Identify
Explore
Discover
Discuss
Summarise
Describe
Last, format your objectives into a numbered list. This is because when you write your thesis or dissertation, you will at times need to make reference to a specific research objective; structuring your research objectives in a numbered list will provide a clear way of doing this.
To bring all this together, let’s compare the first research objective in the previous example with the above guidance:
Research Objective:
1. Develop finite element models using explicit dynamics to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion, initially using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum.
Checking Against Recommended Approach:
Q: Is it specific? A: Yes, it is clear what the student intends to do (produce a finite element model), why they intend to do it (mimic cup/shell blows) and their parameters have been well-defined ( using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum ).
Q: Is it measurable? A: Yes, it is clear that the research objective will be achieved once the finite element model is complete.
Q: Is it achievable? A: Yes, provided the student has access to a computer lab, modelling software and laboratory data.
Q: Is it relevant? A: Yes, mimicking impacts to a cup/shell is fundamental to the overall aim of understanding how they deform when impacted upon.
Q: Is it timebound? A: Yes, it is possible to create a limited-scope finite element model in a relatively short time, especially if you already have experience in modelling.
Q: Does it start with a verb? A: Yes, it starts with ‘develop’, which makes the intent of the objective immediately clear.
Q: Is it a numbered list? A: Yes, it is the first research objective in a list of eight.
1. making your research aim too broad.
Having a research aim too broad becomes very difficult to achieve. Normally, this occurs when a student develops their research aim before they have a good understanding of what they want to research. Remember that at the end of your project and during your viva defence , you will have to prove that you have achieved your research aims; if they are too broad, this will be an almost impossible task. In the early stages of your research project, your priority should be to narrow your study to a specific area. A good way to do this is to take the time to study existing literature, question their current approaches, findings and limitations, and consider whether there are any recurring gaps that could be investigated .
Note: Achieving a set of aims does not necessarily mean proving or disproving a theory or hypothesis, even if your research aim was to, but having done enough work to provide a useful and original insight into the principles that underlie your research aim.
Be realistic about what you can achieve in the time you have available. It is natural to want to set ambitious research objectives that require sophisticated data collection and analysis, but only completing this with six months before the end of your PhD registration period is not a worthwhile trade-off.
Each research objective should have its own purpose and distinct measurable outcome. To this effect, a common mistake is to form research objectives which have large amounts of overlap. This makes it difficult to determine when an objective is truly complete, and also presents challenges in estimating the duration of objectives when creating your project timeline. It also makes it difficult to structure your thesis into unique chapters, making it more challenging for you to write and for your audience to read.
Fortunately, this oversight can be easily avoided by using SMART objectives.
Hopefully, you now have a good idea of how to create an effective set of aims and objectives for your research project, whether it be a thesis, dissertation or research paper. While it may be tempting to dive directly into your research, spending time on getting your aims and objectives right will give your research clear direction. This won’t only reduce the likelihood of problems arising later down the line, but will also lead to a more thorough and coherent research project.
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Home » Research Objectives – Types, Examples and Writing Guide
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Research objectives refer to the specific goals or aims of a research study. They provide a clear and concise description of what the researcher hopes to achieve by conducting the research . The objectives are typically based on the research questions and hypotheses formulated at the beginning of the study and are used to guide the research process.
Here are the different types of research objectives in research:
Writing clear and concise research objectives is an important part of any research project, as it helps to guide the study and ensure that it is focused and relevant. Here are some steps to follow when writing research objectives:
Examples of research objectives Could be:
Research Objectives for the topic of “The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Employment”:
Some of the main purposes of research objectives include:
Here are some advantages of having well-defined research objectives:
Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer
Picture yourself on a road trip without a destination in mind — driving aimlessly, not knowing where you’re headed or how to get there. Similarly, your research is navigated by well-defined research aims and objectives. Research aims and objectives are the foundation of any research project. They provide a clear direction and purpose for the study, ensuring that you stay focused and on track throughout the process. They are your trusted navigational tools, leading you to success.
Understanding the relationship between research objectives and aims is crucial to any research project’s success, and we’re here to break it down for you in this article. Here, we’ll explore the importance of research aims and objectives, understand their differences, and delve into the impact they have on the quality of research.
In research, aims and objectives are two important components but are often used interchangeably. Though they may sound similar, they are distinct and serve different purposes.
Research aims are broad statements that describe the overall purpose of your study. They provide a general direction for your study and indicate the intended achievements of your research. Aims are usually written in a general and abstract manner describing the ultimate goal of the research.
Research objectives are specific, measurable, and achievable goals that you aim to accomplish within a specified timeframe. They break down the research aims into smaller, more manageable components and provide a clear picture of what you want to achieve and how you plan to achieve it.
In the example, the objectives provide specific targets that must be achieved to reach the aim. Essentially, aims provide the overall direction for the research while objectives provide specific targets that must be achieved to accomplish the aims. Aims provide a broad context for the research, while the objectives provide smaller steps that the researcher must take to accomplish the overall research goals. To illustrate, when planning a road trip, your research aim is the destination you want to reach, and your research objectives are the specific routes you need to take to get there.
Aims and objectives are interconnected. Objectives play a key role in defining the research methodology, providing a roadmap for how you’ll collect and analyze data, while aim is the final destination, which represents the ultimate goal of your research. By setting specific goals, you’ll be able to design a research plan that helps you achieve your objectives and, ultimately, your research aim.
The impact of clear research aims and objectives on the quality of research cannot be understated. But it’s not enough to simply have aims and objectives. Well-defined research aims and objectives are important for several reasons:
Formulating effective research aims and objectives involves a systematic process to ensure that they are clear, specific, achievable, and relevant. Start by asking yourself what you want to achieve through your research. What impact do you want your research to have? Once you have a clear understanding of your aims, you can then break them down into specific, achievable objectives. Here are some steps you can follow when developing research aims and objectives:
There are several common mistakes that researchers can make when writing research aims and objectives. These include:
To avoid these common pitfalls, it is important to be specific, clear, relevant, and realistic when writing research aims and objectives. Seek feedback from colleagues or supervisors to ensure that the aims and objectives are aligned with the research problem , questions, and methodology, and are achievable within the constraints of the research project. It’s important to continually refine your aims and objectives as you go. As you progress in your research, it’s not uncommon for research aims and objectives to evolve slightly, but it’s important that they remain consistent with the study conducted and the research topic.
In summary, research aims and objectives are the backbone of any successful research project. They give you the ability to cut through the noise and hone in on what really matters. By setting clear goals and aligning them with your research questions and methodology, you can ensure that your research is relevant, impactful, and of the highest quality. So, before you hit the road on your research journey, make sure you have a clear destination and steps to get there. Let us know in the comments section below the challenges you faced and the strategies you followed while fomulating research aims and objectives! Also, feel free to reach out to us at any stage of your research or publication by using #AskEnago and tagging @EnagoAcademy on Twitter , Facebook , and Quora . Happy researching!
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Research questions are broad statements that guide the overall direction of the research. They identify the main problem or area of inquiry that the research will address. For example, a research question might be, "What is the impact of social media on teenage mental health?" This question sets the stage for the research and helps to define the scope of the study.
On the other hand, research objectives are specific, measurable goals that the research aims to achieve. They are used to guide the research process and help to define the specific outcomes that the researcher is looking to achieve. For example, an objective for the above research question might be "To determine the correlation between social media usage and rates of depression in teenagers." This objective is more specific and measurable than the research question and helps define the specific outcomes that the researcher is looking to achieve.
It is important to note that research questions and objectives are not mutually exclusive; a study can have one or several questions and objectives. A well-defined research question should lead to specific objectives necessary to answer the question.
In summary, research questions and objectives are two distinct aspects of the research process. Research questions are broad statements that guide the overall direction of the research, while research objectives are specific, measurable goals that the research aims to achieve. Understanding these two terms' differences is essential for conducting effective and meaningful research.
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The importance of making a good quality aim and objectives of a research is paramount in the success of the research.
In this post, you will learn:
The research aim is the primary focus of the research and determines what the research serves to do. It defines the purpose of the research and tells the audience what the research aims to achieve.
Because research aims are so important for the study, a sun heading in the introductory chapter is usually dedicated to them. They are written in a paragraph form and define the main purpose of conducting the research on a topic.
