creative writing study material

Elements of Creative Writing

(2 reviews)

J.D. Schraffenberger, University of Northern Iowa

Rachel Morgan, University of Northern Iowa

Grant Tracey, University of Northern Iowa

Copyright Year: 2023

ISBN 13: 9780915996179

Publisher: University of Northern Iowa

Language: English

Formats Available

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Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Jeanne Cosmos, Adjunct Faculty, Massachusetts Bay Community College on 7/7/24

Direct language and concrete examples & Case Studies. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Direct language and concrete examples & Case Studies.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

References to literature and writers- on track.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

On point for support to assist writers and creative process.

Clarity rating: 5

Direct language and easy to read.

Consistency rating: 4

First person to third person. Too informal in many areas of the text.

Modularity rating: 5

Units are readily accessible.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Process of creative writing and prompts- scaffold areas of learning for students.

Interface rating: 5

No issues found.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The book is accurate in this regard.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

Always could be revised and better.

Yes. Textbook font is not academic and spacing - also not academic. A bit too primary. Suggest- Times New Roman 12- point font & a space plus - Some of the language and examples too informal and the tone of lst person would be more effective if - direct and not so 'chummy' as author references his personal recollections. Not effective.

Reviewed by Robert Moreira, Lecturer III, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 3/21/24

Unlike Starkey's CREATIVE WRITING: FOUR GENRES IN BRIEF, this textbook does not include a section on drama. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Unlike Starkey's CREATIVE WRITING: FOUR GENRES IN BRIEF, this textbook does not include a section on drama.

As far as I can tell, content is accurate, error free and unbiased.

The book is relevant and up-to-date.

The text is clear and easy to understand.

Consistency rating: 5

I would agree that the text is consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

Text is modular, yes, but I would like to see the addition of a section on dramatic writing.

Topics are presented in logical, clear fashion.

Navigation is good.

No grammatical issues that I could see.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

I'd like to see more diverse creative writing examples.

As I stated above, textbook is good except that it does not include a section on dramatic writing.

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Chapter One: One Great Way to Write a Short Story
• Chapter Two: Plotting
• Chapter Three: Counterpointed Plotting
• Chapter Four: Show and Tell
• Chapter Five: Characterization and Method Writing
• Chapter Six: Character and Dialouge
• Chapter Seven: Setting, Stillness, and Voice
• Chapter Eight: Point of View
• Chapter Nine: Learning the Unwritten Rules
• Chapter One: A Poetry State of Mind
• Chapter Two: The Architecture of a Poem
• Chapter Three: Sound
• Chapter Four: Inspiration and Risk
• Chapter Five: Endings and Beginnings
• Chapter Six: Figurative Language
• Chapter Seven: Forms, Forms, Forms
• Chapter Eight: Go to the Image
• Chapter Nine: The Difficult Simplicity of Short Poems and Killing Darlings

Creative Nonfiction

• Chapter One: Creative Nonfiction and the Essay
• Chapter Two: Truth and Memory, Truth in Memory
• Chapter Three: Research and History
• Chapter Four: Writing Environments
• Chapter Five: Notes on Style
• Chapter Seven: Imagery and the Senses
• Chapter Eight: Writing the Body
• Chapter Nine: Forms

Back Matter

• Contributors
• North American Review Staff

Ancillary Material

• University of Northern Iowa

About the Book

This free and open access textbook introduces new writers to some basic elements of the craft of creative writing in the genres of fiction, poetry, and creative nonfiction. The authors—Rachel Morgan, Jeremy Schraffenberger, and Grant Tracey—are editors of the North American Review, the oldest and one of the most well-regarded literary magazines in the United States. They’ve selected nearly all of the readings and examples (more than 60) from writing that has appeared in NAR pages over the years. Because they had a hand in publishing these pieces originally, their perspective as editors permeates this book. As such, they hope that even seasoned writers might gain insight into the aesthetics of the magazine as they analyze and discuss some reasons this work is so remarkable—and therefore teachable. This project was supported by NAR staff and funded via the UNI Textbook Equity Mini-Grant Program.

About the Contributors

J.D. Schraffenberger  is a professor of English at the University of Northern Iowa. He is the author of two books of poems,  Saint Joe's Passion  and  The Waxen Poor , and co-author with Martín Espada and Lauren Schmidt of  The Necessary Poetics of Atheism . His other work has appeared in  Best of Brevity ,  Best Creative Nonfiction ,  Notre Dame Review ,  Poetry East ,  Prairie Schooner , and elsewhere.

Rachel Morgan   is an instructor of English at the University of Northern Iowa. She is the author of the chapbook  Honey & Blood , Blood & Honey . Her work is included in the anthology  Fracture: Essays, Poems, and Stories on Fracking in American  and has appeared in the  Journal of American Medical Association ,  Boulevard ,  Prairie Schooner , and elsewhere.

Grant Tracey   author of three novels in the Hayden Fuller Mysteries ; the chapbook  Winsome  featuring cab driver Eddie Sands; and the story collection  Final Stanzas , is fiction editor of the  North American Review  and an English professor at the University of Northern Iowa, where he teaches film, modern drama, and creative writing. Nominated four times for a Pushcart Prize, he has published nearly fifty short stories and three previous collections. He has acted in over forty community theater productions and has published critical work on Samuel Fuller and James Cagney. He lives in Cedar Falls, Iowa.

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Creative Writing Handbook - Becoming a Complete Writer in all Genres

This book is for and about amazing you. It contains three main parts beyond this section. The next, ‘Creatives’ and ‘Control’ explores each notion separately. Part three examines the all-important G-forces: Grail and Grails. Discussions in this chapter underpin the thematic title and core pursuit of this book – aiding writers to identify and tightly define the core goal or goals that they desire to realize from their textual quests and conquests. Part four explores 17 popular writing genres and provides an original example of each. Four of these illustrations are first-time attempts by this writer to compose a script in a foreign discipline that is outside his comfort zone and areas of interest. May these modest, raw offerings embolden you to likewise experiment at becoming a complete writer. The penultimate chapter, Part five, explores six topics that may aid writers to answer the holy grail writer’s question, as defined by this author. These topics in order are: Spelling, scripts, styles, solo writing, champions (i.e., role models) and circulation. This book does not aim to teach readers how to develop most technical skills required of competent writers. Open-access and commercial literature available on these topics are mature. Engaging these topics are best served by a medley of resources such as handbooks, video presentations, college curricula and years of dedicated writing practice. Part I Publishers’ edition © Jericho 15 The concluding part of most sections and each chapter is titled ‘Further reading’. These parts offer one or two open-access resources that explore material discussed in that section/chapter in further detail. The principal pursuit of this book aims to help you to identify the core goal/s that may motivate you to be the best writer possible in your chosen fields. There is a dearth of literature that unravels this all-important journey. This book is suitable for informal educational settings and structured teaching environments. It may support writers of all skill levels who thrive from learning solo, in groups or a mixture thereof. It may also guide Creative Writing Professors who teach applied education courses at all levels – from certificate to Graduate-level coursework. Creative writing author authors authorship publication publishing self-publishing self-publication writing creativity Creative Writing 101

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10 Best Creative Writing Courses for 2024: Craft Authentic Stories

Learn how to tell your story and engage your readers with great storytelling.

As a lifelong literature enthusiast, I decided to challenge myself in 2010 by participating in NaNoWriMo (National Novel Writing Month), which tasks participants with writing a 50,000-word draft within a month. Although I’ve only achieved this goal twice since then, the experience has been invaluable. I’ve connected with a wonderful community of writers, both online and in person.

Through my experience, I can confidently say that creative writing is a skill that can be developed and honed, just like any other. While traditionally associated with literature, creative writing is increasingly being recognized as a powerful tool in various forms of writing, from copywriting and storytelling to novels and poetry. It has the ability to captivate readers and elevate the impact of written expression.

If you’re searching for the best online Creative Writing courses and resources, you’ve come to the right place. This Best Courses Guide (BCG) is built from Class Central’s catalog of over 300 Creative Writing courses and selected according to a methodology that you can check below.

Click on the shortcuts for more details:

What is Creative Writing?

Courses overview, why you should trust us, how we made our picks and tested them, here are our top picks.

Click on one to skip to the course details:

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Creative writing is a genre of writing that seeks to evoke emotions and feelings in its readers. It surpasses the limits of traditional forms of literature and emphasizes narrative craft, character development, and the use of literary tropes and poetic traditions. Creative writing finds application in various forms of writing, including screenplays, plays, novels, poems, and other written works. In this guide, I will delve into some of its most popular facets.

Enhancing resilience and creativity through writing

Research shows that the brains of professional writers work differently from those of novice writers. Moreover, creative writing has been found to boost resilience in students . If you want to enjoy the benefits of writing, it’s important to develop the habit of jotting down your thoughts and words. Doing so can help you overcome writer’s block.

Creative writing is so powerful that it’s used in prisons to give inmates a chance to express themselves in programs like PEN America . “By providing resources, mentorship, and audiences outside the walls, we help these writers to join and enrich the broader literary community.”

Creative writing is a skill that can be learned and practiced like any other. Techniques such as ABDCE structure, 1st or 3rd person point of view, “show don’t tell”, dialogues, and tropes can be easily learned through the online courses in this guide.

• Together, they account for over 1M enrollments
• Skillshare, with 2 courses, is the most featured provider
• The single most popular course has nearly 400k enrollments
• Three courses are entirely free or free-to-audit.

Best Fantasy And Short-Stories Writing Lessons For Beginners (Brandon Sanderson)

Besides being an awesome writer, Sanderson is an instructor with a very unique talent for keeping us engaged. He has also made available a full course in creative writing on YouTube , originally presented at Brigham Young University, which includes the most crucial tools for any beginner or even experienced writers. The course is comprehensive and rich in content, with great sound and video quality.

Each video discusses a specific tool or technique, so you can easily select the theme you want to explore next or watch it all in sequence. It’s up to you. I recommend you take your time, watch one video at a time and experiment with each concept, or even better, find a writing buddy or form a group to practice writing together.

What you’ll learn:

• Plot construction, character development, and engaging storytelling
• Techniques for crafting immersive worlds and believable viewpoints
• Insights into the publishing industry, tailored for emerging writers
• Strategies for writing compelling short stories and leveraging them for larger projects.

“Very informative! I’m a beginner writer looking to study writing for video games, and this class gave me a lot of helpful tools to start understanding how stories work/how to organize my ideas! Will definitely be returning to some of these lectures in the future for guidance 👍” – Paige Webster

Best University-level Creative Writing Course (Wesleyan University)

Creative Writing by Wesleyan University is a specialization for those looking for a way to improve their writing structure, scene and character creations and finding your style. Each course includes writing practice (for paying learners) and insightful interviews. It’s worth your time and effort if you are a disorganized writer like myself.

• Techniques for crafting a bracing story with memorable characters and an interesting setting
• How to employ a fresh descriptive style in your writing
• Skills for analyzing and constructively evaluating peer writing
• The ability to refine your writing, critique writing in general, and draw inspiration from existing literature
• The process of drafting, rewriting, and completing an original story in the genre of your choosing.

It should be noted that the peer-grading system often lacks depth. However, the assignments are well-crafted and can be easily evaluated with minimal effort, providing some insights from other participants in the form of feedback or inspiration from their submissions.

“Great information about plot and scene structure. The information about revision was entirely new to me – thank you! The exercises were good and difficult in a good way that helped me hone my writing.” – Laura B, Coursera learner

Best Course to Find Your Voice (Neil Gaiman)

Neil Gaiman is currently one the most prolific writers I know of: he’s written books , comics , movies and even TV shows . Even if you’re not a fan of his style, there is definitely something you can learn from him.

In Neil Gaiman Teaches The Art Of Storytelling you will discover Neil’s philosophy on what drives a story and learn to unlock new stories within yourself.

While MasterClass doesn’t sell single courses, a subscription provides access to their entire library, including other writing courses like Margaret Atwood Teaches Creative Writing , Dan Brown Teaches Writing Thrillers , Malcolm Gladwell Teaches Writing , and James Patterson Teaches Writing . If you are considering the purchase, you should definitely enjoy the rest of their catalog.

By the end of this course, you will be able to:

• Discover and develop your unique writing voice
• Generate and develop original ideas
• Create dynamic, well-rounded characters that come to life on the page.

This course includes a 94-page workbook that includes assignments and supplemental material.

Best Practical Writing Course With Support (Trace Crawford)

I love it when a passionate teacher like Trace Crawford puts the effort into creating a comprehensive curriculum. COMPLETE Creative Writing – All Genres is a 12-hour course with 145 downloadable resources. In this course, you will learn how to write engaging fiction, poetry, drama, and creative non-fiction, helping you become the successful writer you want to be.

• The four genres of creative writing: fiction, poetry, drama, and creative non-fiction
• How to discover, refine, and share your unique writing voice
• A series of authentic writing assignments designed to target the skills you need to develop
• Writing techniques, literary devices, and specialized skills to enhance your writing
• Opportunities for publishing, podcasts, and how to create a professional creative writing portfolio
• Discover multiple public outlets to share your writing with others as you gain confidence and experience success in your writing ability.

This is a practical creative writing course that includes assignments reviewed by the instructor, though response time may vary.

“The short snippets of theory in combination with the short assignments suits my learning style. I don’t remember the last time I’ve written anything creative, but this course gave me the incentive to set some foundation and its actually quite enjoyable if you stick to it.” – Nikolaos-Stylianos Z., Udemy learner

Best Course to Overcome Writer’s Block: 10-Day Journaling Challenge (Emily Gould)

I couldn’t resist adding Creative Writing for All: A 10-Day Journaling Challenge to this guide. Emily Gould is a delightful instructor, and her approach to inviting you to participate in the challenge is impossible to decline. It’s the perfect course to overcome writer’s block, which is exactly what she proposes. In this 10-day creative writing challenge, filled with inspiring examples, observation prompts, and clever revision tricks, writers and enthusiasts will be able to express their creativity in a personal and artful way.

This course is the shortest one on the list, and it’s more about the challenge of keeping a journal. If you decide to subscribe to Skillshare, you can also enjoy their entire library of courses. In addition to the other two recommended courses on this list, you can also check out these other Skillshare courses: Writing Suspense: How to Write Stories That Thrill in Any Genre and The Writer’s Toolkit: 6 Steps to a Successful Writing Habit .

Best Course to Create Fiction From Personal Experience (Shaun Levin)

Shaun’s approach to writing in Short Story Writing: Create Fiction from Personal Experience is an unusual one. It draws from your personal experience to create a compelling fictional story. I can say from experience that this technique will help you write with more depth and authenticity. Every time we bring our own life to the story, it becomes alive, believable and relatable. In a way, all fictional stories are based on the author’s life.

This course will help you with techniques and a series of practical exercises to start writing your scenes from a more philosophical point of view, creating compelling stories. You’ll learn how to delve into your imagination to find everything you’ll need to become a prolific writer, no matter where you are.

By the end of the course, you will have a final project that will receive feedback from Shaun and other learners as well. Actually, if you want to check it out, in the course page on Domestika you can open the submitted projects and read the comments.

Shaun’s other courses: Creative Writing for Beginners: Bringing Your Story to Life .

“A practical course. Shaun Levin talks about theory but also demonstrates his process, which was invaluable. The exercises got my creative juices flowing. Thinking about doing his other course in the future.” – Maya Dicheva

Best Course to Make Writing Less Stressful with Best Practices (Jennie Nash)

If you struggle to start or get stuck in your writing, Write Your Book: Start Strong and Get It Done can help. With good advice and emotional support, you’ll learn techniques to make writing less stressful. The accompanying workbook guides you to think methodically by asking the right questions to keep you focused on your story and not chasing your own tail.

In this class, you’ll learn how to:

• Design every element of your novel or memoir, including the protagonist, plot, story structure and a project success plan
• Define your narrator’s voice
• Determine where your story begins and where it ends
• Decide what point you’re making about human nature
• Make sure you’re giving your ideal reader exactly what they want
• Gain the confidence you need to push past any doubts and finish your book.

This course is more of a masterclass, so there are no assignments included but it teaches good practices and provides a very useful workbook.

Best Course to Create A Compelling Story (Lisa Cron)

Writing: The Craft of Story is a series of well-produced lectures covering the basic building blocks of a story. Taught by author Lisa Cron, you will learn how to create compelling stories based on the way the brain responds to storytelling. This course emphasizes the importance of capturing the reader’s attention through techniques such as suspense, exploring the protagonist’s inner issues and dreams, specificity, and cause and effect. Upon completion of the quizzes, you will receive a certificate for your LinkedIn profile. Additionally, you can watch all the videos without subscribing to the course.

“Learning the fundamentals of crafting a story was and is a fascinating experience. And yes, I would highly recommend writing to anyone interested in learning how to express the communication of feeling.” – Nicole Gillard, LinkedIn learner.

Best Course to Write Personal Essays with Impact (Roxane Gay)

Discover the art of crafting powerful personal essays with best-selling author Roxane Gay in her course, Creative Writing: Crafting Personal Essays with Impact . Through her honest and thoughtful approach, Roxane will help you find your story, craft your truth, and write to make a difference.

This master class offers eight video lessons that are filled with practical guidance, actionable tactics, and example essays to guide you from the first idea to a final, publication-ready work.

You’ll learn how to:

• Find a specific purpose for telling your story
• Connect your work to larger conversations and timely themes
• Conduct crucial research to support your work
• Navigate personal memories to write your truth
• Write and revise your final work, and submit your work for publication.

Additionally, the class provides a downloadable worksheet to support your ongoing creative nonfiction writing practice, as well as links to additional resources.

If you enjoy creative nonfiction writing, you might consider this course that’s also on Skillshare: Creative Nonfiction: Write Truth with Style (Skillshare Original) by Susan Orlean

Best Course to Develop Your Ideas And Research for Characters (The Open University)

Start Writing Fiction explores the writing process, from journaling and idea development to reflection and editing. It features insights from established writers such as Louis de Bernières, Patricia Duncker, Alex Garland, Abdulrazak Gurnah, Tim Pears, Michèle Roberts, and Monique Roffey,  who share their approaches to research and turning events into plot. Led by Derek Neale, a novelist and short story writer, this course provides a comprehensive understanding of the writing rituals and techniques used by successful writers.

You’ll get to critique the work of other writers and receive feedback. This course is designed for individuals interested in starting or improving their fiction writing and does not require prior experience in the subject.

You’ll learn:

• Creation of characters in fiction
• Different sources and ways of presenting characters in stories
• Reading as a writer
• Writing practice including creativity, research, observation and editing
• Peer reviewing, workshops and the importance of feedback.

“This course takes learners through many aspects of writing such as developing characters, observing and describing details, finding inspiration, writing and editing. It includes some peer reviews which can be varying in quality. I was lucky enough to have some of my writing reviewed by a reviewer who gave very helpful and positive feedback.” – Pat Bowden

What’s Next

Scribophile is one of the largest online writing communities. You can get feedback on your writing and join writing groups. If you decide to join with a free plan, you need to collect points by reviewing other writers’ work before submitting your own work for review. They also developed some advanced tools for evaluating work and guidelines to make sure you give/receive feedback that is actually meaningful.

NaNoWriMo started out as a month-long challenge where you invite your friends and join other writers in your region, be it online in their forums or in person, to challenge yourself in writing your first draft. Nowadays, they run all-year round writing challenges (but November is still the biggest one in terms of participation). What is cool about it is you actually get to meet people in real life with various writing skills and backgrounds. I was able to make some great friends over the years and even met a few professional writers that decided to join our local group just to support us.

If you have any resources you would like to have added here, leave a comment below.

Class Central , a Tripadvisor for online education, has helped 60 million learners find their next course. We’ve been combing through online education for more than a decade to aggregate a catalog of 200,000 online courses and 200,000 reviews written by our users. And we’re online learners ourselves: combined, the Class Central team has completed over 400 online courses, including online degrees.

Trying to find “the best” can be daunting, even for those of us who live and breathe online courses. Here’s how I approached this task.

First, I combed through Class Central’s Catalog and the internet to find a variety of free and paid open courses, some with certificates. You don’t need to enroll in a university to learn about creative writing.

When choosing courses, I considered the following factors:

• Renowned Institutions : I looked for recognized institutions in creative writing
• Instructor experience : I sought instructors with extensive experience in creative writing and engaging presentation styles
• Popularity : I checked numbers of enrollments and views to find popular courses
• Course content : I examined courses that covered a range of topics and presentation styles, including the basics and more advanced topics. I watched some course videos to sample courses I hadn’t already taken
• Learner reviews : I read learner reviews (when available) to get a sense of the quality of each course, leveraging the Class Central database with its thousands of course ratings and reviews written by our users as well as available course provider reviews.

Then, I defined the scope for these recommendations. A creative writing course can cover various topics, so I chose top courses from a range of sub-fields.

Ultimately, I used a combination of data and my own judgment to make these picks. I’m confident these recommendations will be a reliable way to learn about creative writing.

Fabio Dantas

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The Writing University

Menu drawer options, free online course material: creative writing mooc-packs.

These deliverable online creative writing courses are free, ready to use out-of-the-box & available immediately

As many schools pivoted to online learning during COVID, the University of Iowa provided resources and teaching materials for instructors to use immediately for creative writing courses everywhere. The International Writing Program at the University of Iowa has been creating free Creative Writing MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) for several years, and has accumulated a rich archive of these online courses, offered as "MOOC-Packs."

These MOOC-Packs are deliverable online creative writing courses, ready to use out-of-the-box, available immediately , for all teachers and students who need to transition to online courses. A MOOC-Pack provides a MOOC’s core content, packaged with a how-to guide and extra instructional materials. Using a MOOC-Pack, anyone can lead a writing class or a study group.

You can access all free MOOC-Packs on the IWP Distance Learning website .

ACCESS MOOC-PACK COURSES

MOOC-Packs Available

• Hidden Meanings : Creative Fiction, Non-fiction, and Facts  
• Stories of Place : Writing and the Natural World  
• Moving the Margins : Fiction and Inclusion  
• Power of the Pen : Identities and Social Issues in Poetry and Plays  
• Power of the Pen : Identities and Social Issues in Fiction and Nonfiction  
• Fiction: Storied Women MOOC-Pack (Arabic) كيف تكتب الكاتبات القصص: نساء حاكيات  
• Fiction: Storied Women MOOC-Pack (Spanish) Cómo los escritores escriben ficción: Mujeres en la narración Este MOOC-Pack lo guiará a través de un estudio progresivo de cómo los autores de todas partes del mundo abordan los diferentes aspectos de la escritura de ficción, desde la voz y el diálogo, hasta la trama y la estructura narrativa  
• Whitman's Civil War : Writing and Imaging Loss, Death, and Disaster  
• #Flashwrite Teen Poetry MOOC  
• How Writers Write Fiction I  
• How Writers Write Fiction II  
• How Writers Write Poetry I  
• How Writers Write Poetry II  
• Every Atom: Walt Whitman's "Song of Myself"  

All teachers and students of creative writing worldwide can access these free classes and implement the lessons into their coursework immediately. Updates and new material will be posted ongoing here as well.

For questions, contact the IWP Distance Learning staff .

Additional Resources

We will be updating this page and website with more online teaching resources. For an actively edited creative writing resources list, you can also view this co-authored and rapidly evolving resource, Teaching in the Context of Coronavirus , with contributors including: Jacqueline Wernimont and Cathy N. Davidson.

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The Cambridge Introduction to Creative Writing

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Creative writing is loosely defined as more or less any form of original writing: anything that involves creativity and ‘making things up’. It can therefore be defined simply as writing that falls outside the usual bounds of journalistic, academic, technical or professional writing.

Creative writing is generally considered to encompass all fiction writing, as well as poetry, and many people also include writing plays and screenplays.

The focus of creative writing is generally, but not invariably, on the narrative arc and character development. It is therefore very different from writing such as journalistic writing , which may aim to tell stories, but is focused on facts.

Elements of Creative Writing

There are many different forms of creative writing, and they all have their own features. However, many types of creative writing also share some common features. These include:

1. A strong plot or narrative arc

The plot, also known as the ‘narrative arc’, is the unique ‘story’ of your writing. It describes what happens to your characters.

It is fair to say that this is a feature of all creative writing, and is effectively what distinguishes it from other forms of writing. Without a story, you are simply providing facts. There is a place for that—but it is not creative writing.

A plot does not have to cover a long period of time, or even have a clear ending. If you consider many short stories, they are very much a snapshot in time. You enter the characters’ lives at a particular point, and often leave them shortly afterwards. You do not necessarily know what happens next. Some of the most frightening stories are those where your imagination fills in the gaps (a good example of this is Daphne Du Maurier’s short story The Birds , later made into a film by Alfred Hitchcock).

Even a poem has a story (see box).

Narrative arc in poetry

It is possible to suggest that much poetry, especially more modern poetry is not a ‘story’, but is about feelings and emotions. However, that does not mean that it has no narrative arc.

Consider Robert Frost’s poem The Road Not Taken, which ends

“Two roads diverged in a wood, and I— / I took the one less traveled by, / And that has made all the difference.”

Most people are only aware of these last few couplets. However, the poem has four verses, setting out the poet’s situation (standing in a wood, having to choose between two possible roads), and his feelings about that. He then looks ahead to the future, and how he will one day look back on this and recognise the importance of the moment.

The road is undoubtedly metaphorical. However, there is still a clear plot and story to the poem.

2. Character development

The second feature of creative writing is the creation of characters, and their development over the course of the writing.

In this context, ‘development’ can describe either changes in the character themselves, or a change in the reader’s understanding of the character.

For example, in Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol , Ebenezer Scrooge, the main character, undergoes an epiphany in the course of the book, and his character completely changes.

However, by contrast, in Daphne Du Maurier’s Rebecca , the unnamed heroine—and by extension, the reader—learns more and more about her husband’s former wife over the course of the book, and comes to appreciate that all is not what it seemed on the surface.

3. A characteristic use of language

One of the features that distinguishes creative writing is the wide diversity of language use.

Creative writers often, if not always, provide visual descriptions of locations and people. This is because their readers need to be able to imagine the characters and scenes—and providing more descriptions makes this process easier.

Writers like J.R.R. Tolkien spent years creating imaginary worlds. They wanted their readers to share their vision of these worlds in as much detail as possible.

Creative writing also often features a more vivid use of language. Metaphors, similes, adjectives and adverbs abound. Unlike business writing, it is not a matter of ‘more concise often equals better’. In creative writing, more can definitely be more.

4. An underlying theme or message

Some people suggest that every piece of creative writing has an underlying theme or message.

It is certainly true that there can be some very strong underlying themes, especially in certain types of writing. For example, many fantasy novels are very much ‘good vs. evil’, usually with a strong undertone of ‘coming of age’ of characters. Journeys within books are often metaphors for a character’s own journey of development, with a sense of ‘homecoming’ or ‘journey’s end’ towards the end of the story.

This idea of an underlying theme is interesting, because it is arguable that it is not always intentional.

In other words, it is not clear whether writers sit down and decide on this underlying theme, or whether it develops with the writing. It certainly does not seem to be necessary to have a clear ‘message’ in mind in writing—and certainly not a moral one. However, there is also something intensely human about wanting to draw lessons from experience.

The real question is: does the writer do this, or is this part of what happens during the reading process?

5. An emotional appeal

Creative writing has to appeal to our emotions. Otherwise, we might as well read non-fiction.

Writers have to create this emotional appeal, but it is often part of the other aspects of a piece of creative writing. For example, writers develop strong characters, with an appealing story arc. Readers empathise with those characters, and care what happens to them. If the writer does not create interesting characters, the reader loses interest.

It therefore seems likely that the most important aspect of creating emotional appeal is that you, the writer, care about your characters and what happens to them.

After all, if you don’t care, why would anyone else?

Developing Creative Writing Skills

Creative writing is a skill like any other form of writing. It therefore follows that you can develop that skill.

