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THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF ASSAM

November 9, 2021 by Souvik 2 Comments

THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF ASSAM

Assam , the land of blue hills and the red river, is a darling of nature. Nature has bestowed all her wealth on Assam. She is very rich in natural resources. She has plenty of mineral, water, forest and agricultural resources.

The natural resources of Assam may be classified under four heads (a) mineral (b) forest (c) agriculture and (d) water resources.

Mineral Resources : Assam is very rich in mineral resources . Coal, petroleum and natural gas are the principal mineral resources of Assam. Digboi, Rudrasagar, Naharkatia, Moran, Lakua etc. are the famous oil-fields of Assam. The three refineries at Digboi, Noonmati and Bongaigoan produce kerosene,patrol, disel, L. P. gas etc. from the crude oil. The crude oil of Assam is pumped out of Assam to Barauni Refinery in Bihar. Assam is the largest producer of crude oil in India. Coal is found at Ledu and Margherita coal fields in upper Assam. Lime-stone is found in Bokajan. It is used for manufacturing cement.

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Forest resources : A large part of Assam is covered by hills and forests. These hills and forests contain valuable trees like Sal, Gamari, Bonsum, Agar in large quantities. These forests supply us fruit, fuel; and fodder. Medicinal herbs are also found in plenty. Another valuable thing found in the forests of Assam is ‘Agar’ oil. The bamboo, an important raw-material for the production of paper is found in plenty in Assam. Articles made of bamboos and canes by artisans are sold everywhere. Animals like tigers, elephants, deer, rhinos are found in large numbers in the forests of Assam. The Assamese rhino may be found in every zoo of the world. The National Parks and Manas and Kaziranga draw a large number of tourists from India and abroad.

Translation in Assamese – click here

Agricultural resources : Agriculture is the main occupation of the people of Assam. Nearly 80% of the people of Assam depend on agriculture. Assam produces cash crops like jute. The tea of Assam is famous. She is the biggest producer of tea in India. It earns foreign exchange for India.

Water resources : The mighty Brahmaputra and its tributaries have great potential for the generation of hydro-electricity. The Kapili project is an important project in this direction. The Brhamaputra can be used as an inland water transport to carry goods. It can be a good alternative to surface transport.

Assam is thus endowed with a plenty of natural resources. Yet she is one of the most industrially backward states of India. This is largely because of the apathy of the state Government and the step-motherly attitude of the central Government. It is a good sign that the situation is improving. Assam should try to set up industries to make use of her natural resources. It will solve her problems of unemployment and usher in an era of prosperity in Assam.

Natural Resources of ASSAM || অসমৰ প্ৰাকৃতিক সম্পদ – click here

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Information on natural resources of Assam

Assam is rich in natural resources, minerals, forests and water and has vast tracts of fertile land. Detailed information is provided on natural resources of the state such as medicinal plants, minerals, plants, herbs, sericulture, forest resources, mineral resources, etc.

Assam Public Health Engineering Department

Users can get detailed information about the Assam Public Health Engineering Department (APHED). Information on the Rural Water Supply programmes, schemes, sanitary marts, water quality problems and missions etc. is provided. Details of activities carry out by the Department during the natural calamities are also given. Users can access Right to Information (RTI), annual report, contact details, tenders, events and speeches etc.

Website of Assam Project on Forest and Biodiversity Conservation Society

The Assam Project on Forest and Biodiversity Conservation Society was created by the State Government of Assam as a special purpose vehicle registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. Information about the Society and its functions is provided. Users can also get information about forest types in Assam, Biodiversity of the state, research and development etc.

Building Climate Resilient Agriculture in the Indian State of Assam in Foot Hill Himalayas

First Online: 25 October 2023

Cite this chapter

presentation of natural resources of assam

Prasanta Neog 6 ,
M. K. Sarma 7 ,
P. K. Sarma 8 ,
D. Sarma 8 , 9 ,
Rupsree Borah 8 ,
Rupam Borah 8 ,
G. R. Chary 10 &
Ch. Srinivasrao 11

Part of the book series: Earth and Environmental Sciences Library ((EESL))

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The farming system of Assam is principaly characterized by rice based mono cropping by small and marginal farmers and is essentially dependent on rain and greatly influenced by type of soil, crops, and socioeconomic condition of the farmers. Farmers of the state are relatively resource-poor with low adaptive capacity; therefore, weather aberrations make rainfed agriculture of the state highly vulnerable, risk-prone and often unprofitable and thus impacting their livelihoods. The threat to agricultural production in the state has already been reported due to rise in ambient temperature, reduction in the availability of water for irrigation, degradation of soil health, the emergence of new pests and disease complex along with the increased frequency of extreme weather events like high-intensity rainfall events, flood, drought, etc. The innate problem of floods and seasonal drought in the state causes widespread destruction of the crop fields along with causing a huge loss of the vast fertile cultivated land areas permanently. These problems are likely to be aggravated in the future due to an increase in rainfall variability driven by climate change. Since the occurrence of such weather aberrations may not be sudden and some regions may often encounter a definite type of weather aberrations, management of these aberrations can be planned effectively with the available technologies and farmers’ wisdom. The effects of such weather aberrations can largely be counteracted in many situations, if not eliminated by adopting improved soil, water, crop, and pest management strategies even with the hostile impact of climate change. Preparation and implementation of real-time crop contingencies are important to respond to weather aberrations in different stages like preparedness, real-time response, relief and rehabilitation. Moreover, identification of various adaptation strategies including climate-resilient crops and cultivars, rainwater harvesting and recycling, efficient energy management through farm mechanization, dissemination of weather information and weather-based agro advisories to farmers on a real-time basis, post-harvest processing, marketing, identification, evaluation of ingenious technological are important deliberations as an benchmark for initiating agriculture resilient to climate change in Assam.

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Prasanta Neog

Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, BN College of Agriculture, Biswanath Chariali, Assam, 784176, India

M. K. Sarma

All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, BN College of Agriculture, Biswanath Chariali, Assam, 784176, India

P. K. Sarma, D. Sarma, Rupsree Borah & Rupam Borah

Department of Agronomy, BN College of Agriculture, Assam Agricultural University, Biswanath Chariali, Assam, 784176, India

ICAR-Central Research Institute for Dry Land Agriculture, Hyderabad, Telangana, 500030, India

G. R. Chary

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Neog, P. et al. (2023). Building Climate Resilient Agriculture in the Indian State of Assam in Foot Hill Himalayas. In: Pande, C.B., Moharir, K.N., Negm, A. (eds) Climate Change Impacts in India. Earth and Environmental Sciences Library. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42056-6_15

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Published: 30 June 2016

Changing climate and its impacts on Assam, Northeast India

Debojyoti Das 1

Bandung: Journal of the Global South volume 2 , Article number: 26 ( 2015 ) Cite this article

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The paper explores climate change induced hydro hazards and its impact on tribal communities in Majuli (largest river island of Brahmaputra River Basin). The island has been experiencing recurrent floods, erosion, and siltation, which has distressed the socio-economic foundation and livelihood of the Mishing—a indigenous community on Northeast India, leading to out migration from the island. The indicators selected to capture the vulnerability of the island to climate change are dependency ratio; occurrence of natural hazards (floods) and coping methods; income of the household; and livelihood diversification. To gather the quantitative and qualitative data on these parameters the methods was designed to conduct both sample survey of households and focus group discussions. The findings reveal that in the selected villages, the dependency ratio is 4 (dependents): 1 (earning member); average income of the household is low i.e. $ 40/month and is declining as compared to last few years because of frequent floods, erosion and siltation that has decreased farm productivity which is the main source of income. The impact of changing climate and heightened flood and erosion risk to farmlands has been forced migration to cities and neighboring urban centers like Jorhar for stable livelihood. Therefore, we propose that a possible way to enhance social resilience to changing climate and vagaries of monsoon (tropical disturbances) is to promote alternative occupation like eco-tourism as (Majuli is the center of Vaisnavism and Satras in Northeast India) and invest in adaptive strategies to mitigate flood by incorporating lay and place-based knowledge of the Mishing community in flood management. Also facilitate community’s participation and awareness towards hydro hazards based on flood proof housing focusing on indigenous knowledge.

