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Information and communication technology (ICT) in education

Information and communications technology (ict) can impact student learning when teachers are digitally literate and understand how to integrate it into curriculum..

Schools use a diverse set of ICT tools to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information.(6) In some contexts, ICT has also become integral to the teaching-learning interaction, through such approaches as replacing chalkboards with interactive digital whiteboards, using students’ own smartphones or other devices for learning during class time, and the “flipped classroom” model where students watch lectures at home on the computer and use classroom time for more interactive exercises.

When teachers are digitally literate and trained to use ICT, these approaches can lead to higher order thinking skills, provide creative and individualized options for students to express their understandings, and leave students better prepared to deal with ongoing technological change in society and the workplace.(18)

ICT issues planners must consider include: considering the total cost-benefit equation, supplying and maintaining the requisite infrastructure, and ensuring investments are matched with teacher support and other policies aimed at effective ICT use.(16)

Issues and Discussion

Digital culture and digital literacy: Computer technologies and other aspects of digital culture have changed the ways people live, work, play, and learn, impacting the construction and distribution of knowledge and power around the world.(14) Graduates who are less familiar with digital culture are increasingly at a disadvantage in the national and global economy. Digital literacy—the skills of searching for, discerning, and producing information, as well as the critical use of new media for full participation in society—has thus become an important consideration for curriculum frameworks.(8)

In many countries, digital literacy is being built through the incorporation of information and communication technology (ICT) into schools. Some common educational applications of ICT include:

• One laptop per child: Less expensive laptops have been designed for use in school on a 1:1 basis with features like lower power consumption, a low cost operating system, and special re-programming and mesh network functions.(42) Despite efforts to reduce costs, however, providing one laptop per child may be too costly for some developing countries.(41)
• Tablets: Tablets are small personal computers with a touch screen, allowing input without a keyboard or mouse. Inexpensive learning software (“apps”) can be downloaded onto tablets, making them a versatile tool for learning.(7)(25) The most effective apps develop higher order thinking skills and provide creative and individualized options for students to express their understandings.(18)
• Interactive White Boards or Smart Boards : Interactive white boards allow projected computer images to be displayed, manipulated, dragged, clicked, or copied.(3) Simultaneously, handwritten notes can be taken on the board and saved for later use. Interactive white boards are associated with whole-class instruction rather than student-centred activities.(38) Student engagement is generally higher when ICT is available for student use throughout the classroom.(4)
• E-readers : E-readers are electronic devices that can hold hundreds of books in digital form, and they are increasingly utilized in the delivery of reading material.(19) Students—both skilled readers and reluctant readers—have had positive responses to the use of e-readers for independent reading.(22) Features of e-readers that can contribute to positive use include their portability and long battery life, response to text, and the ability to define unknown words.(22) Additionally, many classic book titles are available for free in e-book form.
• Flipped Classrooms: The flipped classroom model, involving lecture and practice at home via computer-guided instruction and interactive learning activities in class, can allow for an expanded curriculum. There is little investigation on the student learning outcomes of flipped classrooms.(5) Student perceptions about flipped classrooms are mixed, but generally positive, as they prefer the cooperative learning activities in class over lecture.(5)(35)

ICT and Teacher Professional Development: Teachers need specific professional development opportunities in order to increase their ability to use ICT for formative learning assessments, individualized instruction, accessing online resources, and for fostering student interaction and collaboration.(15) Such training in ICT should positively impact teachers’ general attitudes towards ICT in the classroom, but it should also provide specific guidance on ICT teaching and learning within each discipline. Without this support, teachers tend to use ICT for skill-based applications, limiting student academic thinking.(32) To sup­port teachers as they change their teaching, it is also essential for education managers, supervisors, teacher educators, and decision makers to be trained in ICT use.(11)

Ensuring benefits of ICT investments: To ensure the investments made in ICT benefit students, additional conditions must be met. School policies need to provide schools with the minimum acceptable infrastructure for ICT, including stable and affordable internet connectivity and security measures such as filters and site blockers. Teacher policies need to target basic ICT literacy skills, ICT use in pedagogical settings, and discipline-specific uses. (21) Successful imple­mentation of ICT requires integration of ICT in the curriculum. Finally, digital content needs to be developed in local languages and reflect local culture. (40) Ongoing technical, human, and organizational supports on all of these issues are needed to ensure access and effective use of ICT. (21)

Resource Constrained Contexts: The total cost of ICT ownership is considerable: training of teachers and administrators, connectivity, technical support, and software, amongst others. (42) When bringing ICT into classrooms, policies should use an incremental pathway, establishing infrastructure and bringing in sustainable and easily upgradable ICT. (16) Schools in some countries have begun allowing students to bring their own mobile technology (such as laptop, tablet, or smartphone) into class rather than providing such tools to all students—an approach called Bring Your Own Device. (1)(27)(34) However, not all families can afford devices or service plans for their children. (30) Schools must ensure all students have equitable access to ICT devices for learning.

Inclusiveness Considerations

Digital Divide: The digital divide refers to disparities of digital media and internet access both within and across countries, as well as the gap between people with and without the digital literacy and skills to utilize media and internet.(23)(26)(31) The digital divide both creates and reinforces socio-economic inequalities of the world’s poorest people. Policies need to intentionally bridge this divide to bring media, internet, and digital literacy to all students, not just those who are easiest to reach.

Minority language groups: Students whose mother tongue is different from the official language of instruction are less likely to have computers and internet connections at home than students from the majority. There is also less material available to them online in their own language, putting them at a disadvantage in comparison to their majority peers who gather information, prepare talks and papers, and communicate more using ICT. (39) Yet ICT tools can also help improve the skills of minority language students—especially in learning the official language of instruction—through features such as automatic speech recognition, the availability of authentic audio-visual materials, and chat functions. (2)(17)

Students with different styles of learning: ICT can provide diverse options for taking in and processing information, making sense of ideas, and expressing learning. Over 87% of students learn best through visual and tactile modalities, and ICT can help these students ‘experience’ the information instead of just reading and hearing it. (20)(37) Mobile devices can also offer programmes (“apps”) that provide extra support to students with special needs, with features such as simplified screens and instructions, consistent placement of menus and control features, graphics combined with text, audio feedback, ability to set pace and level of difficulty, appropriate and unambiguous feedback, and easy error correction. (24)(29)

Plans and policies

• India [ PDF ]
• Detroit, USA [ PDF ]
• Finland [ PDF ]
• Alberta Education. 2012. Bring your own device: A guide for schools . Retrieved from http://education.alberta.ca/admin/technology/research.aspx
• Alsied, S.M. and Pathan, M.M. 2015. ‘The use of computer technology in EFL classroom: Advantages and implications.’ International Journal of English Language and Translation Studies . 1 (1).
• BBC. N.D. ‘What is an interactive whiteboard?’ Retrieved from http://www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/Whatisaninteractivewhiteboard.aspx
• Beilefeldt, T. 2012. ‘Guidance for technology decisions from classroom observation.’ Journal of Research on Technology in Education . 44 (3).
• Bishop, J.L. and Verleger, M.A. 2013. ‘The flipped classroom: A survey of the research.’ Presented at the 120th ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition. Atlanta, Georgia.
• Blurton, C. 2000. New Directions of ICT-Use in Education . United National Education Science and Culture Organization (UNESCO).
• Bryant, B.R., Ok, M., Kang, E.Y., Kim, M.K., Lang, R., Bryant, D.P. and Pfannestiel, K. 2015. ‘Performance of fourth-grade students with learning disabilities on multiplication facts comparing teacher-mediated and technology-mediated interventions: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Behavioral Education. 24.
• Buckingham, D. 2005. Educación en medios. Alfabetización, aprendizaje y cultura contemporánea, Barcelona, Paidós.
• Buckingham, D., Sefton-Green, J., and Scanlon, M. 2001. 'Selling the Digital Dream: Marketing Education Technologies to Teachers and Parents.'  ICT, Pedagogy, and the Curriculum: Subject to Change . London: Routledge.
• "Burk, R. 2001. 'E-book devices and the marketplace: In search of customers.' Library Hi Tech 19 (4)."
• Chapman, D., and Mählck, L. (Eds). 2004. Adapting technology for school improvement: a global perspective. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.
• Cheung, A.C.K and Slavin, R.E. 2012. ‘How features of educational technology applications affect student reading outcomes: A meta-analysis.’ Educational Research Review . 7.
• Cheung, A.C.K and Slavin, R.E. 2013. ‘The effectiveness of educational technology applications for enhancing mathematics achievement in K-12 classrooms: A meta-analysis.’ Educational Research Review . 9.
• Deuze, M. 2006. 'Participation Remediation Bricolage - Considering Principal Components of a Digital Culture.' The Information Society . 22 .
• Dunleavy, M., Dextert, S. and Heinecke, W.F. 2007. ‘What added value does a 1:1 student to laptop ratio bring to technology-supported teaching and learning?’ Journal of Computer Assisted Learning . 23.
• Enyedy, N. 2014. Personalized Instruction: New Interest, Old Rhetoric, Limited Results, and the Need for a New Direction for Computer-Mediated Learning . Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center.
• Golonka, E.M., Bowles, A.R., Frank, V.M., Richardson, D.L. and Freynik, S. 2014. ‘Technologies for foreign language learning: A review of technology types and their effectiveness.’ Computer Assisted Language Learning . 27 (1).
• Goodwin, K. 2012. Use of Tablet Technology in the Classroom . Strathfield, New South Wales: NSW Curriculum and Learning Innovation Centre.
• Jung, J., Chan-Olmsted, S., Park, B., and Kim, Y. 2011. 'Factors affecting e-book reader awareness, interest, and intention to use.' New Media & Society . 14 (2)
• Kenney, L. 2011. ‘Elementary education, there’s an app for that. Communication technology in the elementary school classroom.’ The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications . 2 (1).
• Kopcha, T.J. 2012. ‘Teachers’ perceptions of the barriers to technology integration and practices with technology under situated professional development.’ Computers and Education . 59.
• Miranda, T., Williams-Rossi, D., Johnson, K., and McKenzie, N. 2011. "Reluctant readers in middle school: Successful engagement with text using the e-reader.' International journal of applied science and technology . 1 (6).
• Moyo, L. 2009. 'The digital divide: scarcity, inequality and conflict.' Digital Cultures . New York: Open University Press.
• Newton, D.A. and Dell, A.G. 2011. ‘Mobile devices and students with disabilities: What do best practices tell us?’ Journal of Special Education Technology . 26 (3).
• Nirvi, S. (2011). ‘Special education pupils find learning tool in iPad applications.’ Education Week . 30 .
• Norris, P. 2001. Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide . Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press.
• Project Tomorrow. 2012. Learning in the 21st century: Mobile devices + social media = personalized learning . Washington, D.C.: Blackboard K-12.
• Riasati, M.J., Allahyar, N. and Tan, K.E. 2012. ‘Technology in language education: Benefits and barriers.’ Journal of Education and Practice . 3 (5).
• Rodriquez, C.D., Strnadova, I. and Cumming, T. 2013. ‘Using iPads with students with disabilities: Lessons learned from students, teachers, and parents.’ Intervention in School and Clinic . 49 (4).
• Sangani, K. 2013. 'BYOD to the classroom.' Engineering & Technology . 3 (8).
• Servon, L. 2002. Redefining the Digital Divide: Technology, Community and Public Policy . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
• Smeets, E. 2005. ‘Does ICT contribute to powerful learning environments in primary education?’ Computers and Education. 44 .
• Smith, G.E. and Thorne, S. 2007. Differentiating Instruction with Technology in K-5 Classrooms . Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education.
• Song, Y. 2014. '"Bring your own device (BYOD)" for seamless science inquiry in a primary school.' Computers & Education. 74 .
• Strayer, J.F. 2012. ‘How learning in an inverted classroom influences cooperation, innovation and task orientation.’ Learning Environment Research. 15.
• Tamim, R.M., Bernard, R.M., Borokhovski, E., Abrami, P.C. and Schmid, R.F. 2011. ‘What forty years of research says about the impact of technology on learning: A second-order meta-analysis and validation study. Review of Educational Research. 81 (1).
• Tileston, D.W. 2003. What Every Teacher Should Know about Media and Technology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Turel, Y.K. and Johnson, T.E. 2012. ‘Teachers’ belief and use of interactive whiteboards for teaching and learning.’ Educational Technology and Society . 15(1).
• Volman, M., van Eck, E., Heemskerk, I. and Kuiper, E. 2005. ‘New technologies, new differences. Gender and ethnic differences in pupils’ use of ICT in primary and secondary education.’ Computers and Education. 45 .
• Voogt, J., Knezek, G., Cox, M., Knezek, D. and ten Brummelhuis, A. 2013. ‘Under which conditions does ICT have a positive effect on teaching and learning? A call to action.’ Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 29 (1).
• Warschauer, M. and Ames, M. 2010. ‘Can one laptop per child save the world’s poor?’ Journal of International Affairs. 64 (1).
• Zuker, A.A. and Light, D. 2009. ‘Laptop programs for students.’ Science. 323 (5910).