Example of a good quality research aim
Research about the effects of climate change on the mental health of young adults can be worded as follows:
“The effects of climate change information on the minds of young adults are under researched. This research aims to find the effects that climate change information has on the mental health of young adults. By studying the effects of the intensity and frequency of the consumption of climate change news and forecasts among young adults, this study aims to see how climate change information is influencing their mental health.”
The above research aim is focused and clear and presents the reader with a clear understanding of the purpose of the research.
Research aims are related to research objectives. The research aim determines the overall purpose of the study, and the objectives determine in what ways that purpose will be achieved. The purpose of the research aim is separated into subsections. However, If any you need to order IT Research Paper help services then you have to take a survey on the net. These subsections are smaller steps that define the objectives of the research.
Research objectives are usually written in the form of a list. These small bits of steps can be checked off as the research progresses. They are written in chronological order, starting with the first objective that needs to be achieved and ending with the final one.
Taking the example of the research aim above, we can divide it into smaller sections to create specific aims of the research.
From this example, you can see how the research aim was broken down into smaller, specific objectives that were then listed down.
Although the two concepts are related, they are not the same. The differences between research aim and research objectives are:
The ways of writing a research aim varies with the researcher, but there are certain points to keep in mind to write a good quality research aim:
1. Answer the “why” question of the research: A research aim needs to provide an answer for why the study is being conducted. It needs to describe, in a small sentence or phares, why the research is important to conduct.
Taking the example of the research aim above, we can see that it answers the why question:
“The effects of climate change information on the minds of young adults are under researched”.
2. Answer the “what” question of the research: this is the main purpose of the research aim, as it signifies the main aim of the research.
From the example above, the “what” question is answered as follows:
“This research aims to find the effects that climate change information has on the mental health of young adults.”
3. Lastly, the research aim needs to answer the “how” question. In a simple sentence or a few phrases, it should outline the main way in which you are planning to achieve the aim.
From the example above, the “how” question is answered as follows:
“By studying the effects of the intensity and frequency of the consumption of climate change news and forecasts among young adults, this study aims to see how climate change information is influencing their mental health.”
Checklist of research aim:
An easy way to determine the quality of your research objectives is to apply the SMART method to them:
In the example above the objectives follow the above mentioned criteria. While making your own objectives, make sure to evaluate them using the points above to ensure your objectives are good quality.
Checklist of research objectives
What to do and what to avoid in writing aims and objectives
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Writing a research paper, thesis, or dissertation ? If so, you’ll want to state your research objectives in the introduction of your paper to make it clear to your readers what you’re trying to accomplish. But how do you write effective research objectives? In this post, we’ll look at two key topics to help you do this:
For more advice on how to write strong research objectives, see below.
There is an important difference between research aims and research objectives:
For instance, an example research aim could be:
This study will investigate the link between dehydration and the incidence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in intensive care patients in Australia.
To develop a set of research objectives, you would then break down the various steps involved in meeting said aim. For example:
This study will investigate the link between dehydration and the incidence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in intensive care patients in Australia. To achieve this, the study objectives w ill include:
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Note that the objectives don’t go into any great detail here. The key is to briefly summarize each component of your study. You can save details for how you will conduct the research for the methodology section of your paper.
A great way to refine your research objectives is to use SMART criteria . Borrowed from the world of project management, there are many versions of this system. However, we’re going to focus on developing specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and timebound objectives.
In other words, a good research objective should be all of the following:
If you follow this system, your research objectives will be much stronger.
Whatever your research aims and objectives, make sure to have your academic writing proofread by the experts!
Our academic editors can help you with research papers and proposals , as well as any other scholarly document you need checking. And this will help to ensure that your academic writing is always clear, concise, and precise.
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What’s the difference between research aims and objectives.
A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.
Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.
A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.
The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.
Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .
However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:
Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them.
In general, they should be:
All research questions should be:
Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .
Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.
I will compare …
Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:
Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.
They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.
Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .
The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:
To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .
The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:
To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:
No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.
All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.
The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:
Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.
This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .
The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .
A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.
The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:
and your problem statement
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Understanding the difference between aims and objectives in research.
In the field of research, distinguishing between the terms “aim” and “objective” is crucial yet often confusing. Many people use these terms interchangeably, but they represent different aspects of the research process. This comprehensive guide will clarify the difference between aims and objectives, how to use them effectively, and why understanding this distinction is essential for successful research.
The aim of a research study is a broad, overarching statement that defines the general purpose and goal of the research. It addresses the fundamental question of why the study is being conducted and what the researcher hopes to achieve. The aim provides a high-level overview and sets the direction for the entire study. A well-defined aim is crucial as it helps to frame the research questions, guides the research process, and communicates the significance of the study to stakeholders such as funding bodies, academic peers, and the public. It essentially provides the foundation upon which the research is built.
For example, if a researcher is investigating the impact of diet on cardiovascular health, the aim might be: “To explore the effects of dietary habits on the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases in adults.”
Objectives are specific, detailed statements that outline the steps or actions required to achieve the aim of the study. They break down the broad aim into manageable tasks and provide a clear roadmap for conducting the research. Objectives are more detailed and measurable compared to the aim, and they help operationalize the research process.
The key functions of objectives include:
– Specific: Clear and unambiguous.
– Measurable: Includes criteria to measure progress and success.
– Achievable: Feasible within the given timeframe and resources.
– Relevant: Directly related to the aim of the study.
– Time-bound: Has a defined deadline for completion.
Examples Illustrating the Difference Between Aims and Objectives
– aim: to investigate the relationship between physical activity and mental health..
Objectives:
– To review existing literature on the relationship between physical activity and mental health.
– To collect data on physical activity levels and mental health indicators in a sample population.
– To analyze the data to determine the influence of physical activity on mental health .
– To draw conclusions based on the findings and make recommendations for future research or interventions.
In this example, the aim is to explore the broader relationship between physical activity and mental health. https://www.manuscriptedit.com/scholar-hangout/explore-the-social-determinants-of-mental-health/The objectives break down this aim into specific tasks, such as reviewing literature, collecting data, analyzing results, and making recommendations.
– To identify the core components and theoretical basis of the new teaching method.
– To implement the teaching method in selected classrooms.
– To collect and analyze data on student performance before and after the implementation.
– To evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching method based on the performance data.
– To provide recommendations for optimizing the teaching method and its implementation.
Here, the aim is to assess the effectiveness of a new teaching method. The objectives detail the steps required to evaluate this effectiveness , including identifying components, implementing the method, collecting data, analyzing results, and making recommendations.
Recognizing the difference between aims and objectives is important for several reasons:.
In summary, while the aim of a research study represents the broad goal or purpose, objectives are specific statements that outline the steps necessary to achieve that aim. Understanding the difference between aims and objectives helps in creating a clear and structured research plan, ensuring that the study remains focused and aligned with its overall purpose. By clearly defining both aims and objectives, researchers can enhance the clarity, effectiveness, and impact of their research .
For more insights and resources on research and academic writing , visit our website [ManuscriptEdit](https://www.manuscriptedit.com). If you have any queries or need assistance, feel free to contact us at [email protected].
References: “Thesis Writing.” Google Books , books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=LZSSEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA77&dq=Difference+between+Aim+and+Objectives+of+a+Research+Study&ots=s96gshgb-7&sig=vPygp_US9INyKqT-T6N-EC3x_2s&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Difference%20between%20Aim%20and%20Objectives%20of%20a%20Research%20Study&f=false .
Hirsch, E. D. “Objective Interpretation.” PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America , vol. 75, no. 4-Part1, Sept. 1960, pp. 463–79. https://doi.org/10.2307/460609 .
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How long does it take the person reading your thesis to understand what you’re doing and how you’re doing it? If the answer is anything other than ’in the opening paragraphs of the thesis’ then keep reading.
If you tell them as early as possible what you’re doing and how you’re doing it – and do so in clear and simple terms – whatever you write after will make much more sense. If you leave them guessing for ten pages, everything they read in those ten pages has no coherence. You’ll know where it is all leading, but they won’t.
Unless you tell them.
If you tell the reader what you’re doing as early as possible in clear and simple terms, whatever you write after will make much more sense.
If you build a house without foundations, it’s pretty obvious what will happen. It’ll collapse. Your thesis is the same; fail to build the foundations and your thesis just won’t work .