Climate change is gaining importance as scientific and socio-economic studies have brought forth substantial evidences (American Meteorological Society 2012 ; Norris et al. 2008 ; Agrawal and Perrin 2008 ; Paavola 2008 ; IPCC 2014 ; UNFCCC 2007 ; Adger and Kelly 1999 ). The impact of climate change is more likely to have an adverse effect in the developing countries due to high dependency on climate sensitive livelihood like rain-fed agriculture, water, and forestry (Moorhead 2009 ). The human development report of 2014 also declared that climate change has limited the choice of an individual and would further erode ‘human freedoms’ (UNDP 2007 ). According to IPCC ( 2007 ) climate change is real and already taking place. The report states that the impacts of climate change and their associated costs will fall disproportionately on developing countries threatening to undermine achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, reduce poverty, and safeguard food security. Climate Change will reduce access to drinking water, affects the health of the poor, will pose a threat to food security. Various researchers have established that larger burden of climate change disproportionately falls in the developing countries of the global south (Agrawal and Perrin 2008 ; Norris et al. 2008 ; Paavola 2008 ; UNFCCC 2007 ; Adger and Kelly 1999 ). Additionally, poor people in developing countries tend to be more vulnerable due to limited opportunities and choices, small land holdings and lack of access to market. Within countries the marginalized groups have limited resources and capacity to adapt and are the most vulnerable (IPCC 2001 ). Climate change policies are crucial for enhancing adaptive capacity of the community.

Institution plays an important role in community’s adaptation to climate change (Berman et al. 2011 ). Various adaptation measures have been under taken across societies to fight the impacts of climate change. One of the most common methods of adaptation is migration. In areas where livelihood choices are limited, decreasing crops yield may lead to out migration. Climate change has been cited as one of the growing drivers of migration across the world (ADB 2012 ). IPCC in its first assessment report has mentioned that by 2050, estimated 150 million people could be displaced due to climate-induced factors like floods, drought on storms (IPCC 1990 ). However, migrations may not be the best methods to adapt to climate change. Various factors like education, health, sanitation, are likely to be affected by migration. Therefore, there is a need for proper adaptation strategies to fight the long-term impacts of climate change.

Both India and Bangladesh face many common challenges. Even as their overlapping geographies allow them to share a climate, with its associated vulnerabilities, their use of common resources like water means that actions in one country can profoundly impact the other. As the impacts of climate change begin to set in, the commonalities in the former will lend greater urgency to the relationship in the latter. As both countries begin to face ever-increasing temperatures and ever more erratic rainfall patterns, they will be forced to find greater common cause in their shared water resources. Majuli River Island in Upper Assam located in the Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) river basin is the geographic focus of the paper. We will look at a micro region Majuli island as a case study to understand the impact of climate change and glacial ice melt in the Himalayas and Tibet that triggers floods and bank erosion induced displacement of people in the local environment and how communities cope with it in Assam, India.

In Majuli like other parts of South Asia climate change is having disproportionate impact of marginal people particularly the Mishing communities who live and depend on the river island for their livelihood. Majority of the research on Majuli have focused on bank erosion, rainfall pattern, drainage discharge of the Brahmaputra river, geomorphic changes in the river basin and the impact of the 1950 earthquake on settlements and fluvial pattern of the river (Sarma 2014 ). There is hardly any discussion of local knowledge system and resilience of the community to manage natural disasters triggered by global weather change. This paper will make a small beginning in this direction by bringing to the forefront communities adaptation to flood and bank erosion in Majuli River Island focusing on the Mishing community. This is important to understand the human dimension and plight of the local communities and how they evolve resilient strategies to live with floods. The findings of the paper will be of interest to policy makers and experts to design new strategies on how community knowledge can be integrated to policymaking on climate change and disaster risk reduction.

Taking this in perspective, a study was conducted in Majuli Island, located in the river Brahmaputra in India. The following objectives were considered for the study.

What are the strategies adopted by the communities to match the impacts of climate change like flood, erosion and siltation?

Is migration undertaken as an alternative to enhance adaptation to climate change?

What are the plausible options available to the people to enhance the adaptive capacity?

Climate change and migration

Climate change in the developing world is a hindrance in the path of development. Although the basic science of climate change is simple, the causes and likely impacts of climate change on human beings are highly complex (Hepburn and Nicholas, 2009 ). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment report 2007 (AR4) has declared that “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level” (IPCC 2007 , p. 30). IPCC ( 2007 ) makes it clear that climate change is real and is already taking place. Climate change will have wide-ranging effects on the physical environment as well as on sectors like water resource, agriculture, food security and human health (UNFCCC 2007 ). The fear is that the impacts of climate change in the form of droughts, famines, floods, variability in rainfall, storms, coastal inundation, ecosystem degradation, heat waves, fires and epidemics will undermine the international efforts to combat poverty (HDR 2008 ). Although many areas could experience temperature increases in the region whereas some areas may actually cool under global warming conditions (Houghton et al. 1996 ). Patterns and amounts of precipitation are also likely to change, and it is projected that rainfall will increase in some areas and decrease in others (Houghton et al. 1996 ).

The social and physical impacts of climate change are not uniform or homogenous as the magnitude and direction of climate change across the globe vary and even within the same regions experiencing climate change are likely to vary because some ecosystem, sectors, or social groups are more vulnerable to climate change than others (O’Brien and Leichenko 2000 ). As evident from various literatures (Adger and Kelly 1999 ; UNFCCC 2007 ; Norris et al. 2008 ; Agrawal and Perrin 2008 ; Paavola 2008 ) the impact of climate change will fall disproportionately among the different sections of the population, which is more likely to strike economically developing countries or poor countries even harder. As a consequence natural resource-dependent rural households in developing countries are likely to share a disproportionate burden of the adverse impacts of climate change (Agarwal and Perrin 2008 ).