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Preparing for Life in a Digital Age pp 245–258 Cite as

Conclusions and Discussion

• Julian Fraillon 2 ,
• John Ainley 2 ,
• Wolfram Schulz 2 ,
• Tim Friedman 2 &
• Eveline Gebhardt 2  
• Open Access

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The International Computer and Information Literacy Study 2013 (ICILS 2013) investigated the ways in which young people have developed the computer and information literacy (CIL) that enables them to participate fully in the digital age. This study, the first in international research to investigate students’ acquisition of CIL, has been groundbreaking in two ways. The first is its establishment of a crossnationally agreed definition and explication of CIL in terms of its component knowledge, skills, and understandings. The second is its operationalization of CIL as a crossnationally comparable measurement tool and marker of digital literacy.

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download chapter PDF

The CIL construct was developed with reference to decades of research into the knowledge, skills, and understanding involved in effective use of information and communication technology (ICT). Various terms with similar but not identical meanings such as information literacy, computer literacy, digital literacy , and ICT literacy have been used to characterize this set of competences.

The CIL construct is described and explained in detail in the ICILS Assessment Framework (Fraillon, Schulz, & Ainley, 2013 ). The framework, developed in consultation with ICILS national research coordinators (NRCs) and other people expert in digital and ICT literacy, guided all aspects of the ICILS instrument development and data collection stages. One important outcome of this work has been the establishment of a crossnational, empirical foundation for describing the competencies underpinning the CIL construct.

The ICILS assessment of CIL is unique in the field of crossnational assessment because it comprises tasks grouped into self-contained, computer-based “modules” that reflect school-based research and communication. Included in each module is at least one “open” task wherein students create an information product (such as a poster, presentation, or website) using purpose-built software that applies the conventions of software interface design. The ICILS assessment is thus similar to classroom-based assessments that allow students freedom to work with a range of software tools on open-ended tasks.

However, in order to ensure standardization of students’ experience and comparability of the resultant data, the ICILS 2013 assessment required students to work in a contained test environment, designed to prevent differential exposure to digital resources from outside that environment. Such exposure could have confounded the comparability (a necessary feature of instruments used in large-scale assessments) of the student data.

The previous chapters in this international report on ICILS 2013 provided information on CIL achievement across countries, the contexts in which CIL was being taught and learned, and the relationship of CIL as a learning outcome to student characteristics and school contexts.

To provide an overview in this current chapter of these earlier recorded results, we summarize the main study outcomes with respect to each of the four research questions that guided the study. We also discuss country-level outcomes concerned with aspects of ICT use in education as well as the findings from our bivariate and multivariate analyses designed to explore associations between CIL and student and school factors. We then consider a number of implications of the study’s findings for educational policy and practice. We conclude the chapter by suggesting future directions for international research on CIL education.

ICILS guiding questions

The four research questions that guided the study were these:

What variations exist between countries, and within countries, in student computer and information literacy?

What aspects of schools and education systems are related to student achievement in computer and information literacy with respect to:

The general approach to computer and information literacy education;

School and teaching practices regarding the use of technologies in computer and information literacy;

Teacher attitudes to and proficiency in using computers;

Access to ICT in schools; and

Teacher professional development and within-school delivery of computer and information literacy programs.

What characteristics of students’ levels of access to, familiarity with, and self-reported proficiency in using computers are related to student achievement in computer and information literacy?

How do these characteristics differ among and within countries?

To what extent do the strengths of the relations between these characteristics and measured computer and information literacy differ among countries?

What aspects of students’ personal and social backgrounds (such as gender, socioeconomic background, and language background) are related to computer and information literacy?

Student proficiency in using computers

Student CIL proficiency was measured using an instrument comprising four thematic modules, each of which included discrete tasks Footnote 1 and each of which typically took less than a minute to complete. These tasks were followed by a large task that typically took 15 to 20 minutes to complete. The following discussion of student CIL proficiency includes examples taken from the After-School Exercise assessment module. The large task from this module required students to use given digital resources to create a poster advertising an after-school exercise program. Chapter 3 of this report provides a more detailed discussion, along with illustrative examples, of CIL proficiency.

The computer and information literacy (CIL) scale

The ICILS CIL scale, which has an average score set to 500 and a standard deviation of 100, comprises four proficiency levels. Accounts of what students should be able to achieve at each level serve to describe the scale.

Students working at Level 1 demonstrate familiarity with the basic range of software commands that enable them to access files and complete routine text and layout editing when directed to do so. Students can recognize some basic software conventions as well as the potential for misuse of computers by unauthorized users. Figure  9.1 provides an example of a Level 1 task. This task required students to identify the recipients of an email displaying the “From,” “To,” and “Cc” fields. The task assessed students’ familiarity with the conventions used to display the sender and recipients of emails.

Example Level 1 task

The work involved in doing the large task (creating a poster) contained in the After-School Exercise module provides another example of achievement at Level 1. The Level 1 aspect of the task required students to provide evidence of planning the poster in terms of selecting colors that would denote the roles of the poster’s text, background, and images.

Students working at Level 2 demonstrate basic use of computers as information resources. Students are able to locate explicit information in simple electronic resources, select and add content to information products, and demonstrate some control of layout and formatting of text and images in information products. They demonstrate awareness of the need to protect access to some electronic information and of some possible consequences of unwanted access to information. Figure  9.2 provides an example of a Level 2 task.

Example Level 2 task

The task shown in the figure required students to allocate “can edit” rights in the collaborative workspace to another student with whom, according to the module narrative, students were “collaborating” on the task. To complete this nonlinear skills task, Footnote 2 students needed to navigate within the website to the “settings” menu and then use its options to allocate the required user access. The Level 2 aspect of the module’s large task required students to produce a relevant title for the poster, and then format the title to make its role clear. Ability to use formatting tools to some degree in order to show the role of different text elements is thus an indicator of achievement at Level 2. may be biased

Students working at Level 3 demonstrate sufficient knowledge, skills, and understanding to independently search for and locate information and then edit it to suit the audience for, and the purpose of, the information products they create. Students at this level are able to select relevant information from within electronic resources and develop information products that exhibit controlled layout and design. They also demonstrate awareness that the information they access may be biased, inaccurate, or unreliable. Figure  9.3 provides an example of a Level 3 task.

Example Level 3 task

The task shown in Figure  9.3 required students to explain how the greeting (highlighted in the email) might be evidence that the email is trying to “trick” them. Ability to recognize that a generic (rather than personalized) greeting is one possible piece of evidence is an example of achievement at Level 3. Examples of Level 3 achievements in the large-task poster include students being able to complete some adaptation of information from resources (as opposed to directly copying and pasting information) and ability to include images that are well aligned with the poster’s other elements.

Students working at Level 4 execute control and evaluative judgment when searching for information and creating information products. They also demonstrate awareness of audience and purpose when searching for information, selecting information to include in information products, and formatting and laying out the information products they create. They furthermore demonstrate awareness of the potential for information to be a commercial and malleable commodity and of issues relating to the use of electronically sourced third-party intellectual property. Figure  9.4 provides an example of a Level 4 task.

Example Level 4 task

As with the task shown in Figure  9.3 , the task in Figure  9.4 asked students to explain how the email address of the sender (highlighted in the email) might be evidence of the email trying to “trick” them. Students who recognize that the email is from a “freemail” account (and not a company account) or that the email address does not match the root of the hyperlink are achieving at Level 4 rather than lower levels because they demonstrate a more sophisticated understanding of email protocols with respect to safe and secure use. Examples of Level 4 achievements in the After-School Exercise poster task include students rephrasing the key points from source information and using formatting tools consistently throughout the poster so that the roles of the different text elements are clear to the reader.

Student achievement on the CIL scale

We can interpret and compare students’ CIL by referring to their CIL scale scores and the proficiency levels of the scale.

Student CIL varied considerably across the ICILS countries. The average national scores on the scale ranged from 361 to 553 scale points, a span that extends from below Level 1 to a standard of proficiency within Level 3. This range was equivalent to almost two standard deviations. However, we need to acknowledge that the distribution of country CIL means was skewed because of the means of three countries being significantly below the ICILS 2013 average and the means of 12 other countries being significantly above the ICILS 2013 average.