Your aims and objectives are those foundations. That’s why we’ve put them right at the top of our PhD Writing Template (if you haven’t already downloaded it, join the thousands who have by clicking here ).
If you write your aims and objectives clearly then you’ll make your reader’s life easier.
A lot of students fail to clearly articulate their aims and objectives because they aren’t sure themselves what they actually are.
Picture this: if there’s one thing that every PhD student hates it’s being asked by a stranger what their research is on.
Use our free PhD structure template to quickly visualise every element of your thesis.
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Your research aims are the answer to the question, ‘What are you doing?’
1. You need to clearly describe what your intentions are and what you hope to achieve. These are your aims.
2. Your aims may be to test theory in a new empirical setting, derive new theory entirely, construct a new data-set, replicate an existing study, question existing orthodoxy, and so on. Whatever they are, clearly articulate them and do so early. Definitely include them in your introduction and, if you’re smart, you’ll write them in your abstract .
3. Be very explicit . In the opening paragraphs, say, in simple terms, ‘ the aim of this thesis is to …’
4. Think of your aims then as a statement of intent. They are a promise to the reader that you are going to do something. You use the next two hundred pages or so to follow through on that promise. If you don’t make the promise, the reader won’t understand your follow-through. Simple as that.
Because they serve as the starting point of the study, there needs to be a flow from your aims through your objectives (more on this below) to your research questions and contribution and then into the study itself. If you have completed your research and found that you answered a different question (not that uncommon), make sure your original aims are still valid. If they aren’t, refine them.
If you struggle to explain in simple terms what your research is about and why it matters, you may need to refine your aims and objectives to make them more concise.
When writing up your aims, there are a number of things to bear in mind.
1. Avoid listing too many. Your PhD isn’t as long as you think it is and you won’t have time or room for more than around two or three.
2. When you write them up, be very specific. Don’t leave things so vague that the reader is left unsure or unclear on what you aim to achieve.
3. Make sure there is a logical flow between each of your aims. They should make sense together and should each be separate components which, when added together, are bigger than the sum of their parts.
Your aims answer the question, ‘What are you doing?’ The objectives are the answer to the question, ‘How are you doing it?’
Research objectives refer to the goals or steps that you will take to achieve your aims.
When you write them, make sure they are SMART.
You need to be as explicit as possible here. Leave the reader in no doubt about what you will do to achieve your aims. Step by step. Leave no ambiguity. At the same time, be careful not to repeat your methods chapter here. Just hint at your methods by presenting the headlines. You’ll have plenty of space in your methods discussion to flesh out the detail.
Elsewhere in the thesis you will necessarily have to talk in a complex language and juggle complex ideas. Here you don’t. You can write in clear, plain sentences.
The aims of a study describe what you hope to achieve. The objectives detail how you are going to achieve your aims.
Let’s use an example to illustrate.
Objectives:
If you’re still struggling, Professor Pat Thompson’s great blog has a guide that will help.
Leave the reader in no doubt about what you will do to achieve your aims. Step by step. Leave no ambiguity.
Of course your research is complex. That’s the name of the game. But the sign of someone being able to master complexity is their ability to summarise it . Sure, you’re not looking to capture all the richness and detail in a short summary of aims and objectives, but you are looking to tell the reader what you’re doing and how you’re doing it.
If you’re struggling to clearly articulate your aims and objectives, then try the following task. At the top of a Post-it note write the sentence: ‘In this research I will…’. Then keep trying until you can fit an answer onto one single Post-it note. The answer should answer two questions: what are are you doing and how are you doing it?
Remember – whenever you write, make it as clear as possible. Pay attention to the words ‘as possible’ there. That means you should write as clearly as you can given the fact that your subject and research is necessarily complex. Think of it the other way: it’s about not making things more complicated and unclear than they need to be.
In other words, make your reader’s job as easy as you can. They’ll thank you for it.
If you’re still having trouble, get in touch to arrange a one-on-one coaching session and we can work through your aims and objectives together.
32 comments.
The write up is quite inspiring.
My topic is setting up a healing gardens in hospitals Need a aim and objectives for a dissertation
Dis is really good and more understandable thanks
Crisp, concise, and easy to understnad. Thank you for posint this. I now know how to write up my report.
Great. Glad you found it useful.
Good piece of work! Very useful
Great. Glad you found it useful!
The write up makes sense
Great. Thanks!
I love this article. Amazing, outstanding and incredible facts.
Glad you found it useful!
Well written and easy to follow
Thank you for the comment, I’m really glad you found it valuable.
I’m currently developing a dissertation proposal for my PhD in organizational leadership. I need guidance in writing my proposal
Hey – have you checked out this guide? https://www.thephdproofreaders.com/writing/how-to-write-a-phd-proposal/
Indeed I’m impressed and gained a lot from this and I hope I can write an acceptable thesis with this your guide. Bello, H.K
Great. Thanks for the kind words. Good luck with the thesis.
Thumbs up! God job, well done. The information is quite concise and straight to the point.
Glad you thought so – good luck with the writing.
Dear Max, thank you so much for your work and efforts!
Your explanation about Aims and Objectives really helped me out. However, I got stuck with other parts of the Aims and Objectives Work Sheet: Scope, Main Argument, and Contribution.
Could you please explain these as well, preferably including some examples?
Thanks for your kind words. Your question is a big one! Without knowing lots about your topics/subject I’m not able to provide tailored advice, but broadly speaking your scope is the aims/objectives, your main argument is the thread running through the thesis (i.e. what your thesis is trying to argue) and the contribution (again, broadly speaking) is that gap you are filling.
I love your website and you’ve been so SO helpful..
DUMB QUESTION ALERT: Is there supposed to be a difference between aims and research question?
I mean, using your own example.. if the aim of my research is: “To understand the contribution that local governments make to national level energy policy” then wouldn’t the research question be: “How do local governments contribute to energy policy at national level”?
I am sorry if this comes out as completely obvious but I am at that stage of confusion where I am starting to question everything I know.
Sorry it’s taken me so long to reply! It’s not a dumb question at all. The aim of the study is what the study as a whole is seeking to achieve. So that might be the gap it is filling/the contribution it is making. The research questions are your means to achieving that aim. Your aim might be to fill a gap in knowledge, and you then may have a small number of questions that help you along that path. Does that make sense?
Thank you Max for this post! So helpful!
Thanks Anna!
Thanks so much this piece. I have written both bachelor’s and master’s thesis but haven’t read this made me feel like I didn’t know anything about research at all. I gained more insight into aims and objectives of academic researches.
Interesting explanation. Thank you.
I’m glad you found it useful.
Hi… I really like the way it is put “What are you going?” (Aims) and “How are you doing it?” (Objectives). Simple and straightforward. Thanks for making aims and objectives easy to understand.
Thank you for the write up it is insightful. if you are ask to discuss your doctoral aims. that means: what you are doing how you are doing it.
I was totally lost and still in the woods to the point of thinking I am dull, but looking at how you are coaching it tells me that i am just a student who needs to understand the lesson. I now believe that with your guidance i will pass my PhD. I am writing on an otherwise obvious subject, Value addition to raw materials, why Africa has failed to add value to raw materials? Difficult question as answers seem to abound, but that is where i differ and i seem to be against the general tide. However with your guidance I believe i will make it. Thanks.
Thanks for your lovely, kind words. So kind.
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Formulating research aim and objectives in an appropriate manner is one of the most important aspects of your thesis. This is because research aim and objectives determine the scope, depth and the overall direction of the research. Research question is the central question of the study that has to be answered on the basis of research findings.
Research aim emphasizes what needs to be achieved within the scope of the research, by the end of the research process. Achievement of research aim provides answer to the research question.
Research objectives divide research aim into several parts and address each part separately. Research aim specifies WHAT needs to be studied and research objectives comprise a number of steps that address HOW research aim will be achieved.
As a rule of dumb, there would be one research aim and several research objectives. Achievement of each research objective will lead to the achievement of the research aim.
