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For Publishers
ScienceOpen offers content hosting, context building and marketing services for publishers. See our tailored offerings
- For academic publishers to promote journals and interdisciplinary collections
- For open access journals to host journal content in an interactive environment
- For university library publishing to develop new open access paradigms for their scholars
- For scholarly societies to promote content with interactive features
For Institutions
ScienceOpen offers state-of-the-art technology and a range of solutions and services
- For faculties and research groups to promote and share your work
- For research institutes to build up your own branding for OA publications
- For funders to develop new open access publishing paradigms
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For Researchers
Make an impact and build your research profile in the open with ScienceOpen
- Search and discover relevant research in over 95 million Open Access articles and article records
- Share your expertise and get credit by publicly reviewing any article
- Publish your poster or preprint and track usage and impact with article- and author-level metrics
- Create a topical Collection to advance your research field
Create a Journal powered by ScienceOpen
Launching a new open access journal or an open access press? ScienceOpen now provides full end-to-end open access publishing solutions – embedded within our smart interactive discovery environment. A modular approach allows open access publishers to pick and choose among a range of services and design the platform that fits their goals and budget.
Continue reading “Create a Journal powered by ScienceOpen”
What can a Researcher do on ScienceOpen?
ScienceOpen provides researchers with a wide range of tools to support their research – all for free. Here is a short checklist to make sure you are getting the most of the technological infrastructure and content that we have to offer. What can a researcher do on ScienceOpen? Continue reading “What can a Researcher do on ScienceOpen?”
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- 22 – 24 May – ScienceOpen sponsoring Pint of Science, Berlin.
- 16-17 May – ScienceOpen at 3rd AEUP Conference.
- 20 – 21 April – ScienceOpen attending Scaling Small: Community-Owned Futures for Open Access Books .
What is ScienceOpen?
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- Open evaluation with article reviews and Collections
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The Directory of Open Access Journals
Directory of Open Access Journals
Find open access journals & articles.
Doaj in numbers.
80 languages
135 countries represented
13,732 journals without APCs
20,881 journals
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About the directory.
DOAJ is a unique and extensive index of diverse open access journals from around the world, driven by a growing community, and is committed to ensuring quality content is freely available online for everyone.
DOAJ is committed to keeping its services free of charge, including being indexed, and its data freely available.
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- The European Chemistry and Biotechnology Journal
- Journal of International Cooperation in Education
- Jurnal Penyakit Dalam Indonesia
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- African Journal of Science, Technology and Mathematics Education
- Intelligence și Cultura de Securitate
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Open and free content on JSTOR and Artstor
Our partnerships with libraries and publishers help us make content discoverable and freely accessible worldwide
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Early Journal Content , articles published prior to the last 95 years in the United States, or prior to the last 143 years if initially published internationally, are freely available to all
Even more content is available when you register to read – millions of articles from nearly 2,000 journals
Thousands of Open Access ebooks are available from top scholarly publishers, including Brill, Cornell University Press, University College of London, and University of California Press – at no cost to libraries or users.
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Shared Collections : We have a growing corpus of digital special collections published on JSTOR by our institutional partners.
Reveal Digital : A collaboration with libraries to fund, source, digitize and publish open access primary source collections from under-represented voices.
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JSTOR Daily is an online publication that contextualizes current events with scholarship. All of our stories contain links to publicly accessible research on JSTOR. We’re proud to publish articles based in fact and grounded by careful research and to provide free access to that research for all of our readers.
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Open access
Advancing open access to knowledge.
Open access is a key part of our mission to help researchers advance science for societal progress.
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Open access at Elsevier
Open access is vital to a collaborative, inclusive and transparent world of research where quality knowledge can be shared and built upon. Every day, we work to bring more insight into closer reach for the research community and the public. We offer a wide choice and flexibility for every researcher and institution around the world that wants to publish open access, without ever compromising on research quality, integrity and value.
Enabling a transition to open access
As one of the largest open access publishers in the world we are enabling a transition to open access at scale. Nearly all our 2,900 journals enable open access publishing and more than 800 of these are fully open access. In 2023 we published more than 190,000 open access articles.
O ur world-leading research platforms make available 3.3 million validated open access articles and we support more than 2000 institutions with open access agreements.
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Delivering high quality research
Each year, we receive around 3 million research papers from authors. Whether published open access or via subscription model, they are all rigorously reviewed by our in-house editorial teams in collaboration with 33,000 editors and 1.5 million expert reviewers around the world.
The result is over 630,000 articles in 2023 enhanced, indexed, certified, published and promoted following peer review. These processes and the assistance provided to authors along the way ensure the integrity and reliability of research and of the scientific record. Articles in Elsevier journals account for over 17% of the global research output and 28% of global citations, reinforcing our focus on quality.
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Supporting every researcher and institution
We offer a broad range of choices to support every researcher and institution in accessing and publishing research. In 2023 we supported more than half a million researchers in 190 countries and territories to publish open access.
Alongside our commitment to pricing article publishing charges below market average relative to comparable quality, we have initiatives to support researchers in low- and middle-income countries. In 2023, we waived or discounted costs for nearly 80% of authors from the Global South and introduced the industry-first Geographical Pricing for Open Access initiative. This considers local economic circumstances to help researchers publish research open access.
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Building open access sustainability with transformative agreements
In a series of three case studies, library leaders share their insights into the transformative agreement process. Librarians guide readers through setting goals and communicating to stakeholders, working with publishers, and implementing the agreement across their institutions.
Learn more about transformative agreements that drive cross-campus collaboration, support researchers, and sustainably expand open access.
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How we are advancing open access
Researcher perspectives
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Multisensory researcher on how open access connects academia to the wider world
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Open access publishing is indispensable, says award-winning hydrology researcher
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Advancing data center networking through open access
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“Open access is like a window of knowledge”
Open science .
Open access is just one element of the way we partner with you to drive open science. Together we can create a more inclusive, collaborative and transparent world of research.
Unlocking the potential of data
We're working to help researchers and institutions store, share, discover and effectively reuse data. Effective data sharing can improve the impact, validity, reproducibility, efficiency and transparency of scientific research.
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Promoting research integrity
We are committed to promoting the integrity of research through a range of activities and initiatives from free author training on publication ethics and providing transparency in author contributor roles
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Free access initiatives
From researchers and students using content published in our books and journals on a daily basis to a patient who needs critical information about their treatment, Elsevier has a range of access options to ensure that everyone can access the important information they need.
Find our access options:
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Access for public and media
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Access for developing countries
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Access for researchers and students
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Access for healthcare and patients
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Responding to public health emergencies
Frequently asked questions, how many of your journals offer a gold open access option.
Elsevier is one of the fastest-growing open access publishers in the world. Nearly all of Elsevier's 2,900 journals now enable open access publishing, including 800 journals which are fully open access journals.
What is your position on Green Open Access?
All Elsevier journals allow authors to use Green Open Access, usually after an embargo period. Green Open Access is when authors share a public version of their article, for example in their institution or funder’s repository, which would otherwise only be available to paying subscribers.
Do you support access to subscription articles in any other ways?
Elsevier makes subscription articles completely free to access in specific situations:
We offer free access to relevant research for health emergencies, as we did during the Covid-19 pandemic .