However, it can be much harder to do that than with many other forms of writing. It is, for example, harder to get external opinions about your writing without going on a course (see box).

Creative writing courses and teaching

Many universities and schools offer courses in creative writing. Some of these may be general, and others may have a more specific focus, such as writing for films or screen.

If you want to pursue an interest in creative writing, but you are struggling to get started, one of these courses may be right for you.

However, as with any other course, it is worth doing your research to ensure that you will get value for money.

You can also find plenty of advice and creative writing exercises online, some of which are free. It may be worth trying some of these first, to see if they are sufficient to get you started.

A final thought

Writing is a very personal process.

Nobody can tell you how writing ‘should’ be for you, especially creative writing. Everyone works differently, and the process of developing characters and stories is different for every writer.

Probably the best advice is simply to start writing, keeping in mind the elements listed here, and then seek feedback from those around you.

Continue to: Top Tips for Writing Fiction Storytelling in Business

See also: Writing for Children Writing for Pleasure Common Mistakes in Writing

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For example, if you study a 60-credit module and successfully pass it, you will be awarded 60 credits.

BA (Honours) English Literature and Creative Writing

This degree offers a stimulating and wide-ranging introduction to English literature and creative writing. You’ll have the opportunity to study and interpret literature from different historical periods and diverse cultural settings – including translations – and to develop your writing skills in several genres including fiction; poetry; life writing; and scriptwriting for film, radio and stage. The emphasis is very much on practice through guided activities to develop a habit for writing which will involve producing several pieces of creative writing in the forms studied.

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• Learn how to analyse a wide range of texts including fiction, poetry and drama
• Develop and reflect on your own writing and editorial practice in several genres
• Learn the skills of complex argument and critical commentary, which are highly valued in the workplace
• Introduces the world of publishing and the requirements of professional presentation 

Find out more about Entry requirements

This degree has three stages, each comprising 120 credits.

• You’ll start Stage 1 with a broad introduction to the arts and humanities before learning how culture affects the creative process of writing.
• Next, in Stage 2 , you'll focus on your creative writing and English literature studies with two compulsory modules.
• Finally, in Stage 3 , you’ll complete your degree with an advanced creative writing module and an advanced literature module.  

Prepare for OU study with an Access module

Stage 1 (120 credits).

In Stage 1 you'll encounter a variety of different times and places and engage with some fascinating people, art works, ideas and stories. This broad foundation will help you develop the skills and the confident, open approach you need to tackle more specialist modules at Stages 2 and 3.

Stage 2 (120 credits)

In Stage 2 you’ll be introduced to the creative process, develop your fiction, poetry and life writing skills, and learn about the publishing process. You’ll also choose between looking at whether literature matters by drawing on a range of literary texts and finding out about the ways in which writers of fiction have put together their stories.

Stage 3 (120 credits)

At Stage 3 you’ll develop your writing ability, learning how to sustain longer, more complex works of fiction, life writing and poetry. You'll also learn how to write dramatic scripts for different media. This final stage gives you a choice between two different periods in English literature to focus on.  

We regularly review our curriculum; therefore, the qualification described on this page – including its availability, its structure, and available modules – may change over time. If we make changes to this qualification, we’ll update this page as soon as possible. Once you’ve registered or are studying this qualification, where practicable, we’ll inform you in good time of any upcoming changes. If you’d like to know more about the circumstances in which the University might make changes to the curriculum, see our Academic Regulations or contact us . This description was last updated on 19 March 2024 .

Accessibility

Our qualifications are as accessible as possible, and we have a comprehensive range of support services. Our BA (Honours) English Literature and Creative Writing uses a variety of study materials and includes the following elements:

• Online study – most modules are online; some have a mix of printed and online material. Online learning resources could include websites, audio/video, and interactive activities
• Pre-determined schedules – we’ll help you to develop your time-management skills
• Assessment in the form of short-answer questions and essays
• Feedback – continuous assessment includes feedback from your tutor and using this to improve your performance
• Using and producing diagrams and screenshots
• Finding external/third-party material online
• Accessing online catalogues and databases
• Specialist material, such as films and dramatic scripts for different media
• Mathematical and scientific expressions, notations and associated techniques
• Online tutorials

Every module has its own Accessibility Statement with more detailed accessibility information – you’ll find these on individual module descriptions. Visit our  Disability support  page to learn about our services.

Learning outcomes, teaching and assessment

This qualification develops your learning in four main areas:

• Knowledge and understanding
• Cognitive skills
• Practical and professional skills

The level and depth of your learning gradually increases as you work through the qualification. You’ll be supported throughout by the OU’s unique style of teaching and assessment – which includes a personal tutor to guide and comment on your work; top quality course texts; elearning resources like podcasts, interactive media and online materials; tutorial groups and community forums.

Credit transfer

If you have already studied at university level, you may be able to count it towards your Open University qualification – which could save you time and money by reducing the number of modules you need to study. At the OU we call this credit transfer.

It’s not just university study that can be considered, you can also transfer study from a wide range of professional or vocational qualifications such as HNCs and HNDs.

You should apply for credit transfer before you register, at least 4 weeks before the registration closing date. We will need to know what you studied, where and when and you will need to provide evidence of your previous study.

For more details of when you will need to apply by and to download an application form, visit our Credit Transfer website.

Classification of your degree

On successfully completing this course, we’ll award you our BA (Honours) English Literature and Creative Writing.

The class of honours (first, upper-second, lower-second or third) will depend on your grades at Stages 2 and 3.

You’ll have the opportunity to attend a degree ceremony.

If you intend to use your Open University qualifications to seek work or undertake further study outside the UK, we recommend checking whether your intended qualification will meet local requirements for your chosen career. Find out more about international recognition of Open University qualifications .

Regulations

As a student of The Open University, you should be aware of the content of the qualification-specific regulations below and the academic regulations that are available on our Student Policies and Regulations  website. 

• Bachelor of Arts (Honours) English Literature and Creative Writing

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There are no formal entry requirements for this qualification.

At The Open University we believe education should be open to all , so we provide a high-quality university education to anyone who wishes to realise their ambitions and fulfil their potential.

Even though there are no entry requirements, there are some skills that you'll need to succeed. If you're not quite ready for OU study we can guide you to resources that prepare you, many of which are free.

Answer a few quick questions to check whether you're ready for study success

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• Most of our students study part time, completing 60 credits a year .
• This will usually mean studying for 16–18 hours a week .

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Preparing for study with an Access module

Students who start their study with an Access module are more likely to be successful when they advance to Stage 1 of their qualification. They’re specially designed to give you a gentle introduction to OU study, boost confidence in your study skills, and help you gain a broad overview of your chosen subject area.

You’ll also benefit from:

• feedback from your tutor through regular one-to-one phone tutorials
• support from a dedicated team throughout your study
• detailed written feedback on your work.

Arts and languages Access module

What you will study.

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Fees and funding in England

80% of our students pay nothing upfront by financing their studies with a student loan.

Tuition fee

Years of  study.

Part-time study gives you the flexibility to balance other commitments with study.

You’ll study for around 16–18 hours a week.

Full-time study enables you to complete your course over a shorter time.

You’ll study for around 32–36 hours a week.

Because OU study is flexible, you don’t have to stick to just part-time or full-time study. You can choose to study more or less each year to suit you.

Most OU students study part-time.

Because OU study is flexible, you don’t have to stick to just part-time study. You can vary the amount of study you take on each year. That means you can gain your qualification in a timeframe that works for you.

3 years 6 years

Current fee per year in England

£7,272* £3,636*

How we worked out the cost

A degree is worth 360 credits. The fee per year is based on studying 60 credits per year for 6 years. A degree is worth 360 credits. The fee per year is based on studying 120 credits per year for 3 years.

Total fee for qualification at current prices

You’ll fund your modules as you study them – you won’t have to pay for your whole qualification up front

That’s 21% less than the cost of an equivalent qualification offered at most other universities in England.

*The fee information provided here is valid for modules starting before 31 July 2025. Fees typically increase annually. In England, fees are subject to the part-time fee limit, as set out in section C of the University's Fee Rules .

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There are several ways to fund your study, often without paying anything upfront.

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The most common way for our students to fund their study.

• A student loan is used by 80% of our students.
• It’s not means-tested and there’s no age limit.
• You don’t pay anything upfront. Student Finance England pay your fees directly to the OU for you.
• You won’t pay back a penny until you earn over £25,000.
• The amount you repay is tied to how much you earn. For example, if you earn £27,000 you’ll pay just £15.00 per month.

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Repay in monthly instalments while you study.

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Pay before each module starts. You can also combine card or bank transfer payments with other payment methods.

More than 1 in 10 OU students are sponsored by their employer.

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If you’re a serving member of the British Armed Forces (or you’ve recently left), you may be eligible to use ELCs to cover up to 100% of your course fees.

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How many credits are you planning to study per year?

Do you already hold a degree, was your previous degree in the same subject you wish to study now, was it achieved in the last 5 years, are you employed, are you a member of british forces posted overseas.

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*The fee information provided above is valid for modules starting before 31 July 2025. Fees typically increase annually. For further information about the University's fee policy, visit our Fee Rules .

Other costs to think about

Your course fees cover your tuition, assessment and study materials, but there are still a few additional costs that can come with studying. If your income is less than £25,000 or you receive a qualifying benefit, you could get help with some of these costs after you start studying.

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You may be eligible for:

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• funding from our Scholarship for Black Students to study an OU qualification for free if you identify as being from a Black background

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• The Disabled Students’ Allowance (DSA) is a government grant to cover study support costs if you have a disability. It’s not means-tested, and there’s no age limit. Visit our Supporting students with disabilities page to find out more.
• If your disability is a result of being injured in, or due to, military service, you could be eligible for our Disabled Veterans’ Scholarship Fund .

Need more information?

Talk through your funding options with one of our advisors, save money with the open university.

Compare the cost of studying at the OU with other campus-based universities in England.

*Based on maximum chargeable fees for 24/25 academic year.

**The fee information provided here is valid for modules starting before 31 July 2025. Fees typically increase annually. In England, fees are subject to the part-time fee limit, as set out in section C of the University's Fee Rules .

How will I study this course?

With our unique approach to distance learning, you can study from home, work or on the move.

You’ll have some assessment deadlines to meet, but otherwise, you’ll be free to study at the times that suit you, fitting your learning around work, family, and social life.

For each of your modules, you’ll use either just online resources or a mix of online and printed materials.

Each module you study will have a module website with

• a week-by-week study planner, giving you a step-by-step guide through your studies
• course materials such as reading, videos, recordings, and self-assessed activities
• module forums for discussions and collaborative activities with other students
• details of each assignment and their due dates
• a tutorial booking system, online tutorial rooms, and your tutor’s contact details
• online versions of some printed module materials and resources.

If you have additional needs, we can also provide most module materials in alternative formats. Find out more about materials on our accessibility webpage .

See how our module websites work.

Tutor support

Student, Ffion, describes why she chose the OU and how she is using her degree to progress herself further in a career she loves.

You’ll have a tutor for each module, who will introduce themselves before the module begins.

Throughout the module, they will:

• mark your assignments and give feedback to help you improve
• guide you to learning resources
• support you, whether with general study skills or help with a specific topic.

Tutorials usually take place online, and they’re always optional.

Online tutorials are live presentations with module tutors in dedicated online tutorial rooms and are sometimes recorded.

Our assessments are all designed to reinforce your learning and help you show your understanding of the topics. The mix of assessment methods will vary between modules.

Computer-Marked Assignments

• Usually, a series of online, multiple-choice questions.

Tutor-Marked Assignments

• You’ll have a number of these throughout each module, each with a submission deadline.
• They can be made up of essays, questions, experiments or something else to test your understanding of what you have learned.
• Your tutor will mark and return them to you with detailed feedback.

End-of-Module Assessments

• The final, marked piece of work on most modules.
• Modules with an end-of-module assessment won’t usually have an exam.
• Some modules end with an exam. You’ll be given time to revise and prepare.
• You’ll be given your exam date at least 5 months in advance.
• Most exams take place remotely, and you will complete them at home or at an alternative location.
• If a module requires you to take a face-to-face exam, this will be made clear in the module description, and you will be required to take your exam in person at one of our exam centres.

Progressing to a point where I felt more comfortable writing my assignments, and having my scores reflecting that, made me quite happy because it showed the hard work was being rewarded. Patrick ‘Ricky’ Skene, BSc (Hons) Sport, Fitness and Coaching

Other support and resources

Throughout your studies, you’ll have access to our subject-specific Student Support Teams.

They’ll help you with any general questions about your study and updates to your OU account.

To help with your studies, you’ll also have access to:

• our online library, with high-quality online resources to support your study
• other university libraries in the UK and Ireland
• the online Help Centre, which has general information about OU study and support, along with study skills advice
• free Microsoft Office 365 software
• IT and computing support from our Computing Helpdesk.

Find out more about student support and being a part of the OU community.

Having a course that was really varied and studying in a style that worked for Nick, was key to him launching his own business and becoming an entrepreneur.

Skills for career development

Studying English literature and creative writing will equip you with an adaptable set of skills that can give entry to a vast range of occupations, leading in a number of career directions. You’ll learn to evaluate and assimilate information in constructing an argument; and acquire skills of creative and critical thinking, analysis, and communication that are much in demand in the workplace. You’ll also sharpen up essential writing and IT skills. These are key skills that are crucial to many different kinds of complex organisations, and are greatly sought after in the world beyond study – whether you’re already working, volunteering, or changing career.

Career relevance

The breadth of study and the range of analysis, combined with training in clear thinking and communication, make this degree course relevant to a wide variety of careers, including:

• public administration, local government, the civil service, art institutions, and social services
• advertising, journalism, publishing, creative industries and public relations
• business, banking and retail
• human resources
• charities and campaigning.

Other careers

Many graduate-level jobs are open to graduates of any discipline, particularly in business, finance, management consultancy and the public sector. Some careers may require further study, training and/or work experience beyond your degree.

Exploring your options

Once you register with us (and for up to three years after you finish your studies), you’ll have full access to our careers service for a wide range of information and advice. This includes online forums, website, interview simulation, vacancy service as well as the option to email or speak to a careers adviser. Some areas of the careers service website are available for you to see now , including help with looking for and applying for jobs. You can also read more general information about how OU study enhances your career .

In the meantime if you want to do some research around this qualification and where it might take you, we’ve put together a list of relevant job titles as a starting point. Some careers may require further study, training and/or work experience beyond your degree:

• teacher/lecturer
• tourism officer
• civil servant
• local government and NHS management
• advertising account manager
• marketing officer
• public relations manager
• media researcher
• charity campaigner
• retail manager
• business and HR management
• information archivist.

Register for this course

• Oct 2024 - Registration closes 05/09/2024
• Feb 2025 - Registration closes 09/01/2025

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English & EAL

How to achieve A+ in creative writing (Reading and Creating)

March 9, 2017

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Go ahead and tilt your mobile the right way (portrait). the kool kids don't use landscape....

We’ve explored creative writing criteria, literary elements and how to replicate the text over on our The Ultimate Guide to VCE Creative Writing blog post . If you need a quick refresher or you’re new to creative writing, I highly recommend checking it out!

For many students, writing creative pieces can be slightly daunting. For some, it is about unleashing the writer within as the boundaries and thematic constraints that exist in Text Response are lifted. For others, it can be an opportunity to discover new writing styles, branching out from the generic T-E-E-L structure.

Formats of imaginative pieces include:

• short narratives,
• a personal diary entry ,
• chronicling the character's thoughts,
• and monologues.

Writing in an imaginative style allows you to draw from your own morals, views and feelings. You can weave in personal anecdotes, experiences, and metaphorical language which gives one's writing that pizazz and individualist factor!

Moreover, you can showcase how you have perceived and interpreted the characters within the novel/film, the landscapes they inhabit. Alternatively, you can step into different personas. For example, for the topic of conflict, I can write as an injured army medic, a doctor, a foreign correspondent and a war photographer.

However, imaginative writing also has many pitfalls students tumble into (do not despair; you can get out of it!):

1) Don't get too caught up in emotions and flowery language.

Great imaginative pieces are not only graded on how good your story telling skills are. More importantly, your teachers would be grading on the palpable links to the themes of the text and prompt you have been given.

In Year 11, when I wrote an imaginative piece, I went overboard with the flowery metaphorical language. My teacher said ‘Overall, the piece is good however, at some parts it sounded like purple prose.’ When I read it over now, I shudder a little.

2) In Reading and Creative, there is greater emphasis on extrapolating themes and ideas from your studied text.  

So, those radical and out-of-the box ideas and views you have in relation to the text can now be used.

For example, the overarching themes in  Every Man In This Village Is A Liar  encompass the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, inequality (the unequal status of women in Middle East), the effect of war on the physical body and the human psych and, how the media portrays war and violence. The starting point to planning any context piece is to use quotes and ideas within your text. Infer meaning from those quotes and main ideas and ask yourself:

• 'Does it hold a great degree of relevance to issues prevalent today?'
• 'Can I link it to my sac/exam prompt?' 

So, here's an example of planning a creative piece. Two of my favourite quotes from  Life of Galileo  are:

'Science is the rightful, much loved daughter of the church.'

‘Our ignorance is limitless; let us lop off a millimeter off it. Why try to be clever now that we at last have a chance of being less stupid.’

In essence, this conveys the overarching theme of science vs. religion, and how Church and the inquisition exploit the peoples' views through their own ignorance. Their fear of change, pioneering and gaining of new knowledge stems from the prospect of chaos if society's entrenched values are uprooted. I interpreted this as 'ignorance is not bliss' and instead, it breeds fear in people. This is in relevance with the tragic events that has occurred in recent years - acts of terrorism, and/or racially motivated attacks. In the context of our modern society, religion and science still maintain an intriguing and tumultuous relationship. As the advancement of technology and ethics are not at equilibrium, this is where controversy arises. Conversely, we now have to consider whether this relates to the prompt:

A person never knows who they truly are, until tested by conflict.

Possible idea for this example:

"Is it ethical to administer a new drug capable of rewiring and regenerating brain function at a neuronal level to someone who has sustained extensive brain damage? Is it deemed humane to potentially change a person's character? At what personal cost will this have? - Playing god."

Tips to achieve A+ in creative writing

1. ensure it is related to the text..

A lot of students believe that the reading and creating essay is exactly the same as the old context essay. However, there is a significant difference! While a creative context essay does not have to link to the text in any way and only needs to explore a certain idea (e.g. encountering conflict), the reading and creating essay needs to offer a relevant interpretation of the text as well as show understanding of the text’s messages and how the text creates meaning .

The easiest way to write a creative response that links clearly to the text is to write about a scenario that is related to the plot line. You can do this by writing a continuation of the storyline (i.e. what happens after the end?), or by filling in gaps in the plot line which the author did not explicitly outline (what happens behind the scenes that caused the outcome?) In this way, your response will be completely original and still demonstrate an understanding of the world of the text.

2. Write in a way that shows understanding of how the text creates meaning.

When creating your response, be aware of the features present in your text (such as characters, narrative, motifs etc) that you can use in your own essay. For example, if the text is narrated from a first-person perspective, you may also mimic this in your essay. Or, you could tell it in first-person from another character’s point of view to demonstrate another interpretation of the text. You may also include motifs from the text into your own response. But be careful when making decisions about structure, conventions and language. If the text is written in very formal and concise language, it is probably not a good idea to use slang. Similarly, if the text is a play, structuring your response as a script might be a better choice than writing a poem!

3. Explore the explicit and implied ideas and values in the texts.

Lastly, remember that whilst it is a creative response, your purpose is NOT to tell a nice story but to explore the ideas, values and messages left by the author! There will always be various interpretations regarding these values, and you can express your understanding of the text through your portrayal of certain characters, or through the events in your response. For example, if you were studying Measure for Measure and wanted to explore how human nature cannot be restrained or limited by law and punishment, you could write a continuation of the play in which the city of Vienna has reverted to its original state of moral decay.

4. Show, don't tell

Creative essays are great because they offer interesting and unique stories; however, there is one common downfall that occurs in writing. Some students create pieces that are  too  straightforward. Rather than using vocabulary, imagery and symbolism to express a point, they simply write down a statement that sums up what they wish to say. Your aim is to invite the reader to  experience  the story through your words. This can be done through the character’s thoughts, feelings, actions etc. Thus the well-known phrase among writers, ‘ Show, don’t tell’ . Keeping this idea in mind turn you into a much more successful writer – and you’ll see the difference!

Tell: Katie was very happy.

Show: Katie’s face lifted. Little wrinkles appeared around her bright eyes, her dimples made an appearance that dug into her cheeks as a big grin emerged to show her perfect teeth.

Tell: She felt horrible for the weeping children.

Show: Guilt throbbed inside her as she stared at the weeping children. Her heart pounded against her chest, her hands trembling beside her still body, her brain screaming at her to do  something .

Tell: I was scared.

Show: I hear my breathing; heavy, and rapid. I shut my eyes tightly. I can feel goosebumps running up my arms and down my back.

To test whether or not you are ‘telling’ instead of ‘showing’, think about whether or not your sentence leaves room for questions. In Example 1, ‘Katie was very happy’ would leave the reader thinking – what thought or action showed that she was happy? Whereas ‘show’ demonstrated that she was happy without directly stating it.

The key is to go into the finer details of your story!

Finally, have fun and enjoy the process of planning a creative narrative, let your imagination run a little wild and rein it in with your knowledge! Hopefully these tips were helpful and you are now more confident and informed on the Reading and Creating response! 

This blog post was written by Amanda Lau, Rosemary Chen, and Lisa Tran.

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Access a FREE sample of our How To Write A Killer Creative study guide

• Learn how to apply key creative frameworks and literary elements to elevate your writing
• Introduces the REPLICATE and IMAGINE strategy , a straightforward and methodical approach to creative writing
• Includes a step-by-step method to guide you through every phase of creative writing
• Explains the Written Explanation component, with multiple annotated A+ examples
• Includes excerpts from multiple A+ creative pieces

• What Is The Creative Response?
• What Are You Expected To Cover? (Creative Writing Criteria)
• Literary Elements (Characterisation, Themes, Language, Symbolism, Imagery)
• LSG's unique REPLICATE and IMAGINE strategy
• Sample A+ Creative Response
• Writing The Written Explanation
• Resources To Help You Prepare For Your Creative Response

1. What Is The Creative Response?

The Creative Response, which forms part of the ‘Reading and creating texts’ component of the study design, is part of the 1st Area of Study (AoS 1) - meaning that the majority of students will tackle the Creative Response in Term 1. Unlike the analytical text response, in the Creative Response you will be asked to write your own imaginative piece in response to a selected text. 

You are expected to read and understand the selected text, analyse its key features, and write a creative piece which demonstrates your comprehension of the text.

2. What Are You Expected To Cover? (Creative Writing Criteria)

The creative writing task assesses your ability to combine features of an existing text with your own original ideas. The key intention here is to demonstrate your understanding of the world of the text. You can achieve this by exploring and applying selected elements from the text, such as context, themes, literary devices like symbols, and/or characters. You should also consider the values embedded within the text - this includes explicit values (which can be seen on the surface of the text) and implied values (values we uncover through analysis of the text’s deeper meaning). Try to reflect these values within your writing. 

Your piece will be a creative response, after all, so you should apply the conventions of this style of writing. Firstly, your creative should follow the structure of a beginning, middle, and end. We can also think of this as rising tension, climax, and resolution. Secondly, you should develop an authentic use of language, voice and style to make your writing more engaging and sophisticated. Thirdly, you can use literary devices to build meaning and depth within your piece. As always, your writing should be consistent with the rules of spelling, punctuation, and syntax (that is, written expression) in Standard Australian English.

Part of this assessment is the Written Explanation, which is a chance for you to explain and justify your creative writing choices. Within the Written Explanation, you should reflect on your writing process and analyse your own work. The primary goal here is to explain the links you’ve made to the original text, by considering features like purpose, context, and language. 

Ultimately, to put it simply, you are expected to understand the selected text and demonstrate this in your creative piece. If you're looking to quickly increase your creative skills, watch our incredibly popular video below:

3. Literary Elements (Characterisation, Themes, Language, Symbolism, Imagery)

Literary elements are different parts of the creative writing equation that ensure your piece is consistent with the expected features of this type of writing. When selecting which literary elements to include in your piece, remember to consider the original text and ensure that your work, while creative, also demonstrates your ability to replicate some of its elements.

Characterisation

As we know, characters are fictionalised people within the world of a creative text. Almost an entire century ago, the English writer E. M. Forster famously introduced the concept of flat and round characters in his 1927 book, ‘Aspects of the Novel’. According to Forster, flat characters can be defined by a single characteristic; in other words, they are two-dimensional. For example, the characters of The Simpsons could arguably all be defined as flat characters; Homer is characterised as a slob, Flanders is defined by his Christian faith, Lisa is stereotyped as the ‘teacher’s pet’, and Bart is portrayed as rebellious. We can define all of these characters as flat because they are labelled to the audience in these two-dimensional ways.

In contrast to this, round characters have multiple characteristics, which brings them closer to seeming like real, human figures. The personality of these characters extends beyond a single attribute. In Harry Potter , Harry himself is a round character because of how much we learn about him over the course of the series. For example, we find out about Harry’s difficult childhood, his personal challenges, his love interests, and we see his personality grow from book to book. 

Whether the characters of your creative are flat or round will depend on their involvement within, and importance to, the storyline of your piece. Generally speaking, however, you should aim for the central character(s) to be round, while any minor characters are likely to be flat. Developing round major characters will ensure that they are realistic and believable. In turn, you’ll be able to better demonstrate your imaginative skills and understanding of the text through these characters. 

Themes are the key ideas and issues that are relevant to the storyline of a fictional text. We can identify themes by labelling the main areas of meaning within a text and thinking about the messages that emerge throughout the text. To build your understanding of themes within a particular text and to evaluate the themes of your own creative, consider the following questions:

• What is the text really about, beyond superficial elements like plot and character?
• What is the text saying to its reader?
• What are the core idea(s) or issue(s) within the text?
• What idea(s) or issue(s) do the message(s) of the text correspond with?

To return to our example of The Simpsons , we could say that the themes within this sitcom include love and family, neighbourliness, and social class. From episode to episode, The Simpsons comments on these different issues. For example, Marge and Homer’s relationship, with its domestic setting and marital ups and downs, is a core aspect of the Simpsons household. Likewise, family is a major component of not only the Simpsons themselves, but also the broader Springfield community. The interactions between parents and children is evident on Evergreen Terrace with the Simpsons and the Flanders families, as well as in other settings such as Springfield Elementary School (where even an adult Principal Skinner is seen through his relationship with his elderly mother). These broad areas can be identified as the key thematic concerns of the series because each episode centres around these ideas.

Language refers to the way in which a piece of writing is expressed. We can define this as the ‘style’, or ‘tone’, of a text. The words and phrasing chosen by a writer determine how ideas are communicated. Effective language will be appropriate for the world of the text and contribute to the narrative in a meaningful way. There are a number of ways in which a piece of writing can be articulated and you should consider the nature of your piece and the language of the original text when deciding what type of language is most appropriate for your creative.

Dialogue, on the other hand, is an exchange of conversation between characters. Dialogue is often used to provide context to a text, develop its storyline, or offer direct insight into a character’s thoughts, feelings and personality. ‍

A symbol can be defined as a thing that represents something else. Symbols are typically material objects that hold abstract meaning. For example, in Harry Potter , Harry’s scar is a symbol of his difficult childhood. Because Harry’s scar causes him pain in Voldemort’s presence, it can also be said that the scar is symbolic of the connection forged between Harry and Voldemort when his attempt to kill Harry failed. As this example suggests, symbols are often associated with the text’s themes - in this case, Harry’s scar relates to the themes of childhood and death. 

The key with symbolism is to connect a particular theme or idea to a physical object. For example, the theme of grief could be portrayed through a photo of someone who has died. Likewise, the theme of change might be represented by a ticking clock, while a character’s clothing could be a symbol of their wealth or status.