Recent studies shows that climate change has lead to migration of rural communities in search of better livelihood opportunities. Climate change will increase migration due to factors like warming and drying of some region which will lead to decrease in agriculture productions and high precipitation leading to floods in low lying areas (Shamsuddoha and Chowdhury 2009 ). Climate change will especially lead to forced migration of rural communities in developing countries whose livelihood mainly depends on agriculture (Brown 2008 ). Large numbers of people are displaced every year due to floods and drought in most of the developing countries in Asia and it is likely to increase in the coming years (ADB 2012 ). High rate of poverty, population growth, limited landholding size, limited livelihood opportunities and government policies combined with environmental factors have increased forced migration in the global south. According to a report published by International Organization for Migration (IOM), forced migration increases pressure on urban infrastructure and services, undermine economic growth, increases the risk of conflict thereby leading to low human development among the migrants (Brown 2008 ). Migration due to climate change is likely to evolve into a global crisis (Panda 2015 ). In countries like India and Bangladesh, there are many instances of migration leadings to ethnic tension and conflicts. For example, in Assam the presence of Hindustani people coming from central India and Bihar has caused ethnic tensions and violence in the past. Similarly the perceived threat that people from Bangladesh will immigrate to northeastern part of India due to its low population density once climate change intensifies cyclones, floods and sea level rise in the coastal belt of Bangladesh has raised threats of ethnic clashes and violence in the region. Nonetheless there are both positive as well negative impacts of migration. Positive impacts are in the form of remittances that are likely to boast the economy of the household whereas negative impacts are likely to increase the rate of unemployment, illiteracy and slums in the urban areas. Various human development indicators like education, health, sanitation, access to water, and assets might be missing from the migrant.

The link between migration and poverty is complex and dependent on the specific circumstances in which migration takes place. Migration can both cause and be caused by poverty. Poverty can be alleviated as well as exacerbated by migration. In Kerala, India, for example, migration to the Gulf States has caused wages to rise, reduced unemployment, and improved the economic situation of those left behind (Zacharia et al. 2002 ). In other situations, migration does not lead to economic or social improvement. Research on the impact of labour migration in tribal Western India found that for poorer migrants ‘many years of migration have not led to any long-term increase in assets or any reduction in poverty’. However the study also noted that migration offered poor migrants ‘a short-term means to service debt and avoid the more extreme forms of dependency and bondage’ (Mosse et al. 2002 ).

Therefore, it is important to enhance employment opportunities among rural communities who are likely to face the heat of climate change. Our study will explore whether migration has been undertaken as an alternative ways of adapting to climate change.

Majuli River Island

The study mainly focuses on how climate change may have an impact on the livelihood of the people inhabiting Majuli. It is a river Island located in the midst of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India and is recognised as one of the largest river Island in the world. The population of the Island is 1.68 lakh (Go 2011 ) with majority of the population belonging to tribal communities namely Mising, Deori, Sonowal Kacharis. The poverty rate of the Island is high with around 21.47 % (District Admistration, Jorhat, India) of people living below poverty line i.e. less than $2 per day. Due to the intrinsic link between poverty and vulnerability (Adger and Kelly 1999 ), poverty has been kept at the centre while assessing community’s vulnerability to any type of changes. The Island has been constantly affected by flood and erosion. Due to continuous erosion the Island is gradually shrinking in the last century (Table 1 ).

The island is vulnerable to flood and bank erosion which has resulted in the shrinking of the land area. More than 90 % of the population is dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Erosion has been a major problem in the region and every year hectares of agriculture land are eroded along with standing crops. Another problem faced by the people of Majuli is flash flood during the rainy season. Climate change is particularly thought to be adversely affecting the livelihoods in rural locations because of dependence on subsistence agriculture and the vagaries of monsoon rain and unpredictable floods. The impacts of climate change have been felt in the area with continuous shifts in rainfall pattern as well as changes in the temperature. These study mainly focuses on the community’s vulnerability to any type of environmental change mainly climate change and building resilience among the rural communities by enlarging the capability of the people. Pomua, Kumarbari, and Jengrai Chapori are the three villages located in Majuli Island, Jorhat district which were selected as study sites based on the following criteria:

(A) Poor economic conditions: Majority of the population of Majuli are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. As mentioned earlier, due to constant flooding of the region crops are destroyed leading to high-rise in poverty. (B) Vuloods and erosion: Erosion and flood has been a common problem in the Island. Every year during the time of monsoon due to heavy rainfall fall in the region the area is flooded as well as agriculture land are being eroded making the people vulnerable. (C) Small land holdings of households: Most of the farmers have a small land holding of agricultural land that acts as the prime source of household income.

The research was initiated with identification of research problems followed by a literature review and secondary data collection, based on which villages were selected and schedules were prepared to gather the quantitative and qualitative data. Sample populations were identified to conduct the survey and discussions and data were analyzed and interpreted after aggregation.

The following figure depicts the framework followed (Table 2 ).

Selection of villages for the research study

Kumarbari and Jengrai Chapori are the two villages located in Majuli Islands, Jorhat district which were selected as study sites based on the following criteria:

Poor economic conditions (income).

Vulnerability of the villages to flood and erosion.

Land holdings of households.

Agriculture as the prime source of income.

Preparation of schedules

Schedules were prepared to collect quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data was collected from households through a questionnaire, whereas qualitative data was collected through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The questionnaire and the focus group discussion checklist were designed after discussion with a few stakeholders in the village (a NGO called Impact NE, students and community elders who are well informed about the villages.) and secondary data was gathered through literature review.

Questionnaire

The questions in the questionnaire were divided into four categories as follows.

The first section of the questionnaire was intended to gather basic information about the household. It consists of questions on respondent’s name, the social group to which the household belongs their occupation, literacy level, and dependency ratio in the family and agricultural land holdings.

The second section of questionnaire was based on qualitative semi structured questions to gather information on climate change and its impact felt by the respondents. The questions asked were on types of crops cultivated season-wise, changes in rainfall and temperature agricultural pattern and output, incidents and destruction caused by floods, erosion, siltation, adaptation process and migration. The third section of the questionnaire deals with information relating to policies, which includes questions relating to government policies, scheme implementation in the villages etc. This section was prepared based on information gathered from Assam.

Agriculture policy: The last section of the questionnaire was to see the economic status, access to market to sell the agricultural output, the amount of agricultural output sold in the market, and storage for agricultural output of the household.

Sample population: The sample consisted of randomly selected households. Random sample selection is a method, which allows each possible sample to have an equal probability of being picked, and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample. The household survey was conducted among 30 households in each village.

FGD to collect qualitative data

A FGD checklist was prepared and a facilitator was contacted who informed the people in the village about the discussion to be held. Interaction with the concerned group was held at a convenient time and place, in order to not interfere with the time of their livelihood and daily activities. The discussion was recorded to facilitate recall of important issues and informed consent was taken before organizing the interviews. A survey of the village was done which helped immensely to observe the area with the help of villagers and supervisors to know the surroundings of the villages like fields, farming practices, irrigation facilities, and existing education and health infrastructure. It was very helpful to locate and pinpoint various physical aspects of the villages. The concerns and issues discussed in the FGDs revolved around ownership of cultivable land, agriculture pattern and practices, perception on variation in rainfall and temperature, adaptation mechanism to cope with natural calamities like floods and droughts, migration of youth, participation of women in agriculture and decision-making. In each of the three villages, two FGDs were held, one with the males, and females group, except in Pomua village where one FGD was held with males, and mixed group (males and females). The FGDs were held after a gap of 5–10 days of the survey. The FGD were held with both male and female participants to record their gendered experiences of the vagaries of flood and loss of agricultural land.