Patients and caregivers are provided with papers related to medicine and healthcare upon request to help them better understand the latest research on their conditions.
Through Research4Life opens in new tab/window , institutions in 120 low- and middle-income countries receive affordable access to nearly 100,400 peer reviewed resources. As founding member, Elsevier provides over a quarter of that content, as well as access to the abstract and citation database Scopus, and trainings for librarians.
How do you formulate your prices for publishing and subscriptions?
We strive to offer researchers value for money, and we are committed to pricing our journals competitively with an underlying principle of pricing lower than the market for like-for-like quality.
Open access content and subscription content are priced separately. Open access publishing is supported by the pay-to-publish model, where authors (or others on their behalf) pay an Article Publishing Charge (APC) to enable the article to be made publicly available immediately on publication.
We set APC prices based on the following criteria:
Journal quality
The journal’s editorial and technical processes
Competitive considerations
Market conditions
Other revenue streams associated with the journal such as advertising
Elsevier’s APC prices are set on a per journal basis. Fees range between c$150 and c$10,100 US Dollars, excluding tax, with prices clearly displayed on our APC price list opens in new tab/window and on journal homepages.
Where articles are not supported by the pay-to-publish model, they are typically supported by subscription fees paid for by readers.
We set journal subscription list prices based on the following criteria:
Number of subscription articles
And other revenue streams such as commercial contributions from advertising, reprints and supplements
Can you be more transparent in what you charge?
We are constantly striving to be more transparent in all aspects of what Elsevier does, including pricing. We try to support requests for information within the bounds allowed by financial reporting requirements and competition rules.
For authors:
We provide the price of publishing gold open access on each journal homepage and in a central list opens in new tab/window
We automatically notify authors who are entitled to free or discounted gold open Access, for example where there is an agreement with their institution or funder
We automatically notify authors who are entitled to free or discounted gold open access because they are based in a low — or middle-income country — our APC waiver policy explains this process
For librarians:
We provide a range of information opens in new tab/window about our pricing competitiveness; how our pricing corresponds to quality; and publishing model uptake across subscription and open access
We publicly announce significant agreements, including our open access pilots
We provide a list of our journal subscription prices
We describe the process we follow to calculate list prices
We describe the process to ensure we do not double dip — we also show the number of articles that are published gold open access, and the number which are financed through subscriptions, on each journal homepage, to allow librarians to validate this
Do you double dip (i.e., charge for the same article twice)?
We do not double-dip. We can be reimbursed for an article in two ways — through an Article Publishing Charge (APC) or a subscription — but we never charge for the same article twice. We have a strict no double-dipping policy .
How do you help authors who cannot afford to pay to be published, and why can't you offer that support more widely?
As part of our commitment to inclusion and diversity in science we believe no researcher should be prevented from publishing in their journal of choice because of financial barriers. We support researchers from low- and middle-income countries to publish fold open access if they wish to do so. When publishing in fully open access journals, we fully waive all open access charges for authors from 69 countries ( Group A opens in new tab/window ) and give a 50% discount for authors from 57 countries ( Group B opens in new tab/window ).
For other authors, we offer a choice of journals with open access publishing charges ranging from $150 to $10,100. We will also consider requests for accommodations on a case-by-case basis for authors who are required to publish open access but do not have the financial means to do so.
Finally, we provide high quality subscription publishing options, so authors should never face a cost barrier to publishing in their journal of choice.
If more authors are publishing Gold Open Access, why don't you reduce your subscription fees?
We strive to offer researchers real value, and we are continuing our commitment to pricing our journals competitively with an underlying principle of pricing lower than the market for like-for-like quality.
We see growth in the number of articles published through both the gold open access and subscription models. Subscription volumes rose by over 7% in 2020 compared to the previous year, for instance. However, we still price competitively: Elsevier’s average price change has been the lowest amongst major competitors in the last 13 years due to moderate historical price changes and this strong volume growth. At the same time, we maintain high-quality content.
Our prices for subscription articles and APCs are set completely separately. Subscription fees are based on a range of factors, as noted above.
Does Elsevier have any Transformative Journals?
Elsevier is piloting transformative journal opens in new tab/window status for more than 60 journals across our portfolio. You can see the full list opens in new tab/window of transformative journals and targets and visit the relevant individual journal home pages for more information.
Explore more
Open access journals, open access books.
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Find scientific papers by searching here or download the Chrome extension
Unlocking knowledge: your gateway to open access scientific papers and research data, introduction.
In the digital era, the quest for knowledge and scientific discovery is no longer confined to the walls of academia and research institutions. Welcome to [Your Website Name] , a dedicated platform for finding and downloading open access scientific papers and other research data. Our mission is to democratize access to scientific information, making it freely available to researchers, students, and curious minds across the globe.
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What is Open Access?
Open Access (OA) refers to the practice of providing unrestricted access via the Internet to peer-reviewed scholarly research. OA content is available to all, without the usual financial or legal barriers. We believe that open access is crucial in fostering a culture of knowledge sharing and collaboration, thereby accelerating innovation and discovery.
Types of Open Access:
- Gold Open Access: Papers are published in open access journals that provide immediate open access to all of their articles.
- Green Open Access (Self-Archiving): Authors publish in any journal and then self-archive a version of the article for free public use in their institutional repository or on a website.
- Hybrid Open Access: Some articles in a subscription journal are made open access upon the payment of an additional charge.
Downloading Resources
- Direct Downloads: Once you find a paper or dataset, download it directly.
- Citation Tools: Easily export citations in various formats to incorporate them into your research.
Open Access
Open access in scientific publishing represents a transformative approach that breaks down traditional barriers to knowledge dissemination. It is a movement dedicated to making scientific research freely available to all, fostering a more inclusive and collaborative scientific community. At its core, open access allows for the unrestricted sharing of research findings, enabling scientists, academicians, and the general public to access and utilize scientific papers without the constraints of subscription fees or licensing restrictions. This paradigm shift in scholarly communication is driven by the belief that knowledge, particularly that which is publicly funded, should be a communal resource, accessible to everyone for the greater good of society.
In the realm of scientific research, open access has numerous advantages. It accelerates the pace of discovery by allowing researchers to build upon existing work without delay, facilitating interdisciplinary collaboration and cross-pollination of ideas across various fields. This is particularly crucial in addressing global challenges, where rapid and unencumbered access to research can lead to faster solutions. Furthermore, open access democratizes knowledge by making it available to researchers in developing countries who may not have the resources for expensive journal subscriptions, thereby narrowing the research gap between high and low-income countries.
The open access model also aligns with the digital age's ethos of openness and transparency. It enables a more efficient validation and critique process, as a larger audience can scrutinize and contribute to the research. This can lead to higher quality and more reliable scientific work. Moreover, it provides an equal platform for emerging researchers and institutions to share their findings, ensuring that the visibility and impact of research are not confined to those within well-funded, prestigious entities.
However, the transition to open access is not without challenges. The sustainability of publishing models, quality assurance, and equitable distribution of costs are ongoing concerns. Despite these hurdles, the open access movement is gaining momentum, driven by the global scientific community's commitment to an open, accessible, and collaborative future in research. As we move forward, open access stands as a beacon of progress, symbolizing a world where knowledge is a shared and freely accessible asset, driving innovation and societal advancement.