For more literary elements, also known as metalanguage, check out our lists:

Part 1 – Metalanguage Word Bank For Books

Part 2 – Metalanguage Word Bank For Films With Examples

And if that's not enough, you'll also want to check out our How To Write A Killer Creative Study Guide where we unpack these elements in more detail AND analyse imagery, foreshadowing, flash-backs and flash-forwards! 

4. LSG's unique REPLICATE and IMAGINE Strategy

If we think about the criteria of creative writing, we’ll see that much of this task involves demonstrating your understanding of the text. For this reason, being able to replicate the world of the text will enable you to showcase your understanding and, in turn, to meet the criteria your teacher will be looking for. Let’s consider how you can strengthen your creative by taking the time to understand the text on a meaningful level and reflect this within your writing.

Step 1: Read

Writing a strong creative piece begins with reading. Reading the text (or watching, in the case of a film) is essential to developing an informed creative response. The more closely you read, the more confidently you’ll be able to engage with the important ideas and textual elements necessary to take your creative from good to great. 

While reading the text for the first time, focus on developing your understanding and clarifying any uncertainty. I would recommend taking the time to read a plot summary before beginning on the text - this will allow you to go in with a reasonable idea of what to expect, and also provide a security net to minimise your likelihood of misunderstanding the plot. 

While reading the text once is sufficient, you will benefit from reading it twice. A second reading enables you to take the time to annotate key sections of the text and to further your initial understanding. If you choose to read the text a second time, pay extra attention to the themes and inner-workings of the text. This means reading between the lines and starting to form an analytical understanding of what the text is about, beyond surface ideas like plot and character. 

Annotating the text (or note-taking, in the case of a film) is an important aspect of any academic reading. The key intention is to ensure your annotation approach is as convenient and accessible as possible. To achieve this, I suggest listing the key themes, allocating a different coloured highlighter to each, and colour-coding sections of the text which you think relate to each specific theme. This will give your annotating process more direction compared to the common approach of simply leaving notes in the margin, which may be time-consuming to read over later. 

I would also recommend making the most of coloured tabs - these enable you to immediately see the key sections of the text, rather than flicking through aimlessly. If you can colour-code these tabs according to the same key as your highlighters, you’ll be able to instantly spot which sections correspond with which theme (and trust me, this will come in handy if you decide to replicate these themes in your own creative).

Aside from annotating the text itself, try to ensure that the notes you write are concise - not only will this save you time, but it’ll mean you focus on condensing the key information. In turn, you’ll have less material to sift through later on, giving you the ability to jump straight into planning and drafting your own piece. This video, How to effectively annotate your books for school! and this blog post, How to effectively annotate your texts in VCE will provide you with more helpful strategies to get the most out of annotating. ‍

Step 2: Understand the World of the Text

‍ Regardless of how many times you read the text, your understanding will be strengthened by seeking out resources to help you think about the text on a deeper level. A good starting point for this is to have a look for LSG blog posts and videos that are about your specific text.

Watching or reading interviews with the author of the text is a fantastic way to hear directly about their intention in writing the text - after all, they are the single most authoritative source on the text. The goal here is to understand the author’s intent (something we’ll expand on in Chapter 8: Strengthening Your Creative ) so that you can reflect this within your own writing. Focus on how the author explains certain aspects of their text, as well as any points they make about its context and background. 

Additionally, peer discussions and asking questions in class will help you to further develop your understanding of the text and clarify any uncertainty. Seeing the text from another’s perspective will develop your knowledge beyond a superficial understanding of the text and introduce ideas you may not have otherwise considered.

Remember to take notes as you go - these will be useful to reflect on later. ‍

Step 3: Implement Your Understanding ‍

Okay, so you’ve taken the time to read and annotate the text, and you’ve sought out external resources to further develop your comprehension. Now we want to apply this understanding within a creative context. Reflect on what you know about the text. Think closely: What have you learnt about its context, characters, and themes? What elements of the text stand out? The goal here is to draw inspiration from the text and begin to think about which aspects of the text you might like to replicate within your creative piece. Begin to put together a shortlist to keep track of your ideas. The aim here is to develop a picture of the parts of the text you might decide to replicate in your own writing. 

Although understanding and replicating the text is important, if we were to only do this, your piece wouldn’t have much creative flair or originality. Here, we’ve taught you the ‘ Replicate ’ component of this strategy . If you’d like additional information about how to elevate this to an A+ standard AND a comprehensive explanation of the ‘ Imagine ’ component, check out our How to Write A Killer Creative study guide ! ‍

5. Sample A+ Creative Response

Here's a sample excerpt from a creative piece written by Taylah Russell, LSG tutor and 47 study scorer, in response to the short story 'Waiting' in Cate Kennedy's anthology, Like a House on Fire :

"The clinician presses forcefully into my lower abdomen, refusing to stop and accept my reality. The poor thing, deprived of such hopelessness as I, seems to honestly believe that the longer he agonises over finding something, the more likely it is that some form of life will appear. That those horoscopes in those grimy magazines, written by journalists who’ve probably been fired from their former reputable jobs, may actually hold some validity. I place my hands over my eyes, tentatively pressing against my eyelids, turning my surroundings a dark black and blocking the stream of water that has readied itself to spill when the time comes, when that young boy finally gives up and realises that his degree holds no value in providing me with happiness."

As we can see in this paragraph, the writer is replicating certain themes from the original text, such as grief. Additionally, this piece is written from the perspective of the original protagonist, which means that its characters and context are also directly inspired by Kennedy. Ultimately, by carrying across these text elements of theme, character, and context, the writer is able to clearly demonstrate an extensive knowledge of the text , while also showcasing their creativity. To see more of this creative piece as well as another A+ example, check out the How to Write A Killer Creative study guide !

6. Writing The Written Explanation ‍

For a detailed overview of the Written Explanation, check out our Written Explanation Explained blog post. ‍

7. Resources To Help You Prepare For Your Creative Response

Youtube videos ‍.

We create general creative writing videos where I explain the method behind this task: ‍

We also create videos that outline ways you can set yourself apart in this assessment:

‍ ‍ Check out our entire YouTube channel (and don't forget to subscribe for regular new videos!). ‍

Blog Posts ‍

Our awesome team of English high-achievers have written a number of blog posts about creative writing to help you elevate the standard of your work! ‍

5-Step Recipe for Creative Writing   ‍

How to achieve A+ in creative writing (Reading and Creating) ‍

"Creative Response to Text" Ideas ‍

Written Explanation - Explained ‍

Reading My 10/10 Marked CREATIVE GAT essay ‍

VCE Creative Response to Runaway by Alice Munro

VCE English Unit 3, Areas of Study 2: Creating Texts - What Is It?

VCE Creative Writing: How To Structure Your Story

Study guide ‍.

And if that isn't enough, I'd highly recommend our How To Write A Killer Creative study guide .

In this study guide, we teach you the unique REPLICATE and IMAGINE strategy, a straightforward and methodical approach to creative writing. The study guide also covers our step-by-step method to guide you through every phase of creative writing (no more not knowing where to start!) AND includes excerpts from multiple A+ creative pieces. Find out more and download a free preview here . 

2022 Update: Check out our TikTok and YouTube channel for the latest GAT updates and how you can succeed even without study!

If you're not entirely sure what the GAT is, head on over to this blog to find out more about it and why it's important!

‍ [Modified Video Transcription]

What's up?! I got 10/10 on my GAT, so I'm going to tell you how I got perfect marks in Task One of the GAT . I'm also going to share with you my essay so that you know exactly what you need to do when it comes to doing your GAT. 

Why Do I Need To Do Well in the GAT?

Here's a bit of information you need to know going into Task One , which is basically a Creative piece . Now, I've done a GAT video in the past, which I highly recommend you go and watch, because in that video I teach you essentially what you should be doing for the writing tasks and how you should organise your time in order for you to get the best possible marks in the GAT. No, you don't have to study for the GAT, but if you can do well in it, then you might as well because...you don't know….COVID might come back, you might need a derived score...you know what I mean? You just don't know what's going to happen so you might as well try to do your best and if this video helps you out with that, if you're willing to spend a few minutes doing it and yet bump up your marks heaps, it's definitely going to be worth it for you!

GAT Advice From a VCAA Examiner

I learned all of my skills from my tutor at the time, who was a VCAA examiner, so this information comes directly to you from an examiner, so, you know, it's legit! 

A lot of people get really confused when it comes to Task One because they think that it's just a whole bunch of information that's put in front of them and what they're supposed to do is just regurgitate the information that's there and package it into an essay somehow. But, as I've talked about in my previous video , the way that you do this is to write a Creative piece using the information that's in front of you - just trust me on this. 

Approaching the GAT Creatively

I know there's a lot of talk back and forth out there about how you should be doing Task One , but you can see ( in the comment section of my other video ) people who followed through with this Creative method and have done really well. Another reason I like this Creative approach is because it makes things easier for you. In the instructions, it says:

'Develop a piece of writing, presenting the main information in the material. You should not present an argument.’

So really what's left is (if it's not going to be persuasive) it either has to be an Expository, which is just like a normal Text Response essay, or it can be a Creative. A normal Text Response essay is going to be so boring for everyone out there - do a Creative instead! Why?! Because:

‘Your piece will be judged on:

• how well you organise and present your understanding of the material.
• your ability to communicate the information effectively’

So, what this means is if you're going to do a Text Response version of the information that's in front of you, the only way you can really do that is by regurgitating and just wrapping up similar pieces of information in one paragraph together. I don't know how you would do an Expository well, but if you take a Creative approach, it not only tests your organisational skills but also tests your understanding of the material as well. 

What I mean by Creative piece is you can write a letter to the editor, you can write a diary entry, you can write an advertisement, you can write a brochure. There are just so many different types of Creative pieces you could use - the world is your oyster essentially. I'm going to talk you through how I did it for my particular GAT. 

How a Creative Approach Got Me a 10/10 in My Trial GAT

This one here is actually a trial GAT. We had an examiner come in and grade our marks for us so it's not my actual GAT, which I don't think you can get back, but it's the closest thing to it, so, we'll work with that. 

We did a really old GAT. This is the 2004 (which is ages ago) General Achievement Test. Some of you might've been born around this time! That is nuts!! Anyway, the GAT has not changed over the past 10 or so years, or the past 20 years even, so don't feel like this is information that's not going to be helpful, because every single year it's the same type of instructions with a similar type of information that's given. 

Here you can see that I've got an island and there are just bits of information. There's a legend, there's a scale, there are facilities, there is a temperature and a bird's eye view of the island itself.

If you look at this, how are you going to write a Text Response on this? It's going to be boring. So instead, what I did was I said:

'Dear Diary: We arrived in Amaroo Island this afternoon and the view of this place from the plane was amazing!'

When I was in the GAT itself, I would cross out the section (in this case the photo of the island) that I had covered just to see how much information I was able to pack into my piece and know that I wouldn't need to touch it again.

'Magnificent blue water sea, sandy white coast and huge amounts of great green trees! From the airport, we travelled by bus to our hotel where we will be staying for two nights. On the way, we stopped at a historical ruins site. One of the tour guides whom we bumped into told us the ruins have been found to be from 1854! We stayed there for an hour, then caught the bus back again to our hotel. We were extremely excited to explore the hotel and its surroundings, so Dad, Mum, George and I quickly unpacked our luggage and changed for the night. We decided to have dinner at a restaurant which turned out to serve delicious food. After dinner, we explored a shopping centre, galleries and even a museum which is called ‘Maritime Museum’. So many facilities in just one place! That took most of the night and we were all tired from a long day. Tomorrow we will be going swimming and camping outdoors for the night. I'm excited!' 

You can see just in this one paragraph I've tried to pack in as much information as I can, but in a way that makes it interesting and fun. You'll notice that with my vocabulary it's not like I am this 50 study score achiever who’s writing exceptionally beautiful language and, I don't know, making this GAT piece something that it's not. I'm just giving them information, having fun with it, making it creative and as a result, I did well!

Alright, let's keep going. 

'Dear Diary: Our second day began with the sunshine pouring into our rooms.'

That's just a nod to the temperature. It's not an explicit nod, it's more of an indirect nod. 

‘George and I were very eager to go swimming and were pleased to find that the weather for the day was 28°C!'  

There's the explicit inclusion of the information.

'I'm glad we came here in January rather than July when we were initially planning to holiday.'  

Adding more information without just forcing it down the examiner’s throat. 

'Our travel guide booklet states that it’s only a maximum temperature of 15°C! degrees in July! We wouldn't have gone swimming then, that's for sure. Mum and Dad decided that even though there was a safe swimming area near Gali in Gali Bay, we should go to Dolphin Bay and then to Marlin Bay to stay for the night.'

Here I'm just including Gali Bay because I wanted to, but I wanted to also talk about the other bays as well. I'm just trying to be creative in how to include this information. It's all embedded within my storyline so it doesn't feel like I'm spoon feeding my examiner piece after piece of information.

'We caught the bus again to Dolphin Bay and there were many families as there was a caravan park situated right by the bay! How convenient is that! When we were swimming, we could even see the Cape Dolphin lighthouse in the distance. Afterwards, we travelled to Marlin Bay via bus. Marlin Bay is right next to Amaroo National Park, and we've seen some kangaroos and koalas amidst the trees but we're not allowed into the park as it's a marine reserve boundary. Tomorrow we're heading back to Gali Hotel, playing some golf and going riding along the coast!'

I'm pretty much almost done! You see that my essay wasn't actually that long. It was only a page and a half (of handwriting), and yet I still got 10/10. I think it just goes to show how many people out there just don't know how to do a GAT, so you only need to do a fraction better in order for you to do exceptionally well in your GAT scores. To finish off my story:

'Dear Diary: Our final day at Amaroo! We woke up early, had breakfast which Mum cooked up and then headed back home.'  

Here I'm also adding in pieces of information that aren't necessarily on the page that's been given to us. I just thought it'd be a nice touch to say this,  you know, we woke up early, we had breakfast which Mum made - it just adds to the storytelling. 

'We didn't do much during that morning, just had lunch at the Gali restaurant. Afterwards, however, we did lots! We hired bikes from the shopping centre and rode along Gali Bay to Moonlight Bay. It was tiring but the scenery was amazing! We spent most of the afternoon riding but got back to Gali at 4 o'clock and Dad headed out for some golf. George and I decided not to because we were drained from all our exercise already. This is our last night in Gali, I'll be sad to leave Amaroo Island.'

That's it! If you guys want to see how I got 10/10 in my second task. Make sure you leave a comment for me over on Youtube, like the video and I'll get another video/blog out for you guys. Thanks so much for watching (or reading) and I wish you guys all the best for the GAT.

The Full Essay ‍

Dear Diary:

We arrived in Amaroo Island this afternoon and the view of this place from the plane was amazing! Magnificent blue water sea, sandy white coast and huge amounts of great green trees! From the airport, we travelled by bus to our hotel where we will be staying for two nights. On the way, we stopped at a historical ruins site. One of the tour guides whom we bumped into told us the ruins have been found to be from 1854! We stayed there for an hour, then caught the bus back again to our hotel. We were extremely excited to explore the hotel and its surroundings, so Dad, Mum, George and I quickly unpacked our luggage and changed for the night. We decided to have dinner at a restaurant which turned out to serve delicious food. After dinner, we explored a shopping centre, galleries and even a museum which is called ‘Maritime Museum’. So many facilities in just one place! That took most of the night and we were all tired from a long day. Tomorrow we will be going swimming and camping outdoors for the night. I'm excited!

Our second day began with the sunshine pouring into our rooms. George and I were very eager to go swimming and were pleased to find that the weather for the day was 28°C! I'm glad we came here in January rather than July when we were initially planning to holiday. Our travel guide booklet states that it’s only a maximum temperature of 15°C! degrees in July! We wouldn't have gone swimming then, that's for sure. Mum and Dad decided that even though there was a safe swimming area near Gali in Gali Bay, we should go to Dolphin Bay and then to Marlin Bay to stay for the night. We caught the bus again to Dolphin Bay and there were many families as there was a caravan park situated right by the bay! How convenient is that! When we were swimming, we could even see the Cape Dolphin lighthouse in the distance. Afterwards, we travelled to Marlin Bay via bus. Marlin Bay is right next to Amaroo National Park, and we've seen some kangaroos and koalas amidst the trees but we're not allowed into the park as it's a marine reserve boundary. Tomorrow we're heading back to Gali Hotel, playing some golf and going riding along the coast!

Our final day at Amaroo! We woke up early, had breakfast which Mum cooked up and then headed back home. We didn't do much during that morning, just had lunch at the Gali restaurant. Afterwards, however, we did lots! We hired bikes from the shopping centre and rode along Gali Bay to Moonlight Bay. It was tiring but the scenery was amazing! We spent most of the afternoon riding but got back to Gali at 4 o'clock and Dad headed out for some golf. George and I decided not to because we were drained from all our exercise already. This is our last night in Gali, I'll be sad to leave Amaroo Island.

If you'd like more help, check out Why the GAT Matters and How To Use It To Your Advantage . It walks you though what's involved, why the GAT matters, the different tasks you'll need to complete and more!

Runaway is usually studied in the Australian curriculum under Area of Study 1 - Creative Response. For a detailed guide on Creative Response, check out our Ultimate Guide to VCE Creative Writing .

The biggest challenge of the creative writing SAC in VCE is figuring out how to balance your own ideas and style with that of the text you’re studying. The assessment requires you to incorporate elements of a text into your writing without copying the original narrative. In this case, Runaway by Alice Munro (2004) is a short story collection that explores themes of marriage, loss, mother/daughter relationships, womanhood and more. To be able to emulate Munro’s writing style within your original piece, it’s important to analyse the most frequent devices she incorporates into her work. By focusing specifically on the three stories ‘Chance’, ‘Soon’ and ‘Silence’, we can understand how Munro writes and how to embed that into a Creative Response. 

If you would like more information on the themes in Runaway , you can refer to this blog post.

Literary Devices

Literary devices can be defined as the techniques that an author uses in writing to convey meaning and their ideas within their work. These devices construct the story and emphasise key themes , which are particularly important to note when studying a text in VCE English. There are many devices that you may already be familiar with - metaphors, similes and repetition are commonly used in a variety of types of writing. For example, repetition of a certain word or phrase within a text highlights that it has significance and is reinforcing a particular idea or theme. By identifying which literary devices an author prefers to include in their novel, you can gain an understanding of their style and have a practical method for emulating it within a Creative Response. Below is a breakdown of some of the techniques woven by Munro throughout ‘Chance’, ‘Soon’ and ‘Silence.’

Embedded Narrative

An embedded narrative is like a story within a story, often with the intention of lending symbolic significance to the narrative. In ‘Chance’, Munro includes many references to Greek mythology, embedding a story within the broader narrative. The myths she has chosen are similar to events in Juliet’s life, creating an intentional comparison. 

For instance, Juliet’s affection for Eric prompts her to visit his home where she meets Christa and Ailo, two women Eric has had a relationship with. Upon meeting them, Juliet is reminded of ‘Briseis and Chryseis’, who were ‘playmates’ of a Greek king. Munro’s use of this embedded narrative within Juliet’s story reveals how Juliet feels jealous of the two women and sees them as incapable of having a serious relationship with Eric. To echo this in a Creative Response, you might want to include either a myth, folktale or historical event that relates to your narrative and the characters within it. 

Time Progression/Regression

Time progression/regression refers to jumping back and forwards in time within a story to give context to certain characters or events. For example, the narrative moves back and forth in ‘Silence’ to slowly reveal the before and after of Juliet and Penelope’s estrangement. This helps to inform the reader of Penelope’s motives for no longer speaking to Juliet, and how Juliet deals with the pain of losing a relationship with her daughter. Any movement through time is typically shown through section breaks in the writing, as it alerts the reader that one scene has ended and a new one has begun. These moments might interrupt the chronological narrative, or you might choose to jump backwards and forwards consistently, although this can make your piece more complicated.

Epistolary Elements

‘Epistolary’ is defined as literary work ‘in the form of letters’. Munro weaves elements of this within Runaway, including letters within several of the stories. The letters help to convey the narrative through one character’s perspective, providing insight into their motivations and perspectives. This is particularly effective when the story is written in the third person, as a letter is usually in the first person, allowing for characters to be understood on a deeper level.

In ‘Soon’, Juliet’s letter to Eric demonstrates their intimacy as a couple. Munro has constructed the letter so that it contains very mundane details about Juliet’s time with Sara, instead of just the exciting or alarming news she might have to share. The personal nature of the letter conveys just how close Eric and Juliet are, and how different her relationship with him is from that with Sara. Epistolary elements can be easily included as a small section of a Creative Response as correspondence between two of your characters.

Finally, Munro often uses italics to emphasise certain words or phrases that are particularly important. Italics can also convey the tone of a character, as they might draw attention to some words spoken in excitement or anger. For example, when Juliet meets Joan at the church in ‘Silence’, Joan’s dialogue often has italics to highlight when she is making passive-aggressive remarks about Juliet’s relationship with Penelope. Munro is demonstrating that Joan has been influenced by Penelope in her opinion of Juliet, as she clearly dislikes her and speaks in a condescending manner towards her. You might decide to implement italics only in dialogue, or to use it in other parts of your response, to highlight an important moment within the plot.

Tips for Emulating Munro’s Style

While emulating the style of an author is an important component of a Creative Response, coming up with your own ideas is equally important! To find an idea that you are invested in, think about the parts of Runaway that really spoke to you and that you would like to explore more; this could be a broad theme or a specific character. It is easier to write about something you are interested in than something you feel obligated to write about. Come up with potential responses that you are excited to write, and then plan accordingly by asking “How can I incorporate parts of Munro’s style into this piece?”

To plan out your piece, start by creating a simple plot structure to guide your writing. If it helps, this can include a 3-act structure consisting of a set-up, conflict, and resolution; or you might prefer to do a simple dot point plan instead. When considering what literary devices you would like to include, pick at least one literary technique, and work on making it fit with your idea. Focus on incorporating that one as best as you can before you move on to another one. You might want to pick a second technique that is more subtle, like italics, and start applying that in your second or third draft.

Plans are one of the most ignored (and underestimated) steps in the essay writing process. Some people don’t do them simply because they don’t want to, some sacrifice them because they think they’ll run out of time, and some do ‘plans’, but in reality, they’re only a rough mental outline. Each of these situations place too many students time and time again in sticky situations come an English SAC or exam.

Why plans are essential for any good essay

• They ensure that you can’t mind blank — it’s all on the paper in front of you!
• They ensure that you always stay on topic.

Mental plans or not having a plan at all mean that you don’t have a true direction in which your essay is going. If you’re not sure where you’re going, well, how are you going to get anywhere?

They save you time in writing time.  

Instead of wasting reading time, you’ve done most of your thinking right at the beginning of the SAC or exam, positioning you to do really well in your essay because you can focus on constructing some really juicy, coherent analysis in your body paragraphs, rather than remembering your basic points and/or making sure your essay is actually answering the question.

Let’s have a look at an essay topic that I’ve tackled in the past. This one is based on Kate Grenville’s The Lieutenant , a current VCE Year 12 English text. To learn more about themes, quotes, characters about this text, and to have a look at an essay topic breakdown, check out this blog post written by outstanding LSG tutor, Angelina !

“But a man could not travel along two different paths.” How does Grenville explore Rooke’s conflict of conscience in The Lieutenant ?

Step 1: Highlight key words

Now, it may seem like I've just highlighted the whole prompt, and I understand why you might think that! However, each of the words highlighted convey something meaningful within the prompt. If you're ever unsure about what could be considered a key word, consider whether the prompt would have the same meaning without the word in question.

Step 2: Define key words

In this topic, the main phrase that needs defining is ‘conflict of conscience’. For me, this signals that we must consider morality and the weighing up of right and wrong, especially when tough decisions have to be made.

I’d also take a moment to analyse the quote. This essay prompt is quote-based, so it’s imperative that we discuss the quote and consider the meaning of the quote throughout our essay. For some more detailed info on how to tackle different types of essay prompts, check out this blog post.

Step 3: Start essay plan

Next, I’d start tackling the plan itself. Although it seems like the above steps would take a while, my real-life planning process only takes about 5 minutes. You certainly don’t have to write everything down and you certainly don’t have to make it make sense to anyone but yourself.

Personally, I like to format my plans in dot-point form. I write 1, 2, 3 for each of my body paragraphs and I leave a space underneath each so I can plan each paragraph.

First, I’ll just write rough topic sentences under each, so I can really step back and consider whether my plan of action for the essay’s body paragraphs will do a good job at answering the prompt itself. Again, these are only rough topic sentences — fancying them up will come during the essay writing phase.

Step 4: Important things to include in each paragraph

Once I’ve decided on what each of my body paragraphs will be about, I can them go into a bit more depth for each of them individually.

These are the elements that I include for each:

Essentially, the points that I’ll argue and the reasoning behind the paragraph

The evidence that I’ll be using to reinforce my point(s).

Literary devices/metalanguage

In Year 12, I made a conscious effort to include one literary device or metalanguage example per body paragraph in all of my English essays. This really set me apart from the rest of the state because, in reality, not enough students really focused on the language of their texts, which can really impress examiners.

Strategy: Colour-coded plans

For me, using different colours in my plans helped me organise my thoughts, distinguish between them, and ensure that I had covered everything that I wanted to cover.

Obviously, you can come up with a colour system that works for you, but this is what I came up with:

• Green = metalanguage
• Red = quotes
• Black/blue = everything else!

And that’s it — my four-step but five minute essay planning process. Don’t be afraid to modify this to make it work for you and your needs. However, definitely DO be afraid of not planning — it’s absolutely essential for any good essay.

Happy planning!

