formulation of research questions pdf

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Formulating your research question (rq).

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In a research paper, the emphasis is on generating a unique question and then synthesizing diverse sources into a coherent essay that supports your argument about the topic. In other words, you integrate information from publications with your own thoughts in order to formulate an argument. Your topic is your starting place: from here, you will develop an engaging research question. Merely presenting a topic in the form of a question does not transform it into a good research question.

Research Topic Versus Research Question Examples

1. broad topic versus narrow question, 1a. broad topic.

“What forces affect race relations in America?”

1b. NARROWER QUESTION

“How do corporate hiring practices affect race relations in Nashville?”

The question “What is the percentage of racial minorities holding management positions in corporate offices in Nashville?” is much too specific and would yield, at best, a statistic that could become part of a larger argument.

2. Neutral Topic Versus Argumentative Question

2a. neutral topic.

“How does KFC market its low-fat food offerings?”

2b. Argumentative question

“Does KFC put more money into marketing its high-fat food offerings than its lower-fat ones?”

The latter question is somewhat better, since it may lead you to take a stance or formulate an argument about consumer awareness or benefit.

3. Objective Topic Versus Subjective Question

Objective subjects are factual and do not have sides to be argued. Subjective subjects are those about which you can take a side.

3a. Objective topic

“How much time do youth between the ages of 10 and 15 spend playing video games?”

3b. Subjective Question

“What are the effects of video-gaming on the attention spans of youth between the ages of 10 and 15?”

The first question is likely to lead to some data, though not necessarily to an argument or issue. The second question is somewhat better, since it might lead you to formulate an argument for or against time spent playing video games.

4. Open-Ended Topic Versus Direct Question

4a. open-ended topic.

“Does the author of this text use allusion?”

4b. Direct question (gives direction to research)

“Does the ironic use of allusion in this text reveal anything about the author’s unwillingness to divulge his political commitments?”

The second question gives focus by putting the use of allusion into the specific context of a question about the author’s political commitments and perhaps also about the circumstances under which the text was produced.

Research Question (RQ) Checklist

• Is my RQ something that I am curious about and that others might care about? Does it present an issue on which I can take a stand?
• Does my RQ put a new spin on an old issue, or does it try to solve a problem?
• Is my RQ too broad, too narrow, or OK?
• within the time frame of the assignment?
• given the resources available at my location?
• Is my RQ measurable? What type of information do I need? Can I find actual data to support or contradict a position?
• What sources will have the type of information that I need to answer my RQ (journals, books, internet resources, government documents, interviews with people)?

Final Thoughts

The answer to a good research question will often be the THESIS of your research paper! And the results of your research may not always be what you expected them to be. Not only is this ok, it can be an indication that you are doing careful work!

Adapted from an online tutorial at Empire State College: http://www.esc.edu/htmlpages/writerold/menus.htm#develop (broken link)

Last revised: November 2022 | Adapted for web delivery: November 2022

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Formulating a researchable question: A critical step for facilitating good clinical research

Sadaf aslam.

Clinical and Translational Science Institute and Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA

Patricia Emmanuel

Developing a researchable question is one of the challenging tasks a researcher encounters when initiating a project. Both, unanswered issues in current clinical practice or when experiences dictate alternative therapies may provoke an investigator to formulate a clinical research question. This article will assist researchers by providing step-by-step guidance on the formulation of a research question. This paper also describes PICO (population, intervention, control, and outcomes) criteria in framing a research question. Finally, we also assess the characteristics of a research question in the context of initiating a research project.

INTRODUCTION

A researchable question is an uncertainty about a problem that can be challenged, examined, and analyzed to provide useful information.[ 1 ] A successful research project depends upon how well an investigator formulates the research question based on the problems faced in day-to-day research activities and clinical practice. The underlying questions of a research project provide important information to decide whether the topic is relevant, researchable, and significant. A well-formulated research question needs extreme specificity and preciseness which guides the implementation of the project keeping in mind the identification of variables and population of interest. Here we will present a clinical scenario and see how clinical questions arise and help us in finding the evidence to answer our question.