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- CAREER FEATURE
- 02 September 2024
How can I publish open access when I can’t afford the fees?
- Nikki Forrester 0
Nikki Forrester is a science journalist based in Davis, West Virginia.
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The problem
Dear Nature ,
I’m a paediatrician based in South Africa. Last year, my colleagues and I were invited to submit an editorial to a medical journal. We felt that the article, about medicine in resource-limited settings, should be published open access (OA) because it contains information that health-care workers and researchers in sub-Saharan Africa need access to. The problem is that the OA fee for that journal is US$1,000, which is more than most doctors earn per month in, say, Uganda. Now, we’re not sure whether we can move forward with the editorial. Are there any resources or funds available to authors in low-income countries to cover OA fees? — A paediatrician on a budget
Nature reached out to three researchers for tips on article processing charges (APCs). These fees can range from several hundred to thousands of dollars, and are requested by journals in return for making their articles OA — free for everyone to read.
According to a study published in 2023, the average fee for publishing an OA article is close to US$1,400 1 . OA fees can create significant barriers to publishing and sharing one’s work, especially for researchers based in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). For instance, among the top 40 journals in ecology, the average OA fee was $3,150, according to a 2021 study 2 . The authors described it as a hardship for African scholars, who typically do not receive grant funding and whose monthly salaries at the time of the study ranged from $365 to $2,300.
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I’m worried I’ve been contacted by a predatory publisher — how do I find out?
Most scientific journals are transparent about their publishing fees, which are typically included in the author guidelines or stated on their website. “If a journal suddenly asks for payment” having not mentioned such a requirement initially, says Kit Magellan, an independent behavioural ecologist based in Siem Reap, Cambodia, “it is likely a predatory journal — run away!” Predatory journals present themselves as legitimate publications, but use the OA publishing model to dupe authors into paying them fees.
If the APCs for a legitimate journal are too steep for you to afford, there are multiple ways to tackle the cost. “The first thing to do is check in with your co-authors to see if they have any funds available,” says Magellan, because scientists might be eligible to have APCs covered by their grants or by funding organizations. If not, she recommends asking your institution if it provides researchers with financial support to publish OA.
Institutional support for APCs is highly variable, ranging from offering no funding to covering the full cost. “Processing fees can get prohibitively expensive,” says Thulani Makhalanyane, a microbial ecologist at Stellenbosch University in South Africa. “My institution will reimburse half the cost, but I still have to think about where the other half of that expense will come from.”
Both Magellan and Makhalanyane note that scientific societies often offer their members grants or financial support — separate from funding for day-to-day laboratory work — to pay for APCs. For example, in December 2023, the American Physical Society announced a partnership with the non-profit organization Research4Life to cover APCs for paper submissions from scientists in 100 LMICs. Since 2002, Research4Life has helped researchers at more than 11,500 institutions in 125 LMICs access peer-reviewed papers from over 200,000 journals and books. Other governmental partnerships and programmes, such as the European Commission’s Open Research Europe and the library partnership SCOAP , pay OA fees directly to publishers, to avoid publishers passing those costs on to authors.
Another option is to contact the journal you want to publish with, to see whether it can offer assistance or flexibility with APCs. When approaching a journal editor, Makhalanyane recommends being upfront and open about your budget. “Tell the editor you’d like to submit your paper to their journal because you think it’s a good fit, but that you can’t afford the fee,” he says. As a journal editor himself, Makhalanyane receives several OA fee waivers from the publisher each year that he can offer to researchers. “Most of these vouchers are never taken,” he adds.
Springer Nature was asked whether it provides assistance with APCs for researchers in LMICs. (Springer Nature publishes Nature , but the magazine’s careers team is editorially independent of its publisher.) “Enabling open-access equity remains a key part of our focus,” said a spokesperson, who made reference to the publisher’s waiver policy for fully OA journals, Transformative Agreements and partnerships with organizations such as Research4Life .
The spokesperson also noted that the company has an initiative for Nature and the Nature research journals that means that accepted papers by authors from more than 70 LMICs are published at no cost to them . Finally, a tiered-pricing pilot adjusts the APC on the basis of the lead author’s country of residence, the spokesperson said.
Other researchers who want to pursue the OA route wait until their paper is close to publication before approaching an editor about the cost. “I don’t consider budget issues when I submit papers,” says Noam Shomron, a genomicist and computational biologist at Tel Aviv University in Israel. The peer-review and publication process can span months to a year or longer, and researchers’ budgets can fluctuate drastically over that period, he explains. “If I’m running out of funding at the time, I just tell the publication I don’t have the money. Very often they give me a 10% or 20% discount, which is nice.” Even if a discount isn’t possible, Shomron says that journals might defer payment for a year or two.
Magellan, who also has experience as a journal editor, emphasizes that vouchers and fee waivers are meant for exceptional circumstances, in which the author lacks access to funding to cover APCs. For those who are paying the standard charges, she is keen to see more-flexible payment plans from publishers. “It would be good for journals to allow authors to pay in instalments so the APC vouchers can remain available for the people who really need it,” she says.
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“The recent proliferation of online fee-paying journals seems to sometimes result in the perception that you have to pay to publish,” says Magellan. But researchers who can’t afford OA fees can still publish their work for free in many scientific journals, with the caveat that their articles might be hidden behind a paywall. “You can still share your article with colleagues in the field, use it in presentations and cite it; it just can’t be freely accessed,” she says. However, researchers at eligible institutions in LMICs can access paywalled papers through resources such as Hinari, a branch of Research4Life that provides access to thousands of medical and health journals.
“Submissions that come from the parts of the world where researchers can’t afford to publish are usually such a minor fraction of the papers that end up being published,” says Makhalanyane. “I would encourage people who want to publish and genuinely cannot afford the APCs to ask for vouchers. The fees shouldn’t stop you from showcasing your science in the best journals you can.”
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-02849-w
This is part of a series in Nature in which we share advice on career issues faced by readers. Have a problem? E-mail us at [email protected]
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What a Thesis Paper is and How to Write One
From choosing a topic and conducting research to crafting a strong argument, writing a thesis paper can be a rewarding experience.
It can also be a challenging experience. If you've never written a thesis paper before, you may not know where to start. You may not even be sure exactly what a thesis paper is. But don't worry; the right support and resources can help you navigate this writing process.
What is a Thesis Paper?
A thesis paper is a type of academic essay that you might write as a graduation requirement for certain bachelor's, master's or honors programs. Thesis papers present your own original research or analysis on a specific topic related to your field.
“In some ways, a thesis paper can look a lot like a novella,” said Shana Chartier , director of information literacy at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU). “It’s too short to be a full-length novel, but with the standard size of 40-60 pages (for a bachelor’s) and 60-100 pages (for a master’s), it is a robust exploration of a topic, explaining one’s understanding of a topic based on personal research.”
Chartier has worked in academia for over 13 years and at SNHU for nearly eight. In her role as an instructor and director, Chartier has helped to guide students through the writing process, like editing and providing resources.