[Video Transcription]

Hey guys. I've been doing a load of essay topic breakdowns for you guys, and we've been looking at plans for them, so I thought I would actually show you how I actually do a real life plan, one that I would do on paper if I was preparing for a SAC or an exam, as opposed to the ones that I do on YouTube because the ones that I do on YouTube are slightly different. I definitely go into more detail than I normally would. But at the same time I still do use the same concepts as I would when I do read the steps on YouTube. So I'm going to go and show you that today. And before I actually do that, I just want to preface this and tell you guys why doing a plan is so important. So I know that a plan is something that one, a lot of people just don't do, or two, they tend to sacrifice it if they feel like they don't have enough time, or three, they do a plan in their head, but they don't actually write it down on paper. Now, all of these things are pretty detrimental for you, especially because when you write a plan, it actually helps to secure you and ensure that one, you're not going to mind blank throughout your essay or let me rephrase that, if you do mind blank throughout your essay, you will still have a piece of paper in front of you telling you, "This is what you were thinking Lisa, just go and follow this method or what you've written down here." So that way you don't just get stuck in the middle of your essay and start having a freak out because you've forgotten what you were supposed to write. Second thing is that it ensures that you don't go off topic. This is something that happens quite frequently. If you don't have a plan, then you have this idea of, "Oh, I'll write this and this", and then somehow halfway through an essay, halfway through a paragraph, you realize, "Holy crap, I have completely veered off the topic or this has gone completely in the other direction from what I intended. This is not what I wanted." So in order to prevent that from happening, just do a plan, please! You will find that it ends up saving you so much time and it just gives you that reassurance that you need in situations where there are so many unpredictable factors, like what prompts you're actually going to get. And your focus and attention should be more about developing those ideas, rather than having a mind blank in the middle of your essay and then having a little bit of a freakout as a result. So I'm going to base this video on a previous essay topic breakdown in the past, and that is on Kate Grenville's The Lieutenant. I was going to say Lieutenant, because I always accidentally say that, but no, it is Lieutenant. Now, if you are not doing as text as always, don't stress about it because what I want you to take away from this video is how you actually do plans, the thinking that goes behind it and the formatting around it. So let's just get started. The essay topic that we're doing today is, "But a man could not travel along two different paths." How does Grenville explore Rooke's conflict of conscience in The Lieutenant. So as always, my first step is I will highlight the keywords that I see inside the prompt. Keywords are different for everyone, but these are the ones that I think are most important. Firstly, the actual quote itself, how Grenville, conflict of conscience. Pretty much in this case I could probably just highlight the entire thing, but for the sake of just defining some keywords, this is what I would do. So the next step is to define key words. I think the only big key word that I need to define here is conflict of conscience. And so to me, the conflict of conscience suggests internal conflict, which implies that we'll need to consider morality and the concepts of right and wrong, especially when a difficult decision must be made and sides need to be taken. So as you can see, I've written these words down next to the keyword and that will just help me ensure that I stay on topic or I stay in tune with what the keyword is about and I don't suddenly change my mind halfway through the essay. Then what I'll do is, I will analyze the quote itself. So this is unique because this particular essay prompt has a quote inside it, but I'll have to think about, okay, where did I see this quote? Who might've said it and what might it mean? And I'll draw it down a few notes for that. Then I'll pretty much just go straight into my plan. Now, my plans I've written within five minutes, most of the thinking is actually done during reading time. So personally, I've always found that just writing dot points is completely fine. I don't need to go more beyond that. And I'll show you a few examples now of real life year essay plans that I did during that time. And as you can see, they are pretty much just scribbles and if anybody else was to look at my essay plans, they would have no idea what I'm talking about. But you know what, for me it makes complete sense and that's all that matters. You're not graded on your plan, so just go ahead and do it your way. You do you. So what I'll do is I'll quickly dot down one, two, three, and these represent my body paragraphs. Then I'll just write down very quickly what the topic sentences will be. I don't actually write the full topic sentence itself, but I guess the essence of it, so the key things that I will mention in the topic sentence. By writing down the three topic sentences, this allows me to take a step back and look at the essay holistically and ensure that I am answering it the way that I want to. Then what I'll do is I'll move into each individual body paragraph and write down some things that I think are important for me to remember when I go ahead and write it. So I might write down a couple of ideas that I think are important. I will write down quotes that I think are essential to my discussion. And then what I'll do is I will throw in at least one literary device or a metalanguage that I think is important to discuss. So in this case, in this first body paragraph, it's limited omniscient third person perspective. By throwing this in, I will ensure that I can show my examiner or show my teacher that I can go on that deeper level. I'll repeat this method with both paragraph two and three. Of course for you, you might need to write down more dot points. You can write fewer dot points, it's really just dependent on every individual. If you are somebody who needs to write down the quotes more, then go ahead and do that. But for me, a lot of the quotes will stick in my head. I just need one point just to bounce off, and then from there, I'm able to pull in all of the other quotes that are necessary. You also notice that I do things in different colors. Now, I think this is a strategy that I implemented in order to make things a lot clearer for myself before jumping into an essay. So for example, for anything that's a metalanguage based, I'll write it in green. The whole purpose for that is to ensure that in every single body paragraph, I do cover some form of a literary device because that was always really important for me. I thought that it was one of the key things that helped me differentiate myself from other students. So if I took a step back from the plan and I looked at it overall, I could see, okay, there's a green color in every single body paragraph, done. I have ticked off that criteria. I also used to write quotes in red as well. So red just helped me do the same thing. It helps me take a step back and go, "Yep, there's a bit of red in every single body paragraph. I'm definitely including quotes," which might sound pretty stupid, but it's just that little bit of reassurance that I think really makes that difference when it comes to a stressful situation. That's pretty much it. It's just five minutes of your time, so we probably don't need to go into it in too much more detail than that. But as you can see from my essay plans, I'm quite minimal. I just keep things as short as possible because that's all I really need because a lot of the information is here, but I just need to reinforce it and ensure that it is concrete when it is on paper. So for yourself, I would recommend that you start practicing your plans. You can try my method and see if that works for you, but over time, I'm sure that you'll come to find your own way of writing plans that work for you. Next week I'm going to have another essay topic breakdown for you. Can you guess what it might be? If you want to take a stab, put it in the comment section below, but that's it for me in this week guys. I hope that was helpful for you, and don't forget plans are crucial to an amazing essay. If you needed any extra help, then my mailing list is always available for you guys. I send out emails every single week just giving you new advice and tips for your studies, so I'll put that in the description box below for you to sign up. Other than that, I will talk to you guys next week. Bye!

The big trap students doing both English and Literature fall into is the habit of writing Close Readings like a Language Analysis essay. In essence, the two of these essays must tick the same boxes. But, here’s why analysing texts in Literature is a whole different ball game – in English, you want to be focusing on the methods that the author utilises to get their message across, whereas Literature is all about finding your own message in the writing.

In a  Language Analysis  essay, the chances are that most students will interpret the contention of the writer in a similar fashion and that will usually be stated in the introduction of the essay. Whereas in Literature, it is the formulation of your interpretation of the author’s message that is what really counts. In a typical Language Analysis essay, the introduction is almost like a summary of what’s going to be talked about in the next few paragraphs whereas in a close reading, it is the fresh ideas beyond the introduction that the markers are interested in.

For this reason, every Close Reading that you do in Literature will be unique. The overarching themes of the text you are writing from may be recurring, but for every passage from the text that you are given, what you derive from that will be specific to it.

From my experience, this is what stumps a lot of students because of the tendency is to pick up on the first few poetic techniques used in the passages and create the basis for the essay from that. This usually means that the student will pick up on alliteration (or another technique that they find easy to identify) used by the author and then try and match it to an idea that they have discussed in class. Whilst this can be an effective way to structure paragraphs, many students aren’t consciously utilising this approach and instead are doing it ‘by accident’ under time pressure, or a lack of understanding of other ways to get a point across.

In general, there are two main approaches that can be followed for body paragraphs in a literature close reading analysis:

1. Start wide and narrow down.

What does this mean? So, as I mentioned before, each of your close readings should be very specific to the passages in front of you and not rehearsed. However, it’s inevitable that you are going to find some ideas coming back more often. So, after reading through the passage, you will usually get a general understanding of the tone that the author has utilised. This will indicate whether the author is criticising or commending a certain character or social idea. Using this general overview to start your paragraph, you can then move closer and closer into the passage until you have developed your general statement into a very unique and clear opinion of the author’s message (with the support of textual evidence of course).

This is the essay approach that is generally preferred by students but is often used poorly, as without practice and under the pressure of writing essays in exam conditions, many students revert back to the old technique of finding a literary device that they are comfortable with and pushing forth with that.

The good thing about this approach is that when you understand the general themes that the author covers, you will become better and better at using that lens to identify the most impactful parts of the passage to unpack as you scrutinise the subtle nuances of the writer’s tone.

2. Start narrow and go wide.

You guessed it - it’s basically the opposite of the approach above. However, this is a more refined way of setting out your exploration of the author’s message as opposed to what was discussed earlier (finding random literary devices and trying to go from there). Using this approach does not mean that you have no direction of where your paragraph might end, it just means that you think the subtle ideas of the author can be used in culmination to prove their wider opinion. For example, if you get a passage where the author describes a character in great detail (Charlotte Brontë students, you might be familiar!) and you think there is a lot of underlying hints that the author is getting at through such an intricate use of words, then you might want to begin your paragraphs with these examples and then move wider to state how this affects the total persona built around this character and then maybe even a step further to describe how the writer’s attitude towards this character is actually a representation of how they feel towards the social ideas that the character represents.

The benefit of this approach is that if you are a student that finds that when you try and specify on a couple of key points within a large theme, you end up getting muddled up with the potential number of avenues you could be writing about, this style gives a bit of direction to your writing. This approach is also helpful when you are trying to link your broader themes together.

The main thing to remember in the structure of your body paragraphs – the link between your examples and the broader themes that you bring up should be very much evident to the marker. They should not have to work to find the link between the examples you are bringing up and the points that you are making. Remember, a Close Reading is all about the passage that is right in front of you and its relation in the context of the whole text and the writer’s message. Be clear about your opinion, it matters!

Happy writing!

Theme vs. Motif vs. Symbol

Themes, motifs and symbols are different kinds of narrative elements - they’re parts of a story that help to shape its overall effect. However, even though they’re words we use all the time in our English studies, it isn’t always easy to tell the difference!

This post will take you through some definitions , give you some examples and show you how you can use them in essays too. Let’s start with the broadest of the three…

What Is a Theme?

A theme is an idea or a subject that an author wants to explore. Themes appear throughout a work, and they’re often abstract ideas rather than concrete images that you can explicitly identify. Themes usually appear in interactions: for example, a parent reuniting with a child might evoke the theme of parenthood or family, an experience of discrimination might evoke the theme of prejudice or racism, a character facing a difficult choice might evoke the theme of morality or conflict, and so on. As you might be able to see, themes can require us to read between the lines because they are usually implied.

What Is a Motif?

A motif is something a bit more specific. Rather than an abstract idea, we’re looking for a concrete object (usually physical items, but also potentially sounds, places, actions, situations or phrases) that returns time and time again throughout a text. This repetition of motifs helps to create structure for a text - it can tether parts of the story to or around a central image. Because motifs are often linked to a theme , they can also serve as a reminder of that theme’s importance. For example, if the central theme was family or parenthood, the author might create a bird’s nest outside a character’s room; as we watch the bird and the chicks grow throughout the text, parallels are also drawn back to the theme.  

What Is a Symbol?

You can think of symbols as motifs minus the repetition . It’s the more default word we use when referring to an object that represents an idea, and unlike a motif, symbols only need to appear once to have an impact. They can simply tell us more about a character or situation in that instant, at that specific time, rather than being a parallel or recurring throughout a text. However, they’re still identified in a similar way to motifs: symbols are also concrete objects and they’re still connected to themes. 

Examples of Themes, Motifs and Symbols

Here are some text-specific examples for a closer look at these terms: 

Check out our Macbeth , Rear Window and The Great Gatsby blog posts for more on these texts. If you’re studying other texts, have a look at our list of text guides in The Ultimate Guide to Text Response .

Identifying and Using Themes

Themes usually come across in interactions , and a possible first step to identifying them is thinking about if an interaction is good or bad, and why. For example:

In Rear Window , one of the neighbours berates everyone else for failing to notice their dog’s death.

This is a bad interaction because:

• a dog dying is never any good
• it tells us that none of these neighbours are looking out for or really care about each other
• someone may have killed the dog

The theme we might identify here is duty. The film might suggest that we have a duty to look out for our neighbours (without sacrificing their privacy) or to do our part to keep the neighbourhood safe from potential criminals.

Another example might be:

In The Great Gatsby , the Sloanes invite Gatsby over for dinner without really meaning it.

• it tells us how nasty the Sloanes are
• Gatsby still seems to be a misfit despite his wealth
• Tom is at best complicit in the Sloanes’ insincerity 

The themes here might be society, wealth and class . This interaction shows us where these characters really stand with regard to these categories or ideas. Because he is ‘new money’, Gatsby cannot understand or fit in with the cruel and disingenuous customs of ‘old money’.

Most interactions in a text will fit into a theme somewhere, somehow - that’s why it’s been included in the story! Try to identify the themes as you go , or maintain lists of interactions and events for different themes. Because themes are so broad, they’re useful for guiding your understanding of a text, particularly as you’re reading it. They also provide a great foundation for essay planning since you can draw on events across the text to explore a certain theme.

Identifying and Using Motifs & Symbols

While themes can generally appear in texts without the author needing to make too much of an effort, motifs and symbols have to be used really consciously . A lot of interactions might just be natural to the plot, but the author has to take extra care to insert a symbol or motif into the story.

To identify either, pay attention to objects that might feel unusual or even unnecessary to the scene at first - from the examples above, Gatsby showing Daisy his shirts might seem like a strange detail to include, but it’s actually an important symbol in that moment. Then, you go into the brainstorming of what the object could represent - in this case, Gatsby’s newfound wealth. Symbols in particular often appear at turning points : the relationship between two characters might take a turn, an important sacrifice might be made or perhaps someone crosses a point of no return - all of these are potential plot points for the author to include symbols. For motifs , look more for repetition . If we’re always coming back to an image or an object, like Daisy’s green light or Lisa Fremont’s dresses, then it’s likely that image or object has significance.

Symbols and motifs can be more subtle than themes, but they will also help to set your essay apart if you find a way to include them. You’d usually include them as a piece of evidence (with or without a quote) and analyse what they tell us about a theme. For example:

‍ On the surface, Gatsby appears to be financially successful. Over several years, he has acquired many material belongings in order to demonstrate his great wealth. For example, Fitzgerald includes a scene featuring Gatsby tossing his many ‘beautiful’ shirts onto Daisy, who sobs as she admires them. This display of wealth represents the superficial natures of both characters, who prize material belongings over the substance of their relationship.

You don’t need a quote that’s too long or overpowering ; just capture the essence of the symbol or motif and focus on what it represents. This is a really good way to show examiners how you’ve thought about a text’s construction, and the choices an author has made on what to include and why. To learn more about text construction, have a read of What Is Metalanguage?

Stories We Tell is a different beast to anything many of you will have encountered previously in your English studies. This blog is a continuation of the above Stories We Tell YouTube video so make sure you watch it first!

With interviews, archival footage, extradiegetic film and sound elements alongside recreated scenes, the documentary can seem very overbearing and convoluted upon first viewing. However, once you have a holistic understanding of the text a plethora of opportunity for high-level analysis and discussion presents itself. Stories We Tell is usually studied in the Australian curriculum under Text Response. For a detailed guide on Text Response, check out our Ultimate Guide to VCE Text Response .

To begin, watch our introduction covering background and themes below:

Video Transcription

Stories We Tell centres around director Sarah Polley attempting to piece together her family history. While she endeavours to understand who her mother Diane was and finally learn the identity of her biological father, Director Polley also poses a number of questions to viewers surrounding the nature of the truth and the importance of stories in our lives. The film is comprised of interviews with Diane’s loved ones, home movies from the Polley family, extra-diegetic newspaper clippings, recreated Super 8 footage and excerpts from other productions - all of which contribute to Sarah’s inquisition into the notion of truth, and demonstration that how a story is told can shape how it is received.

NB: I have used ‘Sarah’ when discussing Sarah Polley as a character, and ‘Polley’ when describing her as the director.

The idea of the truth, and what comprises it is a constant question being answered through the documentary. Before exploring Polley’s depiction of the truth, it’s important that we fully understand what the truth is. One definition characterises it as the burden of confirming with fact or reality, and with this in mind it becomes easier to appreciate and analyse the intricacies of Stories We Tell . Polley creates a distinction between universal truths - which are accepted by all as fact, and subjective truths which can vary on individual interpretations. For example, Michael conflicts with the rest of the family while discussing his relationship with Sarah after Diane’s passing. Mark details Michael’s obsession with “playing solitaire” , Susy depicts the house as one of “complete and utter disuse” , while Joanna observed him “smoking all day” and perceived Sarah as “just a little kid who nobody was looking after.” Michael, however, has fond memories of his time spent with Sarah - he believed he was “lucky to have her to look after as well as himself” , called their time together a “great period” - eventuating in him feeling “closer to [Sarah] than any of the other children.” ‍

Individual recollections of Michael’s actions and demeanor during this period belong to each storyteller, and form the basis for what they consider to be the ‘truth’ regarding Michael and Sarah’s relationship. By presenting contrasting accounts of the same event, Polley reveals her stance on the idea of truth - being that it is entirely subjective and open to interpretation, centred around the perceptions of each individual at any moment in time. It is entirely possible that Michael did “smoke all day” and feel a sense of increased “close[ness]” with Sarah, but due to the variability of the human memory, this is impossible to state with any certainty - illustrating the fallible nature of universal truths. ‍

Storytelling

Stories and how they are told are a constant factor during the documentary - beginning with the title, ‘ Stories We Tell’ and concluding with Geoff’s admission that he and Diane did sleep together during their days acting in Montreal. For example, Polley’s use of the inclusive ‘we’ signifies her interest in storytelling on a grand scale; not merely the stories she unravels onscreen. As a result, one can argue that her purpose for the documentary extends far beyond the action captured onscreen and in fact involves Polley encouraging others to share their own stories - enabling them to “create shape out of mess” as she has done through the presentation of her own family story.

By placing Geoff’s confession at the conclusion of the documentary (and casting doubt on all of the discoveries she has made throughout Stories We Tell) Polley emphasises how storytelling allows a “clearer picture” of the past to develop - as he had previously denied any sexual history with Diane, labelling them just friends. As such his admission of a relationship with her symbolises the manner in which the truth can be “refracted” over time, leading to many “shifts and fictions” while clouding “what really happened.” Therefore, Polley reveals how storytelling can provide some semblance of closure to us, in a world where the truth is “ephemeral” and “difficult to pin down.”

While Polley undoubtedly utilises Stories We Tell to express her views on truth and storytelling, fundamentally it remains a story of the Polley family, and what holds it together. The narrative begins with the ‘storytellers’ providing loving, yet somewhat conflicting recollections of Diane as Polley seeks to understand who she was. Family members buoyantly describe her as “infectious” and “enthusiastic” , while friends paint a more mysterious picture of Diane as a “woman of secrets” , alluding to her alleged infidelity. The closeness of the Polley family is evident throughout their discussion of Diane’s first marriage, universally criticising the outcome of the court case in which she was labeled “ unrepentant ” for “ allow[ing] her desire for a career to overtop her “domestic duties” - resulting in Diane losing custody of John and Susy, which proved to be a major strain on Diane and the family.

Despite this closeness, Mark expresses his disappointment in Diane following the confirmation of Harry being Sarah’s father - detailing the she “broke the rules” and “broke a kind of taboo” when she had the affair. This is the only real example of any member of the family disapproving of Diane’s past - indicating Polley’s desire to demonstrate that families are not perfect, and bring their own faults and shortcomings. In spite of this, however, their care the family shows for one another is clearly demonstrated through their interviews with Polley, highlighting to the audience that by staying close, families can better cope with the trauma of losing a loved one and in time, be able to honour their memory by sharing their stories.

Putting it all together

While analysing the themes in isolation can provide a good foundation for success studying Stories We Tell , looking at how they interact and interrelate enables students to demonstrate their higher-order skills. Truth, storytelling and family are intrinsically linked - for example: Polley’s presentation of conflicting accounts and recollections of Diane demonstrates the complexity of her family, while showcasing her stance on the inability of individuals to find universal truths. As a result of this, the importance of storytelling is highlighted as a means to provide some understanding of our past - and how it affects us in the present and shapes who we are. Including different interpretations of the text and the context in which Polley grew up and created the text can also help to improve your writing to A+ standard - and this will be covered in the blog post that acts as a continuation of this video! *end video*

Following on from the video, the content below is an expansion upon Stories We Tell .

Author views and values

One of the golden rules of A+ essay writing is to understand that everything contained within the text is seen to be a deliberate choice by the author. With this in mind, we can start considering how Polley’s choice to include certain snippets or position footage in a particular way highlights her views.

The truth is ephemeral - can it ever be known?

Throughout Stories We Tell , Polley continually emphasises the impossibility of knowing a truth with absolute certainty. Her stance is shaped by the clouded nature of her paternity and family history, exemplified within the text by the varying accounts of Diane’s personality. Portraying her as “infectious” and “enthusiastic”, Polley captures Diane dancing - cleverly lighting up her face, thus symbolising her warm nature. However, juxtaposing this is Deidre’s assertion that Diane was a “woman of secrets” - bolstered by Polley’s recreation of a covert phone call in which Diane ponders the identity of Sarah’s biological father. Through her presentation of contrasting recollections of her mother, Director Polley showcases the relativity of truth within her own family, inviting the audience to question the meaning of truth in their own lives, highlighting that “you can never get to an answer.” As a result, Stories We Tell predominantly displays the impossibility of one knowing a singular truth.

Subjective truths can be found

Continuing the theme of ambiguity within her synthetic documentary, Sarah Polley demonstrates that individuals can develop their own interpretations of the truth, in spite of her stance on the validity of singular truths. Within Stories We Tell, Polley illustrates this by depicting the contrasting recollections of Michael’s relationship with Sarah as a child. Supporting Joanna’s assertion that Sarah was “just a little kid that nobody was looking after”, Polley ironically captures a full shot of Michael in the middle of the couch, portraying him as a distinctive presence in the scene in spite of Joanna’s belief that Michael isn’t present in Sarah’s life. Conversely, Michael recalls his time with Sarah as “a great period in [his] life” - a claim reinforced by Polley, via recreated Super 8 footage of the pair assembling a snowman, symbolising their construction of a new beginning following Diane’s death. Through this interaction, Polley portrays Michael as a compassionate and loving father - juxtaposing this with Joanna’s description, revealing to her audience the ability of individuals to find subjective truths - encouraging them to do so in their own lives in spite of searching for universal truths.

The importance of stories

Building on her depiction of the truth as fallible, Polley thus emphasises our need to tell stories, illustrating how they allow one to better understand themselves, their families and the world around them. Within Stories We Tell, unearthing the ‘story’ of Diane takes centre stage for a majority of the production, and Polley hints towards this goal via her inclusion of Bon Iver’s folk ballad Skinny Love. The line “pour a little salt, we were never here” plays on the use of salt to heal wounds - implying that the storytellers aim to ‘heal’ their pain felt from Diane’s death via telling “the whole story” they have developed from their memories of her. Moreover, the phrase “who the hell was I” addresses Polley’s attempt to “form [Diane]” by piecing together the various second hand accounts and layers of connected stories from her loved ones - allowing her to ascertain a clearer understanding of her family history. Polley utilises stories to “[clear] up...the smoke” in her past,” praising the idea that such tales shed a light on areas of confusion and uncertainty - while also allowing one to “[cope]” and make sense of their heritage. Through her demonstration that stories enable individuals to move past the “small and large details that vary”, Polley prompts the audience to seek more information about their own families, and relay their own family stories.

Throughout the documentary, Polley demonstrates, both explicitly and implicitly, a number of her inherent values. Drawing upon these, referring to them in your essays and (most importantly!) connecting them to your analysis of the text is a great way to get ahead of the pack and maximise your marks both in your sac and the exam.

NB: Much of the excerpts contained here are analysing specific scenes/motifs, and then linking such thinking to the theories listed below. I found this to be a coherent and structured way of including this deeper level of thinking in the publication of my own essays!

Feminist lens on the social values of 1960’s Canada

By depicting extradiegetic footage of Diane singing Ain’t Misbehavin, Director Polley provides a feminist commentary on the dominant social values of 1960’s Canada; the lyrics “I walk the streets to balance the sheets” and “what is an honest girl to do” metaphorically representing the perception of Diane by the court and wider society - denied “custody” of her children due to her “adultery.”

By inserting a newspaper clipping criticising Diane’s choice to let her “desire for a career” to supercede her “domestic duties”, Polley illustrates the difficulties faced by aspirational women in such a restrictive society - condemning the treatment of her mother while calling on female viewers to continually campaign for equality of opportunity in their societies.

Outlining the fact that Diane was not considered “ladylike”, Polley sardonically ridicules the “controlling” nature of such rigid gender stereotypes and their effect on Diane losing her children - exhibiting her desire to empower her female audience to “save [themselves]” from similar situations and “ma[ke] a choice to live.”

Postmodernist interpretation of the truth

As I’ve discussed at length in this blog post, Polley continually reminds us as an audience that the truth is not set in stone and is in fact a flexible, relative concept. Such a line of thinking directly correlates to the postmodernism literary theory - notable for being hostile to absolutes such as truth, and not creating a text in isolation. ‍

Polley continually blurs the line between fact and fiction within Stories We Tell - an ode to the postmodernist school of thought she is following. Depicting recreated Super-8 footage capturing herself directing the actress Rebecca Jenkins who ‘plays’ the ‘role’ of the younger Diane, Polley seeks to somewhat deceive her audience as to what is real and what is derivative - prompting the audience to “consider what was real and what wasn’t… in their own minds.” As a result, she seeks to promote the validity of the postmodernist critical theory, prompting philosophical discussions between individuals about the variability of memory and whether any absolute truths can ever be truly known.

Intertextuality

Another feature of postmodernism in literature is the relationship between one text to another. In her creation of Stories We Tell , Sarah Polley exacerbates this relationship, including a number of extradiegetic elements such as newspaper clippings, emails, songs and segments from other productions in order to add greater meaning to the documentary. For example, Polley presents her email exchange with Harry, illustrating her desire for the story to include “everyone’s point of view”, as it is only then that the “whole picture” can be established. While reciting the email aloud, Polley delicately pauses when articulating that the story must include “[her] experience, [Harry’s] experience” and her “family’s [experience]”, emphasising her desire to give “equal weight” to all versions of the story.

Different Interpretations

In my experience studying the text, this documentary can be interpreted two ways:

1. as a self-reflective memoir following the journey of Sarah finding her father and gaining a more mature understanding of her mother, or;

2. A philosophical and, at-times political commentary on the way stories are told and the nature of truth. Both interpretations (and others you find or develop through your own viewing) are great to use in your writing, just ensure that they are relevant to the specific prompt/idea you are discussing!

Let's dive into each a little further:

1. Stories We Tell is a commentary on how stories are told - specifically, how the way a story is told can shape how it is received and the meaning one can draw from it

Upon first glance this point may seem rather convoluted, and several viewings of the text are necessary to fully engage with this line of thinking. Essentially, this centres around the idea that the different forms, mediums and extradiegetic elements present in the documentary can significantly influence how we as an audience react to the story that is being told.

The best way to explain this is to acknowledge the level of credibility and the associations attached to each individual medium used to tell the story.

For example, what impact does the newspaper clipping (detailing her custody battle and fight for equality in a restrictive society) have on our sympathy for Diane? Does the sense of credibility and validity drawn from an upstanding publication such as a newspaper elicit a greater sense of trust and acceptance of fact from viewers - therefore making us as an audience more inclined to view her in a positive light? Conversely, are viewers more accepting of Diane’s affair with Harry following testimony from those who witnessed her unhappiness with Michael first hand - her friends and family?

Moreover, in spite of her declaration that “equal weight” will be given to all experiences, does Polley’s use of Michael as narrator and his constant presence in the formal setting of a recording studio provide his version greater significance than Harry’s - who notwithstanding his involvement in the story as Sarah’s biological father, is resigned to providing his interview somewhat informally in a home setting, in the same vein as the rest of the storytellers?

Feel free to apply this line of thinking to other aspects of the text - such a deeper engagement with the philosophical ideas of the text are far more likely to score highly, as opposed to shallow pieces that merely discuss the storytellers in isolation - and not what they represent.

2. Stories We Tell is a commentary on the ephemeral nature of truth

The notion of truth seems to be just as much of a theme through this blog as it is in the documentary!

This is for good reason, however, as I found this to be the primary theme running through Stories We Tell , through the journey to discover Sarah’s paternity, the affair and conflict over whose story it is to tell. Truth affects a number of other ideas within the texts, such as storytelling, intertextuality, the variability of memory, production and identity - thus, using the ephemeral nature of the truth to explain why certain ambiguities exist in Harry’s “faulty” recollections, for example is an excellent way to show a greater depth of understanding of the interrelationships in the documentary.

Essay Topic Breakdown

Essay topic from the 2018 vcaa exam:.

“To save all hurt, why not leave things as they are?”

Why does Sarah not “leave things as they are?”

Initial thoughts:

This prompt does not ask you to discuss a specific theme or character - instead it guides you toward providing an analysis on Sarah Polley’s purpose for creating Stories We Tell. While authorial intent should always be included in any text response essay, it is essential that the purpose is central in response to this type of prompt - essentially, providing points of discussion as to why Sarah is unable to “leave things as they are.”

Essay Plan:

1. Unable to leave things as they are - wanted to question the concept of traditional family structures, by contrasting the influence of biological connections and emotional relationships on her development.

I discussed the effect of both Harry and Michael on Sarah’s development - concluding that while both of them had a significant role to play in her becoming the woman she is today, Michael’s influence was significantly stronger. Polley implies this by giving him a greater voice in the documentary through his role as the narrator.