Eighty-one percent of students achieved scores that placed them within CIL Levels 1, 2, and 3. In all but two countries, Turkey and Thailand, the highest percentage of students was in Level 2.

Students’ computer use and CIL

A long conducted and established research literature shows that students’ social background characteristics Footnote 3 and students’ personal characteristics Footnote 4 are associated with student achievement across a range of learning areas. These same student-level factors were associated with CIL proficiency in ICILS. Characteristics reflecting higher socioeconomic status were associated with higher CIL proficiency both within and across countries.

Female students had higher CIL scale scores in all but two countries (Thailand and Turkey, where the differences were not statistically significant). This finding was not unexpected given that CIL is heavily reliant on text-based reading skills and given past research showing that females tend to outperform males on tests of reading. Similarly, students who spoke the language of the CIL test (which is also the language of instruction in their country) also performed better on the assessment.

When we took the associations between these various student factors into account using multiple regression techniques, we found that the following variables had statistically significant positive associations with CIL in most countries: students’ gender (female compared to male), students’ expected educational attainment, parental educational attainment, parental occupational status, the number of books in the home, and ICT home resources.

ICILS also investigated student access to, familiarity with, and confidence in using computers. Students were asked a range of questions relating to their access to and use of computers at home, at school, and in other places. There is an assumption that the generation of young people that includes the ICILS target grade students (i.e., Grade 8) has grown up with computers as a ubiquitous part of their lives. However, questions remain as to how such access relates to their CIL.

Almost all ICILS students reported that they were experienced users of computers and had access to them at home and at school. On average across the ICILS countries, more than one third of the Grade 8 students said they had been using computers for seven or more years, with a further 29 percent reporting that they had been using computers for between five and seven years. Ninety-four percent of the students on average crossnationally reported having at least one computer (desktop, laptop, notebook, or tablet device) at home, while 48 percent reported having three or more computers at home. Ninety-two percent of students stated that they had some form of internet connection at home. Both number of computers students had at home and access to a home internet connection were positively associated with CIL scores.

The ICILS student questionnaire also asked students a range of questions about their frequency of computer use, the types of tasks they completed using computers, and their attitudes toward using computers. These questions were underpinned by hypotheses that increased computer use, and focused use, would be positively associated with CIL.

Students across the ICILS countries reported using computers more frequently at home than elsewhere. On average, 87 percent said they used a computer at home at least once a week, whereas 54 percent and 13 percent reported this same frequency of computer use at school and other places respectively.

Computer use outside school

ICILS 2013 data indicate that students were making widespread and frequent use of digital technologies when outside school. Students tended to use the internet for social communication and exchange of information, computers for recreation, and software applications for school work and other purposes.

On average across the ICILS countries, three-quarters of the students said they communicated with others by way of messaging or social networks at least weekly. Just over half said that they used the internet for “searching for information for study or school work” at least once a week, and almost half indicated that they engaged in “posting comments to online profiles or blogs” at least once each week. On average, there was evidence of slightly more frequent use of the internet for social communication and exchanging information among females than among males.

Students were also frequently using computers for recreation. On average across the ICILS countries, 82 percent of students reported “listening to music” on a computer at least once a week, 68 percent reported “watching downloaded or streamed video (e.g., movies, TV shows, or clips)” on a weekly basis, and 62 percent said they used the internet to “get news about things of interest,” also on a weekly basis. Just over half of all the ICILS students were “playing games” once a week or more. Overall, we recorded only a small, albeit statistically significant, gender difference in the extent of recreational use of computers, with males reporting slightly higher frequencies than females.

Students also reported using software applications outside school. Generally across the ICILS countries, the most extensive weekly use of software applications involved “creating or editing documents” (28% of students). Use of most other utilities was much less frequent. For example, only 18 percent of the students were “using education software designed to help with school study.” We found no significant difference between female and male students with respect to using software applications outside school.

Use of ICT for school work

Crossnationally, just under half (45%) of the ICILS students, on average, were using computers to “prepare reports or essays” at least once a week. We recorded a similar extent of use for “preparing presentations” (44%). Forty percent of students reported using ICT when working with other students from their own school at least weekly, and 39 percent of students reported using a computer once a week or more to complete worksheets or exercises.

Two school-related uses of computers were reported by less than one fifth of the students. These were “writing about one’s own learning,” which referred to using a learning log, and “working with other students from other schools.” Nineteen percent of students said they used a computer for the first of these tasks; 13 percent said they used a computer for the second.

The subject area in which computers were most frequently being used was, not surprisingly, information technology or computer studies (56%). On average, about one fifth of the students studying (natural) sciences said they used computers in most or all lessons. The same proportion reported using computers in most or all of their human sciences/humanities lessons. In language arts (the test language) and language arts (foreign languages), students were using computers a little less frequently: about one sixth of the students reported computer use in most or all lessons. Approximately one in seven students studying mathematics reported computer use in most mathematics lessons or almost every lesson. Of the students studying creative arts, just a little more than one in 10 reported computer use in most or all lessons.

The ICILS teacher questionnaire asked teachers to select one of their Grade 8 classes as a reference class and then to report their use of ICT in that class. The order of frequency of ICT use by subject was very similar to that reported by students. On average, the percentage of teachers using ICT was greatest if the reference class was being taught information technology or computer studies (95%), but it was also very high if the class was studying (natural) sciences (84%) or human sciences/humanities (84%). Seventy-nine percent of teachers whose reference class was engaged in language arts (test language) or language arts (foreign languages) reported using ICT in their teaching. Across countries, three quarters of teachers whose reference class was a creative arts class, and 71 percent of those teaching mathematics, said they used ICT in their teaching.

Students’ perceptions of ICT

The ICILS student questionnaire also gathered information about two aspects of student perceptions of ICT. One concerned students’ confidence in using computers (their ICT self-efficacy). The other was students’ interest and enjoyment in using ICT. The questions relating to students’ ICT self-efficacy formed two scales— basic ICT skills (such as searching for and finding a file) and advanced ICT skills (such as creating a database, computer program, or macro).

Some small gender differences were evident in basic ICT self-efficacy in seven countries, with males scoring lower than females in six of these countries. However, in the case of advanced ICT self-efficacy, males scored significantly and substantially higher than females in all 14 countries that met sampling requirements.

We found no consistent associations overall between advanced ICT self-efficacy and CIL scale scores, but did observe positive associations between basic ICT self-efficacy and CIL scale scores. This finding is not unexpected given the nature of the CIL assessment construct, which is made up of information literacy and communication skills that are not necessarily related to advanced computer skills such as programming or database management. Even though CIL is computer based, in the sense that students demonstrate CIL in the context of computer use, the CIL construct itself does not emphasize advanced computer-based technical skills.

Students were asked to indicate their agreement with a series of statements about their interest and enjoyment in using computers and doing computing. Overall, students expressed interest in computing and said they enjoyed it. Greater interest and enjoyment was associated with higher CIL scores, an effect that was statistically significant in nine of the 14 countries that met the ICILS sampling requirements.

Teacher, school, and education system characteristics relevant to CIL

General approaches to cil education.

The ICILS countries differed in terms of the characteristics of their education systems, their ICT infrastructure, and their approaches to ICT use.

Data from international databases show large differences among countries in their economies and (of particular relevance to this current study) ICT infrastructure. Data from the ICILS national context survey suggest that most of the participating countries were supportive at either the national or state/provincial level or both levels for using ICT in education. Plans and policies mostly included strategies for improving and supporting student learning and providing ICT resources.

International databases also show that countries differ with regard to including an ICT-related subject at the primary and lower-secondary levels of education. Although almost all of the ICILS countries had a subject or curriculum area equivalent to CIL at one or more levels of their respective education systems, fewer than half of the participating countries said their education system supported using ICT for student assessments. Across the countries, teaching CIL-related content was set within specific ICT-related subjects and was also regarded as a crosscurricular responsibility.

Teacher capacity to use ICT was rarely a requirement for teacher registration. However, teacher capacity to use ICT was often supported during preservice and inservice programs. In general, nearly all countries offered some form of support for teacher access to and participation in ICT-based professional development.

Teachers and CIL

Generally, the ICILS data confirm extensive use of ICT in school education. Across the ICILS countries, three out of every five teachers said they used computers at least once a week when teaching, while four out of every five reported using computers on a weekly basis for other work at their schools. As we commented in an earlier chapter, it is not possible to judge whether the reported level of use was appropriate, but we can agree that it was extensive.

Teachers in most countries were experienced users of ICT and generally recognized the positive aspects of using ICT in teaching and learning at school, especially with respect to accessing and managing information. On balance, teachers reported generally positive attitudes toward the use of ICT, although many teachers were aware that ICT use could have some detrimental aspects, such as adversely affecting students’ development of writing, calculation, and estimation skills.

In general, teachers were confident about their ability to use many computer applications; two thirds of them expressed confidence in their ability to use these technologies for assessing and monitoring student progress. There were differences, however, among countries in the level of confidence that teachers expressed with regard to using computer technologies, and younger teachers tended to be more confident ICT users than their older colleagues.

A substantial majority of the ICILS teachers were using ICT in their teaching. This use was greatest among teachers who were confident about their ICT expertise and who were working in school environments where there was collaboration about and planning of ICT use, and where there were fewer resource limitations to that use. These were also the conditions that supported teaching CIL. These findings suggest that if schools are to develop students’ CIL to the greatest possible extent, then teacher expertise in ICT use needs to be augmented, and ICT use needs to be supported by collaborative environments that incorporate institutional planning.

According to the ICILS teachers, the utilities (software) most frequently used in their respective reference classes were those concerned with wordprocessing, presentations, and computer-based information resources, such as websites, wikis, and encyclopedias. Teachers said that, within their classrooms, ICT was most commonly being used by their students to search for information, work on short assignments, and undertake individual work on learning materials. The survey data also suggest that ICT was often being used to present information in class and reinforce skills. Overall, teachers appeared to be using ICT most frequently for relatively simple tasks and less often for more complex tasks.

Schools and CIL

Data from the ICT-coordinator questionnaire showed that, in general, the schools participating in ICILS were well equipped in terms of internet-related and software resources. The types of computer resources available for use were more variable, however, with countries being less likely to have on hand tablet devices, a school intranet, internet-based applications for collaborative work, and a learning management system.

An examination of the ratio of number of students in a school per available computers showed substantial differences across countries. Ten of the 16 countries that met sampling requirements had more computers per student available in rural settings than in urban schools. We investigated the association between CIL and the ratio of students to computers in schools across countries and found that students from countries with greater access to computing in schools tended to have stronger CIL skills.