Consider the following as an example:
Research title: Effects of organizational culture on business profitability: a case study of Virgin Atlantic
Research aim: To assess the effects of Virgin Atlantic organizational culture on business profitability
Following research objectives would facilitate the achievement of this aim:
Figure below illustrates additional examples in formulating research aims and objectives:
Formulation of research question, aim and objectives
Common mistakes in the formulation of research aim relate to the following:
1. Choosing the topic too broadly . This is the most common mistake. For example, a research title of “an analysis of leadership practices” can be classified as too broad because the title fails to answer the following questions:
a) Which aspects of leadership practices? Leadership has many aspects such as employee motivation, ethical behaviour, strategic planning, change management etc. An attempt to cover all of these aspects of organizational leadership within a single research will result in an unfocused and poor work.
b) An analysis of leadership practices in which country? Leadership practices tend to be different in various countries due to cross-cultural differences, legislations and a range of other region-specific factors. Therefore, a study of leadership practices needs to be country-specific.
c) Analysis of leadership practices in which company or industry? Similar to the point above, analysis of leadership practices needs to take into account industry-specific and/or company-specific differences, and there is no way to conduct a leadership research that relates to all industries and organizations in an equal manner.
Accordingly, as an example “a study into the impacts of ethical behaviour of a leader on the level of employee motivation in US healthcare sector” would be a more appropriate title than simply “An analysis of leadership practices”.
2. Setting an unrealistic aim . Formulation of a research aim that involves in-depth interviews with Apple strategic level management by an undergraduate level student can be specified as a bit over-ambitious. This is because securing an interview with Apple CEO Tim Cook or members of Apple Board of Directors might not be easy. This is an extreme example of course, but you got the idea. Instead, you may aim to interview the manager of your local Apple store and adopt a more feasible strategy to get your dissertation completed.
3. Choosing research methods incompatible with the timeframe available . Conducting interviews with 20 sample group members and collecting primary data through 2 focus groups when only three months left until submission of your dissertation can be very difficult, if not impossible. Accordingly, timeframe available need to be taken into account when formulating research aims and objectives and selecting research methods.
Moreover, research objectives need to be formulated according to SMART principle,
where the abbreviation stands for specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound.
Study employee motivation of Coca-Cola | To study the impacts of management practices on the levels of employee motivation at Coca-Cola US by December 5, 2022
|
Analyze consumer behaviour in catering industry
| Analyzing changes in consumer behaviour in catering industry in the 21 century in the UK by March 1, 2022 |
Recommend Toyota Motor Corporation management on new market entry strategy
| Formulating recommendations to Toyota Motor Corporation management on the choice of appropriate strategy to enter Vietnam market by June 9, 2022
|
Analyze the impact of social media marketing on business
| Assessing impacts of integration of social media into marketing strategy on the level of brand awareness by March 30, 2022
|
Finding out about time management principles used by Accenture managers | Identifying main time-management strategies used by managers of Accenture France by December 1, 2022 |
Examples of SMART research objectives
At the conclusion part of your research project you will need to reflect on the level of achievement of research aims and objectives. In case your research aims and objectives are not fully achieved by the end of the study, you will need to discuss the reasons. These may include initial inappropriate formulation of research aims and objectives, effects of other variables that were not considered at the beginning of the research or changes in some circumstances during the research process.
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Research objectives refer to the definitive statements made by researchers at the beginning of a research project detailing exactly what a research project aims to achieve.
These objectives are explicit goals clearly and concisely projected by the researcher to present a clear intention or course of action for his or her qualitative or quantitative study.
Research objectives are typically nested under one overarching research aim. The objectives are the steps you’ll need to take in order to achieve the aim (see the examples below, for example, which demonstrate an aim followed by 3 objectives, which is what I recommend to my research students).
Research aim and research objectives are fundamental constituents of any study, fitting together like two pieces of the same puzzle.
The ‘research aim’ describes the overarching goal or purpose of the study (Kumar, 2019). This is usually a broad, high-level purpose statement, summing up the central question that the research intends to answer.
Example of an Overarching Research Aim:
“The aim of this study is to explore the impact of climate change on crop productivity.”
Comparatively, ‘research objectives’ are concrete goals that underpin the research aim, providing stepwise actions to achieve the aim.
Objectives break the primary aim into manageable, focused pieces, and are usually characterized as being more specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
Examples of Specific Research Objectives:
1. “To examine the effects of rising temperatures on the yield of rice crops during the upcoming growth season.” 2. “To assess changes in rainfall patterns in major agricultural regions over the first decade of the twenty-first century (2000-2010).” 3. “To analyze the impact of changing weather patterns on crop diseases within the same timeframe.”
The distinction between these two terms, though subtle, is significant for successfully conducting a study. The research aim provides the study with direction, while the research objectives set the path to achieving this aim, thereby ensuring the study’s efficiency and effectiveness.
I usually recommend to my students that they use the SMART framework to create their research objectives.
SMART is an acronym standing for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. It provides a clear method of defining solid research objectives and helps students know where to start in writing their objectives (Locke & Latham, 2013).
Each element of this acronym adds a distinct dimension to the framework, aiding in the creation of comprehensive, well-delineated objectives.
Here is each step:
You’re not expected to fit every single element of the SMART framework in one objective, but across your objectives, try to touch on each of the five components.
1. Field: Psychology
Aim: To explore the impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance in college students.
2. Field: Environmental Science
Aim: To understand the effects of urban green spaces on human well-being in a metropolitan city.
3. Field: Technology
Aim: To investigate the influence of using social media on productivity in the workplace.
4. Field: Education
Aim: To examine the effectiveness of online vs traditional face-to-face learning on student engagement and achievement.
5. Field: Health
Aim: To determine the impact of a Mediterranean diet on cardiac health among adults over 50.
6. Field: Environmental Science
Aim: To analyze the impact of urban farming on community sustainability.
7. Field: Sociology
Aim: To investigate the influence of home offices on work-life balance during remote work.
8. Field: Economics
Aim: To evaluate the effects of minimum wage increases on small businesses.
9. Field: Education
Aim: To explore the role of extracurricular activities in promoting soft skills among high school students.
10. Field: Technology
Aim: To assess the impact of virtual reality (VR) technology on the tourism industry.
11. Field: Biochemistry
Aim: To examine the role of antioxidants in preventing cellular damage.
12. Field: Linguistics
Aim: To determine the influence of early exposure to multiple languages on cognitive development in children.
13. Field: Art History
Aim: To explore the impact of the Renaissance period on modern-day art trends.
14. Field: Cybersecurity
Aim: To assess the effectiveness of two-factor authentication (2FA) in preventing unauthorized system access.
15. Field: Cultural Studies
Aim: To analyze the role of music in cultural identity formation among ethnic minorities.
16. Field: Astronomy
Aim: To explore the impact of solar activity on satellite communication.
17. Field: Literature
Aim: To examine narrative techniques in contemporary graphic novels.
18. Field: Renewable Energy
Aim: To investigate the feasibility of solar energy as a primary renewable resource within urban areas.
19. Field: Sports Science
Aim: To evaluate the role of pre-game rituals in athlete performance.
20. Field: Ecology
Aim: To investigate the effects of urban noise pollution on bird populations.
21. Field: Food Science
Aim: To examine the influence of cooking methods on the nutritional value of vegetables.
The importance of research objectives cannot be overstated. In essence, these guideposts articulate what the researcher aims to discover, understand, or examine (Kothari, 2014).
When drafting research objectives, it’s essential to make them simple and comprehensible, specific to the point of being quantifiable where possible, achievable in a practical sense, relevant to the chosen research question, and time-constrained to ensure efficient progress (Kumar, 2019).
Remember that a good research objective is integral to the success of your project, offering a clear path forward for setting out a research design , and serving as the bedrock of your study plan. Each objective must distinctly address a different dimension of your research question or problem (Kothari, 2014). Always bear in mind that the ultimate purpose of your research objectives is to succinctly encapsulate your aims in the clearest way possible, facilitating a coherent, comprehensive and rational approach to your planned study, and furnishing a scientific roadmap for your journey into the depths of knowledge and research (Kumar, 2019).
Kothari, C.R (2014). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques . New Delhi: New Age International.
Kumar, R. (2019). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners .New York: SAGE Publications.
Doran, G. T. (1981). There’s a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management’s goals and objectives. Management review, 70 (11), 35-36.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013). New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance . New York: Routledge.
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Aim: To describe the development of a research question, aim and objective.
Background: The first steps of any study are developing the research question, aim and objective. Subsequent steps develop from these and they govern the researchers' choice of population, setting, data to be collected and time period for the study. Clear, succinctly posed research questions, aims and objectives are essential if studies are to be successful.