Chartier has written and published academic papers such as "Augmented Reality Gamifies the Library: A Ride Through the Technological Frontier" and "Going Beyond the One-Shot: Spiraling Information Literacy Across Four Years." Both of these academic papers required Chartier to have hands-on experience with the subject matter. Like a thesis paper, they also involved hypothesizing and doing original research to come to a conclusion.
“When writing a thesis paper, the importance of staying organized cannot be overstated,” said Chartier. “Mapping out each step of the way, making firm and soft deadlines... and having other pairs of eyes on your work to ensure academic accuracy and clean editing are crucial to writing a successful paper.”
How Do I Choose a Topic For My Thesis Paper?
What your thesis paper is for will determine some of the specific requirements and steps you might take, but the first step is usually the same: Choosing a topic.
“Choosing a topic can be daunting," said Rochelle Attari , a peer tutor at SNHU. "But if (you) stick with a subject (you're) interested in... choosing a topic is much more manageable.”
Similar to a thesis, Attari recently finished the capstone for her bachelor’s in psychology . Her bachelor’s concentration is in forensics, and her capstone focused on the topic of using a combined therapy model for inmates who experience substance abuse issues to reduce recidivism.
“The hardest part was deciding what I wanted to focus on,” Attari said. “But once I nailed down my topic, each milestone was more straightforward.”
In her own writing experience, Attari said brainstorming was an important step when choosing her topic. She recommends writing down different ideas on a piece of paper and doing some preliminary research on what’s already been written on your topic.
By doing this exercise, you can narrow or broaden your ideas until you’ve found a topic you’re excited about. " Brainstorming is essential when writing a paper and is not a last-minute activity,” Attari said.
How Do I Structure My Thesis Paper?
Thesis papers tend to have a standard format with common sections as the building blocks.
While the structure Attari describes below will work for many theses, it’s important to double-check with your program to see if there are any specific requirements. Writing a thesis for a Master of Fine Arts, for example, might actually look more like a fiction novel.
According to Attari, a thesis paper is often structured with the following major sections:
Introduction
- Literature review
- Methods, results
Now, let’s take a closer look at what each different section should include.
Your introduction is your opportunity to present the topic of your thesis paper. In this section, you can explain why that topic is important. The introduction is also the place to include your thesis statement, which shows your stance in the paper.
Attari said that writing an introduction can be tricky, especially when you're trying to capture your reader’s attention and state your argument.
“I have found that starting with a statement of truth about a topic that pertains to an issue I am writing about typically does the trick,” Attari said. She demonstrated this advice in an example introduction she wrote for a paper on the effects of daylight in Alaska:
In the continental United States, we can always count on the sun rising and setting around the same time each day, but in Alaska, during certain times of the year, the sun rises and does not set for weeks. Research has shown that the sun provides vitamin D and is an essential part of our health, but little is known about how daylight twenty-four hours a day affects the circadian rhythm and sleep.
In the example Attari wrote, she introduces the topic and informs the reader what the paper will cover. Somewhere in her intro, she said she would also include her thesis statement, which might be:
Twenty-four hours of daylight over an extended period does not affect sleep patterns in humans and is not the cause of daytime fatigue in northern Alaska .
Literature Review
In the literature review, you'll look at what information is already out there about your topic. “This is where scholarly articles about your topic are essential,” said Attari. “These articles will help you find the gap in research that you have identified and will also support your thesis statement."
Telling your reader what research has already been done will help them see how your research fits into the larger conversation. Most university libraries offer databases of scholarly/peer-reviewed articles that can be helpful in your search.
In the methods section of your thesis paper, you get to explain how you learned what you learned. This might include what experiment you conducted as a part of your independent research.
“For instance,” Attari said, “if you are a psychology major and have identified a gap in research on which therapies are effective for anxiety, your methods section would consist of the number of participants, the type of experiment and any other particulars you would use for that experiment.”
In this section, you'll explain the results of your study. For example, building on the psychology example Attari outlined, you might share self-reported anxiety levels for participants trying different kinds of therapies. To help you communicate your results clearly, you might include data, charts, tables or other visualizations.
The discussion section of your thesis paper is where you will analyze and interpret the results you presented in the previous section. This is where you can discuss what your findings really mean or compare them to the research you found in your literature review.
The discussion section is your chance to show why the data you collected matters and how it fits into bigger conversations in your field.
The conclusion of your thesis paper is your opportunity to sum up your argument and leave your reader thinking about why your research matters.
Attari breaks the conclusion down into simple parts. “You restate the original issue and thesis statement, explain the experiment's results and discuss possible next steps for further research,” she said.
Find Your Program
Resources to help write your thesis paper.
While your thesis paper may be based on your independent research, writing it doesn’t have to be a solitary process. Asking for help and using the resources that are available to you can make the process easier.
If you're writing a thesis paper, some resources Chartier encourages you to use are:
- Citation Handbooks: An online citation guide or handbook can help you ensure your citations are correct. APA , MLA and Chicago styles have all published their own guides.
- Citation Generators: There are many citation generator tools that help you to create citations. Some — like RefWorks — even let you directly import citations from library databases as you research.
- Your Library's Website: Many academic and public libraries allow patrons to access resources like databases or FAQs. Some FAQs at the SNHU library that might be helpful in your thesis writing process include “ How do I read a scholarly article? ” or “ What is a research question and how do I develop one? ”
It can also be helpful to check out what coaching or tutoring options are available through your school. At SNHU, for example, the Academic Support Center offers writing and grammar workshops , and students can access 24/7 tutoring and 1:1 sessions with peer tutors, like Attari.
"Students can even submit their papers and receive written feedback... like revisions and editing suggestions," she said.
If you are writing a thesis paper, there are many resources available to you. It's a long paper, but with the right mindset and support, you can successfully navigate the process.
“Pace yourself,” said Chartier. “This is a marathon, not a sprint. Setting smaller goals to get to the big finish line can make the process seem less daunting, and remember to be proud of yourself and celebrate your accomplishment once you’re done. Writing a thesis is no small task, and it’s important work for the scholarly community.”
A degree can change your life. Choose your program from 200+ SNHU degrees that can take you where you want to go.
Meg Palmer ’18 is a writer and scholar by trade who loves reading, riding her bike and singing in a barbershop quartet. She earned her bachelor’s degree in English, language and literature at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU) and her master’s degree in writing, rhetoric and discourse at DePaul University (’20). While attending SNHU, she served as the editor-in-chief of the campus student newspaper, The Penmen Press, where she deepened her passion for writing. Meg is an adjunct professor at Johnson and Wales University, where she teaches first year writing, honors composition, and public speaking. Connect with her on LinkedIn .