Computers in schools were most often located in computer laboratories and libraries. However, there was some variation among countries as to whether portable class-sets of computers or student computers brought to class were being used. Most schools had policies about the use of ICT, but there was substantial cross-country variation regarding policies relating to access to school computers for both students and members of the local community. The same can be said with regard to provision of laptops and other mobile learning devices for use at school or home.

The ICT-coordinators reported a range of hindrances to teaching and learning ICT. These typically related to resource provision and to personnel and teaching support. In general, the coordinators rated personnel and teaching support issues as more problematic than resource issues. However, there was considerable variation across schools within countries and across countries in the types of limitation arising from resource inadequacy.

Variation was also evident in the level of teachers’ agreement with negatively worded statements about the use of ICT in teaching at school. Statements reflecting insufficient time to prepare ICT-related lessons, schools not viewing ICT as a priority, and insufficient technical support to maintain ICT resources all attracted relatively high levels of teacher agreement.

Both teachers and principals provided perspectives on the range of professional development activities relevant to pedagogical use of ICT. According to principals, teachers were most likely to participate in school-provided courses on pedagogical use of ICT, to talk about this type of use when they were within groups of teachers, and to discuss ICT use in education as a regular item during meetings of teaching staff. From the teachers’ perspective, the most common professional development activities available included observing other teachers using ICT in their teaching, introductory courses on general applications, and sharing and evaluating digital resources with others via a collaborative work space.

Results from the multivariate analyses

These results showed that students’ experience with computers as well as regular home-based use of computers had significant positive effects in many countries, even after we had controlled for the influence of personal and social context. ICT resources, particularly the number of computers at home, no longer had effects once we took socioeconomic background into account.

Only a few countries recorded significant influences of school-level variables on CIL, and some of these associations were not significant after we controlled for the effect of the school’s socioeconomic context.

In a number of education systems, the extent of students’ computer use (at home) and the extent to which students had learned about ICT-related tasks at school appeared to be influencing students’ CIL. There is much potential here for secondary analyses directed toward further investigating the associations between CIL education and CIL outcomes within countries.

Reflections on policy and practice

The findings from ICILS 2013 can be considered to constitute two broad categories: the nature and measurement of CIL, and factors that relate to CIL proficiency.

ICILS has provided a description of the competencies underpinning CIL that incorporates the notions of being able to safely and responsibly access and use digital information as well as to produce and develop digital products. ICILS has also provided an empirically derived scale and description of the CIL learning progress that can be used to anchor interpretations of learning in this field. It furthermore provides a common language and framework that policymakers and scholars can use when deliberating about CIL education. This common framework and associated measurement scale also offer a basis for understanding variation in CIL at present and for monitoring change in the CIL that results from developments in policy and practice over time.

Some of the findings of this report are similar to those of crossnational studies in other learning areas. For example, students from economically and socially advantaged backgrounds typically have higher levels of achievement. However, other findings relate specifically to the development of CIL through education.

One question raised by the ICILS results relates to the place of CIL in the curriculum. While many countries have some form of subject and curriculum associated with CIL, responsibility for addressing and assessing the relevant learning outcomes is less clear. Countries generally appear to use a combination of information technology or computer studies classes together with the expectation that the learning outcomes associated with CIL are a crosscurricular responsibility shared across discipline-based subjects.

The ICILS data show that teaching emphases relating to CIL outcomes were most frequently being addressed in technology or computer studies classes and in (natural) sciences and human sciences or humanities classes. Teachers and students differed in their perceptions of computer use across the subjects. Queries remain, however, about how schools maintain the continuity, completeness, and coherence of their CIL education programs. This last concern had particular relevance in several ICILS countries, where there was only limited, nonobligatory assessment of CIL-related competences, or where assessment took place only at the school level.

A second question relates to the role of ICT resource availability and its relationship to CIL. Overall, the ICILS data suggest that increased access to ICT resources at home and school are associated with higher levels of CIL, but only up to a certain point, as is evident at the different levels of our analyses. At the student level, each additional computer at home was associated with an increase in CIL. At the national level, higher average levels of CIL were associated with higher country rankings on the ICT Development Index (see Chapter 1 ), and lower ratios of students to computers. These associations are somewhat difficult to interpret fully given that higher levels of CIL resourcing are typically associated with higher levels of economic development, which itself has a strong positive association with CIL.

The ICILS results also suggest that the knowledge, skills, and understandings that comprise CIL can and should be taught. To some extent, this conclusion challenges perspectives of young people as digital natives with a self-developed capacity to use digital technology. Even though we can discern in the ICILS findings high levels of access to ICT and high levels of use by young people in and (especially) outside school, we need to remain aware of the large variations in CIL proficiency within and across the ICILS countries.

The CIL construct combines information literacy, critical thinking, technical skills, and communication skills applied across a range of contexts and for a range of purposes. The variations in CIL proficiency show that while some of the young people participating in ICILS were independent and critical users of ICT, there were many who were not. As the volume of computer-based information available to young people continues to increase, so too will the onus on societies to critically evaluate the credibility and value of that information.

Changing and more sophisticated technologies (such as social media and mobile technologies) are increasing the ability of young people to communicate with one another and publish information to a worldwide audience in real time. This facility obliges individuals to consider what is ethically appropriate and to determine how to maximize the communicative efficacy of information products. The knowledge, skills, and understandings that are the basis of the receptive and productive aspects of CIL can and need to be taught and learned through coherent education programs. The knowledge, skills, and understandings described in the CIL scale show that, regardless of whether or not we consider young people to be digital natives, we would be naive to expect them to develop CIL in the absence of coherent learning programs.

One message from the ICILS teacher data is that a certain set of factors appears to influence their confidence in using ICT and integrating CIL in their teaching. It is therefore worth repeating here that teachers’ ICT use was greatest when the teachers were confident about their expertise and were working in school environments that collaborated on and planned ICT use and had few if any resource limitations hindering that use. These were also the conditions that supported teachers’ ability to teach CIL.

Once threshold levels of ICT resourcing have been met in a school, we suggest that system- and school-level resourcing and planning should focus on increasing teacher expertise in ICT use. Attention should also be paid to implementing supportive collaborative environments that incorporate institutional planning focused on using ICT and teaching CIL in schools.

ICILS also showed differences in teacher attitudes toward and self-efficacy in using ICT in their teaching. Older teachers typically held less positive views than younger teachers about using ICT and expressed lower confidence in their ability to use ICT in their teaching practice. Programs developed to support teachers gain the skills and confidence they need to use ICT effectively would be valuable for all teachers. Consideration should also be given to ensuring that these programs meet the requirements of older teachers and, in some instances, directly target these teachers.

The ICILS results also call into question some of the idealized images commonly associated with visions of ICT in teaching and learning. In ICILS, both students and teachers were asked about students’ use of computers in classes. Students reported most frequently using computers to “prepare reports or essays” and “prepare presentations” in class, and using utilities to “create or edit documents” out of school. When teachers were asked to report on their own use of ICT in teaching, the two practices reported as most frequent were “presenting information through direct class instruction” and “reinforcing learning of skills through repetition of examples.” Although teachers reported high levels of access to and use of ICT in their professional work, including in the classroom, the ICILS data suggest that computers were most commonly being used to access digital textbooks and workbooks rather than provide dynamic, interactive pedagogical tools.

In a similar vein, one of the intended benefits of ICT, particularly web-technologies, is to support collaboration on tasks. Overall, the school-based use of ICT to support collaboration was not extensive. Low prevalence of ICT use was reported by teachers for practices such as “collaborating with parents or guardians in supporting students’ learning,” “enabling students to collaborate with other students (within or outside school),” and “mediating communication between students and experts or external mentors.” Furthermore, the majority of teachers (and in the majority of countries) who participated in ICILS reported that ICT “limits the amount of personal communication among students,” a finding which suggests not only that teachers were not using ICT to support collaboration, but also that they believed ICT use inhibits communication among students.

Future directions for research

The ICILS data clearly show that the contexts for CIL education vary across countries, as do the influences of factors at the individual, school, and country levels on CIL. One approach to secondary analyses of the ICILS data by scholars could be to investigate, build, and test models that explain variations in CIL within ICILS countries. Examples of areas of interest are the impact of school and teaching approaches on the development of CIL in students and the related aspects of teacher professional learning that may contribute to building capacity for CIL education development.

One challenge in identifying the relationship between ICT resourcing and CIL proficiency is that, because ICT resourcing is expensive, it typically disappears as an explanatory factor in regression models once socioeconomic background factors are accounted for. This happens at the level of the student and also in the school. Further research using the ICILS data may uncover alternative ways of better describing the relationship between ICT resource availability and CIL proficiency.

Finally, ICILS has provided a baseline study for future measurement of CIL and CIL education across countries. A future cycle of ICILS could be developed to support measurement of trends in CIL as well as maintain the study’s relevance to innovations in software, hardware, and delivery technologies. Some possibilities for future iterations of ICILS could include internet delivery of the assessment, accommodation of “bring your own device” (BYOD) in schools, adapting a version for use on tablet devices, and incorporating contemporary and relevant software environments, such as multimedia and gaming. The key to the future of such research is to maintain a strong link to the core elements of the discipline while accommodating the new contexts in which CIL achievement can be demonstrated.

These tasks can be described as discrete because, although they are connected by the common narrative, students can complete each one sequentially without having to explicitly refer to other tasks.

Nonlinear skills tasks require students to execute a software command (or reach a desired outcome) by executing subcommands in a number of different sequences. The ICILS Assessment Framework (Fraillon et al., 2013 ) provides further information about the ICILS task and question types.

Especially those related to socioeconomic status, which include measures of parental occupational status, parental educational attainment, and the number of books in the home.

Such as gender, students’ expected highest level of education, and whether or not the language of testing/instruction is also spoken at home.

Fraillon, J., Schulz, W., & Ainley, J. (2013). International Computer and Information Literacy Study assessment framework . Amsterdam, the Netherlands: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Retrieved from http://www.iea.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/Electronic_versions/ICILS_2013_Framework.pdf

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Fraillon, J., Ainley, J., Schulz, W., Friedman, T., Gebhardt, E. (2014). Conclusions and Discussion. In: Preparing for Life in a Digital Age. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14222-7_10

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7 Describing an ICT system: conclusion

We have arrived at a model of a communication system that illustrates the processes needed for communication. We have also looked at the different kinds of communication link that can be used to convey data, and how to express the rates at which they can convey data. In sections 8–14, we shall be looking at a computer system as an example of an ICT system where data manipulation and storage are the most important features.