2. Unable to leave things as they are - wanted to comment on the ephemeral nature of the truth in our lives.

Central to this paragraph is Polley’s use of recreated Super-8 footage. Using three prime examples (the opening scene with Diane and Michael crossing the bridge, Polley directing the actress that ‘plays the role’ of Diane in recreated footage, and the staging of Diane’s funeral) I aim to display Polley’s postmodern perspective on the truth and how this is conveyed through her deliberate creation of Stories We Tell.

3. Unable to leave things as they are - Emphasise the importance of storytelling in our lives to gain some understanding of the past.

Due to her depiction of the truth as a “mystery of nothingness”, Polley highlights the role that stories play in our lives. Within Stories We Tell, Polley attempts to understand herself by recreating Diane’s story on screen - allowing her to create “shape out of mess” and form a clearer picture of how she became who she is. Moreover, Polley also reveals how stories enable individuals to maneuver through the “wreckage” of the truth and “recreate the past.”

Sunset Boulevard is usually studied in the Australian curriculum under Text Response. For a detailed guide on Text Response, check out our Ultimate Guide to VCE Text Response .

Introduction

Film is art. And, art serves as a mirror that is a reflection of us as a society. Thus, a major function of art is to show society as it truly is - even if the image itself is unflattering. 

A film d’auteur ; Sunset Boulevard portrays Billy Wilder’s (director) unique artistic personality. Through his cinematic choices, variety of individualistic styles and the use of innovative features (which we will be exploring in this blog) it is evident that Wilder exhibits the world of Hollywood in a very different and even ominous light to what was normally showcased in the 1950s. 

We will now delve into Wilder’s world of film art and gain an insight into how he viewed the industry of Hollywood through his camera.

‍ Note: There will be some sophisticated vocabulary used throughout the blog, so please refer to the glossary (at the end) or the bracketed definitions for the meanings of words that are bolded.

The Golden Era of Cinema

The 1950s Pax Americana social zeitgeist revealed an era in film where any social criticisms of the time were hidden behind the red velvet curtains and silver screens of Hollywood. In this post-war society, disillusionment was very much present within the American psyche. The dawn of the Cold War saw the rise of looming atomic threats, class wars, McCarthyism, spies and infiltrations burgeoning public fears and social paranoia.

Thus, cinema itself became a form of escapism from the bleak and depressing real world; crafting an illusion of reality where the line between the American dream and reality was deviously blurred.

Yet even such a glamorous industry could not conceal the moral ambiguities of the era. To what was originally a light-hearted comedy film, this cynical film noir is a Hollywood-on-Hollywood story that is far from an entertaining vaudeville act for the masses. Through the wide range of cinematic auteurist techniques that Billy Wilder utilises within the film, he portrays a dark edge to the folie de grandeur of Hollywood and its illusions.

Hence, while it’s essential that you use standard techniques like camerawork and editing (as it is a motion picture), it would further elevate your analysis if you interspersed a diverse range of cinematic features into your essay including features like sound, costuming, colour/spatial composition and broader themes which relate to the social context of that time. This is because it is important to notice that everything the director uses in the film is there for a reason.

If you would like to see more on camerawork and editing, you can refer to our Analysis of Film Techniques in Sunset Boulevard blog post. 

Film Noir & German Expressionism

The Golden Age of Hollywood was a time when synchronous sounds and colour films were commonplace. 

So, why did Wilder use black and white colour composition?

Perhaps it was to pay homage to the previous era of silent film or it was just another mordant elegy to those decades. Either way, the truth lies within film noir.

Film noir (French for ‘Dark film’) is a style of film with dark and pessimistic/cynical moods evoked through visual compositing using chiaroscuro (low-key lighting) . It is perhaps one of the most important cinematic features used in Sunset Boulevard as it conveys an emotion and atmosphere within the film which cannot be done through scripted words or actions. 

Through the restrictions of the Hays Code (a set of guidelines censoring what could be shown on screen), film producers were unable to easily question the moral codes and regulations of society. However, by using film noir, Wilder was subtly able to employ innuendos, double entendres and wit to satirise the dark underbelly of Hollywood and the underlying obsession with stardom exhibitionism and fame.

While the burlesque American musicals and Western comedies reflected an illusionary reality for movie audiences of that time, the convoluted storylines/plots of film noir mysteries and thrillers reflected the complexities and hidden moral intransigence of society. More importantly, the characters aren’t the ones who resolve the mystery but instead the audiences themselves.

Common Features of Film Noir Incorporated Within Sunset Boulevard :

• Anti-hero protagonists: characters who lack a moral centre and turn to corruption, like Joe Gillis who embodies a bitter, hard-boiled and cynical character who has deep flaws. Although he is confronted with the fact that the pursuit of the Hollywood dream is neverending, when he ends up at Norma’s garage he gives into her fantasies and forms his own tragedy.
• Femme-fatale: ‘deadly woman’ who is manipulative using her femininity and sexual allure for her own goals. Norma Desmond upholds this sort of archetype as she entraps Joe Gillis as her editor for her Salome script, so she can make her “comeback”.
• Location: Usually shot in New York or Los Angeles (like this film), revealing a city with a glamorous facade and a gritty underworld of lush morbidity and moral ambiguities.
• Lighting: Stark/harsh while creating effective shadows which usually shroud the characters. Dark shadows and chiaroscuro lighting within Norma’s mansion emphasise her haunted nature as she is stuck in the dark of the past, unable to see the light of the outside world.
• Narration: Has a pessimistic and cynical undertone. The third-person omnipresent narration is from the ghost of Joe Gillis himself; witnessing his own murder, calling the dead man a ‘poor dope’ when in hindsight it is his past self whom he critiques.
• Colour: The use of a monochromatic colour scheme (black and white) is the main idea of film noir, eliciting a feeling of the past.
• Use of flashbacks : At the beginning of this circular narrative , we are confronted with the present (which actually is the denouement - the murder); however, through the flashback in Joe’s perspective, we start from the beginning (the past) and travel through time to the present. The past and the present become one.

German Expressionism (containing Gothic themes) is used in tandem with film noir. Originating in the late 1940s, the depressing aftermath of a post-WWII society had left a pervading sense of doom and dejection, striking a chord with those disillusioned throughout Europe. As a nod to the genre of Gothic Horror, Expressionism draws upon elements and symbolisms prevalent within horror stories such as Dracula .

As seen in Sunset Boulevard , Norma lives in a dilapidated mansion that mimics an archetypal haunted mausoleum; depicting her as a character from a horror story. 

Long shadows stretch eerily throughout vast dark hallways.  A tall windy staircase, symbolic of the time portal she is stuck in.  Curtains always almost fully drawn.  ‍ Nösferatu-like candelabras swaying in the dim light.  A funeral for a dead monkey corpse. 

Such filmic elements all add to the personality of Norma’s character - as an arch-ghost of the story from the buried past.

While not every aspect of film noir and Expressionism will be relevant when you are writing for your given essay topic, it is important to try to occasionally refer to them wherever you can in your writing just like the example below:

‍ There is a dissonant tension in the mansion, referred to as the ‘grim Sunset mansion’; it works as a metaphor to the fatalistic and tragic meaning of Hollywood’s own dangerous veneer which forever traps victims within their glorious ‘heydays’ after rejecting them into its gutter. The Expressionist horror accompaniment of chiaroscuro in tandem with the mise-en-scene of the ‘ ghost of a tennis court’ and an empty swimming pool, all shadow the haunting ‘paralysis’ of Norma’s own faded dreams. ​​While obliviously sitting enclosed by her shrine of photographs, ‘crowded with Norma Desmonds', Norma eventually becomes a prisoner of a carefully curated exhibit that Hollywood had set up, as she is seen signing headshots for fans, and eerily impersonating the performers of a bygone Hollywood.

Sound & Music in Sunset Boulevard

Sound and music in film create a specific atmosphere and mood which can sometimes be unattainable in the visuals of a black-and-white film like Sunset Boulevard . Thus, sound and music both play a vital role in the film by heightening mood and emotional responses from characters, foreshadowing narrative developments and placing emphasis and attention on certain actions and events.

Franz Waxman’s ( Sunset Boulevard ’s musical producer) music score morphs together variations of musical cues, composition styles and repetitive thematic notes. He stated that he had to enter and understand the characters’ minds to write their music. 

‍ ‘Film music is heard only once—not many times as concert music is. […] It should have simplicity and directness. It must make its point immediately and strongly. The emotional impact must come all at once.’ - Waxman

Hence, Waxman constructed leitmotifs as a representation of the main characters and the time in which they live. Below are some examples of the musical leitmotifs he uses:

• Norma’s theme - she receives a classical 1920s off-kilter tango during her dancing scene where she is stuck in the past dwelling on her heydays when she met Rudolph Valentino at parties. However, her musical motif mostly represents her declining state of mind emoted by solo alto flute mysterioso and low and pulsating string notes.
• Joe’s theme is characterised by bebop, (jazz-style music for the 1950s urbanite youth) conveying his nonchalant and breezy attitude with prominent saxophonic tunes.
• Love theme between Betty and Joe - being played as the pair are working away on their own script in a deserted studio and when they take a stroll through the studio backlot; the music accompaniment is a tender and lyrical string line, with a muted solo trumpet.

From the onset of the film, the large orchestral brass-led sound gradually becomes the central theme of the film as it dramatises the initial rush of the homicide squad and newspapermen.

Below is an example of how you might talk about how the music aids the tensions of the scene:

‍ Waxman’s melodramatic and foreboding minor score establishes a sense of impending peril, while the allargando (broadening) of the brass sections heightens the initial tensions of the film. The underlying vibrato of the strings is unnerving and uncomfortable, as it acts in coalescence with the diegetic sound of the blaring sirens which echoes an eerie and unsettling tone .

‍ Note: Waxman’s music score is a non-diegetic sound (coming from outside of the film world), while the sirens blaring is a diegetic sound (coming from within the world of the movie).

There is a range of diegetic sound that comes from within the world of the film that you may hear as you are watching the movie. For example:

• Joe’s typewriter when we witness the serpentine glide of the camera into his exposed room
• The camera flashes in the opening scene and the loud and abrupt car noises from the car chase scene
• The telephone ringing as Max calls Joe at the party
• The band playing tango music during Norma and Joe’s dancing scene

Furthermore, musical repetition is also very common within the film as some themes are repeated but transformed or altered musically to convey a contrasting mood. For example, in the scene where Joe tries to flee from Norma but Norma eventually murders him; the music being played is a tortured, slow-motion version of the opening car chase theme. Hence, the musical repetition of Joe’s opening car chase theme signifies how it foreshadows the tragic ending that he faces as he continues to chase the unattainable dream of Hollywood.

Another example is when Norma prepares for her ending close-up and she descends the staircase into a complete state of megalomania - the music shares the harmony of the tango theme but is transformed into a distorted parody. Through the bombardment of notes, alternation of tremolos (reiteration of notes) and the use of dramatic chromaticism (interspersing of obscure chords) it represents the dramatic changes in emotion and the deterioration of Norma’s mental sanity in the finale.

Costuming & Appearance in Sunset Boulevard

In contrast to a multicoloured film which can showcase a variety of decorative aspects within the setting and characters, creating a black-and-white film has its drawbacks. Especially with a vibrant and overly-decorous character like Norma Desmond, the production cast needed to go the extra mile with costuming to provide a clear visual portrayal of different moods, impressions, influences and the backgrounds of characters. 

Edith Head’s ( Sunset Boulevard ’s costume designer) costuming in the film plays an integral part in building characterisation and forming a clear contrast between the character personas.

‍ ‘For black and white picture you must have more of everything’ - Head

If we take a look at Norma Desmond’s clothing, hers reflects the Byzantine indulgences of the silent era. The garish avalanche of accessories, oversized jewellery and the prominence of fur and peacock feathers are typical of silent era glamour. It also aligns with the gaudy decorations and art nouveau of the interior of her mansion, representative of her conspicuous wealth.

Norma also embodies a vampiric character which Head portrays through Norma’s hair concealed under a turban; her large, dark glasses; her dark, silk clothing and her long, looser silhouette gowns (emblematic of the antiquity of the 1920s). Norma’s showy indulgence in her decorative wealth and clothing is not only emblematic of her persona but is also portrayed through her over-dramatised theatrical gesticulations which accompany and further give insight to her deranged state.

The recurring motif of the leopard print (on her turban, her gowns and on her automobile), becomes significant, as Head purposefully uses this print to symbolise Norma’s predatory nature - Norma entraps and uses others like puppets for her selfish motives. The leopard print is portrayed mainly when she is with Joe, representing the way she has him like a ‘monkey dancing for [her] pennies’. 

On the other hand, Betty completely contrasts in her appearance and her attire. Her simple wardrobe consists mainly of dull suits, coats and skirts. With clothing that is less garish and having higher, modest necklines with neat, simple makeup and hair and with very little jewellery or fabric embellishments, Head not only portrays Betty’s young age but also her modesty and innocence.

Joe’s wardrobe deliberately changes throughout the film. Early on in the film, he is seen jobless, trying to make ends meet, wearing a flimsy, ill-fitting jacket and baggy trousers seemingly cut from an early bolt of polyester. After meeting, Norma complains about Joe’s style and takes him on a shopping spree to the best tailor in Hollywood, loading him up with well-tailored suits, six dozen shirts and a masculine (vicuna) overcoat that emphasises his build. He is also accessorised with custom-made shoes, cufflinks, watches, a gold cigarette case and a platinum key chain. While Joe’s fancy wardrobe symbolises new wealth, it’s not his own, but Norma’s. His monetary dependence on Norma leaves him helpless and humiliated when the salesman at the tailor insultingly adds ‘as long as the lady’s paying for it’. With the continual allusions to men’s clothing rather than women’s throughout the film, Joe becomes the one objectified as an object of Norma’s ownership. The contrast between Joe and Norma’s wardrobes shows the clear power imbalance between them, and thus, an overturn in gender norms.

The Legacy of an Eerily Timeless Film

Within the industry of Hollywood - whether in front of or behind the cameras - writers, producers, agents and stars (new and former) collectively are all victims of an exploitative and ruthless industry running on schadenfreude (thriving on individuals' misfortune). 

Whether it’s Betty’s tale of rejection, Joe’s ‘lack’ of writing talent or Norma’s long-forgotten time of fame, Sunset Boulevard unveils the perils of unbridled star adulation, the pursuit of fame and celebrity culture.

Whilst adopting auteurist principles, director Wilder paints a truthful and grotesque self-portrait of Hollywood’s true face, highlighting the ephemeral nature of an industry’s sickening star system; one that creates and exults stars and just as quickly forgets them. 

Through this seminal cautionary tale, Wilder seeks to confront a timeless audience with the intoxicating culture of the screens which has become a common reality nowadays and saturates many of modern-day social spheres.

‍ Sunset Boulevard ultimately poses a warning to the audience of a much wider cultural disturbance of Hollywood’s addiction to the vanity of celebrity fame, excessive media consumption and the obsession of ‘needing to be seen’ - a warning which reverberates louder than ever within modern society today.

Arch-ghost: main ghost-like character (like in a horror film). ‍ Auteurist: (used for film directors) having a distinctive artistic style in their films. ‍ Burgeoning : starting to increase or grow (rapidly). ‍ Byzantine: clothing and accessories that are richly patterned and coloured, yet conservative originating from olden-day Istanbul. ‍ Chiaroscuro : low-key lighting which produces an effect that contrasts light and shadow in black-and-white films. ‍ Denouement: the finale/ending of the story arc, where conflicts and matters are revealed and resolved. ‍ Elegy: a poem that mourns the loss of something (the loss of the silent era in this case). ‍ Film D’auteur: a film that reflects the artistic personality of the film director/screenwriter. ‍ Foile de grandeur: delusions of grandeur. ‍ Intransigence: refusal to change one’s views and agree on a different reality. ‍ Leitmotifs: A recurrent theme/motif throughout a musical/literary composition. ‍ Megalomania: extreme state of delusional obsession with grandeur and of oneself. ‍ Nösferatu-like: (Dracula-like), synonymous with vampire. ‍ Pax Americana social zeitgeist: the state of national prosperity in American Society after WWII. ‍ Redolence: strongly emblematic or nostalgic. ‍ Solo alto flute mysterioso: Solo flute played in a lower key that is guided to be played to evoke a mysterious mood. ‍ Synchronous sounds: Audio coming from the screen that lines up with what is shown on the screen. ‍ Urbanite : someone who dwells/lives in the city or enjoys an urban city lifestyle. ‍ Vaudeville: light musicals or entertainment acts popular in the 1900s, usually serving only a comedic or entertaining purpose.

2. EAL Study Design

3. Listening Component Marking Criteria

4. Listening Component Tips

5. Reading Comprehension

6. Time Management

7. English Fluency and Proficiency

As you all know, English subjects are integral to VCE studies, since it is compulsory that at least all four units of an English subject be done in order for you to reach that ATAR goal at the end of the VCE tunnel. Given the richness in cultural backgrounds of VCE students cohort, EAL is designed to mend the linguistic gaps between local students and those from non-English speaking backgrounds. Students eligible to complete EAL are those who have no more than 7 years residency in a predominately English-speaking country AND no more than 7 years having English as their main language of instructions.

According to the study design published by VCAA, both English subjects:

‘"[contribute] to the development of literate individuals capable of critical and creative thinking, aesthetic appreciation and creativity…"

‍ It might sound complex, but this basically just means that these subjects enable us to enhance our understanding and usage of the English language, which serves to support our daily English communication. This purpose holds even greater significance to students from non-English speaking backgrounds, as those skills offered by English subjects are essential to their life in Australia. That’s said, EAL can be different from mainstream English in the sense that it also assists students whose mother tongue is not English in adapting to the predominately English-speaking community, via developing their language skills.

EAL Study Design

Both EAL and English assess students on multiple areas, including: Text Response , Creative writing, Argument Analysis, and Comparative . We highly recommend you have a read of the links above so you've got all your English/EAL areas covered!

One major difference is in Unit 3 , where EAL students are required to do a Listening task , whereas mainstream students study an additional text. For a detailed comparison on VCE EAL vs VCE English , read Cynthia's blog post here.

Shown below is the Unit 3 coursework from the VCAA EAL study design, taken from the VCAA website :

Now that we know the similarities and differences, let's focus primarily on the Listening Component of the EAL Exam for the rest of this blog.

Listening Component Marking Criteria

For the listening component of the exam/SAC the examiners (and your own teachers) will be marking your answers base on TWO main points:

• Your ability to understand and convey general and specific parts of the listening track
• Your ability to convey information accurately and appropriately

Some of you out there might be thinking “Listening is easy! I just need to write down the correct answer, it's a piece of cake.” Unfortunately, this isn’t the case for EAL listening or any VCE Language listening SAC or exam. The VCAA examiners will be looking for appropriateness of vocabulary and the accurate use of grammar, spelling and punctuation. They even look at how well you phrase your response!

For more information on the the exam, read Rachel's blog on how to Nail that VCE EAL Exam Listening Component. She offers her tips for the exam, including taking advantage of bringing bilingual dictionaries into the exam!

Listening Component Tips

Listening is also the easiest section for students to lose marks as many of them may carelessly misread the question and/or comprehensively fail to answer the question. Listening may also be challenging as it requires you to concentrate on multiple things at the same time, for example, the characters’ main contention, emotions, tone shift, and the context of the recording. However, as long as you do more practice, you will soon be able to master the listening skills! Here are the 4 steps that you will have to know if you want to do well in listening!

1. Read The Background Information Of The Text

Use your reading time (15 minutes) wisely and spend around 2-3 minutes in the listening section. The background information of the text is extremely important as it tells you the context of the recording which can also give you a basic idea of the characters involved in the text and the content they will be talking about.

2. Scan Through The Questions Carefully

Look for the keywords in the question, such as the 5W1H (Who, When, Where, What, Which, How), the character names, and the number of points that needs to be answered in each question.

Examples of the 5W1H Questions

• Who is he referring to when he says “You”?
• When did he open his first bookshop?
• Where did he go after his graduation?
• What message is he trying to convey in his speech?
• Which phrase did he use to express how dry it was in the desert?
• How does he express his anger?

3. Note Taking

You should be using the spaces provided in the exam answer booklet to jot down any key words and phrases that are related to the questions. Do not bother to fill in the answers on the answer line just yet, as you are very likely to get distracted, hence, it may increase the risk of missing the answer for the next question. Remember that your notes should be as concise and clear as possible so you will be able to write down the answers immediately once the recording stops.

4. Focus On The Questions That You’ve Missed

Bear in mind that you will have the chance to listen to the recording two times in total so please DO NOT stress if you miss out any answers or you are not sure about the answers after the first time. Highlight the questions that you have trouble with and focus on them when the recording is played the second time.

For more detail on each of these tips, and information on the types of questions you may be asked , read Pallas' blog on How to ACE the EAL Listening Exam .

For Listening practice, head to EAL Listening Practice and Resources (Part 1) and EAL Listening Practice (Part 2), and get tips on EAL Listening and note-taking during the Listening component of the VCE EAL exam/SAC.

Reading Comprehension (Language Analysis)

Section C, Question 1 requires students to write short answers, in note form or sentences, which altogether will make up of 50% of the marks in Section C. For a lot of student, getting good marks for Question 1 is much easier than getting good marks for Question 2, which requires you to write a full language analysis essay. This is why it is important that you are able to maximise your marks in this question because they are purported to be easier marks to get! Some of the questions will ask the students for factual information but more difficult questions will require to think about that is contained in the text and make an interpretation based on your understanding.

1. Question words

To know what sort of answer you are expected to give before looking for details from the article, you need to be familiar with question words.

• WHO - A particular person or group of people impacted by an incident or involved in a situation
• WHAT - This really depends. It might require you to give out information about something or to identify reasons for the writer’s opinions (which is good it might make it easier for you to find the writer’s arguments)
• WHEN - The timeframe within which an issue or event occurred (date, day, etc)
• WHERE - The location of an event
• WHY - The reasons for something
• HOW - How a problem can be resolved

2. Direction words

Unfortunately, not all questions in this section have “question words” and examiners usually give out questions that are broader using “direction words” or “task words”, making this section more challenging for students. EAL is not the only subject that requires students to know their direction words well so it is definitely worthwhile learning these words to improve your performance. These are the most common direction words used in Section C (see below!).

• Describe - Giving information about something or to identify the writer’s opinions
• Explain - This requires you to give out information in your own words and elaborate
• Identify - Students will be required to find what is asked from the article and write them down in the briefest form possible
• List - Usually in note forms – to answer this you need to identify what is asked and briefly noting them down
• Summarise - Retelling something in a succinct and concise ways in your own words, it should only be enough to highlight key ideas
• Support - Finding evidence from the text to justify a statement or opinions

3. Marks allocation

Another super helpful tip is to pay extra attention to the marks allocation of the questions. It usually gives you a fairly accurate indication of how much you should write. The general rule of thumb would be that the number of marks tell students how many sentences or points they should be making.

Identify the reasons why the writer loves travelling (2 marks)

Students should be writing down 2 reasons why the writer loves travelling ‍

The editor strongly opposes the use of plastic bag. Support this statement (3 marks) ‍

In this case, it is probably best to find 3 pieces of evidence from the article that justify the statement stated to make sure you do not lose any marks by not writing enough.

For sample questions and responses with annotations, read Lindsey's blog on EAL Reading Comprehension here.

Time Management

Time management during the exam is as important as studying and preparing. Here are some tips to help you manage your time during your exam so you can achieve maximum marks!

1. Look at the comprehension questions during reading time

2. look for key features instead of analysing and finding techniques straight away.

You can also use the reading time to find the contention, determine what type of article it was and the source, etc. The following acronym might help you! Try identifying all of the features below as it also helps you plan your introduction within reading time.

• C ontention ‍
• A udience ‍

For a detailed guide on writing Language Analysis Introductions, check out our advice here (for both English & EAL students) and here (specifically for EAL students). We recommend reading both blog posts!

3. Set out a detailed time management plan for your essay the night before the SAC or exams (or earlier if possible)

4. stick with one introduction’s structure/format.

Introductions for EAL Language Analysis, To Write or Not To Write? teaches you a great template approach you can use for your introductions.

5. Not be way too thorough with annotation

6. create your own glossary of words ‍, 7. practice.

To understand each of these time management tips in detail, read Lindsey's blog on EAL Time Management here.

English Fluency and Proficiency

As non-native speakers living and studying in Australia, we would want nothing more than to improve our English skills both for the comfort of living in an English-speaking country and our career prospects. Here are some tips to help you better their writing skills in EAL.

1. Knowing Your Sentence Structure

I cannot stress how important it really is to really know your sentence structure and grammar because, without a solid understanding of how it is supposed to be structured, grammatical errors can easily be made which will preclude you from articulating your ideas in the clearest manner possible.

Simplest form: Subject + Verb + Object

To see an example of structuring sentences together, read Lindsey's blog here.

2. Expand Your vocabulary

While it is sometimes helpful to memorise words from glossaries found on the Internet, it is not the most the effective way to thoroughly improve your vocabulary. In fact, learning words from a glossary or dictionary by heart can often lead to students misusing the words due to their misinterpretation of the new words.

The best way to upgrade your word bank for your essays is to slowly word up from what you already know. Start off with a simple paragraph and you will see your writing get better after every time you edit or rewrite your paragraphs. Therefore you should:

• Avoid generic verbs
• Know the word’s connotations
• Use strong adjectives

English grammar is often seen as one of the more challenging one due to it having so many tenses and irregular cases. However, if you know how to break it down, it is not that scary because there are actually only 13 tenses and future, past and present tenses. Plus, in our EAL exams, we rarely need to use any other tenses aside from the present tenses anyway.

4. Build Your Own 'Essay Formulas'

For each Area of Study, I have a revision document that contains the following:

• Introduction ‘formula’
• Sample paragraph
• Super extensive word bank (my own thesaurus)
• Practice essays and sample essays

To see an example of an 'essay formula' in action, read Lindsey's blog on The Keys to English Fluency and Proficiency here. ‍

The Ultimate Guide to VCE Text Response

How To Write A Killer Text Response Study Guide

How to embed quotes in your essay like a boss

How to turn your Text Response essays from average to A+

5 Tips for a mic drop worthy essay conclusion

The Importance of the Introduction

‍ Exam Tips From VCE EAL Examination Reports

Study Techniques: How To Approach a Text That You Hate

False Claims of Colonial Thieves is usually studied in the Australian curriculum under Area of Study 1 - Text Response. For a detailed guide on Text Response, check out our Ultimate Guide to VCE Text Response .

Why Is Context Important?

When studying a text, it is very important to comprehend its context. Context will help you to understand what the text is about and what the author’s point of view is - key components of doing well in VCE English! Context is especially important for False Claims of Colonial Thieves because the authors frequently reference Australia’s history. Even the title is a nod to its context - it is all about the ‘false claims’ made by Australia’s ‘colonial thieves’, or in other words, Australia’s colonial settlers. Understanding what these false claims are will help you better understand the context and therefore, do significantly better in your English essays and assessments.

Treat this blog as a starting point only . There is so much to learn about these topics, and I recommend you do your own research in addition to reading this blog. To help you do so, I have provided a reliable external source for each topic, so you can start exploring these claims in more depth.

Terra Nullius

One of the biggest ‘false claims’ that Papertalk Green and Kinsella refer to throughout their collaboration is the colonisers’ claim of Australia being terra nullius . When the British came to Australia, they claimed that the country was ‘no man’s land’, denying that the Indigenous Australians had actually lived here for thousands of years. By pretending that no one lived in Australia, this supposedly gave the British ‘legitimacy’ to assume control over the land and those already living on it - i.e. Australia’s First Nations Peoples.