Sample population: The affected Mishing community was selected for the FGD, the group comprised of both men and women engaged in agriculture and belonging to lower income group.

Data analysis and drawing interpretation:

Data analysis: The data were analyzed according the land holding of the respondent.

The qualitative information collected through focus group discussion (FGD) are collated and documented as case studies.

Results and interpretations

Tribal communities primarily inhabit the three villages and the random sample selected revealed that all the respondents belonged to Mishing tribe. The results of the household survey are analyzed below. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people represented by 90 % in Kumarbari and 93 % in both Pomua and Jengrai Chapori. A few of them work as government employees. Paddy is the main crop cultivated—Kharif ( Boro Dhaan ) in Monsoon, Rabi ( Sali Dhaan ) in winter, and cash crops like mustard oil, black daal, during autumn etc. During the last few years there has been slight change in agricultural pattern and practices; recently, tractors, and chemical fertilizers (urea) have been introduced in the agriculture fields. But traditional methods of cultivation are still predominant among the villagers. Due to constant occurrences of flood, erosion and siltation in Majuli agriculture production has gone down excessively and agriculture production has no longer been profitable thereby impacting the income of the household from agriculture. Along with destruction of crops, property like houses, cattle, etc. are also washed away due to flood. Most of the farmers in Pomua (43.3 %) Jengrai Chapori (30 %) own 1.0–2.0 ha, and in Kumarbari (40 %) own relatively smaller landholding, i.e. 0.5–1.0 ha. Crops are cultivated in three seasons, summer, winter and autumn by the entire sample population. Paddy is the main crop cultivated during summer ( boro dhaan ) and winter ( Sali dhaan ) season; and cash crops like mustard and pulses (black daal) are grown in autumn season.

Rainwater is the major source of irrigation in all the three villages and a very small number of households depend on water pump (summer season: Pomua and Jengrai Chapori—3 ha each, and Kumarbari—7 ha out of which 3 ha own above 2 ha of land). Rainwater is the only source of irrigation for crops grown in winter ( Sali dhaan ) and season (cash crops). Water demand is relatively higher in summers; therefore, there are a few households, which depend on water pump. The overall perception on the impact of the change in rainfall on the agriculture output is that the produce has decreased with the variation in the rainfall, hence leading to a decrease in their income from agriculture.

All the respondents witnessed the loss of property and crops as a result of floods in the villages; they confirmed the occurrence of major floods in 1998, 2007, 2008 and 2013. In addition, they have experienced erosion and siltation of their agriculture land to a large extent; least impact was in Jengrai Chapori (41 %) and most was in Kumarbari (63 %), in Pomua, on an average 54 % of the respondents are affected by erosion and siltation. Flooding, erosion and siltation hampers the growth in agriculture output in turn impacting the income of the household from agriculture.

Therefore, employment opportunity diversification is central to raise their economic status and enhance their adaptive capacity. Although the literacy rate of Majuli is 73.92 % but the number of people attaining higher education is very low. As a result of these the chances of getting employment is very low thereby forcing people to go for unskilled jobs. As education plays an important role in building the capability of the people, therefore education of the people in the Island is crucial. Highest number of literate respondents was in Pomua (93.3 %) village followed by Kumarbari (83.3 %) and Jengrai Chapori (80 %), respectively.

The damages caused by floods and bank erosion is some times irreversible for example the loss of cropland to the river and salt deposition over farmland when the flood water enters the farmers field through embankment breaches and leaves a heavy silt deposit. Over the past 10 years nearly 30 % of the household income is lost due to erratic rainfall and floods. Most of the respondents particularly male observed that silt deposition is a major threat to their farmland besides loss of cultivable land to the river. These hazards compel households to migrate for alterative livelihood opportunities in the cities. Female members are less mobile unlike man and have to stay in the village to look after their children’s and elderly people in the family. They depend on the money send by their husbands and male family members working outside the village.

Result of focus group discussion

Communities living in Majuli cultivate a variety of crops. The annual crop cycle follows the monsoon— Kharif ( Boro Dhaan ) in summer, Rabi ( Sali Dhaan ) in winter, and cash crops like mustard oil, black gram is grown during autumn. During the last few years there has been a slight change in agricultural practices—tractors and chemical fertilizers like urea have been introduced to the farmers field to improve yield per hectare and to make agriculture more productive and linked to market. But traditional methods of cultivation are still predominant among the villagers. Tractors are rented from larger landowners at the rate of Rs. 150 per bigha .

Rainfall has decreased as compared to a few years back. It is also observed that the rainfall generally does not occur timely as it used to be earlier. As a result of this agricultural production has decreased compared to last few years. The focus group discussions also revealed that lots of dust occurs due to less rainfall during winter seasons. Another problem faced by the people of this village is the frequent floods during monsoon months. Major flood occurred in this village during 1998, 2006, 2007, and 2008. There has been huge amount of loss and destruction caused by these floods (Please see Table 3 ). During floods people face problems of sanitation, health etc. The Mishing tribes live in chang ghars (stilt house), which are made of locally available bamboo to live with rising flood water as there households are located close to the swamps and ponds locally known as ( beel ). This method of adaptation has been integrated in the design of the houses built in Mishing villages.

The interviewed groups expressed that the summers are getting warmer and winters are becoming cooler, compared to the previous years. Vector borne diseases like diarrhea, dysentery and jaundice are widespread in the village during summer. Migration has been another major concern faced by the people. People migrate to different states like Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and other parts of Assam to seek employment opportunities as semiskilled laborers in factories and as security guards. The main reasons for migration are lack of adequate employment opportunities in the village as agriculture is the main source of income. Decline in agriculture output and the vulnerability of livelihood to frequent flood and bank erosion is pushing inhabitants to seek seasonal employment outside the island. The government schemes implemented in this village include tractors, agricultural inputs like seed, fertilizers and pesticides, power tiller, 5 hp diesel pump set, 10 hp diesel power thresher for paddy, hand held sprayers are distributed to households having Kisan Credit Card (KCC). The interviewed group expressed that majority of the people don’t receive government schemes. Households with high income and political patronage benefit from these schemes and not the intended relatively poorer families.

Women shares equal rights as that of men. Women are active counterparts of men in agriculture related activities. They help the male counterparts in the field and in processing of agriculture output like trashing paddy, besides doing the household chores. They also share equal responsibility as men in decision-making process. Overall, the impact of climate change (change in rainfall and temperature) has been significant on the lives of the people. Number of people living below poverty line has risen, migration has taken place and more incidences of water related diseases have been reported by two interviews representing Impact NE (a local NGO) present in the group discussion and there has been a overall decrease in agricultural output in the village.