Role Play Dialogue Agents

By Dr. David Traum, Research Professor of Computer Science, Director for Natural Language Research, ICT

Dr. David Traum is Director for Natural Language Research at ICT. In this essay he examines the linguistic interplay between humans and machines, drawing on historical antecedents, such as the Turing Test, tracing a line through intelligent assistants and open-domain conversational partners – to the role play dialogue agents currently in use in his own laboratory.

How should we talk with computers? This question predates any actual artificial intelligence applications, but still didn’t have a definitive answer at the beginning of the ICT or even today, 25 years later. Some follow Alan Turing’s famous “test” , that we could attribute intelligence to machines, only if they were able to talk as much like people as men and women talk like each other. Certainly there would be many benefits of “ getting computers to talk like you and me” , especially in that we wouldn’t have to learn new ways of communication to talk to or understand machines. 

On the other hand, more recently many have pointed out ethical issues with computers pretending to be real people , or talking in a way that would make it difficult for people to know if they were talking to a person or a machine. Those favoring this approach point out the differences between humans and (current and possibly future) machines and posit that this means we should also talk differently with computers than the way we do with each other, because computers are very different from people.

When we talk to each other, much of our communication depends on the activities we are engaged in and the roles we are playing in that activity. This can include the words we use, the frequencies of words, the tone of voice and accompanying non-verbal behaviors used, but also the kinds of meanings and responses expected even for the same words uttered. For example, a question might get very different responses if coming from a teammate in the midst of a collaborative task, or from a stranger at the bus stop, or from a classroom instructor, or in a courtroom from an attorney. While a simple correct answer might suffice in all cases, the situations  differ in terms of acceptability of refusing to answer, giving an incorrect answer, pleading ignorance, or providing a helpful way of finding out the information. But what are the appropriate “roles” for the activities of human-computer dialogue? How are these similar or different from human roles such as the above examples in related activities between humans?

Most computer dialogue systems fall into two broad categories: intelligent assistants or open-domain conversational partners . Assistants are meant to help a person achieve some task. They are constructed to interact with users to first determine the user’s intent with respect to the details of the task (e.g, providing information, providing instructions, booking a ticket, or setting an alarm) and then carry out the task and report back. Thus the focus can be on the task itself, rather than the identities and relationship of the participants, similar to one-time service encounters at a fast food restaurant or customer help desk. 

Open domain systems are more inspired by the Turing test and require the computer to talk intelligently about any possible subject the user wants to bring up (though it’s ok to say they don’t know much about that topic). There have been numerous competitions, such as the Loebner prize and Amazon Alexa challenge that have assessed efforts in this area. Often the goals have switched from trying to be indistinguishable from humans to capturing the interest of conversational participants such that they continue the dialogue for a long amount of time or are rated as highly enjoyable by the participants. Such systems don’t really have a task (other than engaging in conversation), and frequent topics of conversation include aspects of identity, group affiliation, preferences and feelings. It is thus important to establish what the identity of the machine participant actually is – is it pretending to be human? Is it a completely alien, un-human-like machine identity? Does it have some commonalities with human identity, or does it refuse to accept the concept of machine identity? Answers to these questions will impact how people choose to interact with and how they feel about the interaction and the machine.

A third type of system is role-play dialogue agent , much less common in the general dialogue systems community than assistants and open domain chatbots, but central to ICT’s purpose of engaging training and learning environments. These systems play a role in an activity that would typically be done by a person. Having machines that can play these roles allows a user to practice social activities that would normally require multiple people, even if fewer or no other people are available, as conceived in Star Trek’s “Holodeck”. These systems enable different kinds of experiential learning and practice, to sustain and improve skills, by providing role-appropriate circumstances to react to. Role-play dialogue agents are similar to assistant dialogue systems in that they are concerned with one or more tasks, however they can be different in that the system’s role is not always strictly subordinate to the user, as an assistant system would be. Thus understanding the user’s intent is not always enough for the system to carry out a task, sometimes the system must also decide to agree to the user’s request. This may sometimes require a further process of negotiation or argumentation or explanation on the part of the user, just as they would have to do with a person in that activity. Sometimes dialogue agents play the role of opponents who desire not to help the user, but actually to hinder them, and sometimes part of the activity is for the user to determine where the agent’s loyalties lie, and perhaps how to align them. Role-play agents are also similar to open-domain dialogue systems, in that they should respond (in character) to whatever a user says, and their (role-play) identity is often a topic of conversation or structures how they should interact. The difference is the focus on a specific activity and goals of the agent. It is also more clear that it is acceptable for the systems to act “in character” as a human, similar to the way an actor would take on an identity different from their own, for educational or entertainment purposes.

Role play dialogue systems have been central to ICT from the beginning of the institute, with our flagship interdisciplinary “ Mission Rehearsal Exercise Project ,” which involved a human user/training, leading a platoon full of role-players, as well as a potentially angry crowd and others both on and off the user/trainee’s team. 

I was recruited to  ICT in the year 2000, initially by Jeff Rickel from ISI, who realized that the kind of agents he wanted to create for this project needed an ability to reason and talk about tasks and situations beyond just filling in “slots” in a frame, which was the current state of the art. I had previously worked in task-oriented dialogue systems , though looking slightly beyond the assistant role in some of them, considering other kinds of collaboration. It was exciting to come west and work in an environment that considered not just different roles for dialogue agents, but also visual embodiment, immersive display in a virtual reality theater, the role of emotion, pedagogy and cognitive architecture in a unified system that also represented a collaboration with creative professionals from the entertainment industry in support of military doctrine and training. When confronted with problems of what a dialogue agent should do in a particular situation, it was an amazing experience to be able to go beyond introspection and individual research to directly talking with some of the world experts from a variety of points of view – Military Subject Matter Experts, Hollywood writers and other creative professionals, as well as scientists studying linguistics, communication, psychology, pedagogy, and graphics, and sound.. This collaboration helped us focus on new notions of dialogue “success” – not (just) accuracy numbers, but on the impactfulness of the experience.

Our natural language dialogue group has contributed to many ICT projects involving role-play dialogue agents, for a large variety of roles of activities, including teammates , several scenarios within SASO , involving non-team interaction, authoring tools and many scenarios (some written by interns and West Point Cadets) for Tactical Questioning training, virtual patients , interviewers and interviewees , game partners and opponents , wild-west gunslingers and bartenders , counselors , language teachers and practice partners , and many others. It’s been amazing to see many of these projects leave the lab and show up in museums, at Army bases, and elsewhere, where they interact with real users who interact with the characters because they want to, not because someone’s paying them to do it.

So, how should we talk to computers? Ideally, any way we want to, and they will talk to us in ways that are appropriate for the specific circumstances, such as playing a role, where that’s what we want, while keeping ethical issues at a forefront, so roleplay can be easily distinguished from reality where important.

David Traum is the Director for Natural Language Research at the Institute for Creative Technologies (ICT) and Research Professor in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Southern California (USC).  He leads the Natural Language Dialogue Group at ICT. More information about the group can be found here: http://nld.ict.usc.edu/group/   Traum’s research focuses on Dialogue Communication between Human and Artificial Agents.  He has engaged in theoretical, implementational and empirical approaches to the problem, studying human-human natural language and multi-modal dialogue, as well as building a number of dialogue systems to communicate with human users. Traum has authored over 300 refereed technical articles, is a founding editor of the Journal Dialogue and Discourse, has chaired and served on many conference program committees, and is a past President of SIGDIAL, the international special interest group in discourse and dialogue.  Traum earned his Ph.D. in Computer Science at the University of Rochester in 1994.

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The ICT application for Fall 2024 will be live from Tuesday, April 30, 2024, at 8:00 am until Thursday, May 17, 2024, at 11:59 pm.

Current UIUC Student and High School Student Information Sessions

A member of the Gies undergraduate admissions team will lead an online discussion about application timeline and requirements followed by a Q&A session. Sessions typically last 30-45 minutes. Attendance is neither required nor a factor in a student's admission decision. The same information is shared in each meeting. Preregistration is required through the links below; after registering, you will receive an email confirmation and link to the Zoom meeting.  Tuesday, April 30 at 4 pm

Current students can attend an ICT express advising appointment with a Gies advisor if they have quick course-related questions. These appointments are a maximum of 15 minutes and occur on a first-come, first-served basis. Dates: Thursdays, February 1 – April 25 No meetings: March 14 Hours: 2 – 4 p.m.  Location: Division of General Studies, Illini Union Bookstore, Floor 5

Eligibility and Review Process

There is a competitive transfer application process for first-year UIUC students who would like to pursue a Gies undergraduate degree or a dual degree. Students wanting to declare a dual degree in their current major and Business would need Gies to be their home/primary college due to course registration restrictions and, therefore, should apply for Gies ICT admission.

Applicants must meet the following criteria:

• Be a first-year current student at UIUC
• Have completed two semesters of full-time enrollment/at least 24 graded credit hours at UIUC by end of spring semester

Students who have deferred their UIUC admission from fall to spring entry should contact our office to discuss their options for an application timeline.

You are not eligible for ICT if:

• You have taken more than two semesters of full-time coursework at UIUC, or
• You have already completed the off-campus transfer admissions process and are enrolled in another program at UIUC.

(If you are not eligible, look into our  Gies Business Minor  or our  Gies one-year master’s degree programs .)

The ICT admissions committee employs a holistic process to review applications based on collegiate academics and course completion, essays, and other submitted information. More details are provided in the Application Sections area below. High school grades, ACT/SAT/TOEFL test scores, or any other items from a student's initial university admission application are not considered. 

Program choice is not a factor in the admission review process; admission review is the same for all majors. Also, there are no specific space limits to each major.

Recommendations from faculty, staff, or personal contacts are not a part of the review process and therefore are not accepted.

Due to space limitations and the strength of the applicant pool each year, we are unable to guarantee admission, regardless of GPA and/or course completion. 

Gies undergraduate programs must be completed in no more than 9 full-time semesters and require a significant number of Gies courses. Therefore, early completion of required and general education courses helps students maintain degree progression within the semester limit for graduation. 

Deadlines & Timelines

Students apply for ICT at the end of spring semester of their first year at UIUC to be considered for fall admission. Application review will begin once spring semester final exams and grades are complete at the end of May. Students will be notified of their admission decision by the end of June.

Due to curricula format, we only take applications in the spring semester for fall admission. We do not take spring entry applicants.

The online submission portal will be available on this page in late spring for each admissions cycle.

