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Criminology Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Sociocultural Factors, Definitions, and Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence Among Latina and Hispanic Women , Vanessa Centelles

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Efficacy of Online Social Movements for Sparking Change: The Case of the Missing Murdered and Indigenous Women Movement (#MMIW) , Kacy A. Bleeker

An Examination of Racial Disparities in Arrest Across Florida Counties, 1998-2018: A Test of the Racial Threat and Political Representation Hypotheses , Xavier D. Burch

The Invisible Victims of Commercial Sexual Exploitation: Boys and Their Barriers to Access to Services , Amanda L. Connella

Damned & Damned: Examining Vexatious Litigation and the Vexatious Litigant Statute in Florida Courts , Sarah L. Harper

The Contributions of Mental Health Issues, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Adverse Childhood Experiences to Recidivism Among Rural Jail Incarcerees , Lauren N. Miley

Employing Individuals with a Criminal Record: How Prior Experience and Belief in Redeemability Impact Hiring Decisions , Kiera O'Connor

Assessing the Relationship Between True Crime Documentary and Podcast Consumption, Fear of Crime, and Protective Behaviors , Lauren A. Tremblay

Police Officers’ Perceptions of Gunshot Detection Technology , Courtney L. Weber

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

A Macro Social Examination of the Relationship Between Disabilities and Crime Using Neighborhood and County Level Data , Natasha A. Baloch

Integrating Psychopathy into Prominent Developmental/Life-Course Theories , Eva M. Fontaine

Racial Differences in Perceptions of Sanction Severity , Sarah L. Franklin

Juvenile Homicide Offenders: A Life-Course Perspective , Norair Khachatryan

Testing the Protest Paradigm and Racial Threat: Analyzing Articles of BLM Protests in 2014 and 2020 , Rebecca Angela Ruiz

Exploring the Effectiveness of a Life-Skills Program in a Florida Prison Through a Social Bond and General Strain Theory Perspective , Danielle M. Thomas

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Clean Water for All: Examining Safe Drinking Water Act Violations of Water Systems and Community Characteristics , Junghwan Bae

Morality and Offender Decision-Making: Testing the Empirical Relationship and Examining Methodological Implications , Jacquelyn Burckley

The Ring of Gyges 2.0: How Anonymity Providing Behaviors Affect Willingness to Participate in Online Deviance , Cassandra E. Dodge

A Macro Analysis of Illegal Hunting and Fishing Across Texas Counties: Using an Economic Structural Approach , Leo J. Genco Jr.

Self-Protection in Cyberspace: Assessing the Processual Relationship Between Thoughtfully Reflective Decision Making, Protection Motivation Theory, Cyber Hygiene, and Victimization , C. Jordan Howell

Racial Threat Theory: A Test of the Economic Threat Hypothesis , Carl L. Reeds

Online Perceptions of Panamanian Prisons and Incarcerated persons: An analysis of YouTube user comments , Mahaleth J. Sotelo

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Toxic Colonialism and Green Victimization of Native Americans: An Examination of the Genocidal Impacts of Uranium Mining , Averi R. Fegadel

Cross-National Incarceration Rates as Behavior of Law , Christopher J. Marier

The Effects of Perceived Motivations and Mental Distress on the Likelihood of Reporting and Engaging in Self-Protective Measures Among Victims of Stalking , Daniela Oramas Mora

Mental Health and In-Prison Experiences: Examining Socioeconomic and Sex Differences in the Effect of Mental Illness on Institutional Misconduct and Disciplinary Segregation , Rachel E. Severson

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Dating Application Facilitated Victimization: An Examination of Lifestyle-Routine Activities, Self-Control, and Self-Efficacy , Vanessa Centelles

Social Constructionism and Cultivation Theory in Development of the Juvenile “Super-Predator” , Elizabeth R. Jackson-Cruz

Bystander Intervention, Victimization, and Routine Activities Theory: An Examination of Feminist Routine Activities Theory in Cyber Space , Jennifer A. Leili

Sexual Assault and Robbery Disclosure: An Examination of Black’s Theory of the Behavior of Law , Caitlyn N. Muniz

Mass Shootings and Gun Sales: A Study on the Influence of Red and Blue Power , Maria Jose Rozo Osuna

A Multi-dimensional Macrolevel Study of Drug Enforcement Strategies, Heroin Prices, and Heroin Consumption Rates , Alexander G. Toth

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Impact of a Religious/Spiritual Turning Point on Desistance: A Lifecourse Assessment of Racial/Ethnic Differences , Rhissa Briones Robinson

Political Decisions on Police Expenditures: Examining the Potential Relationship Between Political Structure, Police Expenditures and the Volume of Crime Across US States , Xavier D. Burch

Identifying the Personal and Perceived Organizational Characteristics Associated with Job Satisfaction Among Juvenile Probation Staff , Julie M. Krupa

The Role of Organizational Justice in Predicting Attitudes Toward Body-Worn Cameras in Police Officers , Nathaniel L. Lawshe

Yet Another Ferguson Effect: An Exploratory Content Analysis of News Stories on Police Brutality and Deadly Force Before and After the Killing of Michael Brown , Carl Root

The Role of Race/Ethnicity and Risk Assessment on Juvenile Case Outcomes , Tayler N. Shreve

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Intimate Partner Violence and the Capacity and Desire for Self-Control , Krista Taralynne Brewer

School Shootings in the United States from 1997 to 2012: A Content Analysis of Media Coverage , Victoria N. Iannuzzi

Chronic Runaway Youth: A Gender-Based Analysis , Michelle N. Jeanis

A Test of Wikström’s Situational Action Theory Using Self-Report Data on Intimate Partner Violence , Lauren Nicole Miley

An Exploratory Study of Macro-Social Correlates of Online Property Crime , Hyojong Song

Female Incarceration and Prison Social Order: An Examination of Gender Differences in Prison Misconduct and In-Prison Punishments , Elisa L. Toman

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Their Role as Mitigators for Youthful and Non-Youthful Offenders in Capital Sentencing Cases , Jessica R. Trapassi

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Disinhibition, Violence Exposure, and Delinquency: A Test of How Self-Control Affects the Impact of Exposure to Violence , Wyatt Brown

The Guilty But Mentally Ill Verdict: Assessing the Impact of Informing Jurors of Verdict Consequences , Erin Elizabeth Cotrone

The Relationship between Psychopathic Personality Traits and Lying , Jason A. Dobrow

Delving into the Heart of Victimization Risk: Examining the Interactive Relationship between Demographic Factors and Context , Amy Sheena Eggers

A Power Conflict Approach to Animal Cruelty: Examining How Economic Power Influences the Creation of Animal Cruelty Laws , Leonard J. Genco

The Role of Gender in Self-Control and Intimate Partner Violence , Laura Marie Gulledge

The Restrictive Deterrent Effect of Warning Banners in a Compromised Computer System , Christian Jordan-Michael Howell

Tactics of Sexual Control and Negative Health Outcomes , Anna Elizabeth Kleppe

The Applicability of Criminology to Terrorism Studies: An Exploratory Study of ISIS Supporters in the United States , Amanda Marie Sharp Parker

The Path to Violent Behavior: The Harmful Aftermath of Childhood Trauma , Nicholas Michael Perez

The Effects of Racial Bias on Perceptions of Intimate Partner Violence Scenarios , Batya Yisraela Rubenstein

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Reel or Reality? The Portrayal of Prostitution in Major Motion Pictures , Raleigh Blasdell

Psychopathy and Perception of Vulnerability , Barbara Joyce Dinkins

Effect of Empathy on Death Penalty Support in Relation to the Racial Divide and Gender Gap , Brian Godcharles

Exploring the Interactive Effects of Social Learning Theory and Psychopathy on Serious Juvenile Delinquency , Brandy Barenna Henderson

Tampa Electric Company's Big Bend Utility Plant in Hillsborough County, Florida: A Case Study , Lynne M. Hodalski-Champagne

Thirty Year Follow-Up of Juvenile Homicide Offenders , Norair Khachatryan

Organized Crime in Insurance Fraud: An Empirical Analysis of Staged Automobile Accident Rings , Chris Longino

The Role of Social Support in the Disclosure and Recovery Process of Rape Victims , Jessica Nicole Mitchell

Evaluating the Social Control of Banking Crimes: An Examination of Anti-Money Laundering Deficiencies and Industry Success , Erin M. Mulligan

Elite Deviance, Organized Crime, and Homicide: A Cross-National Quantitative Analysis , Carol L.s. Trent

An Evaluation of the Utah First District Mental Health Court: Gauging the Efficacy of Diverting Offenders Suffering With Serious Mental Illness , Stephen Guy VanGeem

Rape, Race, and Capital Punishment in North Carolina: A Qualitative Approach to Examining an Enduring Cultural Legacy , Douglas Wholl

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

The Tattoo: A Mark of Subversion, Deviance, or Mainstream Self-Expression? , Jocelyn Camacho

Juvenile and Adult Involvement in Double Parricide and Familicide in the U.S.: An Empirical Analysis of 20 Years of Data , Averi Rebekah Fegadel

Predicting Successful Drug Court Graduation: Exploring Demographic and Psychosocial Factors among Medication-Assisted Drug Court Treatment Clients , Autumn Michelle Frei

Experimentally Evaluating Statistical Patterns of Offending Typology For Burglary: A Replication Study , Lance Edwin Gilmore

Developmental Trajectories of Physical Aggression and Nonaggressive Rule-Breaking among At-risk Males and Females during Late Childhood and Early Adolescence , Eugena Givens

Predicting Fear of Crime using a Multilevel and Multi-Model Approach: A Study in Hillsborough County , Jonathan Maskaly

Public Knowledge and Sentiments about Elite Deviance , Cedric Michel

The Influence of Community Context on Social Control: A Multi-Level Examination of the Relationship between Race/Ethnicity, Drug Offending, and Juvenile Court Outcomes , Jennifer Peck

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Assessing the Relationship Between Hotspots of Lead and Hotspots of Crime , Kimberly L. Barrett

A Life-Course Approach to Sexual Offending: Examining the Continuity of Juvenile Sexual Offending into Adulthood and Subsequent Patterns of Recidivism , Maude Beaudry-Cyr

Examining the link between self-control and misconduct in a multi-agency sample of police supervisors: A test of two theories , Christopher Matthew Donner

The Impact of Hyperfemininity on Explicit and Implicit Blame Assignment and Police Reporting of Alcohol Facilitated Rape in a Sample of College Women , Sarah Ehlke

Rurality and Intimate Partner Homicide: Exploring the Relationship between Place, Social Structure, and Femicide in North Carolina , Amelia Kirkland

Self-Control, Attitudinal Beliefs, and White-Collar Crime Intentions , Melissa Anne Lugo

Zero Tolerance for Marginal Populations: Examining Neoliberal Social Controls in American Schools , Brian Gregory Sellers

State-Corporate Crime in the Democratic Republic of Congo , Veronica Jane Winters

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

The Walls Are Closing In: Comparing Property Crime Victimization Risk In Gated And Non-Gated Communities , Nicholas Branic

What Propels Sexual Homicide Offenders? Testing an Integrated Theory of Social Learning and Routine Activities Theories , Heng Choon Chan

A Deadly Way of Doing Business: A Case Study of Corporate Crime in the Coal Mining Industry , Charles Nickolas Stickeler

Deconstructing the "Power and Control Motive": Developing and Assessing the Measurability of Internal Power , Shelly Marie Wagers

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Assessing racial differences in offending trajectories: A life-course view of the race-crime relationship , Michael S. Caudy

Mental Health Courts Effectiveness in Reducing Recidivism and Improving Clinical Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis , Brittany Cross

General Strain Theory and Juvenile Delinquency: A Cross-Cultural Study , Wen-Hsu Lin

General Strain Theory, Race, and Delinquency , Jennifer Peck

Developmental Trajectories of Self-Control: Assessing the Stability Hypothesis , James Vance Ray

Explaining the "Female Victim Effect" in Capital Sentencing Decisions: A Case for Sex-Specific Models of Capital Sentencing Research , Tara N. Richards

A Multilevel Model of Police Corruption: Anomie, Decoupling, and Moral Disengagement , Ruth Zschoche

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

The Emotional Guardianship of Foreign-Born and Native-Born Hispanic Youth and Its Effect on Violent Victimization , Amy Sheena Eggers

The Influence of Narcissism and Self-Control on Reactive Aggression , Melissa L. Harrison

Is There an "Innocent Female Victim" Effect in Capital Punishment Sentencing? , Amelia Lane Kirkland

An Analysis of the Influence of Sampling Methods on Estimation of Drug Use Prevalence and Patterns Among Arrestees in the United States: Implications for Research and Policy , Janine Kremling

A Pathway to Child Sex Trafficking in Prostitution: The Impact of Strain and Risk-Inflating Responses , Joan A. Reid

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Home > USC Columbia > Arts and Sciences > Criminology and Criminal Justice > Criminology and Criminal Justice Theses and Dissertations

Criminology and Criminal Justice Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

The Risk of Protection: Examining the Contextual Effects of Child Protective Services on Child Maltreatment Fatalities in the U.S. , Cosette Morgan McCullough

Family Mass Murder: An Exploratory Study Of The Role Of Arson , Rachel Rori Rodriguez Spradley

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Too Feminine for Execution?: Gender Stereotypes and the Media’s Portrayal of Women Sentenced to Death , Kelsey M. Collins

Juveniles, Transferred Juveniles, and the Impact of a Criminal Record on Employment Prospects in Adulthood: An Experimental Study , Joanna Daou

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Why So Long? Examining the Nexus Between Case Complexity and Delay in Florida’s Death Penalty System , Corey Daniel Burton

The Criminalization of HIV and HIV Stigma , Deanna Cann

Views of Substance Use During Pregnancy: Social Responses to the Issue , Taylor Ruddy

The Spatial Variability of Crime: A Review of Methodological Choice, Proposed Models, and Methods for Illustrating the Phenomenon , Matthew D. Spencer

Community Corrections Officer Decision-Making: An Intersectional Analysis , Amber Leigh Williams Wilson

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

The Utility of Using Virtue Locales to Explain Criminogenic Environments , Hunter Max Boehme