Adaptation strategies

The adaptation processes includes people moving to high areas during flood and generally live in stilt houses ( chang ghars ), which is a process of adaptation they have learned to live with floods. They also grow water resistant paddy in areas that are perennially inundated. The choice of crop cultivation and identification of worst areas affected by flood is based on their place based tacit knowledge. However, these responses are at risk due to the increase in the vagaries of monsoon and flash flood triggered by ice melt in the Himalayas during the pre monsoon season due to rising temperature over the past few years in northern India. All the respondents also mentioned that there is provision of government aid when natural calamities like drought and floods occur in the villages. Migrations have been considered as an alternative way of adaptation to increased floods. To adapt to flood and erosion people mostly youths are migrating to other places within and outside the state in search of employment. They mostly work as security guards, rickshaw pullers etc. in the urban areas. Migration has been a major problem for the people of Majuli as the workforce has been gradually decreasing in the Island. Most of the youth migrate to states like Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra to find employment opportunities as semi-skilled laborers in factories and as security guards.

All the respondents revealed that migration is prevalent in the village because of the lack of job opportunities, better employment elsewhere, poverty and vulnerability of agriculture to frequent flood and bank erosion.

Our research in Majuli has come out with the following revelation. Firstly, the average number of dependents in the family is four and the number of earning member is one, which is relatively high and requires more resources for subsistence. Secondly, the employment diversification in the village is low as majority of the population is dependent on agriculture (90–93 % of population whose primary occupation is agriculture). Thirdly, Lack of employment opportunities in the region has resulted in a very high rate of migration (100 %) to other states. Most of the sample population (83 % in Jengrai Chapori and 80 % in Kumarbari) earn below Rs 2500/-per month as the income, which is primarily from agriculture and there is an overall response that the income is declining as a result of the changes in rainfall (80 % in Pomua, 60 % in Jengrai Chapori, and 100 % in Kumarbari).

Furthermore, the government schemes implemented in these villages are benefiting a very small section, and the beneficiaries are not the poorest households, the perception revealed in the FGD is that benefits are accrued by the households, which have association with the concerned authority. A combined impact of these changes is increasing poverty in the villages, which would weaken the adaptation capacity, and further result in more vulnerability to climate change. Therefore, the concern raised was that employment opportunity diversification is central to raise their economic status and enhance their adaptive capacity.

Majuli river island is vulnerable to climate change as it experiences frequent floods, which induce erosion and siltation. In addition, climate change is taking a toll on the health and well being of the inhabitants as there is a serious problem of water related vector borne diseases. The vulnerability of the population to climate change is high as the adaptation capacity of the village is declining in light of uncertain flooding that disturbs their crop cycle and annual crop calendar. This is reflected in the flood damage data produced by the Brahamapura Board, a nodal agency established by the government of India in the 1980's to manage flood and erosion in the Brahmaputra river basin (see Table 2 ).

To live with floods the Mishing families lives in chang ghars (stilt house) that are made of locally available bamboo; when the damage induced by the floods is greater they move to higher lands. This has been passed down from generation and does not prevent them from flood damages to their cropland and livestock. Therefore their vulnerability to floods will persist.

While seasonal migration acts a safety valve to the imminent hydro hazards induced livelihood crisis, the real solution lies in finding solution through the use of community’s indigenous ecological knowledge that would enhance their per capita income through participation in other activities that are not dependent on land alone. The promotion of cultural tourism can be one of them. Majuli has been nominated twice as a Cultural Landscape for the UNESCO’S World Heritage Site (2012). Its unique Vaisnavait satra culture ( namghars ) attracts tourist from all over the world. The rich cultural tradition of drama, folk music and monasteries own Assamese literary and philosophical texts (locally known as burunjis ) are of unique interest to promote cultural tourism. The need of the hour is to promote tourism sensibly—by highlighting the tangible and intangible heritage of the island—so that the local communities can economically support themselves by engaged in eco-tourism work such as working as tour guides, restaurant owners, boat owners, lodgers and story tellers. They can earn additional income and compensate the loss caused by flood and bank erosion. Similarly institutions like the Brahmaputra Board and policy makers working on natural disaster management as well as the epistemic community should encourage the incorporation of place based knowledge of the community to be intergrade to mainstream flood management planning. The place-based knowledge of the community has historically developed to cope with growing uncertainty with floods. However, due to the erratic nature of floods and cloud burst induced flash floods during the pre-monsoon season farmers crop calendar has been readjusted. The state agriculture department can help the community by incorporating their local understanding of farming in their agriculture improvement programmes.

Therefore the approach to climate change mitigation and disaster risk reduction should be visualised around local knowledge through the engagement of the communities and civil society groups that could work as facilitators in promoting sustainable livelihood. Climate Change can be combatted by developing alternative livelihood opportunities for the community through community driven development programmes and by incorporating local knowledge in disaster management.

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08 february 2018.

The Editor-in-Chief is issuing an editorial expression of concern to alert readers that an allegation of plagiarism has been brought with respect to this article (Das 2016). We have submitted the allegation to the institution where the author was affiliated when the article was written and requested an investigation. The author does not agree with this notice.

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Das, D. Changing climate and its impacts on Assam, Northeast India. Bandung J of Global South 2 , 26 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40728-015-0028-4

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Mineral resources of assam – coal (apsc assam geography notes).

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Mineral Resources of Assam – Coal: Assam Geography

Assam occupies a very significant place in the map of mineral wealth of the country, but Assam is lagging far behind the other states in the matter of proper exploitation of such wealth. Out of the different types of mineral wealth, only four types of mineral wealth, only four types, namely coal, oil and gas, limestone, quartz and clay are being exploited at present.

Coal in Assam at present occurs in the district of Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Tinsukia and Karbi Anglong (Erstwhile Mikir Hills). Due to the bifurcation of Assam most of the coalfields of Garo Hills have gone to the newly state of Meghalaya. In undivided Assam, the most attractive coalfields belong to the Eocene and Oligocene age.

(i)The Lower Eocene of the Garo and Karbi Anglong Hills,

(ii)the Middle Eocene of the Karbi Anglong, and

(iii)the Upper Eocene to Oligocene of the Naga Hills,etc.

The discovery of Coal in Assam took place when the administration of the province was taken over by the British Government. The coal of the Naga Hills near Borhat in Sibsagar district and Jaipur in the present Dibrugarh district was reported by Mr. Jenkins in the year 1838. Coal also reported to have occurred in the Karbi Anglong Lunglai areas. The occurrence exposes a 3.64m seam dipping 12 to 20 degrees to the north-west.

The Coal has overage 4 to 5 per cent moisture, 50 to 57 per cent volatile matter, about 25 per cent volatile matter, about 25 per cent fixed carbon and between 13 to 20 per cent ash,which is very resinous (high volatile matter)type of coal or lignite. There are also records of coals of better quality within 12 miles (19.30 km.) of Lumding. It is stated that coal is also found in the Namber area within Sibsagar district. In the Nazira area with in the same district the coal mines of Borjan and Kanjan (now in Nagaland) have been worked by Messrs. Shaw Wallance and Company. The Nazira coal-field is partly drained by the Saffrai river, which exposes coal measures with in 5 miles (8kms) of Saffrai station. Some of the coal from the Nazira coal-field is among the best in India .Analysis showed that the coal contain 4 to 10 per cent moisture, 36 to 44 per cent volatile matter,under 1 to 4 per cent ash.