Terra Nullius was used against the Indigenous peoples for many years to justify their horrific treatment. The principle was only overturned in 1992 when an Indigenous man, Eddie Mabo, challenged this claim in the High Court of Australia. Nowadays, we recognise that the Indigenous people were here significantly earlier than the colonisers and that their sovereignty (i.e. their power over the land) was never ceded.

External source for further reading: https://australian.museum/learn/first-nations/unsettled/recognising-invasions/terra-nullius/  

The Stolen Generation

Another false claim was that the Indigenous people were inferior to white people. This claim led to the forcible removal of Indigenous children from their families, so they could be raised by ‘superior’ white people and taught white cultures/languages - these children are referred to as the ‘Stolen Generation’ because they were taken away from their families without their consent.

It was thought that placing Aboriginal children (especially mixed-race Aboriginal children) with white families would make it easier to teach Aboriginal children the ‘proper’ (British) way of living. They were either placed in institutions or adopted by white families, and often faced terrible treatment, including violence, neglect and assault. Neither the children who were removed nor their families have fully recovered from this appalling policy that continued until the 1970s.

Indeed, the effects of the Stolen Generation can still be felt today. One of the major consequences discussed by Papertalk Green and Kinsella is that a lot of Indigenous culture was lost. Many of the children who were taken away were forbidden from practising their cultural traditions or from speaking their Indigenous languages. This ban led to many traditions going extinct and is a tragic effect of this heinous false claim.

External source for further reading: https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/stolen-generations  

Missions and Reserves 

Another claim explored in the text is the idea that Indigenous peoples could not look after themselves and would be better off with white people ‘protecting’ them. This led to the government forcing Aboriginal people to leave their ancestral lands and relocate to newer, smaller areas - a process known as land alienation. There were two types of this land - missions and reserves - and Aboriginal people faced poor treatment on both.

Missions were usually run by Christian groups so they could convert the Indigenous people to their religion. There was a strong degree of control exercised over these Indigenous people, who were expected to learn the skills required for menial jobs (such as cooking and cleaning). Contrastingly, those living on reserves were not typically subject to as much control. These people were sometimes provided with rations from the government, but there were not usually officials to oversee them.

Both missions and reserves are referred to in False Claims of Colonial Thieves , so it is important to understand the difference between the two.

External source for further reading: https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/missions-stations-and-reserves  

Now that we’ve examined some of the more historical context , let’s take a closer look at the contemporary and modern background that Kinsella and Papertalk Green write about.

Close the Gap Campaign and Black Deaths in Custody

A key section of the text (particularly the latter third) explores current issues which Indigenous peoples face today. Two of these major concerns lie within the health and justice systems, so it is important to understand why Kinsella and Papertalk Green focus so heavily on these matters.

The Close the Gap Campaign (launched in 2007) aims to reduce the inequality in health and education that many Indigenous peoples face. It was created because the life expectancy is much lower for Indigenous than non-Indigenous peoples, and there is a significant difference between their expected levels of education. Unfortunately, many of these concerns have not been addressed today, and Papertalk Green discusses how her family is constantly dealing with death - a key theme in False Claims of Colonial Thieves that can be explained by this contextual understanding.

External source for further reading: https://www.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/reports/closing-the-gap-2018/executive-summary.html  

Similarly, there are a lot of concerns with the number of Aboriginal people in prison, and how many of them die while in police custody. There was even a Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (i.e. a governmental inquiry) handed down in 1987, however, many of its recommendations have not been implemented to this day. This idea of unfair policing and laws that target Indigenous peoples is a key idea in the text, and Kinsella dedicates a poem to Ms Dhu, an Indigenous woman killed while in custody.

External source for further reading: https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/apr/09/the-facts-about-australias-rising-toll-of-indigenous-deaths-in-custody  

A key theme of False Claims of Colonial Thieves is mining, which refers to the practice of removing valuable materials from the Earth. Many of these resources are found on traditional Aboriginal lands, which are destroyed by the mining process. This is especially offensive to many Indigenous groups because many Indigenous cultures have a strong spiritual connection to their land (often known as Country). There is consequently a lot of tension between the Indigenous populations and governments, especially in Western Australia, where both of the authors live.

External source for further reading: https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Former_Committees/uranium/report/d07  

How Can You Use This in Your Essays?

Understanding a text’s context is very important in being able to analyse the text in appropriate depth.

For example, knowing that mining is often considered harmful to the lands to which Indigenous peoples have a strong connection, will allow you to discuss this concept in your essays. Indeed, Papertalk Green argues that mining is just as harmful to Indigenous peoples as earlier ‘false claims’ were, which is a sophisticated idea for you to use in your assessments.

As you begin to better understand and incorporate context into your essays, you can then take things one step further by examining how the author has used context as a means of demonstrating their authorial intent . For example, the effects of the Stolen Generation have been explored in several poems, and a possible viewpoint is that the Stolen Generation was used to demonstrate the devastating loss of Indigenous cultures and traditions.

‍ This blog was updated on 05/10/2020.

2. Characters

4. Literary Devices

5. Important Quotes

6. Sample Essay Topics

7. A+ Essay Topic Breakdown

Pride and Prejudice is usually studied in the Australian curriculum under Area of Study 1 - Text Response. For a detailed guide on Text Response, check out our Ultimate Guide to VCE Text Response .

Jane Austen’s 1813 novel, Pride and Prejudice , follows the titular character of Elizabeth Bennet as she and her family navigate love, loyalty and wealth.

When Mrs. Bennet hears that a wealthy, young and eligible bachelor, Mr. Bingley, has moved into the manor of Netherfield Park nearby, she hopes to see one of her daughters marry him. Of the five daughters born to Mr. and Mrs. Bennet, Jane, Elizabeth, Mary, Kitty and Lydia, Jane takes an early liking to Mr. Bingley despite his friend, Mr. Darcy, initial coldness and apathy towards her younger sister Elizabeth. Though Mr. Darcy’s distaste soon grows to attraction and love.

While Jane and Mr. Bingley begin to fall for each other, Elizabeth receives and declines a marriage proposal from her supercilious cousin Mr. Collins, who eventually comes to marry Elizabeth’s dear friend Charlotte. While Mr. Darcy is in residence at Netherfield Park, Elizabeth finds and enjoys the company of a young officer named Mr. Wickham who too has a strong disliking for Mr. Darcy. Mr. Wickham claims it was Mr. Darcy who cheated him out of his fortune, which then deepens Elizabeth's initial ill impression of the arrogant man.

After a ball is held at Netherfield Park, the wealthy family quits the estate, leaving Jane heartbroken. Jane is then invited to London by her Aunt and Uncle Gardiner, which Mr. Darcy fails to tell Mr. Bingley as he has persuaded him not to court Jane because of her lesser status.

When Elizabeth visits her newly married friend Charlotte, she meets Lady Catherine de Bourgh’s (Mr. Darcy’s Aunt) other nephew, Colonel Fitzwilliam. While there, Mr. Darcy appears and proposes to Elizabeth unexpectedly claiming he loves and admires her. To Mr. Darcy’s surprise, Elizabeth refuses as she blames him for ruining Mr. Wickam’s hopes of success and for keeping Jane and Mr. Bingley apart. Mr. Darcy later apologies in a letter and admits to persuading Mr. Bingley not to pursue Jane, but argues that her love for him was not obvious. In the letter, he also denies Wickam’s accusations and explains that Wickham had intended to elope with his sister for her fortune.

Elizabeth joins her Aunt and Uncle in visiting Mr. Darcy’s great estate of Pemberley under the impression he would be absent. It is there that Elizabeth learns from the housekeeper that Mr. Darcy is a generous landlord. Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy then have a chance encounter after he returns home ahead of schedule. Following her previous rejection of him, Mr. Darcy has attempted to reform his character and presents himself amiably to Elizabeth’s Aunt and Uncle as she begins to warm up to him.

Mr Darcy happens upon Elizabeth as she receives the terrible news that Lydia has run off with Wickam in an event that could ruin her family. Mr. Darcy then going out in search for Wickham and Lydia to hurry their nuptials. When Mr. Bingley and Mr. Darcy return to Netherfield Park, Elizabeth is pleased to see him though Darcy shows no sign of his regard for her. Jane and Mr. Bingley soon become engaged.

Soon thereafter, Lady Catherine visits the Bennets and insists that Elizabth never agree to marry her nephew. Darcy hears of Elizabeth's refusal, and when he next comes, he proposes a second time which she accepts, his pride then humbled and her prejudices overturned.

• Elizabeth Bennet
• Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy
• Jane Bennet
• Mr. Charles Bingley
• Mrs. Bennet
• George Wickham
• Lydia Bennet
• Mr. Collins
• Miss Bingley
• Lady Catherine De Bourgh
• Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner
• Charlotte Lucas
• Georgiana Darcy
• Mary Bennet
• Catherine Bennet

Within the text the theme of pride is ever present as it plays a major role in how Austen’s characters present themselves, their attitudes and how they treat each other. For much of the novel pride blinds both Mr. Darcy and Elizabeth of their true feelings and hence becomes something both characters must overcome. While Darcy’s pride makes him look down upon those not immediately within his social circle, Elizabeth takes so much pride in her ability to judge the character of others that she refuses to amend her opinions even when her initial judgements are proven wrong. Indeed, this is why Elizabeth despises the benign Darcy early on in the text, but initially takes a liking to the mendacious Wickham. By the denouement of the novel, both Datcy and Elizabeth have overcome their pride by encouraging and supporting each others own personal evolution. Indeed, as Darcy sheds his elitism Elizabeth comes to realise the importance of revaluation.

The tendency of others to judge one another based on perceptions, rather than who they are and what they value becomes a point of prolific discussion within Pride and Prejudice . Indeed, the title of the text clearly implies the related nature of pride and prejudice as both Darcy and Elizabeth are often shown to make the wrong assumptions; Darcy’s assumptions grounded in his social prejudice whereas Elizabeth’s is rooted in her discernment led astray by her excessive pride. As Austen subtly mocks the two lovers biases, she gives the impression that while such flaws are common faulting someone else for the prejudice is easy while recognising it in yourself is hard. While Austen’s representation of prejudice is aligned with personal development and moral growth as she wittingly condemns those who refuse to set aside their prejudices like Lady Catherine and Caroline.

The family unit that Austen displays with Pride and Prejudice becomes the social and domestic sphere as it forms the emotional center of the novel in which she grounds her analysis and discussion. Not only does the family determine the social hierarchy and standing of its members but provides the intellectual and moral support for its children. In the case of the Bennet family, Austen reveals how the individuals identity and sense of self is molded within the family as she presents Jane and Elizabeth as mature, intelligent and witty and lydia as a luckless fool. Not only this, Austen reveals the emotional spectrum that lives within every family as shown through Elizabeth’s varying relationship with her parents; the tense relationship with her mother and sympathy she shares with her father.

At the center of its plot, Pride and Prejudice examines the complex inequality that governs the relationships between men and women and the limited options that women have in regards to marriage. Austen portrays a world in which the socio-economic relationship between security and love limits the woman and her choices as it based exclusively on a family’s social rank and connections. Indeed, the expectations of the Bennet sisters, as members of the upper class is to marry well instead of work. As women can not inherit their families estate nor money, their only option is to marry well in the hope of attaining wealth and social standing. Through this, Austen explains Mrs. Bennet’s hysteria about marrying off her daughters. Yet Austen is also shown to be critical of those who marry purely for security, thereby offering Elizabth as the ideal, who initially refuses marriage as she refutes financial comfort but ends up marrying for love.

Class and Wealth

As Austen focuses much of her novel on the impacts of class and wealth, she makes clear of the system that favours the rich and powerful and often punishes the weak and poor. Characters like Lady Catherine, whose enforcement of rigid hierarchical positions often leads her to mistreatment of others. Other characters like Mr. Collins and Caroline are depicted as void of genuine connection as they are unable to live and love outside the perimeter of their social standing. In contrast, characters such as Bingley and the Gardiners offer a respectable embodiment of wealth and class through their kindness and manners. Indeed, Austen does not criticise the entire class system as she offers examples that serve to demonstrate the decency and respectability. Darcy embodies all that a high-class gentleman should as though he is initially presented as flawed and arrogant, it becomes clear as the novel progresses that he is capable of change. Always generous and compassionate, his involvement with Elizabeth helps to brings his nurturing nature to the foreground, evident in his attempts to help the foolish lydia. Ultimately, Austen suggest through Darcy’s and Elizabeth's union that though class and wealth are restrictive, they do not determine one’s character nor who one is capable of loving.

• Symbolism, imagery and allegories
• Writing style
• Three Act plot

Important Quotes

• “It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.” (ch.1)

When writing on any text in Text Response, it is essential to use quotes and analyse them.

Let’s take this quote, for example.

“it is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife”

This is the opening line of the novel. It is satirical, ironic and mocking in tone. Austen makes fun of the notion that wealthy bachelors must be wanting to marry in order to be valued in society. By using this tone, she subverts this “truth universally acknowledged” and encourages readers to question this societal presumption of wealth and marriage.

Have a look at the following quotes and ask yourself, ‘how would I analyse this quote?’:

• “She is tolerable; but not handsome enough to tempt me; and I am in no humour at present to give consequence to young ladies who are slighted by other men.” (ch.3)
• "An unhappy alternative is before you, Elizabeth. From this day you must be a stranger to one of your parents. Your mother will never see you again if you do not marry Mr. Collins, and I will never see you again if you do." (ch.20)
• “In vain have I struggled. It will not do. My feelings will not be repressed. You must allow me to tell you how ardently I admire and love you.” (ch.34)
• “They were all of them warm in her admiration; and at that moment she felt that to be mistress of Pemberley might be something!” (ch.43)
• “You are too generous to trifle with me. If your feelings are still what they were last April, tell me so at once. My affections and wishes are unchanged, but one word from you will silence me on this subject forever.” (ch.58)

Essay Topics

1. What do the various relationships shown in Pride and Prejudice tell us about love, marriage and society?

2. Austen shows that even those of the best moral character can be blinded by their pride and prejudice . To what extent do you agree?

3. Elizabeth Bennet holds a radical view of marriage for her time . What impact does this attitude have on the other characters' lives and relationships ? Discuss.

For more sample essay topics, head over to our Pride and Prejudice Study Guid e to practice writing essays using the analysis you've learnt in this blog!

Whenever you get a new essay topic, you can use LSG’s THINK and EXECUTE strategy , a technique to help you write better VCE essays. This essay topic breakdown will focus on the THINK part of the strategy. If you’re unfamiliar with this strategy, then check it out in How To Write A Killer Text Response because it’ll dramatically enhance how much you can take away from the following essays and more importantly, to then be able to apply these in your own writing.

Within the THINK strategy, we have 3 steps, or ABC. These ABC components are:

Step 1: A nalyse

Step 2: B rainstorm

Step 3: C reate a Plan  

Character-based Prompt: Elizabeth Bennet holds a radical view of marriage for her time. What impact could this attitude have on the other characters' lives and relationships? Discuss. 

The following comes essay topic breakdown comes from our Pride and Prejudice Study Guide:

Step 1: Analyse 

Elizabeth Bennet holds a radical view of marriage for her time . What impact could this attitude have on the other characters' lives and relationships ? Discuss.

A character based essay prompt is pretty self-explanatory as the prompt will have a specific focus on one character or a group of characters. While they may look relatively simple and straightforward, a lot of students struggle with character based questions as they find it is hard to discuss ideas in a lot of depth. With that in mind, it's important that we strive for what the author is saying; what is the author trying to convey through this specific character? What do they represent? Do they advocate for specific ideas or does the author use this character to condemn a certain idea and action?  

Step 2: Brainstorm

This question is looking at the attitude Elizabeth Bennet has in regard to the expectation and institution of marriage and how her view could impact the lives of the people around her. As always, we want to make sure that we not only identify our key words but define them. I started by first defining/ exploring the attitude Elizabeth holds towards the institution of marriage ; as marriage was not only an expectation in the times of regency England but a means to secure future financial security , Elizabeth’s outlook that an individual should marry only for the purpose of happiness and love was not only radical but dangerous . Her outlook, while noble, could and did put her family at jeopardy of being cast out from their estate as without a union between one of the Bennet daughters and Mr. Collins, Mr. Collins would have every right to do so as the only male inherent. I also looked at the wider implications Elizabeth’s outlook could have on the lives of the other characters such as Charlotte , Darcy and Bingley .

Step 3: Plan

Contention : Your contention relates to your interpretation of the essay prompt and the stance you’re going to take – i.e. are you in agreement, disagreement, or both to an extent.

While radical for her time, Elizabeth's progressive view of marriage can be seen to advocate for the rights of women and love and happiness but also, can jeopardise the livelihoods of those around her as Elizabeth is guided by selfish motives. 

P1: The radical view of marriage Elizabeth holds can be viewed as selfish and guided by her own self interest which is shown to negatively impact the lives of her family. 

P2: As Elizabeth diverts from the traditional approach to marriage, she encourages her friends and loved ones to follow their own hearts and morals rather than society's expectations. 

P3: Because Elizabeth is depicted as a bold and beautiful woman, she is unable to recognise that her radical view is a luxury that not all characters have access to. 

If you'd like to see an A+ essay on the essay topic above, complete with annotations on HOW and WHY the essays achieved A+ so you can emulate this same success, then you'll definitely want to check out our Pride and Prejudice Study Guide: A Killer Text Guide! In it, we also cover themes, characters, views and values, metalanguage and have 4 other sample A+ essays completely annotated so you can kill your next SAC or exam! Check it out here ."

Stasiland and 1984 are studied as part of VCE English's Comparative. For one of most popular posts on Comparative (also known as Reading and Comparing), check out our Ultimate Guide to VCE Comparative.

‍ 1. Introductions

Stasiland is a memoir-style recollection of the author Anna Funder’s encounters with people affected by the years of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), or when Germany was divided into east and west. It marries the author’s personal growth and development during her period of research with the personal histories of those who acted as both perpetrator and victim of the regime’s atrocities. The result is an emotional and deeply human perspective of this heavily-documented period of history which delves into the lasting yet often invisible marks the GDR left on those it touched.

1984 is on the surface the dystopian narrative of the struggles and ultimate downfall of a man named Winston who lives in the depressingly grungy and hopeless world of Big Brother and The Party. In a more profound sense, however, it is author George Orwell’s warning concerning the possibilities inherent in the development of totalitarianism and how these might come to damage the human race.

3. Character Analysis and Comparison

When comparing the characters presented in these two texts, it is important to remember that Orwell’s are fictional and Funder’s are her retellings of real people’s stories. Take care to avoid discussing Funder’s characters as constructions, and focus instead on how she has chosen to portray them.

4. Sample Paragraphs

Prompt: Discuss the different ways in which the authors of Stasiland and 1984 explore the intricacies of state power and knowledge.

Sample Introduction

When significant knowledge in any form is gained, it follows that it can be used in any way an individual or group sees fit. Stasiland and 1984 both show that the same piece of information can be used in drastically different ways to suit the purpose of that information’s owner. In both texts, we can observe this in many areas: mass surveillance for security or espionage purposes, recordkeeping to retain the truth or warp it, and medical or physiological advancements used to solve humanity’s problems or deliberately harm and deform people. Such examples force us to consider two well-known maxims, and to decide between the bliss of ignorance and the power of knowledge.

Sample Body Paragraph

In theory, mass surveillance has many benefits; it could be used to prevent criminal activity such as large-scale terrorist attacks and ensure the happiness and wellbeing of citizens. However, it is almost never associated with anything positive. In George Orwell’s 1984 , we are introduced to his hypothesis concerning what it would be like if it were to become developed to its full extent. The concept can be divided into three levels; firstly there is the obvious, external activities that we observe in both texts, which include mail screening, a military or gendarme presence in the streets and a network of informers. Secondly there is the introduction of the state into the home, which is achieved by The Party mainly through the telescreen, the most prominent and sinister instrument of mass surveillance in Oceania which gives total access to individual behaviour in the privacy of the home. While Winston seems to have found a loophole in this area by being ‘able to remain outside the range of the telescreen’, The Party carries its mass surveillance to the truest sense of the expression by extending it to a seemingly impossible third level, which introduces the state into ‘the few cubic centimetres inside [the] skull’. Interestingly, while the Thought Police cannot truly ‘see’ what is inside someone’s head, they can still control it; as long as people think that someone can see their thoughts, they will censor them themselves. This shows that the beauty of mass surveillance is that it does not actually have to be universal or all-encompassing to be successful. This is why the Stasi did not need to go to the lengths of The Party to achieve a similar result; the people merely need to believe that it is so on the basis of some evidence, and through this they can be controlled. Ultimately, mass surveillance can never be anything but destructive for this reason; it could put a complete halt to all terrorist plots and it would still act against the people by insidiously forcing them to censor their own thoughts out of fear.

Sample Conclusion

Both Stasiland and 1984 show absolutely that knowledge is a fundamental and intrinsic part of power, as it cannot exist without knowledge. While it is true that knowledge can be held without exercising it in some external display of power, it always shapes the person who holds it in ways both subtle and direct. Knowledge can therefore be seen as similar to Pandora’s Box; once it exists in a mind, it alters it, and the actions it prompts depend only on the desires and will of that mind .

In order to properly understand either of these texts, you’ll need to put on your history hat. Both of them are very firmly rooted in historical events, and to get a good grasp on what they really mean, you need to understand these events. You should research communism and socialism fairly extensively as well as the GDR, but you don’t need to sit for hours and write a book on the subject. All you need to do is trawl through Wikipedia for half an hour, or as long as it takes to get a sense of the subject. They key is to not ignore things that you don’t understand; if you see terms like ‘Eastern Bloc’ or ‘Marxism’ or ‘The Iron Curtain’ and you’ve got no idea what they are, research them! Even terms that you might believe you’re familiar with, like ‘Communism’ could also use a refresher.

The other main point is that 1984 particularly deals very heavily in ideological and philosophical argument. Orwell constructed the events of the plot as one giant hypothetical situation, so try and think to yourself – could that really happen? Is that really possible, or is this whole thing just plain silly? Remember that this text is much, much more than a simple narrative, and address it as such

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Creative Writing

Related subject guides, a sampling of literature databases.

• Finding Books
• Resources by Genre
• Literary journals
• Organizations and events
• Getting Published
• Citing Sources This link opens in a new window

Ask a Librarian via email , text us at +1-646-265-1342, or schedule an appointment .

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Subject Guide

This guide draws together resources for creative writers in all genres. The pages of this guide highlight books and other resources from our collection and suggestions for finding books on creative writing in general. The "Resources by Genre" page lists books from our collection on writing in specific genres (fiction, poetry, playwriting, screenwriting, and creative nonfiction). Other pages point to publication venues, local writers' organizations, and more.

The Libraries offer a wide variety of resources for research in many subjects. If you're looking for background information for any kind of writing project, you can use our Research Guides menu to browse by topic or search for a particular keyword.

Here are a few other subject guides that may be of particular interest:

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• Poems and Poets by Amanda Watson Last Updated Jul 11, 2024 1513 views this year

Many of the literary databases that the NYU Libraries subscribe to include full text of literary works in many genres. If you're looking for examples of fiction, poetry, or drama to read online, the following may be helpful. You can also search the Libraries' catalog for authors and titles of print works. (See the "Finding books" section of this guide for more guidance on locating print materials and ebooks.)

• Alexander Street Literature This link opens in a new window Alexander Street Literature is a cross-searchable package of full-text literature collections, focused on place, race, and gender. The collections include poetry, short fiction, novels, full-text plays, and film scripts.
• Columbia Granger's World of Poetry This link opens in a new window Columbia Granger's World of Poetry contains citations for poems that appear in anthologies and collections, as well as poet biographies, commentaries, a glossary of poetic terms, and full text for some poems. Users can search poems by title, first line, author gender, genre, and more.
• Drama Online This link opens in a new window Drama Online contains full texts and full-length filmed performances of plays ranging from Aeschylus to the present day, with supplementary material including first night program texts, critical analyses, and images from the Victoria and Albert Museum's archive of production photos. Includes the Core Collection, Critical Studies and Performance Practice, Nick Hern Books Modern Plays, National Theatre Collection, RSC Live Collection, and Aurora Metro Books, among others.
• Literature Online (LION) This link opens in a new window Literature Online includes full text of literary works in English from the Middle Ages to the twentieth century. It also includes the Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature, together with biographic and bibliographic reference materials for each author. More information less... A fully searchable library of more than 350,000 works of English and American poetry, drama and prose. LION is the single most extensive and wide-ranging online collection of English and American literature.Resources included in this resource are: Bibliographies Biographies Columbia Companion to the 20th Century American Short Story Columbia Dictionary of Modern European Literature Columbia Dictionary of Modern Literary and Cultural Criticism Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms Encyclopedia of African Literature Encyclopedia of American Poetry: The Nineteenth Century Encyclopedia of Latin American and Caribbean Literature, 1900-2003 Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2 vols.) Encyclopedia of the Novel Handbook of African American Literature New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics Oxford Companion to Irish Literature Penguin Classics Introductions Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory Routledge Encyclopedia of Post-Colonial Literatures in English (2nd Edition)
• New Play Exchange This link opens in a new window The New Play Exchange is a digital library of scripts by living writers which can be filtered by title, length, age level, genre, subject matter, production history, script availability, cast size and characteristics, playwright, and playwright demographics. The database includes a directory of organizations and one of people, which are faceted by role (dramaturgs and types of writers), gender identity, race/ethnic identity, sexual identity, and location. While the focus is currently North American, the intended scope is international.
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• Last Updated: Jul 9, 2024 6:57 PM
• URL: https://guides.nyu.edu/creative-writing

• Introduction
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• Diploma in Creative Writing in English (DCE)
• All applicants who are 10+2 pass will be admitted.
• Anyone without 10+2 but 20 years old and above will also be admitted.

Fee Structure:  Rs.3,800 + Rs. 200 Registration fee

• Programme overview
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Course Overview

The Diploma Programme in Creative Writing in English provides understanding, skills and professional knowledge about the art of writing and develops the creative ability of those interested in a professional career as a freelance writer. The curriculum is structured to impart instruction in progressive stages so as to ensure that a learner can assimilate information about a writer’s art and develops his/her creative ability. This Programme includes training in imaginative writing skills in relation to feature articles (women’s issues, book reviews, etc), writing short stories, scripts for TV/Radio, and writing poetry.

The Diploma in Creative Writing in English comprises two compulsory and four elective courses. Each course is of four credits.

Click here for DCE Project Guidelines

Planning Your Project Proposal

I) For your project, you may choose anyone of the following areas :

i.Novella ii.Features / Articles iii.Short Stories iv.Scripts for Radio & T.V. v.Poems vi.Any other project on similar lines.

II) Format of Project Proposal

A Project Proposal (500 words) should consist of the following :

i.)Title of the project

ii.)Objectives : What you propose to do in your project, and what you hope to achieve at the end (publication of your poems, for example, could be one of the goals)

State approximately how many stories, articles, poems, etc. you plant to write.

Give the title of each story, article or poem.

Make a brief statement (2 to 3 sentences) about the theme of each story, feature/article, poem, etc.

iii.)Methodology : The method you wish to adopt in order to structure or organize your work : e.g., do you propose to write experimental stories or formula stories ? How do you propose to go about your project in general.

iv.)Any remarks of a general nature comprising observations and comments.

v.)A Project proposal should be typed in double space on one side only, as far as possible on A4 size paper. Please leave adequate space on all sides for comments. Also make sure to keep one copy of the proposal for your records.

III) Guidelines for Project Proposal and Project Report

The proposal should give some idea about the following : theme, approach (Formula, Experimental, Stream-of-Consciousness, etc). The novella itself should be 20,000 words approximately.

ii)Features /Articles

8 – 10 in number. Any single feature should not exceed 2,000 words. Make your features as diverse as possible. The title should specify the topic clearly. For instance, an article titled ‘Environment’ would be quite meaningless as it suggests too wide an area to be adequately covered in a single feature article. ‘Environmental changes in the ‘Doon Valley’ would give the reader a better idea of what to expect.