Discussion: Researchers developing their research questions, aims and objectives generally experience difficulties. They are often overwhelmed trying to convert what they see as a relevant issue from practice into research. This necessitates engaging with the relevant published literature and knowledgeable people.
Conclusion: This paper identifies the issues to be considered when developing a research question, aim and objective. Understanding these considerations will enable researchers to effectively present their research question, aim and objective.
Implications for practice: To conduct successful studies, researchers should develop clear research questions, aims and objectives.
Keywords: novice researchers; nursing research; research aim; research objective; research question; study development.
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When embarking on a research project, it’s important to have a clear understanding of the distinction between research questions and research objectives. Both are key components of a research study, but they differ in their focus and purpose.
The main difference is that research questions focus on the general purpose or aim of the study whereas research objectives provide specific, measurable, and attainable steps to achieve the research questions.
Before we move to the differences, let’s understand what are Research Questions and Research Objectives:
Now, let’s move to Research Questions vs Research Objectives:
Research Questions | Research Objectives |
---|---|
Research questions focus on the main topic or issue being investigated. | Research objectives focus on the specific steps the researcher will take to answer those questions. |
Research questions can sometimes be vague or open-ended. | Research objectives must be clear, specific and measurable. |
Research questions are general in nature and aim to cover a broad aspect of the topic being researched. | Research objectives are specific and cover limited aspects of the topic. |
Research questions might change and be formed as the research progresses. | Research objectives are usually set before the commencement of a research work and may not change as the research progresses. |
Research questions are used to guide the overall direction of the study. | Research objectives provide specific steps to achieve the research questions. |
Note that sometimes, the question might also be asked as “distinguish between Research Questions and Research Objectives”.
Research questions and research objectives are related, they are not interchangeable terms. Research questions describe the goals or aims of a study in a broader sense, while research objectives provide specific, measurable, achievable steps to achieve those goals.
Understanding the difference between these two terms can help you design and execute a more effective research study.
You can view other “differences between” posts by clicking here .
If you have a related query, feel free to let us know in the comments below.
Also, kindly share the information with your friends who you think might be interested in reading it.
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BMC Neurology volume 24 , Article number: 332 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
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Accurately predicting the walking independence of stroke patients is important. Our objective was to determine and compare the performance of logistic regression (LR) and three machine learning models (eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Support Vector Machines (SVM), and Random Forest (RF)) in predicting walking independence at discharge in stroke patients, as well as to explore the variables that predict prognosis.
778 (80% for the training set and 20% for the test set) stroke patients admitted to China Rehabilitation Research Center between February 2020 and January 2023 were retrospectively included. The training set was used for training models. The test set was used to validate and compare the performance of the four models in terms of area under the curve (AUC), accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and F1 score.
Among the three ML models, the AUC of the XGBoost model is significantly higher than that of the SVM and RF models ( P < 0.001, P = 0.024, respectively). There was no significant difference in the AUCs between the XGBoost model and the LR model (0.891 vs. 0.880, P = 0.560). The XGBoost model demonstrated superior accuracy (87.82% vs. 86.54%), sensitivity (50.00% vs. 39.39%), PPV (73.68% vs. 73.33%), NPV (89.78% vs. 87.94%), and F1 score (59.57% vs. 51.16%), with only slightly lower specificity (96.09% vs. 96.88%). Together, the XGBoost model and the stepwise LR model identified age, FMA-LE at admission, FAC at admission, and lower limb spasticity as key factors influencing independent walking.
Overall, the XGBoost model performed best in predicting independent walking after stroke. The XGBoost and LR models together confirm that age, admission FMA-LE, admission FAC, and lower extremity spasticity are the key factors influencing independent walking in stroke patients at hospital discharge.
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Stroke is a major problem in China due to its high morbidity, mortality and disability [ 1 ]. Even with timely treatment in the acute phase, patients may still be disabled and require rehabilitation, resulting in a high economic burden [ 2 ]. A significant portion of the cost is directly attributable to the inability of stroke survivors to walk independently [ 3 ]. 40% of stroke patients who are initially unable to walk are either ambulatory or require assistance with walking three months after stroke [ 4 ]. The ability to walk independently is a key factor in a patient’s daily activities and quality of life, and regaining the ability to walk independently becomes an important goal in the rehabilitation of stroke patients with hemiplegia [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. It is critical to accurately predict the subsequent recovery of walking ability in stroke patients who are unable to walk independently at the time of admission to rehabilitation [ 8 ]. In this way, clinicians and therapists can provide patients with prognosis, goal setting, treatment selection, and discharge planning, and based on accurate prediction of independent walking, the government or the patient’s family can effectively provide appropriate socioeconomic support and health care resources [ 9 , 10 ].
In the field of stroke rehabilitation, studies on predictive models for walking recovery have been a hot topic [ 3 , 11 , 12 ]. However, some of the predictive models that have been developed are too complex to be used in a clinical setting. Therefore, there is a need to develop simple, reliable, and feasible models for predicting independent walking that can be applied to stroke patients in inpatient rehabilitation. Logistic regression (LR) has been widely used in prognostic studies of stroke patients. LR measures the relationship between a categorical dependent variable and one or more independent variables by using a probability score as the predictive value of the dependent variable [ 13 ]. LR is commonly used in predictive modeling of dichotomous outcomes in health care [ 14 ]. However, it has several drawbacks, including easy underfitting, difficulty in handling nonlinear relationships, sensitivity to outliers, and possibly poor classification accuracy [ 15 ]. Therefore, there may be limitations in applying LR to predictive modeling of prognosis in stroke patients.
As a scientific and mature modeling method, machine learning (ML) is increasingly used in epidemiological research and medicine [ 16 , 17 ]. With the increasing complexity and number of data sets available, as well as multi-factor data from a variety of sources, the ML is considered to have advantages over traditional regression models [ 18 , 19 ], including ease of analysis, the ability to consider a large number of variables simultaneously, and to capture complex interactions between variables.
The eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Support Vector Machines (SVM), and Random Forest (RF) are the more mature and widely used ML modeling algorithms. The XGBoost can be used to solve supervised learning problems using a gradient boosting framework with high accuracy, difficulty in overfitting, and scalability [ 20 , 21 ]. The XGBoost has been increasingly used in healthcare research to predict or screen for prognostic factors. The SVM are one of the most popular supervised learning algorithms used for pattern recognition, classification, and regression analysis [ 22 ]. The RF is an integrated learning method that generates a collection of decision trees branching on random variables. By using the majority principle for all trees and branches, RF can make predictions with high accuracy, less overfitting and strong anti-noise ability [ 23 ]. However, the optimal model tends to vary across studies and there is a lack of models that use these ML algorithms to predict independent walking in stroke patients.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the optimal prediction of independent walking at discharge based on clinical data of stroke patients who were unable to walk independently at admission using classical logistic regression methods and three currently accepted ML models (the XGBoost, SVM, and RF model), and to explore variables related to prognosis.
This study protocol was approved by the medical ethics committee of China Rehabilitation Research Center (approval number 2022-141-02). Informed consent was not obtained as this was a retrospective, hospital-based study.
Between February 2020 and January 2023, a retrospective cohort of inpatients admitted to and discharged from the neurorehabilitation unit of China Rehabilitation Research Center for first-onset stroke was studied. Patients were included if they met the following inclusion criteria: (1) were aged ≥ 18 years; (2) had a first-ever unilateral cerebral stroke; (3) were unable to walk independently at admission and had a Functional Ambulation Category (FAC) score ≤ 3. Patients were excluded according to the following criteria: (1) had other underlying neurological diseases; (2) had a diagnosis of disturbance of consciousness; (3) had unstable vital signs; (4) length of stay (LOS) < 14 days; (5) had incomplete required data.
