection.

In conclusion, the Coronavirus has changed people’s perspective on living. It has also changed people’s way of interacting and how to live. To deal with this virus, it is very important to follow the important guidelines such as masks, social distancing and techniques to wash your hands. Getting vaccinated is also very important to go back to normal life and cure this virus completely.

Also Read: Essay on Abortion in English in 650 Words

Short Essay on Covid-19

Please find below a sample of a short essay on Covid-19 for school students:

Also Read: Essay on Women’s Day in 200 and 500 words

to write an essay on COVID-19, understand your word limit and make sure to cover all the stages and symptoms of this disease. You need to highlight all the challenges and impacts of COVID-19. Do not forget to conclude your essay with positive precautionary measures.

Writing an essay on COVID-19 in 200 words requires you to cover all the challenges, impacts and precautions of this disease. You don’t need to describe all of these factors in brief, but make sure to add as many options as your word limit allows.

The full form for COVID-19 is Corona Virus Disease of 2019.

Simran Popli

An avid writer and a creative person. With an experience of 1.5 years content writing, Simran has worked with different areas. From medical to working in a marketing agency with different clients to Ed-tech company, the journey has been diverse. Creative, vivacious and patient are the words that describe her personality.

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Read these 12 moving essays about life during coronavirus Artists, novelists, critics, and essayists are writing the first draft of history.
How to Write an Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay presents a complete argument backed up by evidence and analysis. It is the most common essay type at university.
Essay On Covid-19: 100, 200 and 300 Words
This blog talks about the details of this virus and also drafts an essay on COVID-19 in 100, 200 and 300 words for students and professionals. Table of Contents 1 Essay On COVID-19 in English 100 Words 2 Essay On COVID-19 in 200 Words 3 Essay On COVID-19 in 300 Words 4 Short Essay on Covid-19 5 FAQs
How to Write About Coronavirus in a College Essay
Students can share how they navigated life during the coronavirus pandemic in a full-length essay or an optional supplement.