Fostering Resilience in Correctional Officers , Jon Thomas Arthur Gist

The Impact of Race/Ethnicity on Sentencing: A Matching Approach , Travis Jones

Unraveling the Temporal Aspects of Victimization: The Reciprocal, Additive, and Cumulative Effects of Direct/Vicarious Victimization on Crime , Yeoju Park

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Media Influence on College Students' Perceptions of the Police , Matilda Foster

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Ohio's Certificate of Relief , Peter Leasure

Trends in the Prevalence of Arrest for Intimate Partner Violence Using the National Crime Victimization Survey , Tara E. Martin

Reading Between the Lines: An Intersectional Media Analysis of Female Sex Offenders in Florida Newspapers , Toniqua C. Mikell

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Short-Term Self-Control Stability of College Students , Nicholas James Blasco

Developmental Patterns of Religiosity in Relation to Criminal Trajectories among Serious Offenders across Adolescence and Young Adulthood , Siying Guo

Local Incarceration As Social Control: A National Analysis Of Social, Economic, And Political Determinants Of Jail Use In The United States , Heather M. Ouellette

Association Between Perception Of Police Prejudice Against Minorities And Juvenile Delinquency , Kwang Hyun Ra

A Quasi-Experimental Analysis Of School-Based Situational Crime Prevention Measures , Gary Zhang

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Sex Offender Policies that Spin the Revolving Door: An Exploration of the Relationships Between Residence Restrictions, Homelessness, and Recidivism , Deanna Cann

Untangling the Interconnected Relationships between Alcohol Use, Employment, and Offending , Margaret M. Chrusciel

Inmate Time Utilization And Well-Being , Mateja Vuk

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

The Socio-Legal Construction Of Adolescent Criminality: Examining Race, Community, And Contextual Factors Through The Lens Of Focal Concerns , Patrick Glen Lowery

The Impact Of Deinstitutionalization On Murders Of Law Enforcement Officers , Xueyi Xing

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Relationships Between Law Enforcement Officer-Involved Vehicle Collisions And Other Police Behaviors , John Andrew Hansen

In the Eye of the Beholder: Exploring the Dialogic Approach to Police Legitimacy , Justin Nix

Criminology on Crimes Against Humanity: A North Korean Case Study , Megan Alyssa Novak

General Strain Theory and Bullying Victimization: Do Parental Support and Control Alleviate the Negative Effects of Bullying , Jonathon Thompson

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Adultification in Juvenile Corrections: A Comparison of Juvenile and Adult Officers , Riane Miller Bolin

Perception of Police in Public Housing Communities , Taylor Brickley

Neighborhood Disorganization and Police Decision-Making in the New York City Police Department , Allison Carter

The Impact of Race on Strickland Claims in Federal Courts in the South , Wyatt Gibson

Lead Exposure and Crime , Tara Elaine Martin

GETTING AWAY WITH MURDER: HAZING, HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY, AND VICTIMIZATION , Toniqua Charee Mikell

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Policing Alcohol and Related Crimes On Campus , Andrea Nicole Allen

Gender and Programming: A Comparison of Program Availability and Participation in U.S. Prisons for Men and Women , Courtney A. Crittenden

Assessing the Impact of the Court Response to Domestic Violence in Two Neighboring Counties , Gillian Mira Pinchevsky

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Criminal Sentencing In the Court Communities of South Carolina: An Examination of offender, Judge, and County Characteristics , Rhys Hester

Examining the Effects of Religiosity and Religious Environments On Inmate Misconduct , Benjamin Dane Meade

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Criminologists' Opinions On Correctional Rehabilitation , Heather M. Ouellette

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

A Qualitative Analysis of the Etiology, Manifestation, and Institutional Responses to Self-Injurious Behaviors in Prison , Steven Doty

Theses/Dissertations from 2002 2002

The Effects of Administrative Factors on Police Officer Job Performance , Irick Anthony Geary Jr.

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Home > School, College, or Department > CUPA > Criminology and Criminal Justice > Theses

Criminology and Criminal Justice Masters Theses

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Cleaning the Dirty Pool: Testing Interaction Effects Using Different Panel Model Specifications , Rhiannon Berry

Exploring Evidentiary Approaches and Reform Potential in the Allies in Change Program for Abusive Intimate Partners , Julie Melissa Conner

An Examination of the Impact of Court-Appointed Fines and Fees: How Governmental Reliance on These Expenses is Harming Vulnerable Communities , Rachel Elizabeth Couche

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Do Frameworks Matter? Testing the Framing Effect on Public Support for Prison Pell Grants , Natalie Miles Burke

Community Supervision: Perspectives of Probation and Parole Officers and Supervisors on Key Supervision Approaches and Policy Changes , Asianna Nelson

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Examining Probation Lengths in Philadelphia, PA , Madeline Grace Davis

A Walk in the Park: A Spatial Analysis of Crime and Portland Parks , Cheyenne Pamela Hodgen

Testing the LS/CMI for Predictive Accuracy: Does Age Matter? , Sandra Stephanie Lawlor

A Day Late and a Dollar Short: Examining Perceptions of Which Exonerees Deserve Compensation , Alexandra Pauline Olson

The Effect of Peer Relationships and Cyberbullying Victimization on Young Adults' Propensity to Cyberbully , Taaj Weraphorn Orr

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Identifying the Cost of Preventable Chronic Disease in Prison: Can Illness Prevention of Adults in Custody Save Money? , Molly Bineham

Is More Always Better? A Look at Visitation and Recidivism , Teriin Lee

Open Crime Maps: How Are Police Departments Doing So Far? , Khaing Sandee Lynn

Incarceration and Suicide: Do the Risk Factors Differ for Civilians and Veterans? , Rheannon Gail Ramsey

Marijuana-related Crime in Oregon Following Legalization of Recreational Use , Ana Alicia Soto

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

A Systematic Content Analysis of the Justice Reinvestment Programs Across Oregon Counties , Lorena Ambriz

Juveniles in the Interrogation Room: Defense Attorneys as a Protective Factor , Caitlin Noelle August

Time Series Analysis Evaluating Mortality Rates and the Differences of How States Investigate Deaths , Jordan M. Bruhn

Intimate Partner Violence Risk Assessment: the Additive Value of Victim Reported Risk , Jennifer Joanne Johnson

Correctional Quackery: a Study of Program Availability and Inmate Assaults in Adult Correctional Facilities , Casey Jay Legere

Identifying Typologies of Failure to Appear , Ciara McGlynn

Understanding Fare Evasion Defendant Compliance: an Assessment of Criminal Records , Nataly Nunez Vasquez

Crime Risk near Reported Homeless Encampments: a Spatial Analysis , Kortney Lynn Russell

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Spatial Analysis of Burglary and Robbery Crime Concentration Near Mass-Transit in Portland , Bryce Edward Barthuly

An Evaluation of Clackamas County's Transition Center Using Propensity Score Modeling , Alicia de Jong McKay

Situational Context of Police Use of Deadly Force: a Comparison of Black and White Subjects of Fatal Police Shootings , Shana Lynn Meaney Ruess

Effects of Regulation Intensity on Marijuana Black Market After Legalization , Sikang Song

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

An Assessment of Sentencing Disparities among American Indians within the Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Federal Circuit Courts , Makenzie Laron Aaby

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Justice Reinvestment Legislation in Oregon: Analyses of State and County Implementation , Christopher Wade Dollar

The Influence of Information on Public Support for Solitary Confinement: a Test of Belief Updating and Confirmation Bias , Kayla J. LaBranche

An Experimental Study on the Impact of Informal Rape Myth Education to Alter Rape Myth Acceptance Scores in a Non-Student Sample , Leah Noelle Reddy

Anti-LGB Hate Crimes: Political Threat or Political Legitimization? , Johanna R. Shreve

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Policing in an Era of Sousveillance: the Influence of Video Footage on Perceptions of Legitimacy , Megan Elizabeth Mohler

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Beyond Black and White: An Examination of Afrocentric Facial Features and Sex in Criminal Sentencing , Amanda Mae Petersen

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Bringing Functional Family Probation Services to the Community: A Qualitative Case Study , Denise Lynmarie Austin

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Drowning In It: State Crime and Refugee Deaths in the Borderlands , Brandy Marie Cochrane

The Influence of Parental Gender on the Type of Communication between Incarcerated Parents and Their Children , Sarah Renee Lazzari

Child Welfare and Delinquency: Examining Differences in First-Time Referrals of Crossover Youth within the Juvenile Justice System , Courtney Nicole Shrifter

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Identifying Victims of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking in a Juvenile Custody Setting , Jonathan Dickinson Dabney

Campus Sexual Assault: How Oregon University System Schools Respond , Michael William Murphy

The Prevalence and Predictive Nature of Victimization, Substance Abuse & Mental Health on Recidivism: A Comparative Longitudinal Examination of Male and Female Oregon Department of Corrections Inmates , Anastacia Konstantinos Papadopulos

Social and Human Capital: Contributing Effects of Incarceration on Neighborhoods , Jacqueline Victoria Swofford

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

An Empirical Assessment of the CAN SPAM Act , Alex Conrad Kigerl

Theses/Dissertations from 2002 2002

Discrimination and Nepotism within Police Specialty Units , Robert Norvell Hollins III

Theses/Dissertations from 2000 2000

An Evaluation of Recidivism Rates for Resolutions Northwest's Victim-Offender Mediation Program , Karin Jewel Stone

Theses/Dissertations from 1997 1997

An Historical Perspective of Oregon's and Portland's Political and Social Atmosphere in Relation to the Legal Justice System as it Pertained to Minorities: With Specific Reference to State Laws, City Ordinances, and Arrest and Court Records During the Period -- 1840-1895 , Clarinèr Freeman Boston

Law Enforcement Attitudes toward the 1989 Oregon Firearms Law and Gun Control , Andrew Schneiderman

Theses/Dissertations from 1996 1996

An Exploratory Inquiry into Community Policing Using Focus Groups: Perspectives from Social Service Providers , Tanya Leigh Ostrogorsky

Theses/Dissertations from 1995 1995

An Assessment of the Impact of Intimate Victim-Offender Relationship on Sentencing in Serious Assault Cases , Laura J. Hickman

Indigent v. Non-Indigent Sex Offenders: An Analysis of Sentencing in Clackamas, Multnomah and Washington Counties, Oregon , Dorelei Victoria Linder

The Portland Public School Police: Formative Years - 1937 to 1953 , Natalie Anne Woods

Theses/Dissertations from 1993 1993

Police Stress: A Literature Study on Police Occupational Stressors and the Responses in Police Officers to Stressful Job Events , Katarina Ahlstrom Mannheimer

Theses/Dissertations from 1992 1992

Race, aggravated murder, and the death sentence in Multnomah County, Oregon, 1984-1990 : a descriptive analysis and review , Patrick Arthur Jolley

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MA in Criminology

GW’s Master of Arts in Criminology program has a strong emphasis on research methods, incorporates required and elective courses from the GW Department of Forensic Sciences and underscores the way crime and criminal justice need to be understood in social context. The program is housed in the Sociology Department and therefore draws on criminology’s roots in sociology. Racism and police abuse of force are as much the subject matter of our program as are classes in punishment, criminal law and traditional criminological theories of crime.

Through research and coursework, students develop an understanding of how societies define, facilitate or reduce crime and the social conditions that contribute to crime and its control.

We offer financial aid to select academically competitive students and/or salary-only graduate teaching assistantships to many of our students.

Apply to GW

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Graduate Student Resources

Master's Student Handbook (PDF)

Sociology and Criminology Info Session: October 8

Join us for an online info session discussing the field of sociology and the GW Master of Arts in Sociology and Master of Arts in Criminology programs.

Register to Attend

Program Highlights

Flexible curriculum.

The foundation of the degree lies in three research methods classes, two criminological theory and policy classes and one sociology theory class. Students can specialize in particular areas within criminology, criminal justice or forensics by taking classes and conducting research in areas including policing, criminal law, punishment, victimology, race, gender and crime scene investigation, among other subjects. Students may take up to four elective courses in the Forensic Sciences Department, four in Sociology/Criminology and, with permission, pertinent classes throughout the university or  Consortium .

Diverse Student Body

The faculty and their research areas are decidedly international in origin and study although, like most U.S. universities, most of the substantive materials in our classes focus on the United States. Likewise, our master’s students are diverse in their national origins, racial and sexual identities and academic and socioeconomic backgrounds. Most of our students are full time, but some complete their degree on a part-time basis. We are a proudly small program that gives our graduate cohorts strong support and a sense of community.

Thesis Option

Criminology MA students have the option of writing a thesis or taking a comprehensive examination (and enrolling in two additional courses). Most criminology students select the thesis option, consistent with our emphasis on students’ research skills.

Prestigious Career Paths

The MA in Criminology prepares students for policy, advocacy, academic and professional careers in and beyond criminology and criminal justice. Some of our  alumni  subsequently work in law enforcement, while others are engaged in criminal justice reform, policy research and other fields. For some students, the MA is a prelude to a Ph.D. or J.D., but most continue to full-time work.

Sample Schedules

First Year Fall

• SOC 6230: Sociological Research Methods
• SOC 6258: Deviance and Control
• SOC 6238: Sociological Theory OR Elective

First Year Spring

• SOC 6231: Data Analysis
• SOC 6259: Criminology

Second Year Fall

• SOC 6998: Thesis Research
• SOC 6232: Qualitative Methodology: Doing Field Research
• FORS 6224: Criminal Law for Forensic Scientists OR SOC 6257: Criminal Law

Second Year Spring

• SOC 6999: Thesis Research
• SOC 6239: Sociological Theory OR Elective

Comprehensive Exam Option

• FORS 6224: Criminal Law for Forensic Scientists OR SOC 6257: Criminal Law

Course Requirements

The following requirements must be fulfilled:

The general requirements stated under  Columbian College of Arts and Sciences, Graduate Programs .

Thesis option—36 credits, including 21 credits in required courses, 9 credits in elective courses, and 6 credits in thesis. Non-thesis option—36 credits, including 21 credits in required courses, 15 credits in elective courses, and successful completion of a master’s comprehensive examination.

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• Criminology and Criminal Justice Dissertations

Criminology and Criminal Justice Dissertations Collection

http://hdl.handle.net/2047/D20233343

Affording a meaningful opportunity of release: legal representation of juvenile lifers.

Assessing deterrence in the FBI's Safe Streets gang initiative: a social network approach.