A precise title will also provide a framework for your subject matter and prevent you from digressing. For instance in the article ‘Environmental Changes in the ‘Doon Valley’ you might like to talk about the Silent Valley Project in Kerala, but the phrase ‘Doon Valley’ will keep reminding you that the major part of your article should not be about the Silent Valley.

Be sure of your point of view before you start writing. For this, you must also be sure of your target readership ? children, women, general public, academics etc. You must also be aware of the policies of the journal, magazine, newspapers, etc., for which you are writing ? its political and cultural orientation, for instance.

You must read various magazines and newspaper articles to get the feel and tone of the contemporary usage of the English language.

Avoid archaic words, and clichés, unless you can give them a fresh twist. Carefully observe the rules of grammar and syntax.

To make your features/articles readable and interesting, introduce humour, examples, illustrations, anecdotes, photographs, sketches, etc. Your factual information should be accurate. Remember, however, that the personal creative touch is more important than mere data and statistics. Do not make your project report into a research paper ? always bear in mind the fact that your feature will be read by the lay-reader rather than the specialist.

iii)Short Stories

8 -10 in number. You must give a 2-3 line statement of the theme of each story in your project proposal.

Stories can be of different types, each type requiring a slightly different approach. So, first you should decide whether you want to write formula stories, detective stories, experimental stories or children’s stories. You may, of course, have a project which will be a combination of these types of stories. We give you a brief outline of each type below:

Formula Stories

A formula story usually is written or revolves around a well-defined plot based on an incident, culminates in a climax and resolves itself tragically or happily for the main characters. These characters are recognizable types, who often dilemmas that arise out of stock social problems.

Detective Stories

Remember that your main task is to build up a sense of mystery and keep the suspense of the story at a steady pitch till the end. For this, unnecessary descriptions and details should be kept out as they distract the reader from the focus of the story. The detective’s character should be built up carefully. Secondary characters should be kept to a minimum to make the ending plausible. Relevant clues to the mystery should be presented throughout the story.

Experimental Stories

In such stories events are usually viewed through the subjective vision of the main characters. Memories, intervene; life is seen as a ceaseless flow. Hence, such a story does not give importance to a plot, a proper beginning or a definite end. Rather, it highlights significant moments in the life of the protagonists, and leaves the story open-ended. The conclusion is not important. The language may be highly informal or even lyrical.

Writing for Children

Writing stories for children can be highly demanding, both in terms of content and design. Observe children. Try to keep close to the reality of their lives. Children appreciate a sense of humour. The vocabulary and sentence structure are also important for rapid and easy reading. Illustrations enliven any piece of writing for children.

iv)Scripts for Radio and/or TV

You can attempt scripts for either Radio or TV or both. (Writing for Radio and Writing for Television see item 3.8 of unit 3, Block 1 for radio format, an Unit 1, Block 3 for TV format). A radio script can include a radio play, an illustrative talk with sound effects. You could attempt a serial adaptation of a novel or a radio profile (feature, magazine or even a documentary on a personality). You may include an interview a spot interview, a field interview or a studio interview. You could identify a topic and present it in the form of a discussion with several participants and a moderator.

In case you wish to produce a script for a play, keep in mind the fact that appropriate sound effects will be needed to replace the visual elements and you would have to suggest them in your script.

While formulating your proposal.

choose your area of interest with care – radio and/or TV

then decide on your intention – education, information, entertainment, choose your topic/programme

narrow it down to specifics – an adaptation, a series, a number of talks, a quiz programme

decide on the word/time length – say 22 minutes and then formulate your proposal.

12 – 15 poems of approximately 14 lines each. You should give the central theme and image or symbol of each poem in your project proposal. Longer poems are not acceptable.

Go through the four blocks of your course materials first. They have been structured to identify and discuss the components of a poem.

Write short poems ? 14 lines or so.

Before you start writing, be sure of the form of your poem ? will it be a lyric, a sonnet, or free verse ? the meaning of a poem also conveys itself through its form.

Do you want your poem to tell a story, describe a scene, an emotion or an idea ?

What is the overall mood of your poem ? Build it up by the use of appropriate similes and metaphors and other kinds of imagery.

iii)Any other project

Any other project on similar lines is permissible so long as it conforms to the format and is duly approved by the Faculty of English.

Book Reviews are permitted; so long as they do not exceed 20% of the total length of the project;

Combination, judiciously balanced, are permitted. In case you wish to combine genres in your project report, it should include a fair representation of each kind. For example, a report could comprise 5 features and 5 short stories;

Translation of poems, short stories etc. (into English) as a project, or part of it, will not be accepted.

Travelogues, Biographies and Book-Reviews or Radio Interview alone cannot form an entire project.

IV) SAMPLE PROPOSAL – This is what your proposal should look like : Title of the Project : THE FRAGMENTS

The Project will consist of 5 short stories and 5 feature/articles I hope that ultimately I will be able to get some of my articles and stories published.

Methodology

Some of my stories will be formula stories others will be left open-ended. Some of my stories will employ then stream-of-consciousness technique. The atmosphere, setting and tone will suit the theme in each case. The day-to-day experience of living raises a number of questions. Problems encountered, topics deeply pondered, unfamiliar scenarios these will be presented in the form of feature articles, the aim being to evolve a well-rounded, unbiased picture of the situation. For this, I will conduct some on-the-spot interviews, read relevant material on the topic under discussion and then write these feature articles, presenting my personal point of view.

Stories 1) Quirk of Circumstances : Popular, erudite professor, but a tyrant at home, till an incident changes his life

2) The Mask : A pretty and pleasant girl seems to behave oddly, all of a sudden. Her deceptive appearances are seen through in the course of events.

3) The Dark Horizon : Son of socialite parents, neglected, loner, stern upbringing makes him lean towards the pleasant hallucinations of heroin and opium…

4) The Reflections : A number of persons are seen walking down a country road, they are being watches by someone. His reflections on the persons who move along the road form the main ingredient of the story.

5) The Memories : Anup recalls his friendship with Joseph on hearing the shocking news of the latter’s suicide. A trail of memories follow.

Features 1) Capitation Fee : Can we entrust our lives and industries to those doctors and engineers who have “bought” their education through capitation fees?

2) Poor Standard of Indian Sports : Why is the standard of Indian sports so low ? Why do other developing countries perform so much better than us ? Is something wrong with our sports policies ?

3) Ecological Degradation : In recent years, a great deal of damage has been caused to the natural environment. This needs to be stopped otherwise the consequences will be disastrous for the future generations.

4) Growing Old : The effect of the split in the joint family brings tremendous mental suffering to old persons who even though economically independent, require love and care.

5) Singapore Revisited : A glimpse into the scenic spots of the proverbial “Shopper’s Paradise”, and some of the many festivals that make up its cultural climate.

V) MODALITIES FO SUBMISSION OF PROJECT PROPOSAL AND PROJECT REPORT

In any project undertaken for DCE-6,it is necessary to observe the following steps: i)Draft your Project Proposal as per the guidelines given above.

ii)Submit your Project Proposal to Director, School of Humanities, send a copy, simultaneously to your Regional Director for information and records.

iii)Your proposal should carry the details of your enrolment number, your name and your address.

iv)Your proposal will be returned to you within ten weeks of its receipt with one of the following remarks :

‘Approve’

‘Approved conditionally’ subject to observation of certain guidelines and modifications. ‘Re-do and re-submit’ to : The Director (School of Humanities).

v)All approved proposals must be attached with the completed project to enable the evaluator to check whether there is conformity with the proposed outline, suggested modifications, etc. Some projects have arrived in parts ? 4 stories in one dispatch and 4 features some weeks later. Please note that the entire report must be in one cover, and bound if possible, or at least tagged. It is of no use if you send your reports in parts ? in fact, there is every chance of it getting lost.

vi)Your report must be accompanied by a certificate that the work is original, has not been submitted elsewhere and embodies the writing done as part of Course 6. (Self certified)

(PLEASE RETRAIN A COPY OF YOUR PROPOSAL BEFORE MAILING IT TO US FOR APPROVAL)

vii)Project Report (Single copy) – If you wish to complete your Diploma within a year of the enrolment kindly submit your Project Report by the 30th November for December Term End result and 30th May for June Term End result.

? Submit your Project Report by Registered Insured post to :

Registrar Student Evaluation Division (SED) Indira Gandhi National Open University Maidan Garhi, New Delhi – 110 068

Please note that –

You will not be required to do any assignments or term-end examination for Course 6, i.e., you will only submit the Project Proposal, followed by the Project Report.

The Project carries the weightage of a full course, (4 credits) and

You must get a minimum C grade for your project. If you get a D, you would be required to revise the report.

Please submit a typed and bound copy of the Project Report. Use A4 size paper. Use one side only.

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• Taster materials

Sample exercises

Here are some ‘taster’ activities from early parts of Creative Writing (A215) on ways of stimulating imagination and on writing fiction.

The purpose of this set of exercises is to develop your powers of observation and memory so that your writing will contain vivid and authentic details.

Exercise 1: Observing your environment close your eyes for a few moments and think of the room or place around you...

Exercise 2: People and possessions creating a character through thinking about their possessions

Exercise 3: Turning research into writing practice in carrying out research and creating a strong setting for your character and story.

Extracts from study material

If you enjoy these writing activities, you can find out more about the module by reading the chapter ‘ Writing what you know ’ from the Workbook, which is available online.

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A unique resource for students on our modules is the provision of recorded interviews with well-known authors. For example, the A174 Start Writing Fiction CD featured interviews with Louis de Bernières, Patricia Duncker, Alex Garland, Michele Roberts and others. You can listen to extracts from the CD on OpenLearn .

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• Published: 17 July 2024

Groundwater-dependent ecosystem map exposes global dryland protection needs

• Melissa M. Rohde   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1252-0711 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Christine M. Albano 4 ,
• Xander Huggins   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6313-8299 5 , 6 , 7 ,
• Kirk R. Klausmeyer   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0008-3339-6263 1 ,
• Charles Morton 4 ,
• Ali Sharman 8 ,
• Esha Zaveri   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3460-4182 8 ,
• Laurel Saito   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3617-3133 9 ,
• Zach Freed   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1274-6374 10 ,
• Jeanette K. Howard 1 ,
• Nancy Job   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4929-7592 11 ,
• Holly Richter   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1597-1072 12 , 13 ,
• Kristina Toderich   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2825-7214 14 , 15 ,
• Aude-Sophie Rodella 8 ,
• Tom Gleeson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9493-7707 5 , 16 ,
• Justin Huntington 4 ,
• Hrishikesh A. Chandanpurkar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7573-8056 17 ,
• Adam J. Purdy 18 ,
• James S. Famiglietti 19 , 20 ,
• Michael Bliss Singer   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6899-2224 21 , 22 , 23 ,
• Dar A. Roberts   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3555-4842 24 ,
• Kelly Caylor   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6466-6448 23 , 24 , 25 &
• John C. Stella   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6095-7726 2  

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• Conservation biology
• Environmental impact
• Freshwater ecology
• Water resources

Groundwater is the most ubiquitous source of liquid freshwater globally, yet its role in supporting diverse ecosystems is rarely acknowledged 1 , 2 . However, the location and extent of groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs) are unknown in many geographies, and protection measures are lacking 1 , 3 . Here, we map GDEs at high-resolution (roughly 30 m) and find them present on more than one-third of global drylands analysed, including important global biodiversity hotspots 4 . GDEs are more extensive and contiguous in landscapes dominated by pastoralism with lower rates of groundwater depletion, suggesting that many GDEs are likely to have already been lost due to water and land use practices. Nevertheless, 53% of GDEs exist within regions showing declining groundwater trends, which highlights the urgent need to protect GDEs from the threat of groundwater depletion. However, we found that only 21% of GDEs exist on protected lands or in jurisdictions with sustainable groundwater management policies, invoking a call to action to protect these vital ecosystems. Furthermore, we examine the linkage of GDEs with cultural and socio-economic factors in the Greater Sahel region, where GDEs play an essential role in supporting biodiversity and rural livelihoods, to explore other means for protection of GDEs in politically unstable regions. Our GDE map provides critical information for prioritizing and developing policies and protection mechanisms across various local, regional or international scales to safeguard these important ecosystems and the societies dependent on them.

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Globally, groundwater is critical for meeting human and ecosystem water needs, especially in drylands, which comprise roughly 40% of global land area and support more than two billion people. Serving as a buffer when surface water and precipitation are insufficient, groundwater is particularly relied on in dryland regions and increasingly important in meeting higher water demands under a warming climate 5 , 6 , 7 . Despite groundwater accounting for most liquid freshwater on Earth, groundwater depletion is occurring rapidly in many places throughout the globe 8 , 9 , 10 . When groundwater depletion occurs, groundwater levels can drop out of reach from wells 11 and ecosystems 12 , 13 , 14 , creating a lack of access to drinking or irrigation water and causing or contributing to land subsidence, seawater intrusion, streamflow depletion, ecosystem decline and biodiversity loss 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 . Ecosystems are particularly susceptible to groundwater depletion because legal protections and environmental water rights are lacking around the globe 1 , 16 , and environmental groundwater requirements are often overlooked by conservationists, water managers and human development organizations 2 , 17 .

Ecosystems relying on groundwater for some or all of their water needs are collectively referred to as groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs). Although GDEs occur across many biomes, they are of greatest concern in drylands, where near-surface water availability is limited compared to humid environments. Water availability within dryland GDEs varies through time and space, as water tables rise and fall, generating surface flow in intermittent and perennial streams, while also providing water to unsaturated soils occupied by the roots of numerous plant species. Under natural conditions, the water table level fluctuates in response to seasonal and interannual climate forcings, resulting in spatially and temporally dynamic interconnections with plant roots and surface water. Natural variations in water availability support highly diverse ecosystems in which groundwater provides a reliable water supply, thermoregulation and/or unique habitat conditions depending on the expression of groundwater on, near or within the Earth’s surface 18 . In drylands, GDEs are important ‘island’ ecosystems that are often isolated by the surrounding xerophyte-dominated desert environment 19 . GDEs are often biodiversity hotspots with niche habitats that support rare and endemic species, and provide critical thermal and hydrologic refugia during dry seasons, droughts and long-term climate changes 20 . However, perturbations in groundwater quantity and quality regimes due to climate change and other anthropogenic stressors such as pumping are placing these GDE biodiversity hotspots under threat, which can result in a cascading series of negative effects on GDEs ranging from short-term water stress to the permanent loss of species and habitats. In addition, effects on GDEs can adversely affect a wide range of benefits they provide to society, including subsistence livelihoods, water quality regulation, streambank stabilization, flood risk reduction, climate regulation, recreational opportunities and cultural values 21 , 22 .

Knowing the location and extent of GDEs is a critical first step to monitor, manage and protect these important ecosystems. Nevertheless, spatial data on GDEs are lacking in many places globally. GDE mapping so far has been predominantly a localized process requiring time-consuming data collection, expert review and field studies to verify ecosystem access to groundwater. At the same time, GDE mapping at broader landscape scales (more than 50 km 2 ) has become increasingly possible through remote sensing and spatial analyses 3 , 23 . GDE mapping on broad scales has been conducted in Australia 3 , 24 , California 25 , Central Asia 26 , Chile 27 , Oregon 28 , 29 , Nevada 30 , Netherlands 31 , Ireland 32 , South Africa 33 , Spain 34 and Texas 35 . The most common GDE mapping methods use inference-based approaches, which rely on landscape indicators that include hydrologic features (for example, springs, wetlands and rivers supported by baseflow), and vegetation mapping from aerial or satellite imagery 23 . Recent advances in remote-sensing techniques, cloud computing, emerging datasets and machine learning have markedly improved land cover, vegetation and climate mapping over large spatial scales. However, machine learning applications for mapping GDEs have remained limited to specific geographic locations 24 , 26 , 27 , 34 , or at a coarse resolution (roughly 1 km) globally 2 . It is imperative that the global distribution and extent of GDEs be improved so that programmatic and policy decisions can protect these vulnerable dryland environments at appropriate management scales.

Here, we use a random forest machine learning model to provide a high-resolution (1 arcsecond, roughly 30 m at the equator) spatially explicit global map of probable GDEs in dryland regions. The goals of our map are to: (1) generate a conservative (low) estimate of the likely presence and extent of GDEs; (2) provide a reproducible methodology that allows for periodic mapping to detect changes over time, and which can be refined for regional GDE mapping efforts at various scales using local data and expertise, as well as high-resolution satellite imagery; and (3) serve as a starting point for prioritizing policy and programmatic decisions to enhance GDE monitoring and in situ validation studies so that GDEs can be protected by relevant groups, organizations and governments across the globe. Our results show that more than half (53%) of mapped GDEs are potentially threatened by groundwater depletion and only 21% of GDEs exist on protected lands or in jurisdictions with sustainable groundwater management policies. Because GDE protection may need to be achieved through integrated policies or programmatic work instead of sustainable groundwater management laws that may not be tractable in politically unstable regions, we also examined the linkage of mapped GDEs with cultural and socio-economic factors within the Greater Sahel region of Africa. Finally, we discuss how our global GDE map and methodology can be used as a starting point to facilitate and improve policy and programmatic decisions at the local level.

High-resolution GDE mapping

We combine 6 years (2015–2020) of Landsat 8 imagery, climate, topographic, groundwater and GDE training data ( n  = 34,454 training points; Extended Data Fig. 1 and Extended Data Table 1 ) to map the likely presence of both aquatic and terrestrial GDEs at roughly 30 m resolution across global drylands. Within our random forest model, training data are used within an ensemble of decision trees to perform a supervised classification resulting in each pixel being classified as a GDE or non-GDE. Given the global scale of our study and reliance on satellite-based indicators, this binary classification (GDE or non-GDE) occurs regardless of whether the GDE is aquatic or terrestrial, and slightly dependent (facultative) or entirely dependent (obligate) on groundwater but excludes subterranean GDEs that exist within aquifer formations. Characterizing the timing and nature of groundwater dependence requires intensive in situ field monitoring, such as isotopic studies that require localized field sampling and are not feasible at the global scale. Thus, the intention of our map is to provide an indication of where GDEs are most likely to exist across global drylands, and to provide a starting point for regionally refined mapping efforts and verification using local datasets, knowledge and targeted follow-on work.

In the absence of a comprehensive global groundwater level database, our random forest model uses publicly and globally available satellite-based data, including vegetation and water indices, ambient land surface temperature (LST), climate and topographic data ( Methods ). To infer whether ecosystems are being supported by groundwater, our approach assumes that ecosystems with access to groundwater will appear as ‘blue or green islands’ because they will be wet and maintain ecohydrologic and photosynthetic function during the dry season, in contrast to those without access to groundwater 23 . For this reason, we selected satellite-based data that can measure vegetation greenness, leaf water content, open water bodies, the ratio of the annual sum of actual plant transpiration to precipitation (ETaP) and the spatial anomaly of LST. ETaP distinguishes pixels in which plant transpiration exceeds precipitation, indicating a likely reliance on groundwater, and LST distinguishes GDEs based on their cooler temperatures relative to the surrounding environment. These cooler temperatures are driven by higher evaporative rates from soil and water bodies influenced by groundwater and higher transpiration rates due to a more abundant water supply available to phreatophytic vegetation 36 . Although GDEs exist in both wet and dry environments, the identification of GDEs in humid environments is more difficult using existing satellite-based data because of the inability to differentiate between precipitation and groundwater sources. Thus, we restrict this inference-based approach and the model extent to global drylands (Extended Data Fig. 2 ), and exclude places with deep groundwater that are outside the reach of most plant roots 37 (more than 30 m, Extended Data Fig. 3 ), in addition to agricultural and urban lands. This resulted in a total model analysis area of 23.2 million km 2 . Because our model relies on satellite-based thermal and spectral data from the 2015–2020 period, the resultant map reflects the likely location of aquatic and terrestrial GDEs for this snapshot in time.

The validation accuracy of the random forest model was 84%, which is a measure of how well the model predicted true positives (GDEs) and true negatives (non-GDEs, Extended Data Table 2 ). The model precision, which measures the percentage of the predicted GDEs that are actually GDEs (true positives), was 81%. The model recall, which measures the percentage of actual GDEs that were predicted correctly, was 87% (Extended Data Table 2 ). The two most important predictor variables for distinguishing GDEs from their surrounding environment were ETaP and LST (Extended Data Fig. 4 ). To evaluate how well the model performs within regions lacking training data within the model extent (Extended Data Fig. 1 ), we compared the distribution of the predictor variables results from our model training data points ( n  = 34,454 points) with a randomly generated global point dataset of comparable size ( n  = 32,954 points). The distributions of each of the 11 predictor variables were similar across the training and global points, with their overlap index ( Methods ) ranging between 71% and 99% (Extended Data Fig. 5 ). Furthermore, regional cross-validation tests, which are a standard machine learning protocol for assessing model performance in areas without training data, were performed in the Sahel, Western Australia and New Mexico (USA) yielding validation accuracies of 69, 53 and 61%, respectively (Supplementary Tables 1 – 3 ). Precision was much higher than recall in the Sahel and Western Australia cross-validation tests, but lower in New Mexico. The lower recall rates in our cross-validation tests are a result of GDE training points being misclassified as non-GDEs, which suggests that our model is probably under-classifying GDEs and thus provides a conservative (low) estimate of the likely presence of GDEs within dryland regions worldwide. One possible explanation is that GDEs in drylands can be sparsely vegetated or contain small springs that may be difficult to detect at 30 m resolution. For example, if ground-truthed training points used in our model contain a lone tree or small spring within a roughly 30 metre pixel, the pixel can be saturated by bare ground reflectance that would result in that GDE point being misclassified as a non-GDE grid cell. Thus, it is possible that grid cells classified as non-GDEs may in fact be a GDE, especially in more arid landscapes in which GDE features are likely to be smaller and more difficult to detect with remote-sensing data. To better characterize the uncertainty of our model, we also generated a probability layer in our GDE map that contains the likelihood that each pixel is a GDE (100%) or non-GDE (0%) (Extended Data Fig. 6 and Methods ). In our GDE map (Fig. 1 ), we differentiated likely from non-likely GDE grid cells using a likelihood threshold of 50% but end-users of our data can reduce this threshold to lower values if less-conservative estimates of GDE presence are desired.

a , Global map shows GDE area density at 30 arcsecond resolution (roughly 1 km grids). Call-out circles show binary GDE classification at the full 1 arcsecond resolution (roughly 30 m grids). Bar plot (bottom left) shows GDE surface area distribution across continents. AS, Asia; AF, Africa; OC, Oceania; SA, South America; NA, North America; EU, Europe. b – g , Regional maps shown at the full 1 arc second resolution for the western USA ( b ), central Argentina and Chile ( c ), the central Sahel region ( d ), southern Africa ( e ), central Asia ( f ) and eastern Australia ( g ). The global map is shown in the Robinson projection whereas all panel insets are shown in geographic projection (latitude and longitude) referenced to the World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984 datum. An interactive version of the full resolution map is available at https://codefornature.projects.earthengine.app/view/global-gde .

Our mapping reveals that GDEs are probably present within 8.34 million km 2 of global drylands, comprising 36% of the global dryland area analysed here (Fig. 1 ). An interactive version of the high-resolution (1 arcsecond, roughly 30 m) spatially explicit global GDE map and probability layer are accessible as a web map ( https://codefornature.projects.earthengine.app/view/global-gde ). GDEs coincide with many global biodiversity hotspots, such as the California Floristic Province, Mesoamerica, Tropical Andes, Central Chile, Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/Kenya, Caucasus, Indo-Burma, Southwest Australia and New Zealand 4 . Mapped GDEs include a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem types, including phreatophytic vegetation, rivers and streams, springs and wetlands that not only support rare and endemic species, but also rural livelihoods that depend on GDEs for domestic water supplies, food and livestock forage (Supplementary Fig. 1 ).

Groundwater development linkages

To assess risks to GDEs posed by groundwater depletion, we compared GRACE-derived groundwater storage trends over the past 20 years (2002–2022) for mapped GDEs, which reveal important differences between continents. For example, mapped GDEs are more contiguous and are more extensive in Central Asia, the Sahel and South America (Fig. 1 ), where they coincide with pastoral landscapes (Extended Data Fig. 7 ) and lower rates of groundwater depletion (Fig. 2 ). This is in contrast to more fragmented GDE landscapes in Australia and North America where agricultural lands and groundwater pumping dominate 38 . Globally, our map indicates 59% of GDEs overlap lands with more than 25% pastoral land use (among areas with pastoral land use data). Because many GDEs rely on shallow groundwater, regions with a history of groundwater pumping are likely to have lost many GDEs over the decades since pumping commenced 12 , 13 , 39 . For example, intensive groundwater pumping in California’s Central Valley has caused groundwater levels to drop below the roots of plants and to become disconnected from stream channels, contributing to a landscape with highly fragmented GDEs that often rely on shallow groundwater supported by local irrigation return flow, water conveyance or discharge from wastewater treatment facilities 15 . As groundwater depletion continues to increase globally to meet human 40 and atmospheric evaporative 41 demands from a warming climate, less groundwater will be available for GDEs to cope and buffer against reduced surface water availability and increased plant water stress 6 .

Global relationship between GDE area density and groundwater storage trends at 30 arcminute resolution (roughly 50 km grids). Annotated numbers inside the legend correspond to the area-weighted average values per freshwater ecoregion ( Methods ) highlighted in the map.

Globally, more than half (53%) of mapped GDEs (3.81 million km 2 ) exist within regions showing declining groundwater storage trends (among GDE areas with available data; 7.20 of 8.34 million km 2 ; Methods ). However, there is significant regional variability in the threats posed to GDEs by groundwater depletion. Regions where most (more than 50%) dryland GDEs are in areas experiencing groundwater storage loss include Europe (90%), Asia (75%) and North America (65%). Conversely, only moderate and small percentages of GDEs in South America (37%), Oceania (29%) and Africa (17%) are facing similar threats (Fig. 2 ). Because global groundwater storage trend data are only available at coarse spatial resolutions and vertically integrate shallow and deep groundwater resources ( Methods ), the direct impact on GDEs will vary considerably at local scales not captured in the large-scale storage trend data. Groundwater storage loss can result in deeper water tables and reduced groundwater flow across the landscape and at the intersection of surface water bodies, but will vary locally depending on the hydrologic regime, aquifer configuration and streambed hydraulic conductivity. However, the widespread occurrence of groundwater storage losses in regions with identified GDEs underscores the need to proactively protect these ecosystems from the threat of groundwater depletion in regions not facing the same storage losses, such as found across much of Africa. In many regions around the world, GDEs lack protection and pressures on GDEs are exacerbated by complex cultural, socio-economic and political factors.

Cultural and socio-economic linkages

To illustrate the linkages between GDEs with cultural and socio-economic factors, we focus on the Greater Sahel region in which GDEs play an essential role in supporting biodiversity, rural livelihoods and providing sustenance and relief along human migration pathways for pastoralists and traders 42 . With half of the world’s poor living in sub-Saharan Africa, the Sahel is a fragile region laden with social and climate instability, including social conflict, food insecurity, human displacement and extreme flood and drought events 43 . In the aftermath of severe drought events during the 1970s and 1980s, competition over water and agricultural resources between nomadic herders and sedentary farmers spurred ongoing confrontations for water, crop land and grazing options across the region 44 . During dry periods, when herds can no longer rely on nutrient-rich annual grasses, pastoralists move their herds onto croplands to graze and browse within wetlands and on trees, shrubs and perennial grasses that are probably sustained by groundwater, which can exacerbate conflict 45 , 46 .