In this study, a total of 1033 patients were screened and 778 stroke patients who met the inclusion criteria were ultimately included in the analysis. The following data were collected from 778 stroke patients (21 variables in total): age (years), sex (male or female), medical insurance (yes or no), LOS, time since onset, type of stroke (ischemic or hemorrhagic), side of stroke (left or right), lesion location (cortical, subcortical, or both), lower extremity deep vein thrombosis (yes or no), emotional disorder (yes or no), cognitive disorder (yes or no), sleep disorder (yes or no), dysphagia (yes or no), aphasia (yes or no), lower limb spasticity (yes or no), FAC score at admission, Fugl-Meyer Motor Assessment of the Lower Extremity (FMA-LE) score at admission, Fugl-Meyer Balance Assessment (FMB) score at admission, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score at admission, Barthel Index (BI) score at admission, and FAC score at discharge. The FAC scale has been widely used to assess walking independence in stroke patients, with six levels (0–5). According to previous reports, stroke patients with fac score > 3 at discharge were defined as “independent walking”, otherwise as “non-independent walking” [ 24 ]. In this study, we used “independent walking at discharge (yes or no)” as the response variable, and the remaining 20 variables were used for prediction.
The IBM SPSS Statistics software version 25 (IBM Corp, Armonk, USA) was used for data analysis. Categorical variables were presented as frequencies and percentages. For continuous variables, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to assess data distribution. Continuous variables were expressed as mean ± standard deviation if they fit the normal distribution; otherwise, they were expressed as medians (Q L , Q U ). The χ 2 test was used to compare categorical variables, and the Student’s t-test or the Mann-Whitney nonparametric test was used to compare continuous variables.
In this study, all enrolled patients were randomly divided into two data sets with a split ratio of 4:1. Subsequently, 80% of the patients were used for model training and 20% of the patients were used for model testing. Predictive models were constructed using the walking status at discharge (“independent walking” or “non-independent walking”) as the outcome variable. We used the “autoReg”, “XGBoost”, “e1071”, “randomForest” and “caret” packages in R software version 4.2.2 to develop and test the LR, XGBoost, SVM, and RF models. In constructing the classical LR model, we first screened the training cohort for factors associated with “independent walking” using univariate analyses. Subsequently, factors with P < 0.10 in the univariate analyses were included in the stepwise binary LR analysis. Due to the small number of original variables in this study and the fact that variables of lower importance may also have a beneficial effect on the training of the model, all feature variables were included in the training of the XGBoost, SVM, and RF models. The XGBoost, SVM, and RF models were optimized by either 5-fold cross-validation or hyperparameter tuning. In this study, the “pROC” package was used to plot the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and calculate the area under curve (AUC) [ 25 , 26 ]. The AUC was used to comprehensively evaluate the models, and the AUC of the models were compared by the Delong method [ 27 ]. The predictive performance of the models was further evaluated in terms of accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV) and F1 score. A two-tailed P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
A total of 778 stroke patients randomly assigned to the training set ( n = 622) and the test set ( n = 156) were finally enrolled in this study (Fig. 1 ). The characteristics of the training and test sets are shown in Table 1 . For all the variables analyzed, there was no significant difference between the training and testing sets. Overall, 107 patients (17.20%) in the training set achieved “independent walking” at discharge and 28 patients (17.95%) in the testing set achieved “independent walking” at discharge.
Flow-chart of participants enrolled in this study
Univariate analyses performed on the training set showed that patients who achieved “independent ambulation” at discharge were significantly different from those who did not on the variables of age, lesion location, lower extremity deep vein thrombosis, cognitive disorder, dysphagia, lower limb spasticity, FAC at admission, FMA-LE at admission, FMB at admission, NIHSS at admission and BI at admission (all P < 0.05) (Table 2 ). Subsequently, based on the results of the univariate analyses, variables with P < 0.10 were included in the stepwise binary LR analysis. As shown in Table 2 , four variables (age, lower limb spasticity, FAC at admission, and FMA-LE at admission) were independent determinants of independent walking at discharge for stroke patients who were unable to walk independently at admission. A logistic regression model is constructed from the four influencing factors examined above, and its expression is logit ( P ) = − 2.15-0.03 × 1 + 1.32 × 2 + 1.61 × 3 + 0.13 × 4 . In the formula, x 1 , x 2 , x 3 and x 4 represent age, no lower limb spasticity, FAC at admission = 3 and FMA-LE at admission, respectively. The Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit test result on the training set was 10.211 ( P = 0.251) with 8 degrees of freedom, and the Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit test result on the test set was 6.790 ( P = 0.560) with 8 degrees of freedom.
All baseline variables were used in the development of the three ML models (XGBoost, SVM, and RF) for prediction of “independent walking” at discharge. The test set was used to compare the performance of the models. In the LR model, the ROC curve was used to evaluate the discriminative ability of the prediction model, and its AUC was 0.891 (95%CI = 0.828–0.954) in the test set. The AUC of the XGBoost, SVM and RF models are 0.880 (95%CI = 0.818–0.942), 0.659 (95%CI = 0.567–0.751), and 0.713 (95%CI = 0.617–0.808), respectively. Among the three ML models, the AUC of the XGBoost model is significantly higher than that of the SVM and RF models ( P < 0.001, P = 0.024, respectively). Although the LR model had a slightly higher AUC than the XGB model in the test set, there was no significant difference in the comparison (0.891 vs. 0.880, z = 0.570, P = 0.569). ROC curves for all models are shown in Fig. 2 . Table 3 shows the number of correct predictive values of all models, based on which the accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV and F1 scores of the LR, XGBoost, SVM, and RF models were calculated. These values together confirmed that the XGBoost model performed best among the three ML models, as shown in Table 4 . Compared to the LR model, the XGBoost model had superior accuracy (87.82% vs. 86.54%), sensitivity (50.00% vs. 39.39%), PPV (73.68% vs. 73.33%), NPV (89.78% vs. 87.94%), and F1 score (59.57% vs. 51.16%), and the specificity was only slightly lower (96.09% vs. 96.88%).
Receiver operating characteristic curve for the models
Stepwise logistic regression analysis showed that age, lower limb spasticity, admission FAC, and admission FMA-LE were independent predictors of independent walking in stroke patients. The XGBoost model was used to rank the importance of the feature variables, and the top ten variables are as follows: FMA-LE at admission, FAC at admission, age, NIHSS at admission, LOS, FMB at admission, BI at admission, lower limb spasticity, type of stroke, lesion location (Fig. 3 ).
Features selected using XGBoost and the corresponding variable importance score
It is of great importance to accurately predict the walking independence of stroke patients at the time of rehabilitation admission. In this study, we innovatively developed three machine learning algorithm-based models (XGBoost, SVM, and RF) to predict whether stroke patients would be able to walk independently at discharge from the rehabilitation center and compared them with the traditional stepwise LR model. The results show that, overall, the XGBoost model had the best predictive performance.
Most of the previous studies on related topics have used only LR analysis methods to build only one predictive model [ 28 , 29 ]. However, the conventional LR analysis has its limitations, for example, it cannot well analyze the complex nonlinear relationship between variables [ 30 ]. Recently, new machine learning techniques have shown higher predictive performance compared to traditional predictive methods [ 31 ]. In this study, three commonly used machine learning algorithms (XGBoost, SVM, and RF) were selected to establish three models for predicting independent walking in stroke patients and compared with the classic LR model. First, the AUCs of the models were calculated and compared. The higher the AUC of the model, the higher the predictive value. Among the three machine learning models, the AUC of the XGBoost model was significantly higher than that of the SVM model and the RF model, suggesting that the overall performance of the XGBoost model was optimal. As a decision tree-based algorithm, XGBoost was voted the best algorithm in a machine learning and prediction competition hosted by Kaggle.com [ 32 , 33 ]. Due to its best accuracy and performance, machine learning based on XGBoost algorithms has been increasingly taken seriously as a competitive alternative to regression analysis and used to predict clinical outcomes. The AUC of the two models exceeded 0.85 in both the training and test sets, indicating that the overall predictive performance of the models was good. Although the AUC of the XGBoost model was slightly lower than that of the LR model in the test set, the Delong test revealed no significant difference. Previous studies usually used multiple indicators to evaluate model performance [ 34 , 35 ]. Thus, we further compared the accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV, and F1 scores of the two models in the test set. Our results demonstrated that, taken together, the XGBoost model performed better than the LR model. Therefore, it was recommended that the XGBoost model be used to predict whether stroke patients who were unable to walk independently at the time of rehabilitation admission would be able to walk independently at discharge. We also suggested that future studies could consider using the XGBoost algorithm to predict other functional outcomes in stroke patients.