Application Requirements/Sections

• Accountancy
• Accountancy + Data Science
• Business + Data Science
• Finance + Data Science
• Information Systems
• Operations Management
• Strategy, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship

Major Considerations

Changing majors or double majors: If you are admitted, you could change your intended major or add a double major during your sophomore year.  

Supply Chain Management major: If you want to apply for Supply Chain Management admission, you would do so once you are a student here in Gies. In the meantime, you would need to apply and be admitted to one of the programs listed above. 

+DS majors: You can apply for direct ICT admission to a +DS major if you meet some additional requirements (noted in the Required and Recommendation Coursework section). If you have not done so, you should apply to a non- +DS major; you can work towards the +DS requirements if admitted to Gies.  

Dual degrees: You will need to indicate on the application if you intend to pursue dual degrees (one Gies major and another major outside of Gies). Pursuing dual degrees is not always possible, based on both programs’ coursework and graduation requirements. Prior to application submission, we recommend discussing your intentions with your current academic advisor to see if dual degrees are options for you.  

Courses are considered complete by having taken the course or its equivalent at UIUC or another institution or through AP/IB test score credit. It is the applicant’s responsibility to assure that all outside awarded college credit (i.e., AP/IB test credit or college credit from other institutions) is included in their official UIUC records.

Required for all majors except +Data Science For first-year students entering UIUC in Fall 2023, the following required courses must be completed by end of Spring 2024:

• Composition I
• ECON 102 - Microeconomics (ACE 100 can be substituted)
• ECON 103 - Macroeconomics
• One of the following: MATH 115, Preparation for Calculus; MATH 220, Calculus; MATH 221, Calculus I; MATH 231, Calculus II; MATH 234, Calculus for Business I; or STAT 100, Statistics

Required for +Data Science majors For first-year students entering UIUC in Fall 2023, the following required courses must be completed by end of Spring 2024: 

• Composition I 
• ECON 102 - Microeconomics (ACE 100 can be substituted) 
• ECON 103 - Macroeconomics 
• CS/IS/STAT 107: Data Science Discovery 
• One of the following: MATH 234, Calculus for Business (recommended); MATH 220, Calculus; or MATH 221, Calculus 1 

Recommended for all majors CMN 101 and completing the third level of  Language Other than English are not requirements, but are recommended to help prepare students for success at Gies if admitted. CS 105 is a recommended course for all majors except +Data Science. 

In addition, we encourage you to make progress on general education coursework. For assistance, you can view the  Gies Student general education guide  and run your own degree audit for a Business Undeclared major to see your progression.

We suggest that your course schedule reflect the requirements and recommendations of your current major or your other major options. Please consult with your current academic advisor to determine your course schedule and what will be the best selection for you. Gies admission is highly selective; therefore, it is best to have more than one academic major under consideration, which may have different ICT requirements/recommendations.

Applicants will respond to three essay prompts directly within their application:

• Professional Essay (200-400 word limit): How do your current academic interests, professional goals, and strengths fit with your requested major in Gies Business? In what ways do you hope to explore areas of growth and develop professionally?
• Personal Essay (200-400 word limit): Unrelated to academics or business, what do you value? Describe an experience that has helped shape your personal values. What did you learn from this experience and how do these values show up in your actions?
• Engagement essay (200-400 word limit): During your first year in college, in what ways were you significantly engaged either on- or off-campus, how were these engagements meaningful to you, and what have you learned from these experiences? This could be related to a part-time job, a student club/organization, volunteer/community work, family responsibility, or any other non-classroom activity. 

Additional considerations prompts (200 words or less): You should answer one or more of the following prompts as they may pertain to you:

• Explanation of low grades and/or circumstances that affected your academic performance. 
• Explanation for not completing one or more required courses prior to the end of this spring semester.
• Explanation and description of college credit that is not yet on your UIUC academic record.
• Description of unique, personal information that you would like the admission review committee to consider during the review process.
• Optional Prompt - Did you work during the school year? If yes, provide a description of your job and indicate the number of hours you worked per week or per semester.

Academic Advising and Planning Assistance

Changing majors may significantly affect other areas of your education, so it’s important to understand those possible implications. Transferring to Gies may mean: 

• Potential tuition rate and/or scholarship changes . Please review the Tuition & Fee Rates provided by the Office of the Registrar, and reach out to the Office of Student Financial Aid if you have questions about possible changes to your award packages. 
• Summer, winter, or transfer coursework . Gies students have a firm semester limit to complete their undergraduate degree. This means you may need to take additional coursework to stay within that required timeline.
• Dual degree limitations . Due to our graduation timeline requirement, it may not be feasible for you to complete a dual degree with a Gies major and one outside of Gies. Please consult with your current academic advisor on the feasibility of doing so.
• Study Abroad programs. If you are interested in studying abroad for a semester as a Gies student, please make sure you are considering that in your graduation plan as it may impact course options. You will want to plan early and talk with your current academic advisor to start considering this possibility. We encourage you to make two graduation plans, one as if you were to study abroad, and one as if you do not as a backup. If you have questions about Gies Global study abroad programs, you can contact our Gies Global office directly at 217-244-7245 or [email protected].
• Work closely with your current academic advisor on course selection based on both the requirements and suggestions listed above, as well as other majors you may pursue.
• Contact our Gies Undergraduate Admissions team for logistical ICT questions (about the application, requirements, deadline, etc.).
• Attend one of the ICT information sessions led by Gies admissions staff each semester, as listed above.
• Drop in to a quick, 15-minute advising appointment with a Gies academic advisor, as noted above.

For Fall 2023 and Spring 2024, you should work with your current academic advisor to schedule appropriate classes for Gies ICT consideration and other majors you are considering. 

For Fall 2024 course registration, you should sign up for classes based on your advisor conversations and, as if you were continuing in your current program/academic unit. If you are admitted, a Gies academic advisor will review your schedule and contact you about any needed changes. We hold spaces in specific courses for ICT students, so you will be able to get into the business classes you need for the fall.

Gies News and Events

Anderson, Scott honored with 2024 GBAA Awards

Quintin Anderson '94 was chosen for the Distinguished Alumnus Award, and Julie Scott '85, is this year's recipient of the Alumni Appreciation Award.

Gies professor launches AccelCorps™ to bridge STEM and business

The initiative is funded by a 3-year, $5 million NSF grant aimed at mentoring scientists and innovators in STEM fields and helping them navigate the world of business.

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Panama Papers trial’s public portion comes to an unexpectedly speedy end

The Supreme Court stands in Panama City, Monday, April 8, 2024 as the trial starts for those charged in connection with the worldwide “Panama Papers” money laundering case. (AP Photo/Agustin Herrera)

Juergen Mossack, partner of the law firm Mossack-Fonseca, leaves the Supreme Court during the trial of the “Panama Papers” money laundering case in Panama City, Monday, April 8, 2024. (AP Photo/Agustin Herrera)

Lawyers and court workers leave the Supreme Court during a recess for the trial of the “Panama Papers” money laundering case in Panama City, Monday, April 8, 2024. (AP Photo/Agustin Herrera)

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PANAMA CITY (AP) — The public portion of a trial of more than two-dozen associates accused of helping some of the world’s richest people hide their wealth came to an unexpectedly speedy conclusion Friday when a Panamanian judge said she would take the two weeks of trial arguments and testimony under advisement.

The trial came eight years after 11 million leaked secret financial documents that became known as the “Panama Papers” prompted the resignation of the prime minister of Iceland and brought scrutiny to the then-leaders of Argentina and Ukraine, Chinese politicians, and Russian President Vladimir Putin, among others.

Judge Baloisa Marquínez noted Friday that the case included more than 530 volumes of information. The public trial had been expected to run to the end of the month. The judge has 30 working days to issue a verdict.

Those on trial include the owners of the Mossack Fonseca law firm that was at the heart of the 2016 massive document leak. Jürgen Mossack attended the trial, while his partner Ramón Fonseca did not for health reasons, according to his counsel.

Panamanian prosecutors allege that Mossack, Fonseca and their associates created a web of shell companies that used complex transactions to hide money linked to illicit activities in the “car wash” corruption scandal of Brazilian construction giant Odebrecht .

“This whole process from eight years ago until now … has had a lot of consequences for my family, on my personal situation and truly has been a great injustice not just for me but for all of the people who have worked with me,” Mossack testified Friday. “I trust your honor will know how to evaluate all that has been said here.”

Mossack had said at the start of the trial, as he has for years, that he was not guilty of the money laundering charges.

According to Panamanian prosecutors, the Mossack Fonseca firm created 44 shell companies, 31 of which opened accounts in Panama to hide money linked to the Brazilian scandal.

Fonseca has said the firm, which closed in 2018, had no control over how its clients might use offshore vehicles created for them.

Mossack Fonseca helped create and sell around 240,000 shell companies across four decades in business. It announced its closure in March 2018, two years after the scandal erupted.

The firm’s documents were first leaked to the German daily Suddeutsche Zeitung, and were shared with the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, which began publishing collaborative reports with news organizations in 2016.

“The reputational deterioration, the media campaign, the financial siege and the irregular actions of some Panamanian authorities have caused irreparable damage, whose consequence is the complete cease of operations to the public,” the firm said in a statement at the time.

The Mossack and Fonseca were acquitted on other charges in 2022.

How Technology Affects Our Lives – Essay

Do you wish to explore the use of information technology in daily life? Essays like the one below discuss this topic in depth. Read on to find out more.

Introduction

Technology in communication, technology in healthcare, technology in government, technology in education, technology in business, negative impact of technology.

Technology is a vital component of life in the modern world. People are so dependent on technology that they cannot live without it. Technology is important and useful in all areas of human life today. It has made life easy and comfortable by making communication and transport faster and easier (Harrington, 2011, p.35).

It has made education accessible to all and has improved healthcare services. Technology has made the world smaller and a better place to live. Without technology, fulfilling human needs would be a difficult task. Before the advent of technology, human beings were still fulfilling their needs. However, with technology, fulfillment of needs has become easier and faster.

It is unimaginable how life would be without technology. Technology is useful in the following areas: transport, communication, interaction, education, healthcare, and business (Harrington, 2011, p.35). Despite its benefits, technology has negative impacts on society. Examples of negative impacts of technology include the development of controversial medical practices such as stem cell research and the embracement of solitude due to changes in interaction methods. For example, social media has changed the way people interact.

Technology has led to the introduction of cloning, which is highly controversial because of its ethical and moral implications. The growth of technology has changed the world significantly and has influenced life in a great way. Technology is changing every day and continuing to influence areas of communication, healthcare, governance, education, and business.