FORMULATING THE RESEARCH QUESTION

A 2-year-old boy presents in an outpatient clinic with fever and severe pain in his right ear. He has a history of recurrent ear infections, and his mother expresses a concern that he has been on the antibiotic amoxicillin for the past few weeks. She is worried about the consequences of the long-term antibiotic use. She is also concerned about the outcome associated with recurrent ear infections. She wants to know if the prescribed amoxicillin is effective, or it can be substituted with another antibiotic because of its side effects such as frequent diarrhea.

Several questions arise from this case which can be broadly classified into background and foreground questions. The general questions about a clinical problem or a disease are called “Background Questions.”[ 2 ] These questions generally ask what, when, how, and where about the disease, disorder, or treatment for instance, “What is otitis media?” or “How does amoxicillin work?” etc. These types of questions can be answered by going through review articles or text books.

The patient-oriented questions involving interpretation of a therapy or disease and consideration of risk vs. benefit for a patient or a group of patient are called “Foreground Questions.”[ 2 ] These types of complex clinical questions are best answered by primary or pre-assessed studies in the literature. These questions mostly compare the two, either two drugs or treatments or two diagnostic methods, etc.

The PICO (population, intervention, control, and outcomes) format [ Table 1 ] is considered a widely known strategy for framing a “foreground” research question.[ 3 ] Sackett et al . pointed out that breaking the question into four components will facilitate the identification of relevant information.

Considering PICO and FINER criteria for developing a research question[ 3 , 5 ]

Population or problem - addressing a specific population, its important characteristics and demographic information. From the above case, you can identify pediatric population with otitis media, the age range, sex, presenting complaint, and history.

Intervention or treatment of interest - the intervention can be a treatment, procedure, diagnostic test, and risk or prognostic factors. In this case, the intervention will be your plan to treat the patient which can be a new therapy, a diagnostic test, prognostic factor, or a procedure. For example, based on your observation in clinic, cefuroxime is another better treatment option as compared to amoxicillin in treating otitis media but you are not sure about its efficacy in pediatric population with otitis media.

Comparator or control -when a new therapy is compared with the existing one.

Outcome - is the effect of the intervention. For example, its effectiveness in controlling pain. Therefore, the outcome in the above case can be the relief of pain, the resolution of infection, or decreasing the risk of developing resistance. A good primary outcome should be easily quantifiable, specific, valid, reproducible, and appropriate to your research question.[ 4 ]

In a typical clinical setting, a clinician needs to know about background and foreground questions depending upon the experience about a particular disease and therapy. Once background questions are answered, more complex questions are addressed. The clinical questions arise from the central issues in a clinical work.[ 2 ] For example, identifying causes or risk factors (etiological questions), comparing diagnostic tests based on sensitivity and specificity (diagnostic query), identifying best treatment options (therapeutic question), and outcome of the treatment (prognostic question).

After determining a foreground question, the PICO approach is followed. Dissecting the question into parts makes it easy and searchable. As evident in this case, there are several relevant questions, for example: what are the outcomes associated with recurrent ear infection, what are the possible effects of long-term use of antibiotic, and what are the harms associated with current treatment? Now if you gather all the information from PICO approach, the following researchable questions can be formulated.

In children with acute otitis media (P), is cefuroxime (I) effective in reducing the duration of symptoms (O) as compared to amoxicillin (C)?

In children suffering from otitis media, will cefuroxime result in the improvement of symptoms and reduction in developing resistance?

Does treatment with amoxicillin increase the risk of developing resistance in children suffering from otitis media?

Does surgical procedure has better outcome for the treatment of otitis media in children after repeated antibiotic therapy?

From the above case, we have formulated multiple questions based on our patient’s illness and concerns. Now we can use the strategy of “selecting” the best question.[ 2 ] For example, which question has more significance for the patient’s well-being, which question is relevant to our knowledge needs and which question might lead to interesting answers for our patients and clinical query? Further, we need to consider the feasibility of finding the evidence in a short period.

ASSESSING THE RESEARCH QUESTION IN THE CONTEXT OF A STUDY DESIGN

As proposed by Hulley et al . [ Table 1 ], a research question should be formulated keeping in mind the FINER (feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant) criteria[ 5 ] and that the answer should fill gaps in the existing knowledge. The following points should be considered while assessing a research question.