Step logistic regression analysis showed that age, lower extremity spasticity, FAC at admission and FMA-LE at admission were independently associated with independent walking at discharge in stroke patients. The XGBoost model ranked the importance of the variables, and the top 10 variables were FMA-LE at admission, FAC at admission, age, NIHSS at admission, LOS, FMB at admission, BI at admission, lower limb spasticity, type of stroke, lesion location. Together, the two models determined that the key variables affecting independent walking in stroke patients at discharge were age, FMA-LE at admission, FAC at admission, and lower extremity spasticity. A review of 15 studies that explored which factors predicted independent walking at 3, 6, and 12 months for in non-ambulatory people within one month of stroke, and found that younger age predicted independent walking at 3 months [ 3 ]. Similarly, we found that the younger the stroke patient, the more likely they were to walk independently at discharge. The same conclusion was also reached by Kennedy et al. [ 36 ] and Hirano et al. [ 12 ] This study also found that the presence of lower extremity spasticity prevented patients from achieving independent walking at discharge. A recent study, which found that moderate levels of plantar flexors spasticity resulted in the highest sensitivity for predicting poor gait speed performance and the highest specificity for predicting good mobility performance in post-stroke patients, supported our findings to some extent [ 37 ]. This study also showed that patients with FAC = 3 at admission were 5.01 times more likely to achieve independent walking at discharge than those who were unable to walk at all, which was consistent with the findings of Louie et al. [ 38 ]. They found that those with any ability to walk at admission (with or without therapist assistance) were 9.48 times more likely to be discharged home than those who were unable. In addition, we found that lower limb motor function was an important factor in independent walking. Hiratsuka et al. also found that lower limb motor function was an additional predictor of independent walking in a 30-day poststroke cohort [ 39 ]. Notably, the TWIST algorithm proposed by Smith et al. in 2017 incorporated trunk control test scores and hip extension strength to predict whether and when an individual patient walked independently after stroke [ 40 ]. They later built on their earlier work to examine other potential predictors, including age, knee extension strength, and Berg Balance Test score [ 41 ]. However, the trunk control test and lower limb muscle strength test were not included in the admission assessment records of patients at our hospital, and we will consider including them in future prospective studies. Some studies have also used neurophysiological or neuroimaging measures to predict walking independence in stroke patients [ 42 , 43 , 44 ], but one study showed that the absence of lower limb motor-evoked potentials did not preclude independent walking [ 45 ]. Although this study lacked more types of indicators to predict independent walking, we established a model with good predictive performance by using simple and easily accessible clinical data, which might be more in line with the actual clinical situation and had certain reference significance for clinical practice.
Undoubtedly, our study has several limitations. First, this was a retrospective, single-center study, and selection bias was inevitable. In the future, we will conduct prospective studies with larger samples to obtain more accurate results. Second, we did not have a separate data set to externally validate the predictive model established in this study, so the generalizability may not be guaranteed. Further studies using data from other hospitals are needed. Third, our prediction model used only clinical data of rehabilitation admission, whereas other studies may have incorporated imaging features, electrophysiological features, etc. In future prospective studies, we should consider using more types of data to build predictive models. Fourth, we did not follow long-term outcomes of walking function in stroke patients after discharge, and predictors of long-term outcomes in stroke patients may be different from those at discharge. Fifth, we selected only 3 commonly used machine learning algorithms to build the models and compare them, and other algorithms such as AdaBoost and neural networks deserve further investigation. However, in this study, we initially found that the XGBoost model showed better predictive performance than the LR model in predicting independent walking in stroke patients based on clinical data at the time of rehabilitation admission. Our methodology and results will inform future studies.
Overall, the XGBoost model showed the best performance in predicting independent walking after stroke. The XGBoost and LR models together confirm that age, FMA-LE at admission, FAC at admission, and lower extremity spasticity are key factors affecting independent walking in stroke patients at discharge from hospital. Our study suggests that XGBoost can be used to build a predictive model of independent walking in stroke patients at discharge based on clinical data of hospitalized stroke patients, providing guidance for setting rehabilitation goals, selecting treatment plans, and making discharge plans.
The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Area Under Curves
Barthel Index
Functional Ambulation Category
Fugl-Meyer Motor Assessment of the Lower Extremity
Fugl-Meyer Balance Assessment
Logistic Regression
Length of Stay
Machine Learning
National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale
Negative Predictive Value
Positive Predictive Value
Random Forest
Receiver Operating Characteristic
Support Vector Machines
eXtreme Gradient Boosting
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We acknowledge our colleagues in the medical records Department of the China Rehabilitation Research Center for their assistance in this study.
This work was supported by the general program of China Rehabilitation Research Center [grant numbers 2023ZX-14].
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Zhiqing Tang, Wenlong Su, Tianhao Liu, Haitao Lu, Ying Liu, Kaiyue Han, Md. Moneruzzaman, Junzi Long, Xingxing Liao, Xiaonian Zhang, Lei Shan & Hao Zhang
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Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
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ZT- design of work, analysis, interpretation of data, drafted the manuscript. WS- analysis, interpretation of data, drafted and substantively revised the manuscript. TL- design of work, acquisition of data, drafted the manuscript. HL- design of work, substantively revised the manuscript. YL- analysis, interpretation of data. HL- analysis, interpretation of data. KH- analysis, interpretation of data. MM- acquisition of data. JL- acquisition of data. XL: acquisition of data. XZ: substantively revised the manuscript. LS: substantively revised the manuscript. HZ- conception, design of work, drafted and substantively revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Hao Zhang .
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Tang, Z., Su, W., Liu, T. et al. Prediction of poststroke independent walking using machine learning: a retrospective study. BMC Neurol 24 , 332 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-024-03849-z
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Mukul c. kapoor.
Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Amrita School of Medicine and Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences, Faridabad, Haryana, India
1 Department of Anesthesiology, Rainbow Children’s Hospital, New Delhi, India
All scientific medical studies are conducted to generate new knowledge about health and disease and to inform clinical practice and public health policies. A medical study is planned based on a hypothesis that justifies the clinical study. The research question arises from a perceived knowledge deficit in a particular subject area. It is antecedent to the research and establishes the study’s direction. A clinical trial aims to find an answer to the main research question or hypothesis that the study plans to answer. Hypothesis testing is the most widely employed method of determining whether clinical study outcomes are positive or negative.
The objectives of a medical study can be broadly classified into primary and secondary objectives. The study’s hypothesis defines the research’s primary objective and is thus the aim of a medical study. It attempts to find an answer to the main research question or hypothesis. While addressing the primary objectives, additional research questions may also be addressed. These other research questions addressed are called the secondary objectives.[ 1 ]
The primary objective of a medical study is typically framed in terms of the study’s endpoint or outcome measure—some examples to explain the same are presented in Table 1 .
Examples of objectives of a study
Clinical trial | Primary objective | Secondary objectives |
---|---|---|
To determine the degree of hypotension of a new drug for induction of anaesthesia | To measure the fall in blood pressure after its administration and compare it with the fall/otherwise after administration of an agent in clinical use | a. Recording other adverse effects of the drug b. Duration of onset of action of the drug c. Interaction with other anaesthetic agents used |
To study the antiemetic potential of a new agent | The occurrence of PONV with its use and compare it with the occurrence of PONV with a standard drug/placebo | a. To determine the duration of the effect of the agent b. Sedative effects of the agent c. Adverse effects of the drug |
An airway study for an SAD | To determine the seal pressure of the SAD and comparing it with the seal pressure of another SAD | a. To determine the incidence of micro-aspiration with the device used b. Determining the fitting characteristics of SAD in different categories of patients c. Recording the number of attempts needed to insert it d. Assessing the ease of its insertion |
PONV=postoperative nausea and vomiting, SAD=supraglottic airway device
Secondary objectives are often included in a medical study to provide additional information about the intervention or exposure under investigation or to explore other research questions of interest. Secondary objectives may consist of assessing the safety and tolerability of the intervention, the effects of the intervention on secondary outcomes (e.g. quality of life, adverse events) or subgroup analyses to identify which patient populations benefit most from the intervention. Samples to explain the same are given in Table 1 .