Technology has contributed fundamentally in improving people’s lifestyles. It has improved communication by incorporating the Internet and devices such as mobile phones into people’s lives. The first technological invention to have an impact on communication was the discovery of the telephone by Graham Bell in 1875.

Since then, other inventions such as the Internet and the mobile phone have made communication faster and easier. For example, the Internet has improved ways through which people exchange views, opinions, and ideas through online discussions (Harrington, 2011, p.38). Unlike in the past when people who were in different geographical regions could not easily communicate, technology has eradicated that communication barrier. People in different geographical regions can send and receive messages within seconds.

Online discussions have made it easy for people to keep in touch. In addition, they have made socializing easy. Through online discussions, people find better solutions to problems by exchanging opinions and ideas (Harrington, 2011, p.39). Examples of technological inventions that facilitate online discussions include emails, online forums, dating websites, and social media sites.

Another technological invention that changed communication was the mobile phone. In the past, people relied on letters to send messages to people who were far away. Mobile phones have made communication efficient and reliable. They facilitate both local and international communication.

In addition, they enable people to respond to emergencies and other situations that require quick responses. Other uses of cell phones include the transfer of data through applications such as infrared and Bluetooth, entertainment, and their use as miniature personal computers (Harrington, 2011, p.40).

The latest versions of mobile phones are fitted with applications that enable them to access the Internet. This provides loads of information in diverse fields for mobile phone users. For business owners, mobile phones enhance the efficiency of their business operations because they are able to keep in touch with their employees and suppliers (Harrington, 2011, p.41). In addition, they are able to receive any information about the progress of their business in a short period of time.

Technology has contributed significantly to the healthcare sector. For example, it has made vital contributions in the fields of disease prevention and health promotion. Technology has aided in the understanding of the pathophysiology of diseases, which has led to the prevention of many diseases. For example, understanding the pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal tract and blood diseases has aided in their effective management (Harrington, 2011, p.49).

Technology has enabled practitioners in the medical field to make discoveries that have changed the healthcare sector. These include the discovery that peptic ulceration is caused by a bacterial infection and the development of drugs to treat schizophrenia and depressive disorders that afflict a greater portion of the population (Harrington, 2011, p.53). The development of vaccines against polio and measles led to their total eradication.

Children who are vaccinated against these diseases are not at risk of contracting the diseases. The development of vaccines was facilitated by technology, without which certain diseases would still be causing deaths in great numbers. Vaccines play a significant role in disease prevention.

Technology is used in health promotion in different ways. First, health practitioners use various technological methods to improve health care. eHealth refers to the use of information technology to improve healthcare by providing information on the Internet to people. In this field, technology is used in three main ways.

These include its use as an intervention tool, its use in conducting research studies, and its use for professional development (Lintonen et al, 2008, p. 560). According to Lintonenet al (2008), “e-health is the use of emerging information and communications technology, especially the internet, to improve or enable health and healthcare.” (p.560). It is largely used to support health care interventions that are mainly directed towards individual persons. Secondly, it is used to improve the well-being of patients during recovery.

Bedside technology has contributed significantly in helping patients recover. For example, medical professionals have started using the Xbox computer technology to develop a revolutionary process that measures limb movements in stroke patients (Tanja-Dijkstra, 2011, p.48). This helps them recover their manual competencies. The main aim of this technology is to help stroke patients do more exercises to increase their recovery rate and reduce the frequency of visits to the hospital (Lintonen et al, 2008, p. 560).

The government has utilized technology in two main areas. These include the facilitation of the delivery of citizen services and the improvement of defense and national security (Scholl, 2010, p.62). The government is spending large sums of money on wireless technologies, mobile gadgets, and technological applications. This is in an effort to improve their operations and ensure that the needs of citizens are fulfilled.

For example, in order to enhance safety and improve service delivery, Cisco developed a networking approach known as Connected Communities. This networking system connects citizens with the government and the community. The system was developed to improve the safety and security of citizens, improve service delivery by the government, empower citizens, and encourage economic development.

The government uses technology to provide information and services to citizens. This encourages economic development and fosters social inclusion (Scholl, 2010, p.62). Technology is also useful in improving national security and the safety of citizens. It integrates several wireless technologies and applications that make it easy for security agencies to access and share important information effectively. Technology is widely used by security agencies to reduce vulnerability to terrorism.

Technologically advanced gadgets are used in airports, hospitals, shopping malls, and public buildings to screen people for explosives and potentially dangerous materials or gadgets that may compromise the safety of citizens (Bonvillian and Sharp, 2001, par2). In addition, security agencies use surveillance systems to restrict access to certain areas. They also use technologically advanced screening and tracking methods to improve security in places that are prone to terrorist attacks (Bonvillian and Sharp, 2001, par3).

Technology has made significant contributions in the education sector. It is used to enhance teaching and learning through the use of different technological methods and resources. These include classrooms with digital tools such as computers that facilitate learning, online learning schools, blended learning, and a wide variety of online learning resources (Barnett, 1997, p.74). Digital learning tools that are used in classrooms facilitate learning in different ways. They expand the scope of learning materials and experiences for students, improve student participation in learning, make learning easier and quick, and reduce the cost of education (Barnett, 1997, p.75). For example, online schools and free learning materials reduce the costs that are incurred in purchasing learning materials. They are readily available online. In addition, they reduce the expenses that are incurred in program delivery.

Technology has improved the process of teaching by introducing new methods that facilitate connected teaching. These methods virtually connect teachers to their students. Teachers are able to provide learning materials and the course content to students effectively. In addition, teachers are able to give students an opportunity to personalize learning and access all learning materials that they provide. Technology enables teachers to serve the academic needs of different students.

In addition, it enhances learning because the problem of distance is eradicated, and students can contact their teachers easily (Barnett, 1997, p.76). Technology plays a significant role in changing how teachers teach. It enables educators to evaluate the learning abilities of different students in order to devise teaching methods that are most efficient in the achievement of learning objectives.

Through technology, teachers are able to relate well with their students, and they are able to help and guide them. Educators assume the role of coaches, advisors, and experts in their areas of teaching. Technology helps make teaching and learning enjoyable and gives it meaning that goes beyond the traditional classroom set-up system (Barnett, 1997, p.81).

Technology is used in the business world to improve efficiency and increase productivity. Most important, technology is used as a tool to foster innovation and creativity (Ray, 2004, p.62). Other benefits of technology to businesses include the reduction of injury risk to employees and improved competitiveness in the markets. For example, many manufacturing businesses use automated systems instead of manual systems. These systems eliminate the costs of hiring employees to oversee manufacturing processes.

They also increase productivity and improve the accuracy of the processes because of the reduction of errors (Ray, 2004, p.63). Technology improves productivity due to Computer-aided Manufacturing (CAM), Computer-integrated Manufacturing (CIM), and Computer-aided Design (CAD). CAM reduces labor costs, increases the speed of production, and ensures a higher level of accuracy (Hunt, 2008, p.44). CIM reduces labor costs, while CAD improves the quality and standards of products and reduces the cost of production.

Another example of the use of technology in improving productivity and output is the use of database systems to store data and information. Many businesses store their data and other information in database systems that make accessibility of information fast, easy, and reliable (Pages, 2010, p.44).

Technology has changed how international business is conducted. With the advent of e-commerce, businesses became able to trade through the Internet on the international market (Ray, 2004, p.69). This means that there is a large market for products and services. In addition, it implies that most markets are open 24 hours a day.

For example, customers can shop for books or music on Amazon.com at any time of the day. E-commerce has given businesses the opportunity to expand and operate internationally. Countries such as China and Brazil are taking advantage of opportunities presented by technology to grow their economy.

E-commerce reduces the complexities involved in conducting international trade (Ray, 2004, p.71). Its many components make international trade easy and fast. For example, a BOES system allows merchants to execute trade transactions in any language or currency, monitor all steps involved in transactions, and calculate all costs involved, such as taxes and freight costs (Yates, 2006, p.426).

Financial researchers claim that a BOES system is capable of reducing the cost of an international transaction by approximately 30% (Ray, 2004, p.74). BOES enables businesses to import and export different products through the Internet. This system of trade is efficient and creates a fair environment in which small and medium-sized companies can compete with large companies that dominate the market.

Despite its many benefits, technology has negative impacts. It has negative impacts on society because it affects communication and has changed the way people view social life. First, people have become more anti-social because of changes in methods of socializing (Harrington, 2008, p.103). Today, one does not need to interact physically with another person in order to establish a relationship.

The Internet is awash with dating sites that are full of people looking for partners and friends. The ease of forming friendships and relationships through the Internet has discouraged many people from engaging in traditional socializing activities. Secondly, technology has affected the economic statuses of many families because of high rates of unemployment. People lose jobs when organizations and businesses embrace technology (Harrington, 2008, p.105).

For example, many employees lose their jobs when manufacturing companies replace them with automated machines that are more efficient and cost-effective. Many families are struggling because of the lack of a constant stream of income. On the other hand, technology has led to the closure of certain companies because the world does not need their services. This is prompted by technological advancements.

For example, the invention of digital cameras forced Kodak to close down because people no longer needed analog cameras. Digital cameras replaced analog cameras because they are easy to use and efficient. Many people lost their jobs due to changes in technology. Thirdly, technology has made people lazy and unwilling to engage in strenuous activities (Harrington, 2008, p.113).

For example, video games have replaced physical activities that are vital in improving the health of young people. Children spend a lot of time watching television and playing video games such that they have little or no time for physical activities. This has encouraged the proliferation of unhealthy eating habits that lead to conditions such as diabetes.

Technology has elicited heated debates in the healthcare sector. Technology has led to medical practices such as stem cell research, implant embryos, and assisted reproduction. Even though these practices have been proven viable, they are highly criticized on the grounds of their moral implications on society.

There are many controversial medical technologies, such as gene therapy, pharmacogenomics, and stem cell research (Hunt, 2008, p.113). The use of genetic research in finding new cures for diseases is imperative and laudable. However, the medical implications of these disease treatment methods and the ethical and moral issues associated with the treatment methods are critical. Gene therapy is mostly rejected by religious people.

They claim that it is against natural law to alter the gene composition of a person in any way (Hunt, 2008, p.114). The use of embryonic stem cells in research is highly controversial, unlike the use of adult stem cells. The controversy exists because of the source of the stem cells. The cells are obtained from embryos. There is a belief among many people that life starts after conception.

Therefore, using embryos in research means killing them to obtain their cells for research. The use of embryo cells in research is considered in the same light as abortion: eliminating a life (Hunt, 2008, p.119). These issues have led to disagreements between the science and the religious worlds.

Technology is a vital component of life in the modern world. People are so dependent on technology that they cannot live without it. Technology is important and useful in all areas of human life today.