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Speaker 1: There's no doubt that the controversial site Sci-Hub has become an integral part of research and finding research papers. So this is how you use it. The first thing you need is a research paper. So you don't start using Sci-Hub until you reach a bottleneck with what you can get open access. So for example, you would typically head over to something like Google Scholar, and you could go in here and sort of search for whatever your research field is. I've just put organic photovoltaics, and then you end up with this list. And you can see that typically in whatever search engine you're using, you've got HTML, you've got PDF, PDF. This tells you that, you know, the majority of the paper, if not all of the paper, is available to you. So you don't need to use it on something like this. But as you're scrolling through, you'll probably see some options here that don't have any PDF or HTML down the side. Bah, bah, can access it, or can you? That's where Sci-Hub comes into things. So if I want to look here at this paper, I'll click into it, and I can see it's by Wiley. It's Advanced Materials, which is a good paper. And I want to look at the organic photovoltaics over three decades. So I'm reading it, I'm reading it, and then, oh, where's the paper? Maybe I can get the full text. Oh no, what? I have to spend money to access papers? Well, maybe you could use something else. Something that you're not actually meant to use, but everyone does. So definitely don't do this, because it is very naughty, and you'll get a very hard slap on the wrist. I'll come to your house, myself, and slap you on the wrist if you do what I'm about to show you. So what you'll notice is we reach this situation where we've reached the end of the line, unless we're willing to spend money or we have access through our institution. Now, one thing I like to do is take the DOI. There's always a DOI. Even before we get to this page, I'll go back one, there's this DOI. And so that's interesting to me, and also I want to know the title of the paper. So those are the two bits of information that are important to take over to SciHub. Now, if I'm going to SciHub, I always access it by just going to Google and typing in SciHub. I go to SciHub, and then it's this top one that I always go for. You're looking for scihub.se or whatever mirror is working at the time. Because you see, this website is so hated that big publishers, with their billions of dollars of profit, try to take it down all the time. And the layout changes quite a lot. So don't be afraid of the site if it looks dissimilar to how it looked last time. Don't worry. But ultimately, you always end up with this. It's a SciHub, and then you've got Enter Your Reference. And in there, you can put things like the DOI and the title. So we'll try both to see if it works. Let's go over here. I'm interested in, where did it go? This one over here, and I'm going to look at this DOI. So I'm going to copy the link address, bonk, and I'm going to take it over to SciHub, and I'm going to put it in, bonk, and I'm just going to click Open. Open. It's as easy as that. And now we let the servers find that paper for me. And here it is. I didn't have to spend all that money. How much did they bloody want for it? $15 for 48 hours access. Not on my watch, thank you very much. I've got it for free. Now, you shouldn't be doing this. They hate this so much, and I'm not sure what the legalities are of it. But look, so many people are using it. 125,624 people in the last hour. Those criminals stealing from those big publishers. So this is what you definitely shouldn't do because you're stealing money directly from the pockets of the CEOs of those companies. How dare you? SciHub was actually founded by this absolute hero of the scientific world, in my opinion, which is Alexandra Elbakyan. And this person is behind this website. There she is waving. Sometimes she ends up just waving for hours and hours because I love looking at her and her like, sort of like, well, what are you going to do to stop me kind of face? Because this has been going on for so many years and they can take her down. I'm just so, so sort of amazed that it continues to exist. You can find out more about Alexandra. Here's a biography. And I'm just amazed that she's been able to keep this going. And I think that this part, you know, the communism, the current system producing knowledge is a classical example of failed capitalist system. So this is all about making sure that intellectual property and knowledge belongs to people and not just people with money. So I think this is such an awesome tool that you definitely shouldn't ever use. Look, she's got photos. Look at these cool photos. I haven't seen these before. What a champion. All right, that's it, I'm done, I'm done. But you can use other options, which we'll talk about in this video. But those are the steps that you can use to actually find research articles for free. There are a few other ones that you need to know about. This is them. Another tool you should consider using is this. Anna'sArchive.org And it's got this bit, SciDB, the Sci Database. Because it says here Sci-Hub has paused uploading of new papers. So if we go back to Sci-Hub, you can see that we've got access to 88 million papers or more than that. But with Anna's Archive, we've got 97 million papers. So that is a thing where Anna's Archive is now sort of like further ahead. So if it's a newer paper, I would consider going over to Anna's Archive to see if you can find it there first, rather than Sci-Hub. We've also got this one, and by the way, this is how you use it, you just put the DOI here. So here we are, we put the DOI in, we click open, and we end up with a similar sort of layout as Sci-Hub, and you get the PDF here. As with the other one, you can go up here and download it or print it out. So these buttons here, and then yeah, this is the information you can get it. So that's really good. We've also got Sci-Hub and doi.org, other sort of places you could potentially find this paper. And then we've got these other options as well. We've got the directory of open access journals. Now this is only useful if your paper you're searching for is in open access. You should be able to find it anyway, without having to use Sci-Hub and that sort of stuff. Archive is a place I love to go. This is quite often really up-to-date, really sort of like leading-edge research that hasn't quite yet been fully peer-reviewed, but it's in the process of being peer-reviewed. You can read people's comments, it's really great. You'll be surprised what's there. And the last thing is unpaywall.com gives you open access to over 50 million free scholarly articles. They harvest open access content from over 50,000 publishers and repositories and make it easy to find, track and use. So you go and you get the extension, you click here and then you add it in. You end up with this little kind of like lock. If you go to a page where there's like a paper that you may want to download, if it's available for you, you get this little icon here. And then it says, unfortunately unpaywall couldn't find any legal open access version of this article. And it's that legal aspect that really sort of like Sci-Hub gets around. So definitely don't use it because it's illegal, but if you do use it, that's how you use it. Perfect. If you like this video, go check out this one where I talk about my up-to-date techniques for using Google Scholar. I think you'll love it. I'll see you in the next one. Bye.
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GPT-fabricated scientific papers on Google Scholar: Key features, spread, and implications for preempting evidence manipulation
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Academic journals, archives, and repositories are seeing an increasing number of questionable research papers clearly produced using generative AI. They are often created with widely available, general-purpose AI applications, most likely ChatGPT, and mimic scientific writing. Google Scholar easily locates and lists these questionable papers alongside reputable, quality-controlled research. Our analysis of a selection of questionable GPT-fabricated scientific papers found in Google Scholar shows that many are about applied, often controversial topics susceptible to disinformation: the environment, health, and computing. The resulting enhanced potential for malicious manipulation of society’s evidence base, particularly in politically divisive domains, is a growing concern.
Swedish School of Library and Information Science, University of Borås, Sweden
Department of Arts and Cultural Sciences, Lund University, Sweden
Division of Environmental Communication, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
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Research Questions
- Where are questionable publications produced with generative pre-trained transformers (GPTs) that can be found via Google Scholar published or deposited?
- What are the main characteristics of these publications in relation to predominant subject categories?
- How are these publications spread in the research infrastructure for scholarly communication?
- How is the role of the scholarly communication infrastructure challenged in maintaining public trust in science and evidence through inappropriate use of generative AI?
research note Summary
- A sample of scientific papers with signs of GPT-use found on Google Scholar was retrieved, downloaded, and analyzed using a combination of qualitative coding and descriptive statistics. All papers contained at least one of two common phrases returned by conversational agents that use large language models (LLM) like OpenAI’s ChatGPT. Google Search was then used to determine the extent to which copies of questionable, GPT-fabricated papers were available in various repositories, archives, citation databases, and social media platforms.
- Roughly two-thirds of the retrieved papers were found to have been produced, at least in part, through undisclosed, potentially deceptive use of GPT. The majority (57%) of these questionable papers dealt with policy-relevant subjects (i.e., environment, health, computing), susceptible to influence operations. Most were available in several copies on different domains (e.g., social media, archives, and repositories).