Northward from the Disang river at Namrup the coal measures extend north-eastwards into Lakhimpur (undivided).The Jaipur coalfield is now in the present Dibrugarh district and marks the southwestern end of the richest coal-bearing strata (Tikak Parbat Formation) of Upper Assam,which extends onwards beyond Lakhimpur (undivided)into the frontier tract beyond the Tirap river and on to the Namphuk river. Coal fields are also there at Mergherita and Makum areas. All the coal mining operations in the Makum and the Margherita north-eastwards area is conducted by the North Eastern Coal Fields, Coal India Ltd. In succession from the west, the collieries of Margherita area are Namdang, Bargolai, Tikak, Ledo, Lakhapani and Tipong quarry. Mr. G.E. Hines,Geological expert states that the coal measures (Tikak Parbat formation)are of Oligocene age. The thickness of the seams and the excellence of the coal must be unique in India. But the Coal which occurs in the Tikak Parbat Formation of the Barail Group is conducted under many difficulties where the worst natural conditions in India have to be faced. The bottom of 120 metres of this formation is very carbonaceous and includes one seam in the Makum Coalfield varying in thickness from 18 metres to nearly 30 metres and another six metres thick besides a number of thinner ones. The coal-bearing horizon to the south-east of the Makum Coal field is of great areal extent as revealed in the oil wells drilled at Naharkatia and Rudrasagar.

In the Makum coal field alone the reserves have been estimated at 1,000 million tons. The reserves estimated in the Namphuk area is 600 million tons. The hard coke formed in the Makum coal, being high in Sulphur is not used as a metallurgical coke for iron smelting Sulphide ores such as the lead, Copper and Zinc ores of Upper Burma, and the Sulphur could be recovered as Sulphuric Acid. In both the low and the high temperature carbonisation the Gas must be excellent calorific value and therefore useful as fuel in itself.

Among all the districts of Assam, the present district of Tinsukia has huge deposits of coal in comparatively young Tertiary rocks. But the presence of the injurious constituent sulphur and the inaccessibility of the coal fields have impeded large scale exploitation upto Miobum in Arunachal Pradesh. In Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts, coal exposures are found in the Jaipur, Namdang and Ledo areas upto Tipang river. In all cases, the workable coal seams are exposed along the northern flank of the Naga-Patkai Ranges facing Sibsagar and Lakhimpur (undivided) districts. It has been stated earlier that individual coal seams vary in thickness at places from 3.04m to 18.28m. Recently, a 3.04m thick coal seam has been encountered in the Assam Oil Company’s first bore hold at Naharkatiya at a depth of little less than 3048m. The coal is of good quality. The district of Sibsagar is also rich in respect of coal mines. It is mainly mined in Nazira coal field. Coal is also found in the Jhanji and Disoi rivers. The seams in both these cases are few, thin, and highly inclined. The coal have 3.4 per cent to 6.8 per cent moisture, 4.8 to 6.5 per cent ash, 33.8 per cent to 36.9 per cent volatile matter and 52.9 to 54.9 p.c fixed carbon.

The Nazira coal field is nearly twenty-five kilometres long and situated about six kilometres south of Naginimara railway station upto the Dihang river. But except for a small outcrop of coal measures within eight kilometres of Saffrai railway station, the coal field lies in Nagaland.

In Jaipur outcrops of the seams are seen along a strip of forty kilometres long, about half of which lie in Dibrugarh district. A thickness of more than 13.71m of coal in six seams is exposed in the Dilli river. The coal-bearing rocks dip to the east with a high degree of inclination (30o to 80o) on the Sibsagar side the coal is worked out by the Dilli Collieries (Assam) Limited. The Colliery has an area of four square miles (10.36 Sq. Kms.),which was closed in June, 1970.

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Essay on the Natural Resources of Assam

Assam , known as the land of blue hills and red river is a darling of nature. She has lavished upon her abundant natural bounties unseen elsewhere in the country. The state is blessed with rich mineral, water, forest, agricultural and human resources of great potential and value, offering immense possibilities of becoming one of the frontline states of India. The scope of industrialisation, agricultural prosperity and all round economic development are indeed great, if the state’s natural resources are fully tapped and utilised.

Assam is rich in mineral resources. Petroleum, natural gas, coal, and limestone are the state’s principal mineral resources. Among these petroleum is the most important. Oil was first discovered at Digboi as early as 1867. Currently Digboi, Rudrasagar, Narharkatia, Moran, Lakwa, Hugrijan etc. are the leading oilfields of the state. The state’s oil refineries situated at Digboi, Noonmati (Guwahati), Bongaigaon, and Numaligarh not only produce petroleum but also important bye-products such as, crude oil, diesel, kerosene, lubricants, tar, etc.

The availability of natural gas has helped the state to become the chief supplier of L.P.G (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) to the rest of the Northeastern states. The availability of coal and limestone has been instrumental for the development of cement industry in the state.

About 25% of the states land area is under forests. Forests in Assam are rich in valuable trees such as, Sal, Simalu, Saral, Segun, Agar, Bossum, Bamboo, Cane, Medicinal herbs, etc. They also supply fruits, fuel and fodder. These forest resources have helped the growth of forest-based industries such as, plywood and paper industries.

Agar oil extracted from Agaru trees is a valuable product highly demanded all over India. The vast forests of the state not only provide employment to thousands of people but also prevent soil erosion, add fertility to the soil, lower down humidity and temperature and bring about abundant rain in the state. The forest-based tourism centres such as Kaziranga National Park and Manas Sanctuary fetch a good deal of income for the state.

Image Source: india4people.com

The state produces nearly 55% of the total output of tea in the country. Her main agricultural produces are rice, wheat, pulses, potatoes and maize, while chief cash crops consist of tea, jute, oil seeds, tobacco and sugar cane. Many of these agricultural produces are exported to other parts of India bringing a good deal of revenue to the state. Sericulture made much headway in the state. Silk products such as Muga and Endi’ of Assam are world famous.

Assam is gifted by nature with plenty of rainfall and many swift flowing rivers and streams. Therefore the power potential of the state is immense. It is estimated that in the total water potential of India, Assam alone is capable of providing 28%.

The mighty Brahmaputra and its numerous tributaries have great potential for the generation of hydroelectricity. The existence of numerous rivers has also boosted the growth of fishing and fish-rearing industry in the state.

Although, Assam is blessed with an abundant supply of natural resources, yet she remains one of the industrially backward states of India. The apathy of the state govt., the step-motherly treatment of the central govt., constant political instability in the state, recent spurt in militancy, etc. have primarily been responsible for this state of affairs. Some corrective steps have been taken recently in this direction. But a lot more remains to be done if the state wishes to usher an era of prosperity in the state.

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Back to main page, biodiversity of assam – flora & fauna.

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms at all levels of organization, from gene through species to higher taxonomic forms and also includes the variety of ecosystems and habitats as well the processes occurring therein.
Biodiversity is fundamental to the fulfillment of human needs – a biodiversity rich region offers wide options and opportunities for sustaining human welfare including adoption to changes.
India is one of the 17 Mega biodiverse countries in the world and accounts for 7-8 % of the recorded species. The State of Assam is a constituent unit of the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Region; one of the two biodiversity “Hot Spots” in the country.
The climatic condition and wide variety in physical features witnessed in Assam have resulted in a diversity of ecological habitats such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, which harbour and sustain wide ranging floral and faunal species.