It has made life easy and comfortable by making communication faster and travel faster, making movements between places easier, making actions quick, and easing interactions. Technology is useful in the following areas of life: transport, communication, interaction, education, healthcare, and business. Despite its benefits, technology has negative impacts on society.

Technology has eased communication and transport. The discovery of the telephone and the later invention of the mobile phone changed the face of communication entirely. People in different geographical regions can communicate easily and in record time. In the field of health care, technology has made significant contributions in disease prevention and health promotion. The development of vaccines has eradicated certain diseases, and the use of the Internet is vital in promoting health and health care.

The government uses technology to enhance the delivery of services to citizens and the improvement of defense and security. In the education sector, teaching and learning processes have undergone significant changes owing to the impact of technology. Teachers are able to relate to different types of learners, and the learners have access to various resources and learning materials. Businesses benefit from technology through the reduction of costs and increased efficiency of business operations.

Despite the benefits, technology has certain disadvantages. It has negatively affected human interactions and socialization and has led to widespread unemployment. In addition, its application in the healthcare sector has elicited controversies due to certain medical practices such as stem cell research and gene therapy. Technology is very important and has made life easier and more comfortable than it was in the past.

Barnett, L. (1997). Using Technology in Teaching and Learning . New York: Routledge.

Bonvillian, W., and Sharp, K. (2011). Homeland Security Technology . Retrieved from https://issues.org/bonvillian/ .

Harrington, J. (2011). Technology and Society . New York: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

Hunt, S. (2008). Controversies in Treatment Approaches: Gene Therapy, IVF, Stem Cells and Pharmagenomics. Nature Education , 19(1), 112-134.

Lintonen, P., Konu, A., and Seedhouse, D. (2008). Information Technology in Health Promotion. Health Education Research , 23(3), 560-566.

Pages, J., Bikifalvi, A., and De Castro Vila, R. (2010). The Use and Impact of Technology in Factory Environments: Evidence from a Survey of Manufacturing Industry in Spain. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology , 47(1), 182-190.

Ray, R. (2004). Technology Solutions for Growing Businesses . New York: AMACOM Div American Management Association.

Scholl, H. (2010). E-government: Information, Technology and Transformation . New York: M.E. Sharpe.

Tanja-Dijkstra, K. (2011). The Impact of Bedside Technology on Patients’ Well-Being. Health Environments Research & Design Journal (HERD) , 5(1), 43-51.

Yates, J. (2006). How Business Enterprises use Technology: Extending the Demand-Side Turn. Enterprise and Society , 7(3), 422-425.

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IvyPanda. (2023, August 28). How Technology Affects Our Lives – Essay. https://ivypanda.com/essays/technology-affecting-our-daily-life/

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IvyPanda . 2023. "How Technology Affects Our Lives – Essay." August 28, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/technology-affecting-our-daily-life/.

1. IvyPanda . "How Technology Affects Our Lives – Essay." August 28, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/technology-affecting-our-daily-life/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "How Technology Affects Our Lives – Essay." August 28, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/technology-affecting-our-daily-life/.

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A Culture Warrior Takes a Late Swing

The editor and essayist Joseph Epstein looks back on his life and career in two new books.

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By Dwight Garner

NEVER SAY YOU’VE HAD A LUCKY LIFE: Especially If You’ve Had a Lucky Life , by Joseph Epstein

FAMILIARITY BREEDS CONTENT: New and Selected Essays , by Joseph Epstein

When Tammy Wynette was asked to write a memoir in her mid-30s, she initially declined, she said in an interview, because “I didn’t think my life was over yet.” The publisher responded: Has it occurred to you that in 15 years no one might care? She wrote the book. “Stand by Your Man: An Autobiography” (1979) was a hit.

The essayist and editor Joseph Epstein — whose memoir “Never Say You’ve Had a Lucky Life,” is out now, alongside a greatest-hits collection titled “Familiarity Breeds Content” — has probably never heard Wynette sing except by accident. (In a 1993 essay, he wrote that he wished he didn’t know who Willie Nelson was, because it was a sign of a compromised intellect.) But his memoir illustrates another reason not to wait too long to commit your life to print.

There is no indication that Epstein, who is in his late 80s, has lost a step. His prose is as genial and bland, if comparison to his earlier work is any indication, as it ever was. But there’s a softness to his memories of people, perhaps because it was all so long ago. This is the sort of memoir that insists someone was funny, or erudite, or charismatic, while rarely providing the crucial details.

Epstein aw-shucks his way into “Never Say You’ve Had a Lucky Life” — pretending to be self-effacing while not being so in the least is one of his salient qualities as a writer — by warning readers, “I may not have had a sufficiently interesting life to merit an autobiography.” This is because he “did little, saw nothing notably historic, and endured not much out of the ordinary of anguish or trouble or exaltation.” Quickly, however, he concludes that his life is indeed worth relating, in part because “over the years I have acquired the literary skill to recount that life well.”

Here he is wrong in both directions. His story is interesting enough to warrant this memoir. His personal life has taken complicated turns. And as the longtime editor of the quarterly magazine The American Scholar, and a notably literate conservative culture warrior, he’s been in the thick of things.

He does lack the skill to tell his own story, though, if by “skill” we mean not well-scrubbed Strunk and White sentences but close and penetrating observation. Epstein favors tasseled loafers and bow ties, and most of his sentences read as if they were written by a sentient tasseled loafer and edited by a sentient bow tie.

He grew up in Chicago, where his father manufactured costume jewelry. The young Epstein was popular and, in high school, lettered in tennis. His title refers to being lucky, and a big part of that luck, in his estimation, was to grow up back when kids could be kids, before “the therapeutic culture” took over.

This complaint sets the tone of the book. His own story is set next to a rolling series of cultural grievances. He’s against casual dress, the prohibition of the word “Negro,” grade inflation, the Beat Generation, most of what occurred during the 1960s, standards slipping everywhere, de-Westernizing college curriculums, D.E.I. programs, you name it. His politics aren’t the problem. We can argue about those. American culture needs more well-read conservatives. The problem is that in his search for teachable moments, his memoir acquires the cardboard tone of a middling opinion column.

His youth was not all tennis lessons and root beer floats. He and his friends regularly visited brothels because, he writes, sex was not as easy to come by in the 1950s. He was kicked out of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign for his role in the selling of a stolen accounting exam to other students.

He was lucky to find a place at the University of Chicago, a place of high seriousness. The school changed him. He began to reassess his values. He began to read writers like Irving Howe, Sidney Hook, Midge Decter and Norman Podhoretz, and felt his politics pull to the right.

After college, he was drafted into the Army and ended up in Little Rock, Ark., where he met his first wife. At the time, she was a waitress at a bar and restaurant called the Gar Hole. Here Epstein’s memoir briefly threatens to acquire genuine weight.

She had lost custody of her two sons after a divorce. Together they got them back, and she and Epstein had two sons of their own. After their divorce, Epstein took all four of the boys. This is grist for an entire memoir, but Epstein passes over it quickly. One never gets much of a sense of what his boys were like, or what it was like to raise them. He later tells us that he has all but lost touch with his stepsons and has not seen them for decades.

He worked for the magazine The New Leader and the Encyclopaedia Britannica before becoming the editor of The American Scholar in 1975. It was a position he would hold for 22 years. He also taught at Northwestern University for nearly three decades.

At The American Scholar he began to write a long personal essay in each issue, under the pseudonym Aristides. He wrote 92 of these, on topics such as smoking and envy and reading and height. Most ran to 6,500 words, or about 4,000 words longer than they should have been.

Many magazine editors like to write every so often, to keep a hand in. But there is something unseemly about an editor chewing up acres of space in his own publication on a regular basis. Editorially, it’s a droit du seigneur imposition.

A selection of these essays, as well as some new ones, can now be found in “Familiarity Breeds Content.” In his introduction to this book, Christopher Buckley overpraises Epstein, leaving the reader no choice but to start mentally pushing back.

Buckley calls Epstein “the most entertaining living essayist in the English language.” (Not while Michael Kinsley, Lorrie Moore, Calvin Trillin, Sloane Crosley and Geoff Dyer, among many others, walk the earth.) He repurposes Martin Amis’s comment about Saul Bellow: “One doesn’t read Saul Bellow. One can only reread him.” To this he adds, “Ditto Epstein.” (Epstein is no Saul Bellow.) Buckley says, “Joe Epstein is incapable of writing a boring sentence.”

Well. How about this one, from an essay about cats?

A cat, I realize, cannot be everyone’s cup of fur.

Or this one, from an essay about sports and other obsessions:

I have been told there are people who wig out on pasta.

Or this one, about … guess:

When I was a boy, it occurs to me now, I always had one or another kind of hat.

Juggling today appears to be undergoing a small renaissance.

If one is looking to save on fuel bills, politics is likely to heat up a room quicker than just about anything else.

In tennis I was most notable for flipping and catching my racket in various snappy routines.

The essays are, by and large, as tweedy and self-satisfied as these lines make them sound. There are no wild hairs in them, no sudden deepenings of tone. Nothing is at stake. We are stranded with him on the putt-putt course.

Epstein fills his essays with quotation after quotation, as ballast. I am a fan of well-deployed, free-range quotations. So many of Epstein’s are musty and reek of Bartlett’s. They are from figures like Lord Chesterfield and Lady Mary Montagu and Sir Herbert Grierson and Tocqueville and Walpole and Carlyle. You can feel the moths escaping from the display case in real time.

To be fair, I circled a few sentences in “Familiarity Breeds Content” happily. I’m with him on his distrust of “fun couples.” He writes, “A cowboy without a hat is suitable only for bartending.” I liked his observation, which he borrowed from someone else, that a career has five stages:

(1) Who is Joseph Epstein? (2) Get me Joseph Epstein. (3) We need someone like Joseph Epstein. (4) What we need is a young Joseph Epstein. (5) Who is Joseph Epstein?

It’s no fun to trip up a writer on what might have been a late-career victory lap. Epstein doesn’t need me to like his work. He’s published more than 30 books, and you can’t do that unless you’ve made a lot of readers happy.

NEVER SAY YOU’VE HAD A LUCKY LIFE : Especially If You’ve Had a Lucky Life | By Joseph Epstein | Free Press | 287 pp. | $29.99

FAMILIARITY BREEDS CONTENT : New and Selected Essays | By Joseph Epstein | Simon & Schuster | 441 pp. | Paperback, $20.99

Dwight Garner has been a book critic for The Times since 2008, and before that was an editor at the Book Review for a decade. More about Dwight Garner

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