- Two main risks arise from the increasingly common use of GPT to (mass-)produce fake, scientific publications. First, the abundance of fabricated “studies” seeping into all areas of the research infrastructure threatens to overwhelm the scholarly communication system and jeopardize the integrity of the scientific record. A second risk lies in the increased possibility that convincingly scientific-looking content was in fact deceitfully created with AI tools and is also optimized to be retrieved by publicly available academic search engines, particularly Google Scholar. However small, this possibility and awareness of it risks undermining the basis for trust in scientific knowledge and poses serious societal risks.
Implications
The use of ChatGPT to generate text for academic papers has raised concerns about research integrity. Discussion of this phenomenon is ongoing in editorials, commentaries, opinion pieces, and on social media (Bom, 2023; Stokel-Walker, 2024; Thorp, 2023). There are now several lists of papers suspected of GPT misuse, and new papers are constantly being added. 1 See for example Academ-AI, https://www.academ-ai.info/ , and Retraction Watch, https://retractionwatch.com/papers-and-peer-reviews-with-evidence-of-chatgpt-writing/ . While many legitimate uses of GPT for research and academic writing exist (Huang & Tan, 2023; Kitamura, 2023; Lund et al., 2023), its undeclared use—beyond proofreading—has potentially far-reaching implications for both science and society, but especially for their relationship. It, therefore, seems important to extend the discussion to one of the most accessible and well-known intermediaries between science, but also certain types of misinformation, and the public, namely Google Scholar, also in response to the legitimate concerns that the discussion of generative AI and misinformation needs to be more nuanced and empirically substantiated (Simon et al., 2023).
Google Scholar, https://scholar.google.com , is an easy-to-use academic search engine. It is available for free, and its index is extensive (Gusenbauer & Haddaway, 2020). It is also often touted as a credible source for academic literature and even recommended in library guides, by media and information literacy initiatives, and fact checkers (Tripodi et al., 2023). However, Google Scholar lacks the transparency and adherence to standards that usually characterize citation databases. Instead, Google Scholar uses automated crawlers, like Google’s web search engine (Martín-Martín et al., 2021), and the inclusion criteria are based on primarily technical standards, allowing any individual author—with or without scientific affiliation—to upload papers to be indexed (Google Scholar Help, n.d.). It has been shown that Google Scholar is susceptible to manipulation through citation exploits (Antkare, 2020) and by providing access to fake scientific papers (Dadkhah et al., 2017). A large part of Google Scholar’s index consists of publications from established scientific journals or other forms of quality-controlled, scholarly literature. However, the index also contains a large amount of gray literature, including student papers, working papers, reports, preprint servers, and academic networking sites, as well as material from so-called “questionable” academic journals, including paper mills. The search interface does not offer the possibility to filter the results meaningfully by material type, publication status, or form of quality control, such as limiting the search to peer-reviewed material.
To understand the occurrence of ChatGPT (co-)authored work in Google Scholar’s index, we scraped it for publications, including one of two common ChatGPT responses (see Appendix A) that we encountered on social media and in media reports (DeGeurin, 2024). The results of our descriptive statistical analyses showed that around 62% did not declare the use of GPTs. Most of these GPT-fabricated papers were found in non-indexed journals and working papers, but some cases included research published in mainstream scientific journals and conference proceedings. 2 Indexed journals mean scholarly journals indexed by abstract and citation databases such as Scopus and Web of Science, where the indexation implies journals with high scientific quality. Non-indexed journals are journals that fall outside of this indexation. More than half (57%) of these GPT-fabricated papers concerned policy-relevant subject areas susceptible to influence operations. To avoid increasing the visibility of these publications, we abstained from referencing them in this research note. However, we have made the data available in the Harvard Dataverse repository.
The publications were related to three issue areas—health (14.5%), environment (19.5%) and computing (23%)—with key terms such “healthcare,” “COVID-19,” or “infection”for health-related papers, and “analysis,” “sustainable,” and “global” for environment-related papers. In several cases, the papers had titles that strung together general keywords and buzzwords, thus alluding to very broad and current research. These terms included “biology,” “telehealth,” “climate policy,” “diversity,” and “disrupting,” to name just a few. While the study’s scope and design did not include a detailed analysis of which parts of the articles included fabricated text, our dataset did contain the surrounding sentences for each occurrence of the suspicious phrases that formed the basis for our search and subsequent selection. Based on that, we can say that the phrases occurred in most sections typically found in scientific publications, including the literature review, methods, conceptual and theoretical frameworks, background, motivation or societal relevance, and even discussion. This was confirmed during the joint coding, where we read and discussed all articles. It became clear that not just the text related to the telltale phrases was created by GPT, but that almost all articles in our sample of questionable articles likely contained traces of GPT-fabricated text everywhere.
Evidence hacking and backfiring effects
Generative pre-trained transformers (GPTs) can be used to produce texts that mimic scientific writing. These texts, when made available online—as we demonstrate—leak into the databases of academic search engines and other parts of the research infrastructure for scholarly communication. This development exacerbates problems that were already present with less sophisticated text generators (Antkare, 2020; Cabanac & Labbé, 2021). Yet, the public release of ChatGPT in 2022, together with the way Google Scholar works, has increased the likelihood of lay people (e.g., media, politicians, patients, students) coming across questionable (or even entirely GPT-fabricated) papers and other problematic research findings. Previous research has emphasized that the ability to determine the value and status of scientific publications for lay people is at stake when misleading articles are passed off as reputable (Haider & Åström, 2017) and that systematic literature reviews risk being compromised (Dadkhah et al., 2017). It has also been highlighted that Google Scholar, in particular, can be and has been exploited for manipulating the evidence base for politically charged issues and to fuel conspiracy narratives (Tripodi et al., 2023). Both concerns are likely to be magnified in the future, increasing the risk of what we suggest calling evidence hacking —the strategic and coordinated malicious manipulation of society’s evidence base.
The authority of quality-controlled research as evidence to support legislation, policy, politics, and other forms of decision-making is undermined by the presence of undeclared GPT-fabricated content in publications professing to be scientific. Due to the large number of archives, repositories, mirror sites, and shadow libraries to which they spread, there is a clear risk that GPT-fabricated, questionable papers will reach audiences even after a possible retraction. There are considerable technical difficulties involved in identifying and tracing computer-fabricated papers (Cabanac & Labbé, 2021; Dadkhah et al., 2023; Jones, 2024), not to mention preventing and curbing their spread and uptake.
However, as the rise of the so-called anti-vaxx movement during the COVID-19 pandemic and the ongoing obstruction and denial of climate change show, retracting erroneous publications often fuels conspiracies and increases the following of these movements rather than stopping them. To illustrate this mechanism, climate deniers frequently question established scientific consensus by pointing to other, supposedly scientific, studies that support their claims. Usually, these are poorly executed, not peer-reviewed, based on obsolete data, or even fraudulent (Dunlap & Brulle, 2020). A similar strategy is successful in the alternative epistemic world of the global anti-vaccination movement (Carrion, 2018) and the persistence of flawed and questionable publications in the scientific record already poses significant problems for health research, policy, and lawmakers, and thus for society as a whole (Littell et al., 2024). Considering that a person’s support for “doing your own research” is associated with increased mistrust in scientific institutions (Chinn & Hasell, 2023), it will be of utmost importance to anticipate and consider such backfiring effects already when designing a technical solution, when suggesting industry or legal regulation, and in the planning of educational measures.