The Orchids of Assam

In Assam as many as 293 species of Orchids are reported which represent 44.39% of North East species and 24.42% of species occurring in India.
Orchids as a group of flowering plants exhibit wide range of habits and have specific macro climatic requirements for their growth, development and regeneration.
Assam orchids show all the habits and growth forms found in Orchidaceous taxa. Mostly they are epiphytes. Goodyera procera and Spiranthis sinesis are adapted to aquatic habitant whereas Vanilla pilifera and Galeola altissima are climbers.
Orchids grow to their magnificent best in the Evergreen and Semi- Evergreen forest and to some extent in Moist Deciduous forests. Species belonging to genera Acanthephippium, Anoectochilus, Apostasia, Agrostophyllum, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Eria, Oberonia,, Calanthe, Eulophia, Geodorum, Habenaria, Malaxis, Nephelaphyllum, Vanilla, Zeuxine, Didymoplexis, Galeola, Bulbophyllum, Camarotis are the commonly found orchids.

Bamboos in Assam

Bamboos have gained considerable importance in the socio-economic life of people in Assam for the variety of uses they cater to. Altogether 38 naturally growing species of bamboo are recorded in Assam of which Bamboosa masrtersei is restricted in distribution to Dibrugarh district.
Bamboosa cacharensis, Dinochlora compactiflora, D.india are restricted to Barak Valley. Chimnobabusa griffithiana and Oxetenanthera parviflora are restricted in distribution to N.C.Hills. Bambusa rangaensis grows wild in the Ranga R.F. of Lakhimpur district. Bamboosua vulgaris is the introduced species cultivated throughout Assam as ornamental plant.
Bambusa jaintiana and Melocanna arundiana are the species reported only from Assam. There are no exclusive bamboo forest in the plains of Assam, bamboo grooves are found mostly along the edge of Reserve Forests. But pure bamboo forests occur in N.C Hills and Karbi Anglong districts predominated with Melocanna baccifera and Chimnobambusa griffithiana.
Bamboo is cultivated widely in Assam and every household grows bamboo in its bari land. Commonly cultivated species are Bambusa balcooa (Bhaluka bamboo), Bambusa tulda (Jati bamboo), Malocanna bacciferra (Muli bamboo), Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Koko bamboo) and Dendrocalamus giganteus (Mokalm bamboo).

Cane Diversity

14 species of cane grow in cane brakes in forests of Assam. Calamus flagellum, Calamus floribunadus, Calamus latifolius are found widely distributed throughout Assam. Plectomia assamica and Plectomia bractealis are endemic species.

Medicinal Plant diversity

Assam is home to a good number of plants having medicinal uses in Aurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic and even modern medical practices.
Quite a few of them are used by traditional village practitioners called Bej and people respond favourably to these traditional practitioners particularly in rural areas.
Altogether, 952 plants species have been identified which have uses in medical practices in some form or other. Asparagus racemosa Satmul), Curcuma aromatica (Ban-haldi), Emblica officinalis (bel), Terminalia species (Hilikha, Bahera), Eugenia jambolana(Loha-jam),Garcina species (Thekera), Holarrhina antidysentrica (Dudhkuri), Hydnocarpus kurzii (Chalmugra), Litsea cubeba (Mejankuri), Ocimum species.(Tulsi), Phlogocanthus thyrsiflorus (Titaphul), Piper longum (pipoli), Saraca indica (Asoka), Wedelia calandulacea (Mahabhringraj), Zinziber officinalis (Ada) are some of the most commonly used plants in treatment of various aliments.
But the list is not exhaustive.

Endemic Flora

Endemic flora is plants which occur in a restricted area. Altogether 165 species of plants have been recorded which are restricted in distribution to certain pockets in Assam, though some of them show extended destruction in the N.E. Region and elsewhere in India.
However about 100 such species have distribution restricted to Assam only. These include trees e.g. Accacia gageana, Adiantum assamicum, Alseodaphne andersonii, Alseodaphane khasyana, Angiopteris assamica, Cedrela fabrifuga, Cinnamomum cacharensis, Coelogyne assamica, Combretum wallichii, Dinochloa indica, Diospyros cacharensis, Dipterocarpus mannii, Eugenia cyanophylla, bamboos e.g. Bambusa cacharensis, Bambusa mastersii, Chimnobambusa griffitheana, orchids e.g. Bulbophyllum elassonotum, Bulbophyllum vireus, Dendrobium assamicum etc.

Rare and Endangered Species

From all available account following categories of threatened plants recognized by the IUCN have been reported from Assam.
Extinct: Bambusa mastersii, Cleisostoma arietinum, Cyperus corymbosus, Dendrobium assamicum, Dendrobium aurantiacum, Hetaeria anomala, Liparis stachyurus and Sapria himalayana.
Paphiopedilum specerianum is reported to be extinct in wild. Besides the above; 284 species of plants are observed to be critically endangered, 149 species as endangered, 58 species as vulnerable, 13 species as near threatened.

The Rich Faunal Diversity

Assam is part of the transitional zone between the Indian, Indo- Malayan and Indo- Chinese Biographical regions. Favourable climate, topographic and edaphic factors support luxuriant growth of diverse plant communities and create varied habitats. The Wet Evergreen, Semi-Evergreen, Moist Deciduous, Wet Savannah and riparian forest as well as extensive network of river systems and swamps , marshes and wetlands provide ideal conditions and suitable habitat for sustenance of wide variety of fauna be it mammals, primates, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, mollusks , birds, butterflies, moths etc.
With existence of one of the most diverse faunal population; Assam provides the gateway for spread of both oriental and Palaearctic fauna to other parts of the country.
Assam forms the western most boundary for the Indo-Chinese species including primates and the easternmost limit of several peninsular mammalian fauna.
The distributional extent of several Indian species including clawless otter, the spotted deer, the swamp deer, the stone marlin, the hispid hare, the great Indian one horned rhinoceros, the pigmy hog etc. have terminated in Assam plains. The distributional range of several Indo-Chinese fauna gets its sustenance from this region.
Mention can be made of its sustenance from this region. Mention can be made of such species like clouded leopard, the marbled cat, the golden cat, the spotted linsang, the large Indian civet, the binturong, the crab eating mongoose, the ferret badger, the hog badger, the hoary bamboo rat, the bay bamboo rat etc.
Assam is home to all the primate species found in the North Eastern region. Besides, many of the relict mammalian fauna of peninsular India particularly those occurring in the Western Ghats have close relationship with Assam and N.E region and therefore undoubtedly Assam holds a key place in the evolutionary process of divergence of mammalian fauna in India.
Assam’s mammalian diversity is represented by 193 species which are widely distributed in this region. But of late some of the species like one horned rhinoceros, water buffalo, pigmy hog, swamp deer, golden langur, and hoolock gibbon have their distribution limited to isolated pockets and protected areas.
Out of 15 Indian primate species 9 are found in Assam. Hoolock gibbon is the only ape found in India. The other primate species are golden langur, capped monkey, rhesus macaque, pigtail macaque, stump tailed macaque, Assamese macaque, and slow Lorries. Golden langur or “Sonali Bandar” as it is known locally is confined between Sankosh river in the west; Manas in the east; Brhmaputra in the south and mountains in Bhutan in the north.
Pigtail macaque and stumped tailed macaque locally known as Gahorinejia Bandar and “ Senduiria Bandar” respectively are distributed in the Eastern, central and southern part of the state.
Rhesus macaque, capped monkey and Assamese macaque are more or less distributed through the State.
Assamese macaque and Rhesus monkeys are also found in villages and in urban areas.
Most of the primates are predominately arborcal in nature but Rhesus monkey, Assamese macaque and stump tailed macaque are partly terrestrial also.
Slow Lorries is the only prosimian found in Assam and the N.E. region. Locally known as “Lajuki Bandar” they are solitary animals and obligate canopy dwellers. Because of the habitant loss and fragmentation the primates are facing serious threat to their survival.
Assam is one of the “endemic bird areas” in the world. With 950 bird species the State is home to 53.5% of the bird species found in the Indian Sub- Continent, 17 species of birds are endemic to Assam and include Manipur Bush Quail, Marsh Babbler, Snowy throated Babbler, Tawny breasted Wren Babbler, Blyth’s Tragopan, Beautiful Sibia, Grey sibia, Black breasted Parrotbill, Chestrunt breasted partridge, Rusty breasted shortwig etc.
45 species of birds from Assam find mention in the Indian Red Data Book and include white winged wood duck (Assam’s State Bird), Blyth’s Tragopan, Greater Adjutant, lesser Adjutant, Leser whitefronted Goose, Merbled Teal, Beer’s Pochard, Palla’s Sea Eagle, Greater spotted Eagle, Green Peafowl, White rumped vulture, longbilled vulture etc.
Assam’s varied physiography and habitant conditions support a rich variety of reptilian population. Gangetic gharial, 19 species of tortoises and 77 species of snakes and lizards are found in the state.
Assam and other parts of the N.E. region have 70 species of Amphibions reported from the region. Gangenophis fulleri and Ichthyphis garoensis are endemic to Assam.