In the Greater Sahel, our findings show that four well-known conflict hotspots (the Liptako–Gourma region at the borders of Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger; the Lake Chad Basin at the borders of Chad, South Niger, Northern Nigeria and Cameroon; the Darfur region at the borders of Sudan, South Sudan, Chad and the Central African Republic; and the South Kordofan region between Sudan and South Sudan) have a high prevalence of GDEs, which support local livelihoods and exist at the convergence of forced migration pathways 47 . These hotspots coincide with growing food insecurity in the wake of climate shocks and conflict that have resulted in the expansion of crop cultivation into traditional grazing areas 48 (Fig. 3 ). The overlap between GDEs and conflict zones of social vulnerability emphasizes the importance of recognizing the interdependencies between GDEs, climate change, rural livelihoods, food security and social stability in subnational, national and regional protection strategies. This is particularly important because many of our globally mapped GDEs co-exist with pastoral lands (Extended Data Fig. 7 ), where GDEs are likely to provide critical ecosystem services for both wildlife and livestock. However, our results also indicate that these same GDEs, and the services they provide, are likely to be threatened by policies that encourage groundwater exploitation due to agricultural intensification. For example, single-objective policies aimed at food security that promote the proliferation of groundwater wells for irrigation or food pricing that encourages water-intensive grain cultivation have exacerbated groundwater depletion in regions such as India 49 . The likelihood of similar unintended consequences of single-issue policies is high for regions such as the Sahel, and groundwater depletion that leads to GDE degradation stemming from well-meaning policies (for example, borehole development for irrigation) could contribute to further regional destabilization by excluding pastoralists and increasing their societal vulnerability to climate shocks. Thus, multi-disciplinary approaches are necessary to address the interdependence of economic development, natural resources and conservation, to ensure that diverse livelihoods and communities surrounding GDEs in dryland areas are protected along with these critical natural environments.

a , GDE area density at 5 arcminute resolution. b , Pastoral land area density at 5 arcminute resolution. c , District-level food insecurity classes as of October 2021. Food insecurity classes are Min., Minimal; Stress., Stressed; Crisis; Emerg., emergency. d , Armed conflict location and event data (all events between January 1997 and February 2021) summarized for GADM level 1 administrative areas. Data sources from b – d are provided in Supplementary Table 6 .

Overcoming global conservation challenges

GDEs in drylands are at risk of severe ecologic damage and loss if policies, development projects and management actions do not explicitly factor in environmental groundwater needs 14 , 17 . In the race to combat climate change and unprecedented biodiversity loss, global initiatives and land protection often overlook the significance of groundwater in supporting important species, habitats and many critical functions including climate regulation 2 , 22 . The importance of groundwater is generally under-represented in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, with vague linkages to ecosystems under Target 6.4 (Water use and scarcity) and Target 6.6 (Water-related ecosystems). Although environmental water needs for GDEs are increasingly being protected under Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, and considered under sustainable water policies, such as Australia’s National Water Initiative, the European Union’s Water Framework Directive and California’s Sustainable Groundwater Management Act, significant policy gaps remain globally.

Our results show that only 21% of globally mapped dryland GDEs (1.76 million km 2 ) have some degree of protection (Fig. 4 ). However, even in places with well-established legal frameworks that limit groundwater development, the implementation of these policies often falls short of protecting ecosystem water needs 50 . For example, a common practice within groundwater law is to manage groundwater towards a safe yield, which considers groundwater usage to be safe if it falls within the natural recharge rate 51 . However, the concept of safe yield fails to acknowledge negative ecologic consequences 17 . Even jurisdictions that have adopted a more inclusive definition of sustainability, such as in Australia, California in the USA and the European Union where ecologic water requirements or an evaluation of ecosystem effects are required, are falling short of meeting ecosystem water needs. This is due to inequitable decision-making processes that prioritize human over ecosystem water needs, the absence of environmental groundwater rights regimes, limited ecohydrologic expertise in water agencies and a lack of scientific consensus on what measurable groundwater targets and thresholds are representative of environmental water needs 1 , 14 , 16 , 17 , 50 . Even with improvements, groundwater laws that limit groundwater development or call for sustainable groundwater management planning may be intractable in politically unstable regions, as illustrated for the Sahel. Thus, it may be necessary to achieve GDE protection through means of other local, regional or international policies or humanitarian efforts.

The proportion of mapped GDEs with no protection (red) is 79%, with the remaining 21% having some degree of protection (blue and purple). GDEs shown in purple exist on protected areas or in jurisdictions with sustainable groundwater management policies. GDEs shown in blue are protected by both measures (protected area and sustainable groundwater management policy). GDE area density is shown in this figure at 30 arcsecond resolution (roughly 1 km grids).

Our study provides a conservative map of GDEs in drylands globally and an approach to delineate GDEs at local scales. However, further ground-truthing and verification should be undertaken before applying the global map to local contexts. Our map nevertheless provides critical information for subnational, national and intergovernmental organizations to prioritize, conceptualize and develop policy and protection mechanisms, so that efforts can be made to safeguard and avoid further degradation to these important dryland ecosystems and the communities that depend on them.

Model development

Data processing and modelling were conducted in Google Earth Engine (GEE), an application program interface that provides access to large publicly available datasets and machine learning algorithms, which enables complex computing across large spatial and temporal scales that was nearly impossible in the recent past 52 .

Model extent

Dryland regions were identified at 30 arcsecond (roughly 1 km) resolution using the Köppen–Geiger climate classes: arid and semi-arid (Type B), and three temperate climate types with distinct dry summer seasons (type C) 53 (48.5 million km 2 , Extended Data Fig. 2 ). Agricultural and urban areas were masked out using the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) roughly 10 m resolution global land use and land cover map, which were derived from deep learning models and 2017–2020 Sentinel-2 imagery 54 . Isolated patches of groundwater-dependent vegetation existing within agricultural lands may be classified as croplands and subsequently masked out of the model extent. Oceans and inland seas were masked out using the Copernicus Global Land Service Dynamic Land Cover map at 100 m resolution (CGLS-LC100), which is based on 2015–2019 Sentinel imagery 55 . Global depth-to-groundwater (DTG) data at roughly 1 km spatial resolution 56 , were used to define the model extent by masking out pixels where DTG exceeded 30 m from the land surface (Extended Data Fig. 3 ), which is beyond the rooting zone of most phreatophytic vegetation 37 . As the DTG dataset contains data gaps where open water occurs, we assigned a DTG value of 0 for pixels identified in the ESRI dataset as open water. Next, the DTG layer was smoothed using a 1.5 pixel focal mean window to interpolate values for any remaining, isolated ‘no data’ pixels using surrounding pixel values. The small window size was used to minimize the effects of smoothing on DTG values in regions with large changes in surface elevation. On visual inspection, the remaining ‘no data’ gaps appear to surround water sources that had been identified using the land cover data. It was assumed that DTG is shallow in these areas, and these remaining pixels were also assigned DTG values of zero. Only pixels with DTG less than or equal to 30 metres were included in the analysis to map GDEs. After applying these various spatial masks, the total model extent is 23.2 million km 2 .

Training and validation data

Training and validation GDE data (Extended Data Fig. 1 and Extended Data Table 1 ) were derived from ground-truthed points within the public version of the LANDFIRE 2016 Remap Reference Database (LFRDB) 57 , the Australian Groundwater Dependent Ecosystem Atlas 58 and the sPLOTOpen dataset 59 . In the Australian GDE Atlas, subterranean GDEs from karsts were excluded and the remaining aquatic and terrestrial GDE data were considered as GDE if classified as a ‘Known GDE—from regional studies’, and as non-GDE if classified as a ‘Low potential GDE—from regional studies’. Ground-truthed vegetation data inventoried within the LFRDB and sPLOTOpen datasets were classified as GDE or non-GDE data according to species and location based on expert and literature review (Supplementary Table 4 ). For the LFRDB dataset, phreatophytes were classified from four different states in the western United States: Arizona, California, Nevada and Oregon. If there was consensus among two or more states that a particular plant species in the reference database was a phreatophyte, then it was classified as a GDE. Non-GDE points were identified when a plant species was not identified as a phreatophyte in three or more states. Other non-GDE training points were created by randomly sampling barren areas ( n  = 10,000 points) within the ESRI 10 m land use and land cover map. Because our model relies on satellite-based thermal and spectral data, we intentionally selected training data, predictor variables and regions that could readily map ecosystems showing surface expressions of groundwater. And thus, our GDE map does not reflect GDEs in subterranean systems or in cold or humid environments.

Predictor variables

GDEs were mapped globally using 11 predictor variables from a combination of observational, model-based and remote-sensing data, as summarized below.

First, satellite-based indices were developed using roughly 30 m surface reflectance data from Collection 2 of the Landsat 8 satellite platform. All satellite images were processed in GEE. Landsat 8 data in GEE contains atmospheric-corrected multispectral imagery 60 , and contains a quality assessment band with cloud mask information (‘QA_PIXEL’) that is available for users to identify cloudy and cloud-free pixels. Landsat scenes with greater than 20% cloud cover were not included in the analysis to minimize misclassification of GDEs. For scenes with less than or equal to 20% cloud cover, clouds, snow and/or ice and cloud shadows were masked using the CFmask algorithm 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 . Four satellite-based vegetation and water indices were calculated: (1) normalized difference vegetation index 65 , a measure of greenness; (2) normalized difference moisture index 66 , a measure of water in plant mesophyll, (3) normalized difference water index 67 , a measure of open water and (4) modified soil adjusted vegetation index 68 , a measure of greenness that minimizes soil brightness effects on the vegetation signal (Supplementary Table 5 ). For each of these indices, two metrics were developed to be used as predictors in the random forest model using multi-year (2015–2020) satellite imagery from the dry season (late summer and early autumn period). Dry season satellite images were selected because GDEs can be more readily distinguished from non-GDEs as GDEs’ reliance on groundwater allows them to maintain vegetation vigour later into the season, when surface water and precipitation are scarce 15 , 69 . The dry season period was defined as 1 July–30 September in the Northern Hemisphere, and 1 January–31 March in the Southern Hemisphere. The two metrics developed for each index were (1) annual dry season average, and (2) multi-year coefficient of variation of the average dry season period as a measure of interannual variability. The four indices with two metrics each resulted in eight predictor variables. The coefficient of variation, which is calculated as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean, was chosen over the standard deviation to provide a fairer measure of variability, given that pixels with high vegetation cover will have a higher variation than pixels with lower vegetation cover.

Second, the ratios of annual sums of ETaP, averaged over the 2003–2016 time period for which vegetation transpiration data were available, were included as a predictor variable to indicate groundwater dependence in which annual vegetation consumptive water use exceeded precipitation. This exceedance (that is, ETaP greater than 1) indicates that plant water needs are probably being met by groundwater rather than infiltrated precipitation. Transpiration to precipitation ratios were calculated in GEE using 500 m resolution vegetation transpiration data from the Penman-Monteith-Leuning Evapotranspiration V2 (PML_V2) product 70 , 71 , and 1/24° resolution precipitation data from TerraClimate 72 .

Third, compound topographic index (also known as topographic wetness index) data distinguish between ridge and valley forms, and were used to indicate the likelihood that soil is saturated with water as a result of topographic position without accounting for climate factors 73 .

Fourth, an ambient LST spatial anomaly dataset was developed using the Landsat dataset described in point (1) to identify anomalously cool or warm places relative to their surroundings, which is an expected attribute of GDEs. The surface temperature quality assessment band (‘ST_QA’), which indicates uncertainty about temperatures given in the surface temperature band file, was used to eliminate pixels with uncertainties greater than 5 °C. The spatial anomaly dataset was derived by calculating the differences in LST between a given focal pixel and the average LST of all pixels within the surrounding 270, 2,700 and 5,400 m 2 area. The three differences were then averaged to generate a multi-scaled result 74 . From there, the 5 year average (2015–2020) of the annual mean summer and/or early autumn (fall) period LST spatial anomaly was calculated. Before applying the algorithm, open water land cover types were masked out to eliminate their influence on the spatial anomaly calculations.

Distribution plots for each of the 11 predictor variables were created to compare the training data ( n  = 34,454 points) with randomly generated global points within the model extent ( n  = 32,954 points). Overlap statistics were calculated in the R statistical software using the overlapping package 75 , in which a statistical value of zero represents no overlap between the two samples’ distributions and a statistic value of one represents complete overlap (that is, identical datasets).

Random forest algorithm

We determined the likely presence of GDEs globally using a random forest algorithm within GEE based on the predictor variables, and training and validation data introduced above. The random forest algorithm is a statistical model that trains an ensemble of classification and regression tree models populated by random subsets of the model calibration data and predictor variables 76 . The trees within random forest are created through a ‘bagging approach’ that draws a random subset of attribute data (that is, a selection of predictor variables) through replacement, resulting in some samples to be selected several times and others never selected (the out-of-bag fraction). The ‘bagging approach’ and attribute sampling both help ensure that each decision tree is independent of each other, which helps to minimize overfitting in the random forest model when the majority decision is taken from the ensemble of trees 77 . Random forest modelling was selected because it is computationally efficient, less likely to overfit and can handle many predictors 78 , 79 . The model was trained on 34,454 point locations of aquatic features and vegetation types known to rely on groundwater (Extended Data Table 1 and Extended Data Fig. 1 ). The data were split 80 to 20 for training and test sets. Hyperparameter tuning was used (Extended Data Fig. 8 ), resulting in the model to contain 40 trees (numberOfTrees), five variables per split (variablesPerSplit), two minimum leaf population (minLeafPopulation), 0.7 bag fraction (bagFraction) and 3,010 maximum number of nodes (maxNodes). The out-of-bag error estimate was 0.18. Outputs from the random forest model include a ‘soft’ probability class (Extended Data Fig. 6 ) varying between 0 and 100% using a probabilistic mode in the random forest model (setOutputMode ‘MULTIPROBABILITY’), and a ‘hard’ probability class that results in a binary GDE (1) and non-GDE (2) classification that is obtained by identifying the most accurate soft probability GDE classification using a dynamic thresholding analysis (Fig. 1 ).

Regional cross-validation tests were performed to further evaluate how well the model extrapolated into regions without training data. This was accomplished by running the model three more times using (1) new training data provided by the World Bank from the Sahel region in Africa 47 and (2) by omitting our training data from Western Australia and New Mexico, USA to test model performance in these regions. Hyperparameter tuning was used separately using the Western Australia and New Mexico cross-validation training, as those cross-validation tests used a subset of the main model training and validation data, whereas the Sahel cross-validation test used the main model’s training and validation data. It is important to note, that the GDE data from the Sahel are not ground-truthed data and primarily derived from a literature review, which required us to randomly generate points within polygon features and line buffers, which very probably introduced some uncertainty into this dataset. For this reason, the Sahel data were not incorporated into the random forest classifier, and only used as a validation outside the model. Hyperparameter tuning for the Western Australia cross-validation test (Supplementary Fig. 2 ), resulted in the model to contain 70 trees (numberOfTrees), two variables per split (variablesPerSplit), one minimum leaf population (minLeafPopulation), 0.9 bag fraction (bagFraction) and 3,010 maximum number of nodes (maxNodes). Hyperparameter tuning for the New Mexico cross-validation test (Supplementary Fig. 3 ), resulted in the model to contain 40 trees (numberOfTrees), six variables per split (variablesPerSplit), one minimum leaf population (minLeafPopulation), 0.7 bag fraction (bagFraction) and 3,010 maximum number of nodes (maxNodes).

Post hoc analyses

Data summarizing at multiple resolutions.

Post hoc analyses were performed at varying resolutions to best match the base resolutions of the datasets the GDE map was compared with. Thus, whereas the core GDE map developed in this study is at 1 arcsecond resolution (roughly 30 m grids at the equator), we also calculated and have provided GDE area densities at 30 arcsecond (roughly 1 km), 5 arcminute (roughly 10 km) and 30 arcminute resolution (roughly 50 km). GDE area densities were derived at each resolution as a ratio of: (1) area analysed per grid cell and (2) total grid cell area. We anticipate that these summary datasets (Data availability section) will be of interest to the broader scientific and practitioner community that routinely operates at these resolutions.

Groundwater storage trends

GRACE-based groundwater storage trends were derived using terrestrial water storage anomalies from NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Level-3 Release 6 v.2 gridded mascon data (0.5°, roughly 56 km at equator) 80 , and the soil moisture, canopy storage and snow water equivalent time series were obtained from Global Land Data Assimilation System v.2.1 (GLDAS-2.1) Noah 81 and Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) 82 land surface models. Groundwater storage anomalies are computed by removing the soil moisture, canopy water storage and snow water equivalent anomalies from the terrestrial water storage anomalies based on the modelled water balance 83 , in which the resultant groundwater storage vertically integrates shallow and deep groundwater resources 84 . The groundwater storage trends reported in this study correspond to the April 2002–April 2022 time range.

A limitation of this approach is the lack of representation of surface water anomalies, which are not available at present in an existing global time series data product. However, surface water storage trends are typically small in comparison to large-scale trends in groundwater storage 85 , with a notable exception found in the filling of main reservoirs 86 . The groundwater storage trends provided by this methodology do not cover the entire terrestrial land surface as regions are masked if they contain glaciers whose trends are not accounted for in the above-described methodology. This masking reduces the spatial extent of the groundwater storage trends dataset, with the implication that roughly 1.1 million km 2 of mapped GDEs exist in these masked out regions. Following our post hoc analysis protocols, our analysis comparing GDE area density with groundwater storage trends is performed at 30 arcminutes to match the resolution of the groundwater storage trend data.

To provide regional summaries of the relationship between GDE area density and groundwater storage trends, we map the relationship between GDE area density and groundwater storage trends globally and calculate area-averaged values for a selection of freshwater ecoregions 87 . We selected freshwater ecoregions as a unit of analysis because they are based on the distribution and composition of freshwater species globally and offer a spatial template that is useful for informing large-scale conservation planning efforts.

Protected areas

To quantify the extent of GDE protection globally, we compared mapped GDE extents with the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) 88 and to jurisdictions where there are implemented sustainable water policies with GDE protection. The WDPA is the most comprehensive global dataset of protected areas. The WDPA contains both spatially explicit polygon representations of protected area extents as well as points where polygon extents are not available. Although point data correspond to roughly 9% of all entries in the WDPA 89 , we do not account for these areas as doing so requires assumptions on the spatial shape of the protected area. Jurisdictions with sustainable water policies include the European Union, South Africa, Australia and California (USA). We evaluated the protection status of GDEs at 1 arcsecond resolution by rasterizing the WDPA and extents of the aforementioned jurisdictions and compared these extents to the base GDE classification map. We also conducted this comparison at 30 arcsecond (roughly 1 km) resolution for plotting in Fig. 4 .

Limitations

Random forest is an inherently statistical rather than a deterministic, process-based approach that relies on training data and predictor variables to predict outcomes. Like most models, uncertainty can be embedded into models from input variables and training data. By using a random forest model to predict the likely occurrence of GDEs globally, there are three main sources of uncertainty in our final model output: (1) predictor variables: our model uses 11 predictor variables that have complete coverage across the global domain. Each of these predictor variables have different spatial and temporal resolutions (Supplementary Table 6 ) but each represents the best available datasets for each variable for our global model. Uncertainty embedded in each of the predictor variable datasets can be minimized in local applications of our modelling approach in which higher resolution and local-verified datasets can be used in place of these larger global datasets. (2) Training and validation data: data on the presence and absence of GDEs are limited to specific geographic locations and have temporal resolutions that vary, due to a lack of recognition of GDEs in many jurisdictions (which was a major motivator for this study). The lack of a globally consistent ground-truth dataset and reliance on regional expert opinion to identify GDE versus non-GDE vegetation is another factor that can be improved in more localized applications. (3) Model extrapolation: although we have tuned hyperparameters, checked the distribution of training data with a randomly generated dataset within the model extent for each of our predictor variables and performed regional cross-validation tests, some model extrapolation errors may have occurred. However, our analyses suggest that many of these errors are likely to be underestimating the occurrence of GDEs globally rather than overestimating. This means that whereas there may be pixels designated as non-GDEs, that there may be features (for example, upland channels, forest stands, small springs) within our modelling extent that are groundwater dependent, and vice versa. GDE reliance on groundwater varies in time and space and even for the same species depending on the availability of other water sources and seasonal and interannual climate variability 15 . For this reason, the intention of our GDE map is that it be used as a starting point for prioritizing more refined, localized mapping efforts based on local data and that it be accompanied by verification studies using in situ methods, including local groundwater monitoring. Although it is possible that our random forest model could be modified for localized applications in colder, humid environments, such as by using Sentinel imagery that has a higher temporal frequency than Landsat to avoid cloudy pixels and scan lines in the final map, the application of our random forest map is probably not suitable for subterranean GDEs. Subterranean GDE mapping will require other mapping approaches such as in situ and interference methods based on aquifer mapping. Future work looking at the dynamics of GDEs and fragility would benefit from integrating the perspectives and involvement of local and/or national researchers and practitioners to further refine context-specific interconnections and implications.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

GDE data are available at Zenodo ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11062894 ) 90 . GDE data deposited include the high-resolution (1 arcsecond, roughly 30 m) GDE classification and GDE probability maps, as well as aggregated products of GDE area density at 30 arcsecond (roughly 1 km), 5 arcminute (roughly 10 km) and 30 arcminute (roughly 50 km) resolution. An interactive web map of the high-resolution GDE data is accessible at https://codefornature.projects.earthengine.app/view/global-gde . All source data used in model development and GDE analysis are documented in Supplementary Table 6 and are publicly accessible through the persistent web-links provided.

Code availability

Code used to generate the global GDE map and produce all results in this study is available alongside the study data at Zenodo ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11062894 ) 90 . The code repository is also accessible at https://github.com/XanderHuggins/global-gde-map . Code was developed using the R project (v.4.3.1) for statistical computing 91 , Google Earth Engine ( https://earthengine.google.com/ ) and Python (v.3.9.15; https://www.python.org/ ). R packages necessary for analysis and visualization include terra 92 , rasterDT 93 and ggplot2 (ref. 94 ). High-resolution global maps were exported using QGIS ( http://qgis.org ). Composite figures were assembled in Affinity Designer ( https://affinity.serif.com/en-us/designer/ ).

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Acknowledgements

At the Nature Conservancy, we thank the Water Foundation and Enterprise Rent-A-Car Foundation for their financial support for this sustainable groundwater research. At the Desert Research Institute (DRI), we thank the Sulo and Aileen Maki Endowment Fund for financial support to DRI’s Division of Hydrologic Sciences and the US Geological Survey Landsat Science Team (grant no. 140G0118C0007). X.H. was supported by an Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarship from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada. K.T. thanks the Blue-SATREPS project (Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development JST, grant no. JPMJSA2001) for financial support. Financial support for the SUNY-ESF and UCSB teams (J.C.S., M.B.S., D.A.R. and K.C.) was provided by the National Science Foundation (grant nos. BCS01660490, EAR-1700517 and EAR-1700555) and the US Department of Defense’s Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (grant no. RC18-1006). We thank T. Khujanazarov at the Water Resources Research Center, Kyoto University for providing information on GDEs in Central Asia.

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Melissa M. Rohde, Kirk R. Klausmeyer & Jeanette K. Howard

State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY, USA

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Rohde Environmental Consulting, LLC, Seattle, WA, USA

Melissa M. Rohde

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Christine M. Albano, Charles Morton & Justin Huntington

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada

Xander Huggins & Tom Gleeson

Global Institute for Water Security, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada

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International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria

The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA

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Hrishikesh A. Chandanpurkar

California State University, Monterey Bay, Seaside, CA, USA

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James S. Famiglietti

School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA

School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK

Michael Bliss Singer

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Contributions

M.M.R. led and designed the study and paper writing, and contributed to the training dataset, modelling and analyses. C.M.A. contributed to the model, analysis and paper writing. X.H. contributed to the analysis, paper writing and figures. K.R.K. contributed to the training dataset, web map and paper writing. C.M. contributed to the modelling. A.S. contributed to the analysis. E.Z. contributed to the analysis and paper writing. L.S. contributed to the training dataset, analysis and paper writing. Z.F. contributed to the training dataset and paper writing. J.K.H. contributed to the training dataset and paper writing. N.J. contributed to the training dataset. H.R. contributed to the training dataset. K.T. contributed to the training dataset. A.-S.R. contributed to paper writing. T.G. contributed to paper writing. J.H. contributed to the analysis. H.A.C. contributed to the GRACE trend analysis. A.J.P. contributed to the GRACE trend analysis. J.S.F. contributed to the GRACE trend analysis. M.B.S contributed to paper writing. D.A.R. contributed to paper writing, K.C. contributed to paper writing. J.C.S. contributed to paper writing.

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Correspondence to Melissa M. Rohde or Michael Bliss Singer .

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Nature thanks Chaopeng Shen, Ying Fan, Grant Hose, Reed Maxwell and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended data fig. 1 groundwater-dependent ecosystem (gde) training and validation data ( n = 34,454 points)..

(a) Data sources: LANDFIRE vegetation ( n  = 6,652 points), Australian GDE Atlas data ( n  = 19,111 points), ESRI 10 m land use land cover bare ground data ( n  = 4,075 points), and sPLOT vegetation ( n  = 4,616 points). (b) GDE ( n  = 16,805 points) and non-GDE ( n  = 17,649 points) classifications.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Köppen-Geiger climate classifications used to designate dryland regions for GDE mapping.

Data Source: Beck et al., 2018.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Global depth to groundwater (≥30 meters).

Masked areas where depth to groundwater >30 meters is denoted in dark blue and were not included in the model. Data Source: Fan et al. 2017.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Random forest variable importance plot.

Random forest variable importance plot ranked highest to lowest: ratio of the annual sum of plant transpiration and precipitation (ETaP), ambient land surface temperature spatial anomaly (LST), Landsat modified soil adjusted vegetation index annual average (MSAVI: annual), normalized difference moisture index annual average (NDMI: annual), normalized difference vegetation index annual average (NDVI: annual), compound topographic index (CTI), normalized difference water index annual average (NDWI: annual), normalized difference moisture index inter-annual variability (NDMI: multiyear), normalized difference vegetation index inter-annual variability (NDVI: multiyear), Landsat modified soil adjusted vegetation index inter-annual variability (MSAVI: multiyear), and normalized difference water index inter-annual variability (NDWI: multiyear).

Extended Data Fig. 5 Predictor variable distribution plots comparing predictor values for the main model’s training and validation data ( n = 34,454 points) and random global points within the model extent ( n = 32,954 points).

The numbers in the upper left of each plot indicate the degree of overlap between the global and training point distributions, with zero indicating no overlap and one indicating complete overlap.

Extended Data Fig. 6 Groundwater-dependent ecosystem (GDE) probability map, indicating how likely a pixel is a GDE (100%) or non-GDE (0%) within the model extent at 1 arcsecond (~30 m) resolution.

Probability data are provided in 5 degree x 5 degree tiles (see Data availability). Areas outside of these tiles extent are shaded in gray. The GDE probability data map is also available as an interactive web map ( https://codefornature.projects.earthengine.app/view/global-gde ).

Extended Data Fig. 7 Groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDE) area density intersected with pastoral lands area density.

Globally, our map indicates 59% of GDEs (4.9 million km 2 ) overlap lands with >25% pastoral land density at 5 arcminute resolution.

Extended Data Fig. 8 Hyperparameter Tuning for the main Global GDE model.

Selected hyperparameter values are indicated by the red vertical dashed lines. The red horizontal dashed lines represent the highest accuracy of parameter values.

Supplementary information

Supplementary information.

Supplementary Tables 1–3 and 5–6, Figs. 1–3 and references.

Reporting Summary

Supplementary table 4.

Spreadsheet containing ground-truthed vegetation data inventoried within the LFRDB and sPLOTOpen datasets were classified as GDE or non-GDE data according to species and location based on expert and literature review. This table is provided as a separate excel file.

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Rohde, M.M., Albano, C.M., Huggins, X. et al. Groundwater-dependent ecosystem map exposes global dryland protection needs. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07702-8

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Received : 12 November 2022

Accepted : 11 June 2024

Published : 17 July 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07702-8

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