Recommendations
Solutions should be based on simultaneous considerations of technical, educational, and regulatory approaches, as well as incentives, including social ones, across the entire research infrastructure. Paying attention to how these approaches and incentives relate to each other can help identify points and mechanisms for disruption. Recognizing fraudulent academic papers must happen alongside understanding how they reach their audiences and what reasons there might be for some of these papers successfully “sticking around.” A possible way to mitigate some of the risks associated with GPT-fabricated scholarly texts finding their way into academic search engine results would be to provide filtering options for facets such as indexed journals, gray literature, peer-review, and similar on the interface of publicly available academic search engines. Furthermore, evaluation tools for indexed journals 3 Such as LiU Journal CheckUp, https://ep.liu.se/JournalCheckup/default.aspx?lang=eng . could be integrated into the graphical user interfaces and the crawlers of these academic search engines. To enable accountability, it is important that the index (database) of such a search engine is populated according to criteria that are transparent, open to scrutiny, and appropriate to the workings of science and other forms of academic research. Moreover, considering that Google Scholar has no real competitor, there is a strong case for establishing a freely accessible, non-specialized academic search engine that is not run for commercial reasons but for reasons of public interest. Such measures, together with educational initiatives aimed particularly at policymakers, science communicators, journalists, and other media workers, will be crucial to reducing the possibilities for and effects of malicious manipulation or evidence hacking. It is important not to present this as a technical problem that exists only because of AI text generators but to relate it to the wider concerns in which it is embedded. These range from a largely dysfunctional scholarly publishing system (Haider & Åström, 2017) and academia’s “publish or perish” paradigm to Google’s near-monopoly and ideological battles over the control of information and ultimately knowledge. Any intervention is likely to have systemic effects; these effects need to be considered and assessed in advance and, ideally, followed up on.
Our study focused on a selection of papers that were easily recognizable as fraudulent. We used this relatively small sample as a magnifying glass to examine, delineate, and understand a problem that goes beyond the scope of the sample itself, which however points towards larger concerns that require further investigation. The work of ongoing whistleblowing initiatives 4 Such as Academ-AI, https://www.academ-ai.info/ , and Retraction Watch, https://retractionwatch.com/papers-and-peer-reviews-with-evidence-of-chatgpt-writing/ . , recent media reports of journal closures (Subbaraman, 2024), or GPT-related changes in word use and writing style (Cabanac et al., 2021; Stokel-Walker, 2024) suggest that we only see the tip of the iceberg. There are already more sophisticated cases (Dadkhah et al., 2023) as well as cases involving fabricated images (Gu et al., 2022). Our analysis shows that questionable and potentially manipulative GPT-fabricated papers permeate the research infrastructure and are likely to become a widespread phenomenon. Our findings underline that the risk of fake scientific papers being used to maliciously manipulate evidence (see Dadkhah et al., 2017) must be taken seriously. Manipulation may involve undeclared automatic summaries of texts, inclusion in literature reviews, explicit scientific claims, or the concealment of errors in studies so that they are difficult to detect in peer review. However, the mere possibility of these things happening is a significant risk in its own right that can be strategically exploited and will have ramifications for trust in and perception of science. Society’s methods of evaluating sources and the foundations of media and information literacy are under threat and public trust in science is at risk of further erosion, with far-reaching consequences for society in dealing with information disorders. To address this multifaceted problem, we first need to understand why it exists and proliferates.
Finding 1: 139 GPT-fabricated, questionable papers were found and listed as regular results on the Google Scholar results page. Non-indexed journals dominate.
Most questionable papers we found were in non-indexed journals or were working papers, but we did also find some in established journals, publications, conferences, and repositories. We found a total of 139 papers with a suspected deceptive use of ChatGPT or similar LLM applications (see Table 1). Out of these, 19 were in indexed journals, 89 were in non-indexed journals, 19 were student papers found in university databases, and 12 were working papers (mostly in preprint databases). Table 1 divides these papers into categories. Health and environment papers made up around 34% (47) of the sample. Of these, 66% were present in non-indexed journals.
Indexed journals* | 5 | 3 | 4 | 7 | 19 |
Non-indexed journals | 18 | 18 | 13 | 40 | 89 |
Student papers | 4 | 3 | 1 | 11 | 19 |
Working papers | 5 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 12 |
Total | 32 | 27 | 20 | 60 | 139 |
Finding 2: GPT-fabricated, questionable papers are disseminated online, permeating the research infrastructure for scholarly communication, often in multiple copies. Applied topics with practical implications dominate.
The 20 papers concerning health-related issues are distributed across 20 unique domains, accounting for 46 URLs. The 27 papers dealing with environmental issues can be found across 26 unique domains, accounting for 56 URLs. Most of the identified papers exist in multiple copies and have already spread to several archives, repositories, and social media. It would be difficult, or impossible, to remove them from the scientific record.
As apparent from Table 2, GPT-fabricated, questionable papers are seeping into most parts of the online research infrastructure for scholarly communication. Platforms on which identified papers have appeared include ResearchGate, ORCiD, Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology (JPTCP), Easychair, Frontiers, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer (IEEE), and X/Twitter. Thus, even if they are retracted from their original source, it will prove very difficult to track, remove, or even just mark them up on other platforms. Moreover, unless regulated, Google Scholar will enable their continued and most likely unlabeled discoverability.
Environment | researchgate.net (13) | orcid.org (4) | easychair.org (3) | ijope.com* (3) | publikasiindonesia.id (3) |
Health | researchgate.net (15) | ieee.org (4) | twitter.com (3) | jptcp.com** (2) | frontiersin.org (2) |
A word rain visualization (Centre for Digital Humanities Uppsala, 2023), which combines word prominences through TF-IDF 5 Term frequency–inverse document frequency , a method for measuring the significance of a word in a document compared to its frequency across all documents in a collection. scores with semantic similarity of the full texts of our sample of GPT-generated articles that fall into the “Environment” and “Health” categories, reflects the two categories in question. However, as can be seen in Figure 1, it also reveals overlap and sub-areas. The y-axis shows word prominences through word positions and font sizes, while the x-axis indicates semantic similarity. In addition to a certain amount of overlap, this reveals sub-areas, which are best described as two distinct events within the word rain. The event on the left bundles terms related to the development and management of health and healthcare with “challenges,” “impact,” and “potential of artificial intelligence”emerging as semantically related terms. Terms related to research infrastructures, environmental, epistemic, and technological concepts are arranged further down in the same event (e.g., “system,” “climate,” “understanding,” “knowledge,” “learning,” “education,” “sustainable”). A second distinct event further to the right bundles terms associated with fish farming and aquatic medicinal plants, highlighting the presence of an aquaculture cluster. Here, the prominence of groups of terms such as “used,” “model,” “-based,” and “traditional” suggests the presence of applied research on these topics. The two events making up the word rain visualization, are linked by a less dominant but overlapping cluster of terms related to “energy” and “water.”