Determining the required resources

The feasibility of conducting a research project is based on the research question and should be considered early in the process in order to avoid waste of resources and intellectual energy. This is sometimes difficult for a new investigator and they need guidance from their mentors.[ 4 ]

• Consider doing a pilot or proof of concept study to asses the feasibility;
• Consult a biostatistician early in the project in order to choose less costly design and common outcomes;
• Consider feasibility of enrolling the intended number of subjects from the population of your interest. Also, consider expanding your inclusion criteria and modifying exclusion criteria if it is difficult to enroll the intended number; and
• Consider cost of each element of the study design, research staff, and resources.

Significance of making it interesting and relevant

An important question may not seem interesting the way it is presented. It is a challenge to present a research question clearly and engage the interest and attention of the reviewers. Research is too much work to not have a passion for what you are investigating. You will have more support for your study, and it will be easier to publish if the topic is novel and also interests your collaborators, colleagues, and the community at large. It is important to pursue a research question with a passion of getting the truth out of the matter.[ 5 ] This is how we all perceive research; commitment to a high-quality systematic and unbiased completion of an innovative project. If your question can explain a given problem while pointing toward a specific aspect which is missing then your project can get a great deal of support.

Conducting literature review

The innovation of any research question is determined by a thorough literature search. Any replication of the study already existing in the literature is not worth repeating as it is. Depending upon the research question, sometimes the study can be replicated if your question approaches an existing problem in a refreshing way. This can be achieved by using a different populations, different techniques, new conceptual approaches, or linking two different studies in which outcomes did not solve the problem.[ 5 ] Once a preliminary question has been formulated, literature search should be done to find out what is known or unknown about the topic. The goal of the literature review is to determine what research has been conducted on the topic of interest? and how has it been conducted? and what are the gaps in the knowledge?. It is recommended to use PubMed, MedlinePlus, CINAHL, or Web of Science as the main search databases, but other databases can be used as well. PubMed clinical query is an easy and user-friendly database to search for evidence related to clinical practice. This also provides information to search MEDLINE by doing categorical searches, for example, therapeutic, diagnostic, etiological, and prognostic. The American College of Physicians (ACP) and clinical evidence from BMJ Publishing Group are excellent systems to find evidence on therapeutic questions. Other search engines such as OVID has a large selection of texts and journals which provides access to other databases such as Cochrane library in getting full text articles and systematic reviews. Gray et al . suggested 4 Ss for literature review: Systems : use of comprehensive resources, Synopses : extracting high-quality studies and abstracts, Syntheses: systematic reviews, and Studies : original research studies.[ 6 ] In the hierarchy of evidence-based medicine, systematic reviews are considered the best method for evidence. Systematic reviews are rigorous methods of collecting and synthesizing the results of many high-quality studies. Conducting a thorough literature search also helps in finding information on the methodology, calculating the sample size, and also the type of analysis as we are looking to find a difference. This information is necessary to help structure a new study and to identify gaps in the knowledge base of the scientific community.

Refining research question

A focused research question leads to a systematic planning of a research project. The difficulty in framing a research question is not due to the lack of ideas. The challenge is to transform a novel research question into a valid study design which is the next step in refining a research question.

Asking a well-formulated research question is a starting point in conducting a quality research project and in evidence-based clinical practice. The framework presented in this paper can be helpful for a clinician to formulate a question and search for an answer and for a researcher to develop a new research project. The classical approach is to identify a research question followed by a thorough literature search keeping in mind the PICO and FINER criteria. If it is a well-defined research question, it will lead to an appropriate study design and methodology. Discussing your research question with knowledgeable peers, department chair, mentor, and the biostatistician from the start will lead to the completion of a successful project. Other steps such as type and phase of the clinical trial, budget, informed consent, sites, resource constraints of both personnel and facilities, and timeline should also be considered while formulating a research question. We have introduced the concept of background and foreground questions and also the types of different questions that can arise (therapy, harm, diagnosis, and prognosis). We have described several strategies here while highlighting the major steps that will help investigators in framing a question with the goal of finding an answer based on evidence or initiation of a new research project. It is always good to focus on a single research question based on its relevance to patient’s health or one primary objective to drive the study design.[ 4 ] Once we have formulated our research question, we need to keep track of the progress toward finding an appropriate answer and then finally applying the results to a specific patient population. In short, a researchable question is what leads toward the facts rather than opinion[ 7 ] and is clearly linked to the overall research project goal.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. J.K Kosambiya, Dr. Eknath Naik, and Dr. Ambuj Kumar for their time in reviewing the paper and providing useful insights.