Autistic and at-risk: the public and personal safety of children with autism spectrum disorders.

Background justice: the political context of adolescent legal socialization.

Bureaucracy and law: a study of Chinese criminal courts and social media.

Clearances, cameras, and community violence: police outcomes in an organizational and community context.

College students and the illicit use of prescription drugs: a test of general strain theory.

A comparison of the individual-, county-, and state-level correlates of homicide and mass murder

Contextualizing the political economy of juvenile court decision-making

Crime, place, and networks in the age of the internet: the case of online-promoted illicit massage businesses.

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Criminology and Criminal Justice Theses

Theses from 2023 2023.

Evaluating the Impact of Registry Status on Employment and Housing Outcomes , Lauryn T. Lockett

EXPLAINING YOUTH GUN VIOLENCE WITH THEORY INTERGRATION , Kamryn Kamryn Wade

Theses from 2022 2022

The Police and Residents at Hot Spots: Implications of Hot Spots Policing and Police-Resident Familiarity for Residents' Trust in, and Fear of, the Police , Rasheed Babatunde Ibrahim

MEDIA PORTRAYAL OF FILICIDE OFFENDERS , Rachel Rearden

Theses from 2021 2021

Exploring Factors Affecting Prison Misconduct in Japan , Hiroyuki Okado

OFFICER’S AWARENESS OF CAMERA DURING ENCOUNTERS WITH CITIZENS , OLOLADE OKANLAWON

TREATMENT GAINS IN ANTISOCIAL ATTITUDES AND MENTAL HEALTH IN RELATION TO CLIENT SATISFACTION , Syazana Binti Tajudeen

Theses from 2020 2020

THE GENDER TRENDS OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY DROP IN JAPAN , Mayumi Hando

Police Officer Coping: The Effect of Police Culture, Management, and Family , Megan Heflin-Brand

SUPPORT SERVICES WITH COMMUNITY MEMBER FOR CRIME REHABILITATION AND PREVENTION BY JAPANESE CLASSIFIATION HOMES , Ayuchi Yamaoka

Theses from 2019 2019

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL PREPAREDNESS IN POLICING , Olasubomi David Ayeni

CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT: GENERAL STRAIN AND PROSOCIAL COPING THROUGH EMPLOYMENT , Rachel S. Berner

USING ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS TO PREDICT RECIDIVISM FOLLOWING A LIFESTYLE CHANGE PROGRAM , Emily Jane Cripps

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design and Burglary Prevention: A Systematic Social Observation Approach , Kevin James Dobbins

OFFICER DE-ESCALATION AND USE OF FORCE: HOW POLICE DE-ESCALATE AN OFFICER-CITZEN INTERACTION , Conrad McLaughlin

Examining Factors of Prolonged Pretrial Detention in a Philippine Jail , Nicholas R. Murphy

INCREASED TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT: A PLACE-BASED PREVENTIVE APPROACH TO MOTOR VEHICLE RELATED HARMS , Bradley Joseph O'Guinn

Desistance Typologies: An Examination of Desistance Strategies Used Between Offender Groups , Matthew J. Riordan

Theses from 2018 2018

Examination of the Relationship Between Transformational Leadership and Organizational Justice Among Police Officers , Allison Osborn

IS A POLICE OFFICER’S SENSE OF SELF-LEGITIMACY PREDICTIVE OF JOB SATISFACTION? , Molly Elizabeth Pyatt

CHANGES IN ANTISOCIAL ATTITUDES AND RECIDIVIST OUTCOMES , Maranda Rose Quillen

Police Legitimacy Across High-Crime Contexts: An Examination of Neighborhood-Level Expressive Concerns and Accumulated Experiences , Tyrell Spencer

Theses from 2017 2017

Using Expectancy Theory to Examine Barriers to Correctional Mental Health Treatment , Miranda Danielle Gibson

Theses from 2016 2016

AVERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE AND SIMPLE AND AGGRAVATED ASSAULTS IN CHARLOTTE-MECKLENBERG COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA , Stephanie Dawn Box

Afraid to lose: The fear of falling's effect on white-collar crime , Zachary Hayes Kodatt

Asian Gangs in the United States: A Meta-Synthesis , Sou Lee

THE DETERRENT EFFECTS OF THE REVISED JUVENILE OFFENDER LAWS IN JAPAN , Kanu Maeda

The Relationship between Suicidal Ideation and Psychache among Incarcerated Female Offenders , Minori Maeda

The Inter-rater Reliability of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised in Practical Field Settings , Yuko Matsushima

Does Social Learning Theory Predict Delinquency Differently Across Urban, Rural, and Suburban Areas? , Charles A. Payne

Theses from 2015 2015

Concealed Carry on a Midwestern College Campus , Joshua Aaron Abrams

A Qualitative Analysis of Substance Use and the Commission of Burglary , Geoffrey Loren Boise

Exploring Factors Affecting Crime Rates in Japan (1955-2012) , Dai Tanaka

Theses from 2014 2014

Procedural Justice and Domestic Violence: Victims' Satisfaction With Police and Willingness to Seek Help , Karla Keller Avelar

JUDAS KISS: HOW NEVER RATTING ON YOUR FRIENDS & ALWAYS KEEPING YOUR MOUTH SHUT DOES NOT APPLY TO STREET SNITCHES , Joseph John Pashea, Jr.

Theses from 2013 2013

Assessing Foreclosure and Crime at Street Segments in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina , Blake Richard Christenson

"Because I Like It? No, They Made Me Do It!!" Why Juveniles Engage In Sexting , Jennifer Ann Haegele

Deviant Peers, Opportunity, and Cyberbullying: A Theoretical Examination of a New Deviance , Charern Lee

An assessment of officer safety: Does departmental authorization of tasers reduce officer assault rates? , Daniel Carson Presley

Explaining the rising female incarceration trends in Japan (1970-2011) , Ayako Sasaki

Theses from 2012 2012

Perceived risk of homeland security incidents: The insignificance of actual risk factors , Melissa R. Haynes

Interactionist Labeling: Formal and Informal Labeling's Effects on Juvenile Delinquency , Daniel Ryan Kavish

Theses from 2011 2011

GEOSPATIAL ANALYSIS OF REPEAT & NEAR REPEAT RESIDENTIAL BURGLARIES , Grant Drawve

The Origins of Parochial Informal Social Control: Examining the Different Effects Among Individual and Neighborhood Influences of Crime Control , Christina Marie Oldham

POLICE PROGRAMS, CANINES, AND CONTINGENCY THEORY: AN EXPLANATION OF CANINE NUMBERS AMONG LARGE POLICE DEPARTMENTS , David Wayne Welker

Theses from 2010 2010

The Declining Health of Prisoners: Pains of Long-Term Incarceration vs. The Natural Aging Process , Brieanne F. Lonergan

PREDICTIVE VALIDITY OF THE YOUTH LEVEL OF SERVICE/CASE MANAGEMENT INVENTORY AMONG JAPANESE JUVENILE OFFENDERS , Masaru Takahashi

Theses from 2009 2009

Evaluating Residential Burglaries in a Small Midwestern City using Social Disorganization and Routine Activity Frameworks , Stanley James Howard

Theses from 2008 2008

The efficacy of community supervision , Takashi Seimiya

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Home / Online Bachelor’s Degree Programs / Accredited Online Criminal Justice & Criminology Degree / Bachelor of Arts in Criminal Justice Resources / What Is Criminology? The Study of Crime and Criminal Minds

What is criminology? The study of crime and the criminal mind What is criminology? The study of crime and the criminal mind What is criminology? The study of crime and the criminal mind

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Tables of Contents

• Criminology Definition and History
• Criminology Theories
• Criminology vs. Criminal Justice

Careers in Criminology: Salary and Job Outlook

• Crime Statistics and Key Insights

In a time when the U.S. criminal justice system is under a microscope, criminologists are playing a key role in establishing a more equitable, science-based understanding of crime, policy, and social justice. Applying their theoretical knowledge and practical experience, professionals in this field support and strengthen the work of law enforcement agencies and legal professionals.

But what is criminology, really? This article will explore the many components of this rapidly evolving discipline and offer insights on how to pursue a variety of criminology careers.

Criminology definition and history

Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, informed by principles of sociology and other non-legal fields, including psychology, economics, statistics, and anthropology.

Criminologists examine a variety of related areas , including:

• Characteristics of people who commit crimes
• Reasons why people commit crimes
• Effects of crime on individuals and communities
• Methods for preventing crime

Origins of criminology

The  roots of criminology  trace back to a movement to reform criminal justice and penal systems more than 200 years ago. The first collection and use of crime statistics in the 19th century then laid the groundwork for generations of increasingly sophisticated tools and methods, leading to our modern use of descriptive statistics, case studies, typologies, and predictive analytics.

18th-century origins of criminal theory

Cesare Beccaria’s “On Crime and Punishments,” published in 1764, called for  fitting the punishment to the severity of the crimes , as explained by the National Criminal Justice Reference Service.

• Punishments for crimes should be “public, prompt, necessary, the minimum possible under the given circumstances, and established by law.”
• Punishments are intended to deter the offender from further criminal activity.
• Severity is based on the level of harm caused by the offense rather than the intent of the offender.

The legal reference website JRank highlights the work of Beccaria and Jeremy Benthem: The motivation for people’s choices is to seek pleasure or avoid pain.  Punishment for a crime  should deter potential choices to break the law by ensuring that the pain of potential punishment is greater than the pleasure derived from committing the crime. This idea spurred the first efforts in the U.S. and Europe to codify and standardize the law.

Mid-20th century development of modern criminology

The mid-20th century development of  “modern” criminology  involved seeking to understand crime’s causes by studying sociological, psychological, and economic conditions. The American Law Institute’s work on the  Model Penal Code  was a 10-year effort completed in 1962. The code established new standards of criminal liability that considered the mental elements of crime.

The code served as a model for penal code revisions in several states. It was also instrumental in charting the federal penal code for the first time. The code inspired other efforts to reform criminal law through criminology research application.

“New Criminology” and the impact of social upheaval on crime

In the 20th century, new approaches to criminology focused on the causes of crime, such as  conflicts between social and economic classes leading to social upheaval , as JRank explains. Social-process criminology emphasizes criminal behavior as something people learn through interaction with others, usually in small groups.

In contrast, control theory focuses on training people to behave appropriately by encouraging law-abiding behavior. Control theory’s basis is the belief that personal bonds give rise to our internal controls, such as conscience and guilt, and our external controls, such as shame, that deter us from breaking the law.

A multidisciplinary approach to criminology

In their research, criminologists consider many perspectives on crime’s causes and effects. This  multidisciplinary approach of criminologists  accepts there is no single answer to why people commit crimes. JRank notes attempts to control bad behavior date back to the earliest civilizations. Today, factors may be biological, psychological, economic, or social. Criminals are motivated by greed, anger, jealousy, pride, and other emotions. They seek material gain; they want control, revenge, or power.

Potential causes of or motivations for criminal activity include:

• Parental relations
• Hereditary and brain activity
• Peer influence
• Drugs and alcohol
• Easy opportunity

Criminology and the legal perspective

Criminologists study crime as an illegal action society punishes through the government’s legal system. Researchers focus on the causes, prevention, and correction of crime generally. By contrast, the legal industry’s perspective of crime emphasizes specific crimes and punishments governed by statutes and regulations, as well as established legal processes.

The legal definition of a crime is  an offense against public law , as UpCounsel explains. To qualify as a crime, the offense must be punishable, whether by fine, loss of freedom, or other method.  Criminologists have broadened the definition of crime  to include conduct that doesn’t violate existing law, as JRank reports. This includes economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and unsafe or unhealthy work environments.

Criminology resources

• The Internet Journal of Criminology  — Links to government organizations, national and international organizations, academic institutions, and other criminology resources
• Critical Criminology  — A compilation of resources that examine law, crime, and justice from the perspective of people of color, women, restorative efforts, and community justice
• S. Department of Justice, National Criminal Intelligence Resource Center  — Links to criminal justice professional associations and groups that assist law enforcement in establishing policies, standards, training, and education

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Criminology Theories: Classical, Positivist, and Chicago School

Research into criminology theories is primarily sociological or psychological.  Sociological theories of criminology  perceive crime as a normal human response to social conditions that are “abnormal and criminogenic,” according to JRank.

Psychological theories of criminology  date back to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Crime results from a failure to form healthy and loving attachments to parents. Behavioral psychology introduced the concept of rewards and punishments: A rewarded crime is repeated; a punished crime is not.

Three principal approaches to criminology

Today, three criminology theories predominate: the Classical, Positivist, and Chicago schools.

• The Classical School argues that people freely choose to engage in crime.  Bentham’s utilitarianism theory  states they are driven either by a desire for pleasure or by aversion to pain, as the Oxford University Press states.
• The Positivist School applies scientific theory to criminology. It focuses on factors that compel people to commit crimes.
• The Chicago School states that crime results from “ social disorganization ,” which is defined in the Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice as “the inability of a community to realize common values and maintain effective social controls.”

Criminology’s impact on reducing and preventing crimes

Two statistical programs run by the DOJ demonstrate the  impact that criminological studies have had on responding to, reducing, and preventing crimes .

• The Uniform Crime Reporting program (UCR) collects information from law enforcement agencies across the country on dozens of crimes. It is intended to assist researchers in studying crime among neighboring jurisdictions and those with similar populations or other characteristics.
• The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) analyzes crime incidents, victims, and trends. It collects data on reported and unreported crimes and provides researchers with demographic data on perpetrators and victims.

Research conducted by the Minnesota House Research Department  studied the effectiveness of the theory of criminal deterrence , which dates back to the 18th century. It reached three conclusions:

• Deterrence is most effective for preplanned crimes.
• Making already-long prison sentences even longer does little to deter crime.
• Increasing the likelihood of getting caught is a more effective crime deterrent than increasing punishment.

Criminology and society’s treatment of criminals and victims

Little attention was paid to the needs of crime victims until the 1970s, when the DOJ’s National Institute of Justice (NIJ) determined that a  primary reason for unsuccessful prosecutions  was the poor treatment of witnesses and victims by the criminal justice system. Since that time, legislation and law enforcement programs, including the Violence Against Women Act of 1990, have worked to protect and assist victims and witnesses.