![research papers access](https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/figure-1.png)
The bar chart of the terms in the paper subset (see Figure 2) complements the word rain visualization by depicting the most prominent terms in the full texts along the y-axis. Here, word prominences across health and environment papers are arranged descendingly, where values outside parentheses are TF-IDF values (relative frequencies) and values inside parentheses are raw term frequencies (absolute frequencies).
![research papers access](https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/figure-2.png)
Finding 3: Google Scholar presents results from quality-controlled and non-controlled citation databases on the same interface, providing unfiltered access to GPT-fabricated questionable papers.
Google Scholar’s central position in the publicly accessible scholarly communication infrastructure, as well as its lack of standards, transparency, and accountability in terms of inclusion criteria, has potentially serious implications for public trust in science. This is likely to exacerbate the already-known potential to exploit Google Scholar for evidence hacking (Tripodi et al., 2023) and will have implications for any attempts to retract or remove fraudulent papers from their original publication venues. Any solution must consider the entirety of the research infrastructure for scholarly communication and the interplay of different actors, interests, and incentives.
We searched and scraped Google Scholar using the Python library Scholarly (Cholewiak et al., 2023) for papers that included specific phrases known to be common responses from ChatGPT and similar applications with the same underlying model (GPT3.5 or GPT4): “as of my last knowledge update” and/or “I don’t have access to real-time data” (see Appendix A). This facilitated the identification of papers that likely used generative AI to produce text, resulting in 227 retrieved papers. The papers’ bibliographic information was automatically added to a spreadsheet and downloaded into Zotero. 6 An open-source reference manager, https://zotero.org .
We employed multiple coding (Barbour, 2001) to classify the papers based on their content. First, we jointly assessed whether the paper was suspected of fraudulent use of ChatGPT (or similar) based on how the text was integrated into the papers and whether the paper was presented as original research output or the AI tool’s role was acknowledged. Second, in analyzing the content of the papers, we continued the multiple coding by classifying the fraudulent papers into four categories identified during an initial round of analysis—health, environment, computing, and others—and then determining which subjects were most affected by this issue (see Table 1). Out of the 227 retrieved papers, 88 papers were written with legitimate and/or declared use of GPTs (i.e., false positives, which were excluded from further analysis), and 139 papers were written with undeclared and/or fraudulent use (i.e., true positives, which were included in further analysis). The multiple coding was conducted jointly by all authors of the present article, who collaboratively coded and cross-checked each other’s interpretation of the data simultaneously in a shared spreadsheet file. This was done to single out coding discrepancies and settle coding disagreements, which in turn ensured methodological thoroughness and analytical consensus (see Barbour, 2001). Redoing the category coding later based on our established coding schedule, we achieved an intercoder reliability (Cohen’s kappa) of 0.806 after eradicating obvious differences.
The ranking algorithm of Google Scholar prioritizes highly cited and older publications (Martín-Martín et al., 2016). Therefore, the position of the articles on the search engine results pages was not particularly informative, considering the relatively small number of results in combination with the recency of the publications. Only the query “as of my last knowledge update” had more than two search engine result pages. On those, questionable articles with undeclared use of GPTs were evenly distributed across all result pages (min: 4, max: 9, mode: 8), with the proportion of undeclared use being slightly higher on average on later search result pages.
To understand how the papers making fraudulent use of generative AI were disseminated online, we programmatically searched for the paper titles (with exact string matching) in Google Search from our local IP address (see Appendix B) using the googlesearch – python library(Vikramaditya, 2020). We manually verified each search result to filter out false positives—results that were not related to the paper—and then compiled the most prominent URLs by field. This enabled the identification of other platforms through which the papers had been spread. We did not, however, investigate whether copies had spread into SciHub or other shadow libraries, or if they were referenced in Wikipedia.
We used descriptive statistics to count the prevalence of the number of GPT-fabricated papers across topics and venues and top domains by subject. The pandas software library for the Python programming language (The pandas development team, 2024) was used for this part of the analysis. Based on the multiple coding, paper occurrences were counted in relation to their categories, divided into indexed journals, non-indexed journals, student papers, and working papers. The schemes, subdomains, and subdirectories of the URL strings were filtered out while top-level domains and second-level domains were kept, which led to normalizing domain names. This, in turn, allowed the counting of domain frequencies in the environment and health categories. To distinguish word prominences and meanings in the environment and health-related GPT-fabricated questionable papers, a semantically-aware word cloud visualization was produced through the use of a word rain (Centre for Digital Humanities Uppsala, 2023) for full-text versions of the papers. Font size and y-axis positions indicate word prominences through TF-IDF scores for the environment and health papers (also visualized in a separate bar chart with raw term frequencies in parentheses), and words are positioned along the x-axis to reflect semantic similarity (Skeppstedt et al., 2024), with an English Word2vec skip gram model space (Fares et al., 2017). An English stop word list was used, along with a manually produced list including terms such as “https,” “volume,” or “years.”
- Artificial Intelligence
- / Search engines
Cite this Essay
Haider, J., Söderström, K. R., Ekström, B., & Rödl, M. (2024). GPT-fabricated scientific papers on Google Scholar: Key features, spread, and implications for preempting evidence manipulation. Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review . https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-156
- / Appendix B
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This research has been supported by Mistra, the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research, through the research program Mistra Environmental Communication (Haider, Ekström, Rödl) and the Marcus and Amalia Wallenberg Foundation [2020.0004] (Söderström).
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
The research described in this article was carried out under Swedish legislation. According to the relevant EU and Swedish legislation (2003:460) on the ethical review of research involving humans (“Ethical Review Act”), the research reported on here is not subject to authorization by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (“etikprövningsmyndigheten”) (SRC, 2017).
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original author and source are properly credited.
Data Availability
All data needed to replicate this study are available at the Harvard Dataverse: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/WUVD8X
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on the article manuscript as well as the editorial group of Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review for their thoughtful feedback and input.
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Title: writing in the margins: better inference pattern for long context retrieval.
Abstract: In this paper, we introduce Writing in the Margins (WiM), a new inference pattern for Large Language Models designed to optimize the handling of long input sequences in retrieval-oriented tasks. This approach leverages the chunked prefill of the key-value cache to perform segment-wise inference, which enables efficient processing of extensive contexts along with the generation and classification of intermediate information ("margins") that guide the model towards specific tasks. This method increases computational overhead marginally while significantly enhancing the performance of off-the-shelf models without the need for fine-tuning. Specifically, we observe that WiM provides an average enhancement of 7.5% in accuracy for reasoning skills (HotpotQA, MultiHop-RAG) and more than a 30.0% increase in the F1-score for aggregation tasks (CWE). Additionally, we show how the proposed pattern fits into an interactive retrieval design that provides end-users with ongoing updates about the progress of context processing, and pinpoints the integration of relevant information into the final response. We release our implementation of WiM using Hugging Face Transformers library at this https URL .
Subjects: | Computation and Language (cs.CL); Information Retrieval (cs.IR) |
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View PDF Abstract: In this paper, we introduce Writing in the Margins (WiM), a new inference pattern for Large Language Models designed to optimize the handling of long input sequences in retrieval-oriented tasks. This approach leverages the chunked prefill of the key-value cache to perform segment-wise inference, which enables efficient processing of extensive contexts along with the ...