Defining objectives helps ensure that the investigation is designed and powered appropriately to answer the research question(s) of interest, and that the data collected are correctly analysed to answer those questions. The appropriate sample size of the study is based on the incidence/prevalence/any other primary outcome in a similar study conducted earlier or a pilot study. To ensure the statistical value of a study, the design should preferably have only one primary objective.[ 2 ]
The outcomes of a medical study can be classified into primary and secondary outcomes. The primary outcome of medical research is the main outcome measure that the study aims to answer (i.e. based on the primary objective). In an experimental, semi-experimental or observational research study, the primary study outcome is based on and aligned directly with the primary objective. The secondary outcomes are additional outcome measures that are addressed in the study.
The primary outcome is typically the most important in a study. It is usually chosen to reflect the main research question or hypothesis—some examples to explain the same are presented in Table 2 .
Examples of outcomes of a study
Clinical trial | Primary outcome | Secondary outcomes |
---|---|---|
To determine the degree of hypotension of a new drug for induction of anaesthesia | To determine whether a statistically significant reduction in blood pressure happened with the drug compared to a standard anaesthesia induction agent | a. Recording of rash along the venous path b. Events of cough after its administration |
To study the antiemetic potential of a new agent | Whether a statistically significant reduction in the incidence of PONV was seen in the study population vis-a-vis the agent it was compared with | a. Higher incidence of postoperative hypoxaemia b. Hypotension after administration |
An airway study for a SAD | Whether the mean airway pressure beyond which the expired tidal volume was statistically lower than the inspired tidal volume and whether it was more/less than the SAD it was compared with | a. Instability of the device in edentulous patients b. Difficulty of insertion in patients with a small lower jaw c. Higher incidence of sore throat in patients receiving it |
SAD=supraglottic airway device
Secondary outcomes are often included in a medical study to provide additional information about the intervention or exposure under investigation or to explore other research questions of interest. For example, secondary outcomes might include measurements of safety and tolerability of the intervention, effects on secondary endpoints (e.g. quality of life, adverse events) or subgroup analyses to identify which patient populations benefit most from the intervention. Secondary outcomes logically arise from and directly align with secondary objectives. Samples to explain the same are given in Table 2 .
Secondary outcomes may not necessarily be related to the secondary objectives included in the study protocol and may be incidental findings from data analysis. Such secondary outcomes in the study manuscript must be justified. Multiple testing of secondary outcomes increases the family-wise error rate and the probability of at least one false significant result (type I error) among all secondary outcomes studied. Secondary outcomes are helpful if they lend supporting evidence for the primary outcome. Statistically robust secondary outcomes should always be considered and not dismissed based on multiplicity concerns.[ 3 ]
A judicious approach should be taken to primary and secondary outcomes and clearly defined. The fewer they are, the better the study.[ 4 ] This helps ensure that the investigation is designed and powered appropriately to answer the research question(s) of interest, and that the data collected are analysed correctly to answer those questions. It is also essential to understand that the study may or may not result in the projected outcomes of the hypothesis or may only partially meet or may show significant secondary outcomes.
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Formulating research objectives has the following five steps, which could help researchers develop a clear objective: 8. Identify the research problem. Review past studies on subjects similar to your problem statement, that is, studies that use similar methods, variables, etc.
Example: Research aim. To examine contributory factors to muscle retention in a group of elderly people. Example: Research objectives. To assess the relationship between sedentary habits and muscle atrophy among the participants. To determine the impact of dietary factors, particularly protein consumption, on the muscular health of the ...
Research Aims: Examples. True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording "this research aims to…", "this research seeks to…", and so on. For example: "This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.". "This study sets out to assess the interaction between student ...
Summary. One of the most important aspects of a thesis, dissertation or research paper is the correct formulation of the aims and objectives. This is because your aims and objectives will establish the scope, depth and direction that your research will ultimately take. An effective set of aims and objectives will give your research focus and ...
Research Objectives. Research objectives refer to the specific goals or aims of a research study. They provide a clear and concise description of what the researcher hopes to achieve by conducting the research.The objectives are typically based on the research questions and hypotheses formulated at the beginning of the study and are used to guide the research process.
Research aims and objectives are the foundation of any research project. They provide a clear direction and purpose for the study, ensuring that you stay focused and on track throughout the process. They are your trusted navigational tools, leading you to success. Understanding the relationship between research objectives and aims is crucial to ...
Specificity: Objectives should be specific and narrowly focused on the aspects of the research topic that the study intends to investigate. They should answer the question of "what" or "which" rather than "how" or "why.". Measurability: Research objectives should be formulated in a way that allows for measurement and evaluation.
Research questions are more general and open-ended, while objectives are specific and measurable. Research questions identify the main problem or area of inquiry, while objectives define the specific outcomes that the researcher is looking to achieve. Research questions help define the study's scope, while objectives help guide the research ...
The differences between research aim and research objectives are: The way they are worded are different: Research aim is worded in a wide scoped way, while research objectives are worded as specific, narrowed down tasks. The focus of the two are different: research aim focuses on the overall purpose while research objectives focus on how to ...
In order to write effective research aims and objectives, researchers should consider all aspects of their proposed work. For example, the sample(s) to be approached for participation in the primary data collection. Identifying research objectives that are SMART is key to ensuring key aspects of the work are considered prior to any data collection.
Study objectives define the specific aims of the study and should be clearly stated in the introduction of the research protocol. 7 From our previous example and using the investigative hypothesis that there is a difference in functional outcomes between computer-assisted acetabular component placement and free-hand placement, the primary ...
To develop a set of research objectives, you would then break down the various steps involved in meeting said aim. For example: This study will investigate the link between dehydration and the incidence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in intensive care patients in Australia. To achieve this, the study objectives w ill include:
A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement, before your research objectives. Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you'll address the overarching aim.
In summary, while the aim of a research study represents the broad goal or purpose, objectives are specific statements that outline the steps necessary to achieve that aim. Understanding the difference between aims and objectives helps in creating a clear and structured research plan, ensuring that the study remains focused and aligned with its ...
What is the difference between research aims and objectives? The aims of a study describe what you hope to achieve. The objectives detail how you are going to achieve your aims. Let's use an example to illustrate. Aim: To understand the contribution that local governments make to national level energy policy. Objectives:
Moreover, the research objectives should be framed by the researcher before the initiation of the study: a specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-defined (SMART) approach is utilized to devise the objectives based on the research question. It is preferable to have a single primary objective whereas the secondary objectives can be ...
The steps involved in the process of developing research questions and study objectives for conducting observational comparative effectiveness research (CER) are described in this chapter. It is important to begin with identifying decisions under consideration, determining who the decisionmakers and stakeholders in the specific area of research under study are, and understanding the context in ...
Formulating research aim and objectives in an appropriate manner is one of the most important aspects of your thesis. This is because research aim and objectives determine the scope, depth and the overall direction of the research. Research question is the central question of the study that has to be answered on the basis of research findings.
Examples of Specific Research Objectives: 1. "To examine the effects of rising temperatures on the yield of rice crops during the upcoming growth season.". 2. "To assess changes in rainfall patterns in major agricultural regions over the first decade of the twenty-first century (2000-2010).". 3.
Background: The first steps of any study are developing the research question, aim and objective. Subsequent steps develop from these and they govern the researchers' choice of population, setting, data to be collected and time period for the study. Clear, succinctly posed research questions, aims and objectives are essential if studies are to ...
The main difference is that research questions focus on the general purpose or aim of the study whereas research objectives provide specific, measurable, and attainable steps to achieve the research questions. Before we move to the differences, let's understand what are Research Questions and Research Objectives: Research Questions: Research ...
INTRODUCTION. Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses.1,2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results.3,4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the ...
One of the key defining characteristics of rapid qualitative research and evaluation is their iterative design (Beebe, 2001, McNall et al., 2004).The term 'iterative' refers to a repetitive, circular, constantly changing research process where 'cycles' or 'loops' are used to generate evidence, reflect on the findings, obtain feedback, and inform changes in the original study design.
Background. Accurately predicting the walking independence of stroke patients is important. Our objective was to determine and compare the performance of logistic regression (LR) and three machine learning models (eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Support Vector Machines (SVM), and Random Forest (RF)) in predicting walking independence at discharge in stroke patients, as well as to explore ...
The objectives of a medical study can be broadly classified into primary and secondary objectives. The study's hypothesis defines the research's primary objective and is thus the aim of a medical study. It attempts to find an answer to the main research question or hypothesis. While addressing the primary objectives, additional research ...