Similarly, criminology research has affected how criminals are treated in custody. The American Bar Association (ABA) has developed  Standards on Treatment of Prisoners  that describe correctional policies and professional standards that comply with constitutional and statutory law.

Criminology has also highlighted the real cost of crimes on individuals, families, and communities. The 2017 report  “Costs of Crime”  from the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that new study methods will improve the accuracy of crime cost estimates, particularly in the area of compensating victims for their pain and suffering.

Criminology theory resources

• “Predicting Pathways into Criminal Behavior: The Intersection of Race, Gender, Poverty, Psychological Factors”  investigates the factors involved in women’s involvement in criminal activity, including economic disadvantage related to education and employment.
• The National Institute of Justice discusses mapping in law enforcement in this paper:  “From Crime Mapping to Crime Forecasting: The Evolution of Place-Based Policing” .

Criminology vs. criminal justice: what’s the difference?

The  primary distinction when it comes to criminology vs criminal justice  is the former’s emphasis on the study of crime and the latter’s focus on society’s response to crime, as the Balance Careers explains. Criminal justice applies principles and concepts developed by criminologists to enforcing laws and investigating crimes, as well as to the trial, punishment, and rehabilitation of criminals.

Criminal justice definition

The Legal Dictionary  defines criminal justice  as a set of procedures:

• Investigating criminal conduct
• Gathering evidence of the crime
• Making arrests
• Bringing charges in court
• Raising defenses
• Conducting trials
• Rendering sentences
• Carrying out punishments

By contrast, its definition of criminology emphasizes the scientific and academic aspects of the field’s study of crime, criminal behavior, and law enforcement. Criminal justice includes the work of:

• Criminal courts
• Prisons and other correctional institutions
• Juvenile justice systems

Criminal justice and effective law enforcement

In the 20th century, the  field of criminal justice arose  as an effort to improve the effectiveness of law enforcement in light of expanding due process and other rights for criminal defendants, as Encyclopedia Britannica explains. The study of criminal justice expanded in the 1980s and 1990s in the form of qualitative descriptive analyses of the operations of specific criminal justice agencies.

More recent research in criminal justice emphasizes quantitative studies about the effectiveness of particular crime-fighting strategies and approaches. Researchers have studied whether an abusive spouse’s arrest prevents future incidents of abuse, and whether prison rehabilitation programs are effective in reducing recidivism.

One area of criminal justice research proven to be ineffective is the effort to predict which offenders are most likely to commit other crimes. Not only were models unable to identify habitual offenders, but researchers were questioned about whether such efforts violated people’s constitutional rights. The fear is that offenders may be punished not for what they had done but for what they might do in the future.

Such issues are at the forefront of modern discussions about the relationships between civil rights and law enforcement. With numerous  studies indicating a need to address systemic racism  in many corners of the justice system, future criminologists will play an important part in creating a more equitable framework for crime prevention.

Criminology and criminal justice work together to fight crime

Criminal justice and criminology are distinct fields, but they’re closely linked, theoretically and practically. From the viewpoint of potential criminologists and law enforcement professionals, the big difference is criminology’s focus on science and research, and criminal justice’s emphasis on application and administration.

For example, criminologists respond to a rise in homicides by studying underlying economic, sociological, and psychological conditions. By contrast, criminal justice officials respond by working to prevent future homicides and capture the perpetrators.

The two fields merge in  applied criminology , which studies “real-world” problems relating to crime and criminal justice. It applies criminology concepts to actual criminal justice policy and practice. The goal is to make criminology relevant in addressing crime, victimization, and the relationship between “governmental agendas and knowledge production.”

Criminologists promote crime-fighting efforts via tools such as the  New York Police Department’s CompStat system , which is now used by police departments across the country to  combine crime analysis and geographic information system technologies . Their work suggests innovative ways to improve law enforcement and instill trust in the criminal justice system.

Criminology vs. Criminal Justice: Additional Resources

• Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics
• International Journal Of Criminal Justice Sciences, List of World Agencies/Organizations in Criminal Justice/Criminology
• The Balance Careers, “The Difference Between Careers in Criminology and Criminal Justice”

Typical  employers of criminologists  include law enforcement and other government agencies, university research labs, and other research institutions, as PayScale.com explains. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)  defines criminologists  or penologists as sociologists who specialize in the study of crime. They investigate the social influences of crime on individuals, groups, and organizations.

Career options for criminologists

The Balance Careers  distinguishes criminology positions  as being more academic than those in criminal justice, although there is a great degree of overlap between the two fields. For example, people typically earn a bachelor’s degree in criminology followed by a master’s degree in criminal justice, or vice versa.

Among the daily tasks of criminologists are collecting and examining evidence, visiting crime scenes, attending autopsies, and exploring the psychological aspects of a crime from investigation through conviction and rehabilitation. These tasks require the ability to organize data and evidence, conduct statistical analysis, and write reports.

The range of  positions available to criminologists  include jobs with federal, state, and local law enforcement, as well as public and private research organizations, think tanks, legislative bodies, and public policy bodies, as the Balance Careers reports. Criminologists strive to improve police operations via innovative programs, such as community-oriented policing and predictive policing.

Criminology Positions: Salaries and Employment Outlook

The BLS forecasts that the number of jobs for all sociologists, the category that includes criminologists, will increase by 9% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations. PayScale.com reports that the median annual criminology salary is around $44,000.

These are among the career options available to criminologists.

Forensic Science Technician

Forensic science technicians  assist in criminal investigations . They collect and analyze evidence, including fingerprints, weapons, and body fluids. They photograph and sketch crime scenes, and they catalog and preserve evidence before it is transferred to crime labs. They also work in labs, investigate possible suspects, and consult with experts in forensic medicine.

The BLS reports that the median annual salary of forensic science technicians as of May 2019 was $59,150. The number of jobs is forecast to increase by 14% between 2018 and 2028, which is much faster than the average projected for all occupations.

Probation and Community Control Officer

According to BLS figures, the  median annual salary for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists  was $54,290 as of May 2019. The number of jobs for the position is forecast to increase by 3% between 2018 and 2028, which is lower than the average projected for all occupations.

Probation and community control officers help former offenders transition to productive lives after incarceration. The Balance Careers lists the  duties of probation and community control officers .

• Supervise probationers and parolees, including visiting their homes and meeting with their families
• Collaborate with church groups and community organizations
• Monitor probationers and parolees electronically
• Perform pretrial investigations, submit sentencing recommendations, and testify in court
• Prepare status reports on probationers and parolees, and assist them in job training and job searches

Police Officer

The median annual salary for police officers and detectives as of May 2019 was $65,170, according to the BLS. Jobs for police officers and detectives are expected to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average projected for all occupations.

Police officers are tasked with protecting the lives and property of community residents. The BLS explains the  duties of police officers :

• Respond to emergency and nonemergency situations
• Patrol specific areas
• Issue citations and conduct traffic stops
• Use computers in the field to search for warrants and vehicle registrations
• Conduct investigations at crime scenes
• Collect and secure evidence
• Prepare cases and testify in court

Corrections Officer

The median annual salary of corrections officers as of May 2019 was $47,830, according to BLS figures. The number of positions for corrections officers is forecast to decline by 7% between 2018 and 2028 as a result of expected reductions in prison populations.

Corrections officers oversee people who have been arrested and are awaiting a hearing or trial, as well as people who have been convicted and sentenced to serve time in jail or prison. The BLS notes the  duties of corrections officers :

• Maintain order in jails and prisons by enforcing rules
• Inspect facilities to ensure they meet safety and security standards
• Supervise inmate activities and search them for contraband
• Escort and transport inmates, and report on inmate conduct

Loss Prevention Manager

PayScale.com reports the median annual salary for loss prevention managers is around $52,000. The most common tasks of loss prevention managers are security risk management, safety compliance, inventory control, theft prevention, and security policies and procedures.

A loss prevention manager’s primary responsibility is to  prevent business losses due to internal or external theft, fraud, accidents, mishandling, or other causes , as PayScale.com explains. Other  duties of loss prevention managers  appear on O*Net Online:

• Investigate employee theft and other violations of the company’s loss-prevention policies
• Develop and implement programs to manage inventory, promote safety, and minimize losses
• Ensure that prevention exception reports and cash discrepancies follow corporate guidelines
• Train staff and managers on loss prevention strategies and techniques
• Interview people suspected of shoplifting and other forms of theft

Detective/Criminal Investigator

Also referred to as detectives, criminal investigators are  police officers who gather facts and collect evidence in criminal cases . The BLS notes that criminal investigators often specialize in a single category of crime, such as fraud or homicide. These are the primary duties of criminal investigators:

• Conduct interviews with crime victims, witnesses, suspects, and relevant experts
• Examine police and other records
• Monitor the activities of suspects and participate in raids and arrests
• Write reports, prepare cases for trial, and testify during court proceedings

The median annual salary for detectives and criminal investigators as of May 2019 was $83,170, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for police officers and detectives is forecast to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average for all occupations.

Fish and Game Warden

The BLS reports that the median annual salary for fish and game wardens as of May 2019 was $57,500. The number of jobs for fish and game wardens is expected to increase by 2% between 2018 and 2028, which is below the average projected for all occupations.

Fish and game wardens are  responsible for enforcing laws related to hunting, fishing, and boating , as the BLS describes. These are among their primary duties:

• Conduct interviews with complainants, witnesses, and suspects
• Patrol fishing and hunting areas
• Participate in search and rescue efforts
• Monitor people suspected of violating regulations relating to fishing and hunting
• Educate the public about laws governing outdoor activities

Private Investigator

The median annual salary for private detectives and investigators as of May 2019 was $50,510, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for private investigators is forecast to grow by 8% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations.

The work done by private investigators for businesses and individuals mirrors that done by criminal investigators for public law enforcement agencies. These professionals examine records and conduct other research relating to legal, financial, and personal matters. The BLS lists the  duties of private detectives and investigators :

• Conduct criminal and other background checks and verify statements made by individuals
• Interview suspects, witnesses, and experts and perform other research into missing persons
• Search for evidence in online, public, and court records
• Perform surveillance and collect other evidence for clients

Insurance Fraud Investigator

The BLS reports that the median annual salary for claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators was $66,790 as of May 2019. The agency expects the number of jobs for the category to decline by 4% between 2018 and 2028 due to automation of claims processing.

The position of insurance fraud investigator is included in the broad category of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators who evaluate insurance claims. These are among the  principle duties of insurance fraud investigators , as listed by the BLS:

• Examine and research insurance claims to confirm that they are legitimate
• Conduct interviews with claimants’ doctors, employers, and others to review suspicious claims
• Work with attorneys and other legal professionals to verify information related to claims
• Perform surveillance to identify fraudulent claims resulting from staged accidents, arson, unnecessary medical treatments, and other criminal activity

Crime statistics and key insights

An important role played by criminologists is compiling and reporting on crime statistics.  The New Yorker  highlights both the importance of crime statistics in formulating crime-prevention strategies and enforcement policies and the  difficulty criminologists encounter in accurately measuring crime .

The article describes the challenge in determining whether cannabis use increases or reduces crime levels. Various analyses of crime rate trends in states where cannabis has been legalized have come to conflicting conclusions, pointing to the complexity of arriving at a definitive answer about what contributes to criminal activity. Criminologists use a variety of sources and techniques to try to provide statistics that can accurately portray crime trends and inform criminal policies.

How criminologists support law enforcement

Two of the DOJ’s most effective statistical analysis tools for assisting local crime-fighting efforts are the FBI’s UCR system and Bureau of Justice Statistics’ NCVS, both of which are described above. The systems share a shortcoming: Local jurisdictions disagree on what constitutes a crime. Some jurisdictions only report offenses that involve incarceration, while others include fined infractions.

Criminologists have developed a range of statistics-based tools that support federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies.

• The City-Level Survey of Crime Victimization and Citizen Attitudes analyzes surveys conducted by the DOJ’s Office of Community Oriented Policing Services to  determine people’s perceptions of community policing and issues in their neighborhoods .
• Emergency Room Statistics on Intentional Violence surveys a sample of hospital emergency rooms throughout the U.S. to  identify instances of domestic violence, rape, child abuse, and other intentional injuries .
• The Police-Public Contact Survey interviews a representative sample of people across the country who either reported a crime or were detained in a traffic stop to  gauge their perceptions of the police’s conduct and response during the encounter .

Other organizations involved in the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information about police activities include the Center for Policing Equity’s  COMSTAT for Justice , which is intended to identify bias in policing, and the  U.S. Commission on Civil Rights , whose 2019 report titled  “Police Use of Force: An Examination of Modern Policing Practices”  recommended that  more data on the use of force by police  be made available to law enforcement agencies, and that police be trained in de-escalation techniques, cultural differences, and anti-bias mechanisms.

Criminology’s impact by the numbers

Many of the statistics used and shared by the DOJ and the U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention are compiled by the  U.S. Census Bureau .

• The Annual Survey of Jails reports on the  number of inmates in regional, county, city, and private jails , as well as demographic and criminal justice statistics of the jail population, among other areas related to incarceration.
• The Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities gathers information on the  operation of the prisons and jails, and the conditions of confinement , such as capacity and crowding, court orders, staff workloads, and safety and security.
• The Survey of Sexual Victimization (formerly the Survey of Sexual Violence) collects data on  sexual assaults in correctional facilities , including state prisons, state juvenile correction facilities, federal prisons, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) detention facilities, and the U.S. military.  

Other sources of information on the impact of criminology research in law enforcement include the  Historical Violence Database  maintained by Ohio State University Criminal Justice Research Center, the University of Michigan’s  National Archive of Criminal Justice Data , the  National Criminal Justice Reference Service , and the University at Albany’s  Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics .

Criminologists: Serving Communities and Society

The work of criminologists touches nearly all aspects of social life. Crime investigation calls for specialized skills and training, sophisticated number-crunching ability, and a great deal of fieldwork interacting with colleagues within and outside criminal justice, and with the public.

Infographic Sources

The Balance Careers, “What Does a Criminologist Do?”

PayScale, “Average Criminologist Salary”

PayScale, “Average FBI Agent Salary”

PayScale, “Average Forensic Scientist Salary”

PayScale, “Average Police Detective Salary”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Employment Statistics, “Detectives and Criminal Investigators”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Forensic Science Technicians”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Police and Detectives”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Sociologists”

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1 What is Criminology?