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

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Formulation of a research question

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This article attempts to provide the researchers, the various steps involved in formulating a health research protocol. In population based health research, majority of the studies conducted are observational rather than experimental. Therefore, it is essential to elaborate and follow a research protocol as in laboratory research. Doing this will increase the likelihood that the conclusions drawn form the research will be scientifically sound. The first step in developing a protocol is the selection of an appropriate research topic. The protocol should explain the study in terms of answers to the study questions viz. Why?, how?, who?, what? and so what?. Protocol should start with an introduction followed by, objectives, study design, methods, project management, strengths and limitations, ethical considerations, expected outcome, budget summary, references and annexures. In annexure part, study formats/ questionnaires, budget details and curriculum – vitae of chief investigator can be given. Once, a protocol is prepared a summary of it should be placed at the top of the protocol i.e. before introduction part. At the end of the article some important tips are described to be considered while formulating a protocol.

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A Plan to Promote Defense Research at Minority-Serving Institutions

Engaging the full breadth of talent in the United States is an important component of growing and sustaining dominance in research and development (R&D) and supporting national security into the future. By 2030, one-fifth of Americans will be above age 65 and at or nearing retirement from the workforce. Estimates of race and ethnic demographic changes between 2016 and 2030 show a decrease in the non-Hispanic white population and an increase in terms of both number and share of all other demographic groups, and this trend will continue to increase. These population shifts signal a citizenry and workforce that will be increasingly diverse. For the United States to maintain its global competitiveness and protect its security interests, targeted support is needed to cultivate talent from communities throughout the nation.

The nation's more than 800 Minority-Serving Institutions (MSIs) provide an impactful and cost-effective opportunity to focus on cultivating the current and future U.S. population for careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), including in fields critical to the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD). At the request of DOD, this report identifies tangible frameworks for increasing the participation of MSIs in defense-related research and development and identifies the necessary mechanisms for elevating minority serving institutions to R1 status (doctoral universities with very high research activity) on the Carnegie Classifications of Institutions of Higher Education scale.

RESOURCES AT A GLANCE

• Building Research Capacity at Minority Institutions: Figures of Research Expenditure and Facility Space by Field
• Building Research Capacity at Minority Institutions: Tables of Research Expenditure and Facility Space by Field

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2024. A Plan to Promote Defense Research at Minority-Serving Institutions . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/27838. Import this citation to: Bibtex EndNote Reference Manager

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Impact of a defined bacterial community including and excluding Megamonas hypermegale on broiler cecal microbiota and resistance to Salmonella infection

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Intensive broiler production practices impair the transmission of commensal microbes from hens to offspring, resulting in a lower abundance of non-spore-forming strict anaerobic bacteria. We evaluated the effects of colonization by a defined community (DC) of bacteria including and excluding Megamonas hypermegale in chicks challenged with Salmonella. Inoculation with DC resulted in higher phylogenetic diversity and the dominance of Bacteroidetes species in the cecal microbiota, with a decrease in the relative abundance of Salmonella and Escherichia/Shigella, as well as a lower Enterobacteriaceae load. Substantial shifts in microbiota composition were coupled with subtle changes in metabolites and host responses, including changes in interferon-γ, macrophage colony-stimulating factor, propionate, valerate, and isovalerate concentrations in the ceca. We identified bacterial species that were able to establish and persist after a single exposure, many of which were members of Bacteroidetes. Although co-culture with M. hypermegale reduced Salmonella counts by 99.3% in vitro, in vivo inoculation of M. hypermegale increased splenic Salmonella counts in inoculated chicks. The use of DC containing bacteria isolates harvested from the cecal contents of mature chickens can recapitulate the changes in volatile fatty acid concentrations observed in birds colonized with complex communities, and the presence of M. hypermegale specifically enhances the production of propionate. Our findings suggest that the use of DC can be explored as a strategy to control disease occurrence in broiler production; however, further research is warranted to properly understand the role of individual species in the broiler cecal community aiding the formulation of appropriate DCs.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, rethinking inter-firm dynamics from a small firm perspective: the case for inter-organizational bullying.

Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing

ISSN : 0885-8624

Article publication date: 16 August 2024

This paper aims to explain how the dynamics of inter-firm relations between small and large firms can, in the case of some behaviours, be interpreted as inter-organizational bullying.

Design/methodology/approach

This paper draws on a qualitative approach adopting the critical incident method to explore the subjective experiences of 13 individual managers and owners of small service businesses in dealing with the representatives/executives of the large corporations they serviced. The method facilitated an investigation of the significant occurrences identified by the small-firm respondents about the undue advantage taken by the large firms. This was found to be more than simple occasional opportunistic or unfair business practices perpetrated by representatives of the large firms but, instead, involved bullying.

The results revealed that large corporations actively, though covertly, sought to take advantage of their small service providers by resorting to bullying practices. Intimidation, opportunism, use of deceitful or unfair business practices, as well as abuse of power, were manifestations of inter-organizational bullying committed by the large and powerful corporations. The contrasting characteristics of size, access to resources, economic and market power were identified as strong impediments against building effective ethical relational exchanges between the large corporations and their small service providers.

Research limitations/implications

The study's findings provide valuable insights into the root causes and consequences of inter-organizational bullying. However, it is crucial to interpret these results in the context of this specific study. It is worth nothing that these findings primarily represent the self-perception of inter-organizational bullying among small service providers and may not capture other viewpoints or aspects of the industrial sector. Replicating this study in different sectors could enhance the generalizability of the conclusions drawn.

Practical implications

This analysis is valuable in understanding what constitutes the phenomenon referred to as inter-organizational bullying. It also assists to understand the conditions when large firms exhibit such behaviours and their implications on the well-being of relevant stakeholders.

Social implications

Firstly, the business partners should maintain a healthy relationship if they want to avoid incidents of bullying, which can harm the performance of the relationship. In doing so, they need to reduce the level of uncertainty in their business relationships through the transparent information exchange, formulating commonly agreeable contracts and enhancing communication procedures. They also need to put aside their self-interest, but rather strive for achieving results that will be beneficial to both parties.

Originality/value

This exploratory study offers a novel and unexplored way of theorizing inter-organizational bullying, as well as uncovering its antecedents and impacts on the welfare of small businesses, particularly small service providers.

• Inter-organizational bullying
• Unethical business practices
• Power imbalance
• Business opportunism
• SME service provider

Ouppara, N. , Fallon, W. and Coronado, G. (2024), "Rethinking inter-firm dynamics from a small firm perspective: the case for inter-organizational bullying", Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing , Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/JBIM-04-2024-0298

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What to Know About the Democratic National Convention

Vice President Kamala Harris and her running mate, Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota, will be the stars in Chicago.

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By Maggie Astor

The Democratic National Convention is almost upon us, following the Republican convention last month. Once it’s over, it will be a 75-day sprint to Election Day.

Here is what to know about the convention.

When is the Democratic National Convention?

The convention will run from Monday, Aug. 19, through Thursday, Aug. 22.

Where is it?

It will be held at two venues in Chicago: The United Center, an arena on the city’s West Side, will host evening events — that is, the prime-time programming and speeches intended for public consumption. McCormick Place, which is downtown near Lake Michigan, will host daytime events, largely official party business and meetings.

Who will be there?

Vice President Kamala Harris and her running mate, Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota, will be the stars, and President Biden is expected to speak as well. But the full list and schedule of the speakers has not yet been released, and Ms. Harris’s campaign and the Democratic National Convention committee have declined so far to confirm any names besides Ms. Harris and Mr. Walz.

Republicans, during their convention, didn’t publicize their speaking schedule until close to the start of each night’s programming.

Typically, though, conventions feature a wide array of prominent people within the party, such as governors, members of Congress and former elected officials. Spouses of the nominees and other family members often speak or make appearances. And Americans who aren’t famous generally get some stage time as well, speaking about personal experiences that touch the themes and policies the nominee wants to emphasize.

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