Fish Diversity

The Brahmaputra and Barak river system along with their tributaries and flood plain wetlands locally known as beels provide very condusive habitant for an array of fish species, Assam and other parts of N.E. region is recognized as one of the hot spots of fresh water fish biodiversity.
197 food, sports and ornamental fish species are reported from the region of which 185 are reported from Assam.
The important ornamental fish species are colisa, Nemacheilus, Danio, Botia and Chaca. Commercially important fish species include, Rohu, Ktla, Pabha, Pabda Chital, Magur, Singi, Sol, etc. Over exploitation is posing serious threats to fish diversity and 25 species are identified as threatened.
These are amongst most beautiful creatures on earth. Around 1500 species of butterflies are reported from India of which nearly half are reported from Assam and N.E. India.
The Swallowtail butterflies occupy an important place and the IUCN has identified the entire N.E. Region as Swallowtail rich zone under “Swallowtail Conservation Action Plan”.
Butterflies play an important role in pollination of plants and besides being important aesthetically they play important role in biodiversity conservation.

Forest Wealth

From the point of view of area and products, forest wealth occupies a very significant place for the economic development of the State.
Every year the forest Department of the Government of Assam earns crores of rupees as State revenues. It may be mentioned here that except for some wood land grants under the tea estate, most of the forests of Assam are owned by the State.
The acquisition of erstwhile Zamindary forests has brought a substantial part of forest areas to the state control.
Forest areas under the control of the State fall mainly under the broad categories, namely (i) Reserved Forests, (ii) Unclassed State Forests and (iii) Forests under the control of the Autonomous Bodies in the Hills.
The Reserved Forests are by far the most important which can be considered for scientific management.
These forests, besides providing employment and earning handsome revenue to the State, also help for the growth and development of large number of local saw mills, plywood factories, match factory and various other forest-based industries in the State and outside.
Moreover, most of the forest areas are also rich in respect of their wild life. The out turn of the forest wealth includes timber for various constructional purposes, round wood for bridges and for use by the State Electricity Board, for use in the plywood factories,and lastly as firewood for domestic purposes.

Forest and Tree Cover

The estimated tree cover in the state is 1,564 sq km which is 1.99% of geographical area of the state. Forest cover in the state is 27,673 sq km that is 35.28% of the geographical area of the state.
Thus the Forest and tree cover in the state is 29,237 sq km which is 37.27% of the geographical area.

Biodiversity Particulars – Estimated Number of Species

Flowering Plants – 3017
Wild Orchids – 193+
Bamboo – 42
Mammals – 164+
Primates – 10
Bird – 800+ (280 migratory)
Ambhibians – 60+
Butterflies – 1500 approx.
Reptiles – 116 approx.

Pride of Assam Forests

Assam State Animal – One horned Rhino
Assam State Plant – White-Winged Wood Duck
Assam State Tree – Hollong Tree
Assam State Flower – Kapou Phool (Orchid).

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THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF ASSAM
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THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF ASSAM
Mineral Resources : Assam is very rich in mineral resources. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are the principal mineral resources of Assam. Digboi, Rudrasagar, Naharkatia, Moran, Lakua etc. are the famous oil-fields of Assam. The three refineries at Digboi, Noonmati and Bongaigoan produce kerosene,patrol, disel, L. P. gas etc. from the crude oil.
Assam at a Glance
The natural resources of Assam may be classified under the following heads - mineral, forest, water, and agricultural resources. The State is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests, deciduous forests, riverine grasslands, bamboo orchards, and numerous wetland ecosystems.
PDF 11
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Information on natural resources of Assam
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alone earned more than 600 crores i n foreign exchange and more than 1 700 crores in domestic currency. Natural Resources in North East Region of India 55. www.tjprc.org [email protected]. Temi tea ...
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The paper explores climate change induced hydro hazards and its impact on tribal communities in Majuli (largest river island of Brahmaputra River Basin). The island has been experiencing recurrent floods, erosion, and siltation, which has distressed the socio-economic foundation and livelihood of the Mishing—a indigenous community on Northeast India, leading to out migration from the island ...
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It has been stated earlier that individual coal seams vary in thickness at places from 3.04m to 18.28m. Recently, a 3.04m thick coal seam has been encountered in the Assam Oil Company's first bore hold at Naharkatiya at a depth of little less than 3048m. The coal is of good quality.
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Assam is rich in mineral resources. Petroleum, natural gas, coal, and limestone are the state's principal mineral resources. Among these petroleum is the most important. Oil was first discovered at Digboi as early as 1867. Currently Digboi, Rudrasagar, Narharkatia, Moran, Lakwa, Hugrijan etc. are the leading oilfields of the state.
Biodiversity of Assam
Assam's varied physiography and habitant conditions support a rich variety of reptilian population. Gangetic gharial, 19 species of tortoises and 77 species of snakes and lizards are found in the state. Amphibians. Assam and other parts of the N.E. region have 70 species of Amphibions reported from the region.
Wildlife
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2 'Bangladeshi', an epithet, in Assam includes both Hindus and Muslims. It also refers to nationality of the people of Bangladesh. The term Bengali is a contested one. It means Bangla speakers for some; for others, anyone with East Bengal ancestry is Bengali. Bongal also refers to Bengalis since the mid twentieth century in Assam.

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