Nadine M. Connell

Learning Objectives

• To understand and define criminology and the elements of a good criminological theory.
• Identify and begin to critically assess the different ways of knowing and be able to understand that different ways of knowing will be useful for different things.
• Recognise the different ways that theories can be classified and be able to classify them appropriately.

Before You Begin

• When you hear the word criminology, what do you think about? Do you think you could define it for someone?
• How do you know what you know? Are there any things that you know are real but you would have a hard time explaining to somehow  how you know it?
• Have you ever thought about human nature, or why people act the way that they do? Do you think people are born with a certain personality? Why or why not?

INTRODUCTION

What is criminology.

Welcome to the study of criminology and criminal justice. Have you stopped and wondered what actually is criminology? If you’re like most of us in this discipline, someone has already asked you a question about your study or your work and probably made some wild assumptions along the way. For instance, if you tell people that you are studying criminology, do they automatically assume that you must be collecting evidence? Or interviewing individuals who may have committed crimes? And if they have watched too many movies, they may think you are going to be an undercover spy who will lure international criminals to their demise. Overall, a very busy day!

If you are not exactly sure what criminology is, you are not alone. Criminology as we know it today in a university setting is a relatively new discipline compared to many other well-established branches of social sciences, like philosophy or sociology. But the search to understand why individuals commit anti-social and criminal behaviour has been going on for as long as humans have been around. After all, every version of society has had people in it who did not follow the rules. Of course, the reasons why people did not follow the rules were thought to be quite different for most of history and often related to the possibility that someone was possessed by a demon. That thinking has long since changed.

Criminology as we know and study it today can be traced back to the late 18th century (the 1700s) when societies, especially in Europe, slowly began to rethink their beliefs about the nature of humans. In particular, the Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, brought with it new ideas about the nature of humanity. In particular, we see scholars begin to believe that humans make decisions based on rationality and they begin to promote the use of the scientific method to understand the world around us. These advancements were happening in many different scholarly fields and the study of human behaviour was only one discipline to benefit. Taken together, this was the catalyst to the world of criminology we know today.

The most enduring definition of criminology is one that was first described by the sociologist Professor Edwin Sutherland. Professor Sutherland defined criminology as the comprehensive study of law-making, law-breaking and law-enforcing mechanisms (Sutherland et al., 1992). This definition is an incredibly useful one as we look to explain not only individual behaviour but also how the criminal justice system (e.g., laws, policies, and government) controls individual behaviour. After all, as we will discuss throughout this book, whether or not something is a crime is related to whether or not the people in charge think it is a crime. It also recognises the inherent interdisciplinarity in criminology. Much of what we know is also connected to philosophy, law, sociology, psychology and political science, just to name a few disciplines! In fact, many of the professors who teach you may have degrees in related fields because they studied crime from a sociological or a psychological context. That is one of the reasons that criminology studies so many different aspects of behaviour.

Can you think of behaviours that are dangerous or perhaps immoral, but not criminal? What about behaviours that are criminal but do not create harm for others? Many things that used to be illegal in our lifetime are now legal and celebrated. A very good example of this is same-sex marriage. Australia did not legalise same sex marriage until December 2017! Another good example is the way that our society has changed our understanding about the dangers of family violence. Traditionally, violence in the home was not considered anyone’s business and was not always illegal in all places (Please note that family violence is still legal in some countries but thankfully Australia is not one. That doesn’t mean that we don’t have more work to do though!). Now, we understand the damage that domestic and family violence does to families, children, and society. The decision to criminalise certain acts, therefore, is always a political one.

Because of that, criminologists will often refer to anti-social or deviant behaviour when talking about crime. Crime is codified by law but anti-social behaviour and deviance encompass a wide range of behaviours that are still of interest to the study of crime. Many of these other behaviours are also committed by people who break the law. A good example of this is childhood bullying. Bullying in school is not against the law. But we do know that young people who bully their classmates are more likely to grow up to commit crimes, so it is an important early behaviour to pay attention to (Piquero et al., 2013).

What does the study of law-making, law-breaking and law enforcement look like? Our goal as criminologists is to objectively study the nature, extent, causes and control of anti-social and deviant behaviours (Snipes et al., 2019). We investigate both the behaviours themselves and the societal responses to them, at both the individual and the institutional levels. Central to that is our definition of crime, which influences the way that we attempt to explain criminal behaviour. In Chapter 2, you will have the opportunity to think more critical about crime and how it is defined, but for now, we will use a very basic dictionary definition. Crime is an act deemed socially harmful or dangerous, that is specifically defined, prohibited and punished under criminal law.

The definition of crime is important because different criminological theories will attempt to explain different kinds of criminal behaviour, although we will soon learn that the more types of behaviour a theory can explain, the better.

Criminology and Science

What does it mean to be objective? Traditionally, this has meant the application of the scientific method in order to observe the world and make sense of our observations. You may remember talking about the scientific method in some of your classes in primary and high school. Figure 1.1 shows a simplified example. Our goal, by using the scientific method, is to make statements about the relationships between observable phenomena. Our statements should be as free from bias as possible, although it is very important to remember that all of us have some inherent bias that will affect our interpretations of our observations. These statements become theories (Babbie, 1989). That is why it is very important to be willing to reflect on our work, be critical of our ideas and welcome other people to offer a fresh perspective.

We use the scientific method to collect observations called data (Hartley, 2011). We then try to come up with explanations for why we see the things that we see. After we develop these theories, we test them using empirical) method. By constantly repeating this process, we can begin to identify patterns in behaviour. From these observations we can begin to ask questions about why things happen. Theories are statements about the relationships between these observations (Babbie, 1989; Stinchcombe, 1968). These questions become hypotheses, which are testable. We collect more data to test these hypotheses, generally in a very organised and systematic process, and sometimes we will have to refine or reject our hypotheses. We use these outcomes to develop our general theories of behaviour. And then we start all over again.

We can technically start this process at either the top or the bottom of the cycle. When we start with our observations and use them to create a theory about the world, we are undergoing an inductive process. When we start with a theory and collect observations to test our theory, we are undergoing a deductive process. You will learn more about this in your research methods classes but what is important to know is that both ways are legitimate ways to create theories of human behaviour.

One important question that comes up a lot is how a theory is different than common sense. This is a very reasonable question. After all, common sense comes from observing the world around us. But one limitation of common sense is that it is limited by our own experiences, including where – and when – we live. One famous example is that of the black swan . In Europe, swans are white. But when Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh arrived in Australia in 1697, he encountered a black swan. Of course, to Australian First Nations’ peoples, it was common sense that a swan would be black! This is a silly example of how we only know what we know, so processes like empirical inquiry can help us expand our experiences into patterned observations that can then be generalised to other experiences.

Ways of Knowing

Theories are, of course, only one way we know what we know. Throughout history there have been other ways that individuals and societies came to conclusions about the nature of life and humanity. These are the most common ways of knowing that are generally discussed:

Authoritarian Way of Knowing

This involves deferring to socially recognised experts for knowledge dissemination. These experts, often equipped with formal credentials, hold prominence in specific domains. There are also other ways that individuals can be considered experts. While Western society prioritises formal credentials, other societies prioritise an individual’s level of respect and standing in a community, which is usually given based on socially agreed upon qualities and actions. In working within the criminal justice system, it is essential to recognise that other types of expertise, like community-based expertise, which may not always align with conventional academic standards, are also incredibly valuable.

Mystical Way of Knowing

Mystical ways of knowing encompass intuitive, spiritual, or religious insights that guide our knowledge about what is “right.” Such traditions gave way to what was known as trial by battle in the Middle Ages, which eventually morphed into trial by ordeal (Gehring and Batista, 2017). Many of you will be familiar with the idea of trial by ordeal if you have heard of stories of trials for those accused of witchcraft or the atrocities of the Spanish Inquisition. Thankfully such approaches to punishment are no longer common and we determine innocence or guilt in much more reasonable ways today.

Logic-Rational Way of Knowing

Many people use logic to come to conclusions about the world around us (Beccaria, 1963). Logic and rationality can be very useful tools to determine truth but are limited in that people do not always act in logical or rational ways. While logical frameworks provide valuable insights, we must acknowledge their limitations, as truth may transcend conventional logic in certain contexts.

Scientific Way of Knowing

This brings us back to where we started: a way of knowing based on observation and objectivity. The use of empirical observations can help us test our hypotheses and help us refine our understanding of the world. Over time, the consistent support for our hypotheses will give us more confidence that our theories are reasonable ways to explain the world.

The Parts of a Theory

Now that we have established a shared understanding of the definition of criminology and have some familiarity with the use of observation to help us develop theories, it is time to delve a little deeper into the anatomy of a theory. Understanding the components of theories is crucial for both critiquing existing theories and understanding their contextual significance. Every theory comprises two essential elements: articulated propositions and unarticulated propositions. These components collectively form the foundation of a theory’s structure and implications (Gouldner, 1970).

Articulated Propositions

An articulated proposition is a formally expressed statement that describes the relationships that link variables that make up a theoretical explanation. These statements describe the causal mechanisms underlying the phenomenon of study. For example, in Chapter 5 you will learn more about strain theories, which have articulated propositions that explain the relationship between societal goals and the occurrence of deviant behaviour. Importantly, these propositions are expected to align with observed reality, providing a basis for continued testing.

Unarticulated Propositions

Contrary to their articulated counterparts, unarticulated propositions represent implicit beliefs and assumptions that are inherent to a theory. These assumptions, usually reflecting the perspective of the theorist, encompass broader notions about human behaviour and societal dynamics. Unarticulated propositions often influence a theory’s policy implications and practical applications. For instance, implicit beliefs about the nature of criminality may shape recommendations for crime prevention or rehabilitation strategies. If we think people can change, we may implement a different set of programs than if we think that people cannot improve.

Goals of a Theory

A theory serves four primary goals: explanation, prediction, summarisation, and utility.

• Explanation : a theory attempts toto explain the phenomenon under study by making statements about its underlying mechanisms. In our case, we are trying to explain the phenomena of crime and anti-social behaviours.
• Prediction : a theory is only useful if it can predict future occurrences based on the established causal relationships of interest. If we cannot use a theory to predict when and where crime will happen, we do not have a very useful theory.
• Summarise : a theory should accurately summarise the existing body of knowledge in its domain. A theory about crime should also be explain why our current knowledge about crime is correct.
• Use Value : a theory needs to have practical utility, offering insights that inform policy decisions and interventions. After all, good theory will make good policy. And without a strong understanding of theory, we will not be able to properly critique and assess our policy (Paternoster and Bachman, 2001).

Criteria for Evaluating Theory

There are several different lists of criteria that exist to help us determine if we have a good theory. We will use the criteria from the well-respected criminologist Professor Ronald Akers [1] (1994). You will learn more about his work in Chapter 10. According to Professor Akers, a good theory should be:

• Internally consistent and non-tautological . Is the theory logical? Does the theory make sense? Does the theory avoid circular reasoning?
• Testable . Can the theory be tested? Remember, if we cannot develop a way to observe something, we cannot test it.
• Empirically supported . Has the theory received some empirical support? When researchers conduct studies to test the theory, have they found support for it?
• Parsimonious yet broad . Is the theory broad in scope, yet parsimonious? Parsimonious really means frugal but in this setting, we use it to mean simple and without extra propositions. The theory needs to be able to explain more than a small subsection of crime and it needs to do so with as few major concepts as possible.
• Real world use . Does the theory have some “real world” use? Can we use the theory to do something about crime in society?

Classifying Theory

There are several different ways that we can classify theories in criminology. These are very useful distinctions as we try to understand which theories are able to explain behaviour in which circumstances. Society is complex and while we strive for the most parsimonious explanation of social behaviour, those explanations also come from a place of our own understanding of the world. The most common ways to classify a theory are:

Worldview or Paradigm

Level of analysis, underlying assumptions.

Theories can be classified based on their underlying assumptions about social order. There are three main paradigms that criminologists use.

Consensus Paradigm

The consensus paradigm posits that society functions harmoniously and that there is general agreement on what is – and what is not – acceptable. In this type of worldview, criminal behaviour serves a functional role because it reinforces the agreed upon social norms of behaviour. One example of a consensus paradigm is classical strain theories, which you will learn more about in Chapter 5.

Conflict Paradigm

The conflict paradigm highlights societal divisions and power struggles. Conflict criminology is strongly rooted in the work of Karl Marx, who argues that crime arises from class conflicts. In the conflict paradigm, capitalism perpetuates inequality and then crime. There are several different types of conflict theories and you will learn about three of them in Chapter 14.

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism focuses on how social interactions shape individual behaviour. Crime is perceived as a violation of social norms. One example of a symbolic interactionist theory is labelling theory, which highlights how societal reactions to deviance can influence individuals’ self-concepts and future actions. You will learn more about these theories in Chapter 13.

Theories are often categorised into micro and macro levels of analysis:

Micro-Level Theories

Micro-level theories examine individual processes contributing to criminal behaviour.

Macro-Level Theories

Macro-level theories focus on broader societal factors influencing crime rates. These theories are often considered social or institutional level theories.

The underlying assumptions of a theory encompass our perspectives on social order and beliefs about human nature:

Normative vs. Relativistic Definitions

One thing that a theory relies on is an underlying assumption or belief about social order (Lemert, 1981). After all, if you are going to explain why people commit anti-social behaviours, you also have to explain why those behaviours are considered anti-social to begin with. Normative assumptions suggest a shared consensus on morality, where everyone agrees upon what is moral and right. Relativistic assumptions argue that morality is contingent upon power dynamics. For example, consensus theories assume a shared understanding of right and wrong, while conflict theories acknowledge power differentials in defining morality.

Assumptions about Human Nature

Theories vary in their beliefs about human nature, influencing the ways in which they propose to interpret of criminal behaviour. One of the defining debates in criminology is whether “nature or nurture” causes individuals to commit crime. There are three main assumptions that criminological theories can make about human nature. The first is that human being are inherently good and have to be pushed to commit crimes. The second is that human beings are inherently bad, or at least out to maximise their own pleasure, and have to be deterred or stopped from committing crime. The third possible assumption about human nature is known as the tabula rasa argument, or that everyone is born as a blank slate. Through the process of living and learning, we have different ideas imprinted into our personality. As you read through the different chapters in this textbook, I encourage you to see if you can determine what assumption of human nature each theory starts with.

Connecting Theory to Policy

At this point, you may be asking yourself what all of these things have to do with the reality of working in the criminal justice system. It is a very fair question. Many of the concepts in this chapter are, after all, a little bit vague and do not seem to have immediate importance for the day to day work of criminal justice agencies. But remember what we said earlier in this chapter: good theory helps create good policy (Paternoster and Bachman, 2001). How does this work?

As we use the scientific method to observe reality to help us create testable hypotheses that explain the reasons that humans act the way that they do, we refine our understanding of the world and create the building blocks of evidence that will help us determine what policies are most likely to be effective in reducing crime. The process of collecting this evidence and reporting it back to society to help create better policy is called translational research (Blomberg et al., 2024). Every discipline has some version of translational research. You encounter translational research every day. Whether it be a public health message to wash your hands (for 20 seconds!) or a reminder to wear your seatbelt, most government policy has its origins in a research recommendation.

Because this evidence is so important for society at large, we have a responsibility to take the way that we investigate this claims very seriously. Criminologist Professor Robert Sampson said it best: “Data never “speak for themselves”—making sense of causal patterns requires theoretical claims about unobserved mechanisms and social processes no matter what the experiment  or statistical method employed” (Sampson, 2010, p. 491, italics in original). Collecting data and making observations is only one part of the process. It is up to us to make sense of those observations so that we can inform meaningful change.

A good example of when this backfires is example of school violence (Blomberg et al., 2024). We know that school violence can be improved by improving school climate, helping students create strong friendships, and incorporating successful bullying prevention programs (Connell et al., 2013; Connell et al., 2014; Schell-Busey et al., 2023; Turanovic and Siennick, 2022). However, schools in many juridsictions insist on implementing zero-tolerance policies and adding more police officers to schools (Han and Connell, 2021; Turnanovic et al., 2022). This is why we need strong theory to guide strong policy; translational research is the way to get there.

At this point in time, you may feel a little overwhelmed. But don’t worry; soon this will all become very clear. In the coming chapters, you will learn about the different theoretical frameworks that criminologists use to explain all sorts of deviant, anti-social and criminal behaviour. What is important now is that you understand that the process of creating, testing and refining a theory of human behaviour is not a random one. And beyond that, there are a lot of underlying assumptions that we bring to the conversation, even if we are trying to be objective. Objectivity is incredibly difficult and what is more important is to articulate and be honest about the assumptions that are inherent in the theories and thought processes that we are going through.

Criminology has many theoretical explanations of behaviour. As you read through the following chapters, think about which ones most resonate with you and why. What are the assumptions that you have about society and humanity that drive your opinions about which theories make the most sense to you? By the end of this course, we hope that you have a firm understanding of the different explanations of criminal and deviant behaviour, are able to examine these explanations with a critical eye and feel comfortable about the different ways that good theory can begin to inform good policy. Because at the end of the day, our goal is to create good policy that helps keep people and societies safe and well supported.

Check Your Knowledge

Discussion questions.

• How do we identify if a criminological theory is good?
• How does the scientific method support the creation and refinement of new explanations of social behaviour?
• What are the underlying assumptions that go into the ways we explain anti-social and criminal behaviour? Why is it important to be able to identify and articulate these assumptions?

Akers, R. L. (1994). Criminological theories: Introduction and evaluation. Roxbury Publishing Company.

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Connell, N. M., Barbieri, N., & Reingle Gonzalez, J. M. (2015). Understanding school effects on students’ willingness to report peer weapon carrying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 13 (3), 258-269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204014544512

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Turanovic, J. J. ,  Pratt, T. C. ,  Kulig, T. C.,   Cullen, F. T. (2022).  Confronting school violence :  A synthesis of six decades of research .  Cambridge, UK :  Cambridge University Press.

[1] For more information about Professor Ronald Akers, check out this interview with Professor Gary Jenson for the Oral History Project of the American Society of Criminology .

Introduction to Criminology and Criminal Justice Copyright © 2024 by Nadine M. Connell is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Criminology

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• First Online: 07 June 2019
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Kristopher J. Brazil 3 &
• Lisa M. Whittingham 3  

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Criminal behavior ; Social factors and crime ; The psychology of crime

Criminology is an interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on crime and the responses to crime.

Introduction

As the study of crime and society’s responses to it, criminology is an interdisciplinary field that brings together scholars, clinicians, and other professionals from all types of disciplines to seek an understanding of some of the behaviors that have deep and broad consequences for society. How has crime been studied in the past? How has it been conceptualized by different societies? Why are there inappropriate (i.e., criminal and illegitimate) codes of conduct in all societies where documentation exists? These are some of the questions we will pursue in this entry. First, we will describe what has been studied under the umbrella term “criminology,” giving us an appreciation of the history of the field. Then, we will explore some of the more prominent theories in criminology from...

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Walsh, A. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and the origins of justice. Justice Quarterly, 17 , 841–864.

Walsh, A., & Jorgensen, C. (2018). Evolutionary theory and criminology. In R. L. Hopcroft (Ed.), Oxford handbook of evolution, biology, and society (pp. 517–542). New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190299323.013.35 .

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Wiebe, R. P. (2012). Integrating criminology through adaptive strategy and life history theory. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 28 , 346–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986212450231 .

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Zehr, H., & Mika, H. (1998). Fundamental principles of restorative justice. The Contemporary Justice Review, 1 , 47–58.

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Brazil, K.J., Whittingham, L.M. (2019). Criminology. In: Shackelford, T., Weekes-Shackelford, V. (eds) Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3193-1

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criminology , scientific study of the nonlegal aspects of crime and delinquency , including its causes, correction, and prevention, from the viewpoints of such diverse disciplines as anthropology , biology, psychology and psychiatry , economics , sociology , and statistics.

Viewed from a legal perspective, the term crime refers to individual criminal actions (e.g., a burglary ) and the societal response to those actions (e.g., a sentence of three years in prison ). By comparison, the field of criminology incorporates and examines broader knowledge about crime and criminals. For example, criminologists have attempted to understand why some people are more or less likely to engage in criminal or delinquent behaviour. Criminologists have also examined and attempted to explain differences in crime rates and the criminal code between societies and changes in rates and laws over time.

Many criminologists consider themselves to be neutral public policy experts, gathering facts for various governmental officials responsible for drawing policy conclusions. However, some criminologists—like their counterparts in such fields as the atomic and nuclear sciences—maintain that scientists must shoulder responsibility for the moral and political consequences of their research. Thus, some criminologists have actively campaigned against capital punishment and have advocated in favour of various legal reforms. Criminologists who oppose this activist role contend that the findings of criminological research must be weighed along with political, social, religious, and moral arguments, a task best left to political bodies. Not denying the right of criminologists to express their opinions as ordinary citizens and voters, this view nonetheless maintains that a government by popular will is less dangerous than a government by experts.

In the last decades of the 20th century, criminology grew to encompass a number of specialized study areas. One of these was criminalistics, or scientific crime detection, which involves such measures as photography, toxicology , fingerprint study, and DNA evidence ( see also DNA fingerprinting ). It had previously been excluded from criminology because of its focus on particular criminal actions rather than on the broader knowledge about crime and criminals. Criminology further expanded its reach by devoting significant attention to victimology , or the study of the victims of crime, the relationships between victims and criminals, and the role of victims in the criminal events themselves. Criminal justice has also emerged as a separate but closely related academic field, focusing on the structure and functioning of criminal justice agencies—including the police , courts , corrections, and juvenile agencies—rather than on explanations of crime. ( See juvenile justice .)

The relationship of criminology to various other disciplines has resulted in considerable diversity in its academic placement within universities. Universities in Europe have tended to treat criminology as part of legal education , even in circumstances where its principal teachers were not lawyers. In the United Kingdom, for example, the Institute of Criminology is part of the law faculty of the University of Cambridge; in other schools criminological research and teaching have usually been divided between departments of sociology or social administration, law faculties, and institutes of psychiatry. In South America the anthropological and medical elements predominate, and in the United States , though there has been a trend toward housing criminology and criminal justice in separate multidisciplinary departments, criminology has most often been situated in departments of sociology.

Criminology developed in the late 18th century, when various movements, imbued with humanitarianism , questioned the cruelty, arbitrariness, and inefficiency of the criminal justice and prison systems. During this period reformers such as Cesare Beccaria in Italy and Sir Samuel Romilly , John Howard , and Jeremy Bentham in England, all representing the so-called classical school of criminology, sought penological and legal reform rather than criminological knowledge. Their principal aims were to mitigate legal penalties, to compel judges to observe the principle of nulla poena sine lege (Latin: “ due process of law”), to reduce the application of capital punishment, and to humanize penal institutions. They were moderately successful, but, in their desire to make criminal justice more “just,” they tried to construct rather abstract and artificial equations between crimes and penalties, ignoring the personal characteristics and needs of the individual criminal defendant. Moreover, the object of punishment was primarily retribution and secondarily deterrence , with reformation lagging far behind.

In the early 19th century the first annual national crime statistics were published in France. Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874), a Belgian mathematician, statistician, and sociologist who was among the first to analyze these statistics, found considerable regularity in them (e.g., in the number of people accused of crimes each year, the number convicted, the ratio of men to women, and the distribution of offenders by age). From these patterns he concluded that “there must be an order to those things which…are reproduced with astonishing constancy, and always in the same way.” Later, Quetelet argued that criminal behaviour was the result of society’s structure, maintaining that society “prepares the crime, and the guilty are only the instruments by which it is executed.”

Whereas Quetelet focused on the characteristics of societies and attempted to explain their resulting crime rates, the Italian medical doctor Cesare Lombroso (1836–1909) studied individual criminals in order to determine why they committed crimes. Some of his investigations led him to conclude that people with certain cranial, skeletal, and neurological malformations were “born criminal” because they were biological throwbacks to an earlier evolutionary stage. Highly controversial at the time he presented it, his theory was ultimately rejected by social scientists. Lombroso also contended that there were multiple causes of crime and that most offenders were not born criminal but instead were shaped by their environment . The research of both Quetelet and Lombroso emphasized the search for the causes of crime—a focus that criminology has retained.

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How to Write Your Undergraduate Dissertation in Criminology

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This book provides a guide for undergraduate criminology and criminal justice students undertaking their final-year dissertation. It speaks to the specific challenges for criminology students who may wish to research closed institutions (such as prisons, courts, or the police) or vulnerable populations (such as people with convictions, victims of crime, or young people), and offers guidance on how to undertake research on these topics whilet avoiding many of the access and ethical obstacles. It takes students through each phase of the dissertation, from designing and planning the research to writing up and presenting the completed work. The complexities of undertaking research on sensitive topics and with criminal justice institutions are discussed throughout, offering an insight into some of the challenges that students may be faced with and suggestions to overcome obstacles. It offers practical guidance for empirical and library-based projects and provides students with suggested resources for accessing primary and secondary data. It utilises a mixture of worked examples, top tips, practical strategies, and student activities to ensure the dissertation is a manageable and enjoyable process. This book will be beneficial to all undergraduate criminology students who have to undertake either a library-based or empirical dissertation. The examples and activities in the book will also be useful for dissertation supervisors who can use them to support their dissertation students.　

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Suzanne Young is an Associate Professor in Criminal Justice at the School of Law, University of Leeds, UK.

Critics' Reviews

" How to Write Your Undergraduate Dissertation in Criminology offers the essential guide to producing your dissertation. From the literature review to the methodology chapter, from finding data to finding your voice, it guides you step by step through the process using examples specific to criminology. As such, it gives you the best chance of excelling in your dissertation." Dr David Churchill , Associate Professor in Criminal Justice, University of Leeds " How to Write Your Undergraduate Dissertation in Criminology provides a helpful step by step guide to undertaking undergraduate research, complemented by a range of activities to encourage students to think about their dissertation research and writing in a manageable way. This text is also an excellent resource to support teaching and learning on dissertation modules with activities that academic staff can use in their teaching practice." Dr Helen Nichols , Associate Professor in Criminology, University of Lincoln "Academic writing is challenging, especially for students faced with writing a dissertation. What is needed is a practical, supportive, and user-friendly guide addressing all stages of the process from selecting a viable topic to producing a final edit. This is that guide. Authored by a leading expert in teaching and learning in criminology, all students will benefit from reading it and putting the advice into action." Professor Gavin Dingwall , Professor of Criminal Justice Policy, De Montfort University " How to Write Your Undergraduate Dissertation in Criminology will provide students with necessary skills and help them to work with their supervisors to plan and execute a research project. The book is well structured and covers everything students need to know to complete their dissertation. The design of the book is very engaging and encourages students to interact with the content through a series of exercises. As such, it provides an excellent learning resource." Debbie Jones , Associate Professor in Criminology, Swansea University 　 "This is an excellent, supportive, and engaging book for students embarking on their undergraduate dissertation in criminology. With activities and diagrams to guide decision-making, the book breaks down what can be a daunting task into a manageable – and even enjoyable – process. The practical takeaways make this an essential read for students navigating the dissertation journey." Dr Christine Haddow , Lecturer in Criminology, Edinburgh Napier University

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Criminal Justice and Criminology Theses

If you are a graduate student submitting your thesis or dissertation, please click here to access the submission form.

Theses/Dissertations from 2024 2024

An Exploratory Study of Flora Poaching in Central Appalachia , McKinley Bowers

An Exploratory Study of the Southern Subculture of Honor in East Tennessee , Rachel Cohen

An Examination of Police Response to Individuals Suffering with Mental Illness , Aliss Copsey

Beyond the Screen: Understanding College Students’ Perspectives on Cyberstalking , Gabrielle Jackson

Exploring Knowledge and Perceptions of Nursing Students: A Quantitative Study on Sexual Assault and Sex Trafficking Awareness , Isabella Marino

Patterns of the Use and Perception of Cannabis among College Students in Tennessee , Jayla Ruffus-Milner

Enhancing Ethical Competency: A Review of Ethical Instruction for Law Enforcement , Alexis Turner

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

The Impact of ACEs on College Students and Their Major Choice , Britten Harrison

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Public Perceptions on Domestic Sex Trafficking and Domestic Sex Trafficking Victims: A Quantitative Analysis , Faith Browder

Evaluating the Influences of Domestic Violence Training on the Attitudes and Perceptions of Police Recruits at the East Tennessee Regional Law Enforcement Academy , Jeffrey T. Gazzo Mr.

The American and Swedish Criminal Justice System: A Comparative Study , Josefin Hedstrom

Perceived Stress Among Police and Correctional Officers , Travis D. Hill

Political Competition and Predictors of Hate Crime: A County-level Analysis , Eaven Holder

Examining the Relationship between Offending Behaviors of Adult Male Offenders and the Social Bonds of Attachment and Commitment , Josie Klepper

Police Perceptions on False Accusations of Sexual Assault , Danielle Ostrander

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Do Juvenile Offenders Hold to the Child Saving Mentality? The Results from a Survey of Juvenile Offenders Placed on Court Mandated Juvenile Probation , Katelynn R. Adams

Law Enforcement Officers’ Perceptions in Regard to Sex Offenders, SORN, and Residency Restrictions Laws , Maria Aparcero-Suero

Exploring the Social Trend of Household Computer Ownership in Affecting the United States 1990's Crime Drop , Alison Kimberley Bogar

Environmental Factors and School Disorder: The Role of Urbanicty , Brandon S. Coffey

Is Prison Why I’m sick? Examining Health Conditions Among Minority Males Within Correctional Facilities , Mary Hannah Hughes

The Effects of Employment on Recidivism Among Delinquent Juveniles , Leigh Kassem

A Content Analysis of Media Accounts of Death Penalty and Life Without Parole Cases , Lisa R. Kirk

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Policing Postsecondary Education: University Police Legitimacy and Fear of Crime on Campus , Christina N. Barker

Testing Specific Deterrence In The National Basketball Association: An Application Of Beccaria's Theory Of Deterrence , Michael McCutcheon

The Forgotten Signature: An Observational Study on Policy of Securing Identity in Prevention of Identity Theft and Credit/Debit Card Fraud at Retail Store POS Terminals , Belinda R. Wilson

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Social Disorganization, Extra-Curricular Activities, and Delinquency , Robyn G. Dougherty Ms.

The Effects of Gender, Race, and Age on Judicial Sentencing Decisions , April Miller

Assessing Victim Blame: Intersections of Rape Victim Race, Gender, and Ethnicity , Kirsten A. Piatak

Youth Bullying: From Traditional Bullying Perpetration to Cyberbullying Perpetration and the Role of Gender , Erica D. Sizemore

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Police Attitudes about Citizens with Handgun Carry Permits , Bonson F. Cook Jr.

Heavy Drinking Behaviors and Parental Influence Among Greek Affiliated College Students , Melodie Harris

When Women Kill , Giovanna C. Lima

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Race, Social Disorganization and Delinquency , Alina Bazyler

To Conform or Not to Conform: An Examination of the Effects of Mock Jury Deliberation on Individual Jurors , Ashley S. Bowser

Examining Juvenile Delinquency Contributors through Life-Course and Strain Theory , Caitlin E. Burns

Media Influences and Student Attitudes Toward Law Enforcement Figures Within Northeast Tennessee , George T. Ford IV

A Study of Surveillance and Privacy Rights , Jesse T. Kittle Mr.

How Psychology’s Empirical Results Can Benefit the Criminal Justice System: Expert Testimony , Ford C. McCurry

The Effects of Family Structure on Juvenile Delinquency , Alisha B. Parks

Police Militarization: Attitudes Towards the Militarization of the American Police , Phillip T. Wyrick

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Reflex of Avoidance in Spatial Restrictions for Signatures and Handwritten Entries , Linde Christine Rush Burkey

Public Perceptions Regarding Sex Offenders and Sex Offender Management , Jessica Duncan

An Analysis of Restorative Justice in Vermont: Assessing the Relationships Between the Attitudes of Citizens and the Practices of the Department of Corrections , Dustin Robert Melbardis

Childhood Factors Affecting Aggressive Behaviors , Nicole Danielle Waddell

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Race and Anomie: A Comparison of Crime Among Rural Whites and Urban Blacks Based on Social Structural Conditions. , Mical Dominique Carter

Substance Abuse and Mental Disorders Among State and Federal Prison Inmates. , John Richard Haggerty

An Analysis of The Handwriting of Elderly Chinese Subjects. , Dongfang Liu

Identifying Interventions That Work in Juvenile Justice: An Analysis of the Moral Kombat Program. , Thelma Deneen McGowan

Psychopathy and Gender of Serial Killers: A Comparison Using the PCL-R. , Chasity Shalon Norris

The Effects of Domestic Violence: The Male Victims Perspective. , RaMon B. Younger

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

Examination of the Death Penalty: Public Opinion of a Northeast Tennessee University Student Sample. , Kyle Aaron Burgason

Wrongful Convictions as a Result of Public Defender Representation. , Annie Elizabeth Ross

An Analysis of Monitoring the Future: A Look at the Relationship between Juvenile Delinquency and Involvement in School. , Thomas Theodore Zawisza

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Examining Orders of Protection: An Analysis of the Court System in a Rural Tennessee County. , Jaclyn Anderson

An Exploratory Analysis of the Psychological Dimensions of Airline Security and Correlates of Perceived Terrorism Threats: A Study of Active American Airlines Pilots. , Paul Martin Borowsky

An Examination of Patterns and Trends of Prescription Drug Abuse Among Adolescents. , Maggie Marie Orender

A Social Control Based Analysis of the Effect of Community Context upon Self Reported Delinquency Rates. , Jacqueline Marie Parlier

The Formation of "Outsider" Through Labeling and Sentence Lengths for Immigrants of Hispanic Descent. , Jeremy Jason Smith

Eyewitness Recall of Noncriminal Events: An Examination of Demographic Characteristics with a Selected Population. , Jessica R. VanEaton

Predicting Views of Sex Offenders and Sex Offender Policies Through Life Experiences. , Vanessa Hatch Woodward

Theses/Dissertations from 2008 2008

College Student Vulnerability to Harmful Religious Groups Based on Perceptions. , Kevin Clark Dreher

Forensic Gunshot Residue Distance Determination Testing Using Identical Make and Model Handguns and Different Ammunitions. , Stanley Keith Hodges

Police Stress: An Examination of the Effects of Stress and Coping Strategies. , Derrick Kenwright

Local Law Enforcement's Counter Terrorism Capabilities. , J. Ryan Presnell

Predicting Behavior from Psychopathic and Antisocial Personality Traits in a Student Sample. , Maryann Stone

Theses/Dissertations from 2007 2007

Adolescents and Marijuana Use: The Affects of Peer and Parent Relationships and Substance Abuse Education. , Samuel Joseph Cosimano

Media: Effects on Attitudes toward Police and Fear of Criminal Victimization. , Bradley Edwards

Juveniles Adjudicated in Adult Court: The Effects of Age, Gender, Race, Previous Convictions, and Severity of Crime on Sentencing Decisions. , Ashley Michelle Holbrook

Examining Significant Differences of Gunshot Residue Patterns Using Same Make and Model of Firearms in Forensic Distance Determination Tests. , Heather Lewey

Racial Profiling and Policing in North Carolina: Reality or Rhetoric? , Randal J. Sluss

Analysis of Selected Correlates of Spouse Abuse and the Policy Implications for the Criminal Justice System. , Marlys Kay Tester

Cinema, Race, and Justice: A Qualitative Analysis of Selected Themes. , Katherine Clay Thompson

Theses/Dissertations from 2006 2006

An Examination of the Prison Environment: An Analysis of Inmate Concerns across Eight Environmental Dimensions. , Andrew Ryan Bradford

Improving Parent and Teen Conflict Resolution Skills: Evaluating the Effectiveness of the "Family Reunion" Crisis Intervention Program. , Carrie Davis Marchant

Bullying Behavior in Middle School: The Effects of Gender, Grade Level, Family Relationships, and Vicarious Victimization on Self-Esteem and Attitudes of Bullying. , Jennifer Mongold

The Relationship between Tobacco, Alcohol, and Marijuana Use among Teenagers. , John Donald Rose

Theses/Dissertations from 2005 2005

A Qualitative Study: Gendered Perceptions of Bullying among Adolescents at a Boys and Girls Club. , Beverly Small Chandley

Intimate Violence: The Effects of Family, Threatened Egotism, and Reciprocity. , Jessica Lynne Holt

Satisfaction with Police Services among Residents of Washington County, Tennessee: A Survey of Citizens' Attitudes and Opinions. , Russell Jamerson

The Effect of Early Childhood Attachment on Delinquency and Behavior and the Continuance into Adulthood. , Cyndi Sheree Nichols

Juvenile Commitment Rate: The Effects of Gender, Race, Parents, and School. , Mitchell Andrew Thompson

Theses/Dissertations from 2004 2004

Justice for All?: Victim Satisfaction with Restorative Justice Conferences. , Sarah Anne Behtz

Juveniles' Attitudes toward the Police as Affected by Prior Victimization. , Joshua A. Hardin

Marijuana Use by Juveniles: The Effects of Peers, Parents Race, & Drug Abuse Resistance Education. , Daniel J. Moeser

Theses/Dissertations from 2003 2003

Oleoresin Capsicum: an Analysis of the Implementation of Pepper Spray into the Law Enforcement Use of Force Continuum in a Selected Police Department. , Lydia Denise Adkins

The Combined Effects of Criminal Justice Intervention on Domestic Violence: A Re-Analysis of the Minneapolis Intervention Project. , Nadia A. Bebawy

Using the Survey of Inmates of State and Federal Correctional Facilities to Compare Female and Male Inmate Characteristics. , Jacqueline Anita Black

Police Officers' Perception of the Validity of the General Theory of Crime. , William Jaison Giesler

The Effect of Prior Consensual Sex between the Victim and the Offender on the Prosecutor's Decision to File Charges in Sexual Assault Cases. , Kimberly Brooke Hollifield

Satisfaction with Police Services among Residents of Elizabethton, Tennessee. , Kelly Brooke Mullins

Misguided Instructions: Do Jurors Accurately Understand the Law in Death Penalty Trials? , Chasity Anne Stoots-Fonberg

Theses/Dissertations from 2002 2002

Role of Police, Prosecutors and Defense Attorneys in Traffic Accident Investigation and Adjudication in Chattanooga, Tennessee. , Karen L. Beisel

Athletic Participation: A Test of Learning and Neutralization Theories. , Mario Bernard Hankerson

Theses/Dissertations from 2001 2001

An Examination of Juvenile Delinquency and Victimization Using an Integrated Model Approach. , Kimberly Dawn Dodson

Involvement in Sports and Engagement in Delinquency: An Examination of Hirschi's Social Bond Theory. , Randy Hass

Characteristics of Recidivism among Intensive and Regular Probationers. , Jennifer Joseph

The Effects of Higher Education on Police Officers' Attitudes toward Personnel Issues, Public Relations and Crime Fighting. , Steven Matthew O'Quinn

Parents, Peers, and Developmental Trajectories toward Crime. , Kimberly A. Verhegge

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Home > FHSS > Criminology > CRIM_ETD

Criminology Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

CARE TO CRIMINALIZATION: HOW ADULTS WITH LIVED CROSSOVER KID EXPERIENCE PERCIEVE THEIR EXPERIENCES IN THE CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEM AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM , Clarissa Kurzawski

Exit Through the Giftshop: Claims-making and the Construction of a Countercultural Brand , Cecil McGlynn

“In the Eyes of the State”: The Construction of LGBTQIA+ Individuals in India , Suman Mondal

Shifting Blame and Gendered Differences: A News Media Study of the Characterization of Police Sexual Violence , Brittany Nieman

Mainstream Media Portrayal of Banishment and Nation-Imposed Punishment , Keely Ormond

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Empathy in Police Officers Undergoing De-escalation Simulation Training: A Comparison Between Virtual Reality and Live Action Modalities , Jacqueline Kohl

ADDING WOMEN TO THE CONVERSATION ON SAFE CONSUMPTION SITES: A QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW STUDY WITH POOR AND MARGINALIZED WOMEN WHO USE ILLICIT SUBSTANCES , Kaitlin Waechter

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Divest or Disband?: A Social Problems Game Analysis of Canadian Media Coverage of 2020's Defund the Police Movement , Nicholas Fappiano

Paper Gangsters: White Collar and Corporate Crime on Film , Jacob Kavoukis

Loose Coupling, Burden Shuffling, and Pervasive Penality: The Role of Bylaw Enforcement in Managing Homelessness , Natasha Martino

Parental Incarceration and Stigma: A Qualitative Content Analysis of Children's Books , Samantha Nguyen

An Analysis of Collective Efficacy as a Predictor of Gun Violence in Toronto , Carly Richards

Fifth-Dimensional Warfare and National Security in Canada: Situating Microdeviation Theory Within C-59: An Act Respecting National Security Matters , Hayden Slight

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

BODY-WORN CAMERAS AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS IN CANADIAN POLICING: A QUALITATIVE STUDY , Chelsea Doiron

COVID-19 AND THE CORRECTIONAL ENVIRONMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF CANADIAN CORRECTIONAL OFFICERS’ EXPERIENCES OF STRESS AND MENTAL HEALTH DURING THE PANDEMIC , Kristina Kocsis

What is Canada Doing? An Analysis of Canadian University Sexual Violence Policies , Konnor Legault

Policing and Fatherhood Identities: A Gendered Analysis of the Work and Home Experiences of Police Fathers Before and During COVID-19 , Danielle Thompson

Exploring the Perspectives of Service Providers Who Assist Men Subjected to Intimate Partner Violence , Abigail White

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Risk Factors Related to School Shootings , Best Anaele

Constructions of Sympathy: A Media Discourse Analysis of Detained Children and Youth in Canada , Lauren Ashby

THROUGH THE LURKING GLASS: A QUALITATIVE MEDIA ANALYSIS OF TRADITIONAL GENDER NORMS AND STALKING DEPICTIONS IN FILM , Alexandra Baril

“THE POLICE DON’T DO ANYTHING. EVEN WHEN THEY GET TOLD ABOUT THESE CREEPS”: AN EXPLORATION OF HOW VIGILANTES ATTEMPT TO GAIN LEGITIMACY AS LEADERS OF STATUS DEGRADATION CEREMONIES , Hannah Eggett

A Threat Assessment of Radicalized Extremist Right-Wing White Nationalist Subcultures in Canada: A Social Media Analysis , Dylon Groom

More than Just a Rapper: Mainstream and Alternative Media’s Depiction of Nipsey Hussle , Jonathan Hazlewood

STRAIGHT OUTTA FILMS: A QUALITATIVE MEDIA ANALYSIS OF THE HYPERREALITIES OF YOUTH GANGS , NAIMA LAKHA

LGTBQ+ COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS OF POLICE AND POLICE INVOLVEMENT IN PRIDE CELEBRATIONS IN A SMALL ONTARIO CITY: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY , Priscilla Ramjit

Concussions in Minor League Hockey Players: The Impact of Rowan’s Law on Coaches , Niya St Amant

A QUALITATIVE EXPLORATION INTO THE SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCES OF HEALTHCARE SERIAL KILLERS , Florence Tang

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

The Social Arena of Mental Health Act Apprehensions: An Examination of Partnership between Police and Hospital Services , Amanda Boyd

The Use of Public Consultation to Construct Sex Work Related Policies , Ryan Horan

Parents who kill: Media constructions of male and female filicide cases , Mary McCluskey

EXPLORING CASE VARIABLES PREDICTIVE OF HISTORIES OF MENTAL ILLNESS IN INCIDENTS OF POLICE-INVOLVED FIREARM FATALITIES IN CANADA , Michael Ouellet

The Examination of News Media Representation of Indigenous Murder Victims in Canada: A Case Study of Colten Boushie’s Death , Latasha VanEvery

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Attending to the Needs of Inuit Inmates in Canada: Exploring the Perceptions of Correctional Officers and Nunavut Officials , Kosta H. Barka

Police Use of Twitter: 21st Century Community Policing , Nicole Coomber

Securitizing Schooling: Post-Secondary Campuses as Security Projects , Andrea Corradi

Criminal Heroes in Television: Exploring Moral Ambiguity in Law and Justice , Amy Henry

A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF ONLINE SELF-HARM SUPPORT FORUMS: EXAMINING USERS’ ONLINE ACTIVITIES DURING SELF-HARM DESISTANCE PROCESSES , Claudia Volpe

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Loose Coupling and Defining Deviance Down: Correctional Officers’ Perceptions of Organizational Responses to Mental Health and Well-being. , Victoria M. Baker

JAILHOUSE INFORMANTS IN CANADIAN CRIMINAL COURTS , Olena Beshley

Using Social Disorganization Theory to Explore Neighbourhood Effects on Violent Crime: A Case Study of the City of Brantford, Ontario , Ni-Shan Ho

Exploring the Pluralization of Community Safety: A Qualitative Analysis of the Perceived Operation and Implications of Situation Tables , Taylor Knipe

Correctional Officers "Through the Looking Glass": Understanding Perceptions and their Impact on Personal and Professional Identity , Emma Mistry

Meeting the Needs of Victims: An Examination of Victims' Coping Strategies and Victim Services in Canada , Jenniffer Olenewa

BASED ON ACTUAL EVENTS: Surveillance, Fear and Crime Control in Found-Footage Horror Films , Cassandra Persaud

“Serial killers are interesting, they’re not heroes”: Moral boundaries, identity management, and emotional work within an online community , Michael Spychaj

"It ain't easy being on the streets": Understanding the Needs of Street-Involved Youth in Southern Ontario through a Client-Centred Approach , Samantha Danielle Styczynski

Exploring Police Officers' Perceptions of Mobile Crisis Rapid Response Teams Within a Nodal Policing Framework , Trevor Viersen

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

You Will Be Punished: Media Depictions of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women , Caitlin Elliott

Pregnancy, birth, and mothering behind bars: A case study of one woman's journey through the Ontario criminal justice and jail systems , Sarah Fiander

Policing and the Dirty Underbelly: Understanding Narratives of Police Deviance on Social Media Platforms , Amanda Lancia

REPRESENTATIONS OF STRANGER AND NON-STRANGER HOMICIDE: A QUALITATIVE CONTENT ANALYSIS OF CANADIAN NEWS MEDIA , Gabriella L. Leone

Twerking, Alcohol, and Fame: The Construction of Disney Celebrities in the Media , Carla R. López

Investigative Inadequacies or Investigative Corruption? Exploring the Role of Police Misconduct within Canadian Wrongful Conviction Cases , Michelle L. Lovegrove

No More Mind Games: Content Analysis of In-Game Commentary of the National Football League’s Concussion Problem , Jeffrey Parker

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Critical Champions or Careless Condemners? Exploring News Media Constructions in Cases of Wrongful Conviction , Katherine Rozad

Exploring Interactions Between Police and People with Mental Illness , Krystle L. Shore Ms.

Police on Camera: The Impact of Watching User-Generated Police Videos on Students’ Attitudes towards the Police , Daniel N. Smith

Hunting for 'Paper Gangsters': An Institutional Analysis of Intelligence-led Policing in a Canadian Context , Crystal Weston

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Fight the Dead, Fear the Living: Post-Apocalyptic Narratives of Fear, Governance and Social Control , Samantha Lynn Kolpin

A Side of Justice Rarely Seen: Professional Perspectives Toward Youth Justice and Sentencing Procedures in the Exploratory Context of Canada and Russia , Serge Lokshin M.A.

PRO-ANOREXIA/BULIMIA INTERACTIONS ONLINE: PROBLEMATIZING COMPLEX CULTURAL PHENOMENA , Nicole D. Schott

Policing Diversity with Diversity: Exploring Organizational Rhetoric, Myth, and Minority Police Officers' Perceptions and Experiences , Justin K. Szeto

Juror Perceptions of Eyewitness Identification Evidence , Timothy G. Wykes

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We are pleased to post a selection of theses which have been given marks of distinction. Please note that it is not always possible to post theses of a confidential nature or if they include sensitive data. In some instances, sensitive data may have been removed.

We thank those who have given permission and request those reading them to respect their intellectual property.

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• Completed PhD Theses

Our PhD alumni study crime, order and security from a variety of disciplinary perspectives and theoretical approaches. Use the list below to expore the range of areas our doctoral students have explored over the years.

Where available, theses are linked to TSpace , the University of Toronto's research repository, or else to the  UofT Libraries  Catalogue.

Giancarlo Fiorella, 2023 (Supv. Professor Beatrice Jauregui):  Spectralities at the Protest Chronotope: Venezuela’s Colectivos and the Opposition Social Imaginary

Serdar San, 2023 (Supv. Professor Matthew Light):  Policing and Police Reform in Turkey since 1980: Regime Transitions and Policing Transformations

Fernando Ramon Avila, 2023 (Supv. Professor Kelly Hannah-Moffat): "The Scars Remain." Power, Solidarity, and Punishment in an Atypical Latin American Prison

Grant John Valentine, 2023 (Supv. Professor Paula Maurutto):  The Canadian Punitive Paradox: The Evolution of Conservative Political Marketing Practices and the Late Onset of Penal Populism in Canadian Federal Politics

Jihyun Kwon, 2023 (Supv. Professor Audrey Macklin, Professor Kelly Hannah-Moffat):  Misconduct Mismanagement: Independent Oversight, Accountability, and the Rule of Law

Erick Laming, 2022 (Supv. Professor Scot Wortley): Police Use of Force: Understanding its Impact on Indigenous and Black Community Members in Ontario

Dikla Yogev, 2022 (Supv. Professor Matthew Light): Religion and Police Legitimacy: the Case of Israel’s Haredi Community

Luis Valentin Pereda Aguado, 2021 (Supv. Professor Matthew Light):  Processes of Violence in Mexico’s Organized Crime Groups: A Study of Los Zetas

Julius Haag, 2021 (Supv. Professor Scot Wortley):  A Qualitative Examination of the Impacts of Police Practices on Racialized and Marginalized Young People in Toronto

Jacquie Briggs, 2021, (Supv. Professor Emerita Mariana Valverde): Networks of Colonial Governance: Department of Indian Affairs Legal Aid in Canada, 1870 to 1970

Grace Tran, 2021 (Supv. Professor Audrey Macklin, Professor Emerita Mariana Valverde): Laws of Love: Negotiations of Intimacy and Legitimacy At and Beyond State Borders Through Vietnamese “Marriage Fraud” Arrangements

Zachary Levinsky, 2020:  'Don't Under Reach': The Limits of Compassion and Risk Management in Toronto School Safety from 1999-2007

Adam Ellis, 2020: Reconceptualizing Urban Warfare In Canada: Exploring the Relationship Between Trauma, Post-traumatic Stress, and Violence Among Male Combat Soldiers and 'Street Soldiers'

Brenna Keatinge, 2018: Growing Land, Growing Law: Race, Urban Politics, and the Governance of Vacant Land in Boston from 1950

Katharina Maier, 2018: Half Way to Freedom: The Role of Halfway Houses in Canada's Penal Landscape

Lysandra Marshall, 2017: Racial Disparities in Police Stops in Kingston, Ontario: Democratic Racism and Canadian Racial Profiling in Theoretical Perspective

Maria Jung, 2017: The Relationship between Immigration and Crime in Canada: 1976-2011

Meghana Rao, 2017: Troubling Suicide: Law, Medicine and Hijr Suicides in India

Holly Pelvin, 2017: Doing Uncertain Time: Understanding the Experiences of Punishment in Pre-trial Custody

Vanessa Iafolla, 2015: Anti-money Laundering and Counter-terrorist Financing Policy in Canada: Origins, Implementation and Enforcement

Alexandra Lysova, 2015: Dynamics of Violence between Intimate Partners in the Narratives of Incarcerated Women in Canada: A Violent Events Perspective

Natasha Madon, 2015: Intersections of Youths'Perceptions: Youths' Perceptions of Their Treatment by the Criminal Justice System and Other Social Institutions

Tara Marie Watson, 2014: Risks Inside and Beyond Institutional Walls: Organisational Responses to Substance Use in Canadian Federal Prisons

Akwasi Owusu-Bempah, 2014: Black Males' Perceptions of and Experiences with the Police in Toronto

Nicole Myers, 2013: Creating Criminality: The Intensification of Institutional Risk Aversion Strategies and the Decline of the Bail Process

Rashmee Singh, 2012: Grassroots Governance: Domestic Violence and Criminal Justice Partnerships in an Immigrant City

Olena Kobzar, 2012: Networking on the Margins: The Regulation of Payday Lending in Canada

Sarah Turnbull, 2012: Reconfiguring Canadian Penality: Gender, Diversity and Parole

Allyson Lunny, 2011:  Victimhood and Socio-legal Narratives of Hate Crime against Queer Communities in Canada, 1985-2003

Carolyn Greene, 2011: Creating Consensus: An Exploration of Two Pre-charge Diversion Programs in Canada

Anita Lam, 2011: Making Crime TV: Producing Fictional Representations of Crime for Canadian Television

Myles Leslie, 2011: Speaking for the Dead: Coroners, Institutional Structures and Risk Management

Prashan Ranasinghe, 2009: The Refashioning of Vagrancy and the (Re)Ordering of Public Space

Michael Mopas, 2009: Imagining the Internet and Making it Governable: Canadian Law and Regulation

Sara Thompson, 2009: The Social Ecology and Spatial Distribution of Lethal Violence in Toronto, 1988-2003

Randy Seepersad, 2009: Mediators and Moderators in the Relative Deprivation - Crime/Counter-normative Actions Relationship

Annmarie Barnes, 2007: Transnational Dislocations: The Use of Deportation as Crime Control

Dawn Moore, 2005: To Cure the Offender: Drugs, Users and the Canadian Criminal Justice System

Mary Lynn Young, 2005: Crime Content and Media Economics: Gendered Practices and Sensational Stories, 1950-2000

Carla Cesaroni, 2005: The Stress and Adjustment of Youth in Custody

Bryan Hogeveen, 2003: Can't You Be a Man? Rebuilding Wayward Masculinities and Regulating Juvenile Deviance in Ontario 1860-1930

Cheryl Webster, 2003: Working for 'Good Order and Discipline': The Impact of Mandatory Convict Labour on the Maintenance of Orderly Prison Life in Contemporary Portugal

John Deukmedjian, 2002: The Evolution and Alignment of RCMP Conflict Management and Organizational Surveillance

Phil Mun, 2002: Calculated Risk-taking: The Governance of Casino Gambling in Ontario

Renisa Mawani, 2001: The "Savage Indian" and the "Foreign Plague": Mapping Racial Categories and Legal Geographies of Race in British Columbia, 1871-1925

Kimberly-Jo White, 2001: Negotiating Responsibility: Representations of Criminality and Mind-State in Canadian Law, Medicine and Society, 1920-1950

Jennifer Wood, 2000: Reinventing Governance : A Study of Transformations in the Ontario Provincial Police

Kirsten Kramar, 2000: Unwilling Mothers and Unwanted Babies: 'Infanticide' and Medico-Legal Responsibility in 20th Century Canadian Legal Discourse

Kim Varma, 2000: Exploring Age and Maturity in Youth Justice

Stephane Leman-Langlois, 2000: Constructing Post-Conflict Justice: The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission as an Ongoing Invention of Reconciliation and Truth

Anna Pratt, 2000: A Political Anatomy of Detention and Deportation in Canada

Voula Marinos, 2000: The Multiple Dimensions of Punishment: 'Intermediate' Sanctions and Interchangeability with Imprisonment

Jane Sprott 1999: Views of the Punishment of Youth: The Dimensions of Punitiveness

Benedikt Fischer, 1998: "Community policing" : a study of local policing, order and control

Kelly Hannah-Moffat, 1997: From Christian maternalism to risk technologies, penal powers and women's knowledges in the governance of female prisons

Willem De Lint, 1997: Shaping the subject of policing, autonomy, regulation and the police constable

Tammy Landau, 1994: Policing and security in four remote aboriginal communities: a challenge to coercive models of police work

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Mitch macdonald successfully defends his phd thesis.

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Graduate students

Congratulations to Mitch Macdonald on the successful defence of his PhD thesis "Folk theory in organized crime”.

A number of grand narratives characterize organized crime in popular culture. The most common of which is that criminal organizations “on paper” resemble the formal corporate hierarchy of large multinational corporations. Another is that criminal networks resemble intricate, messy webs of connections that consist of layers upon layers of different types of relationships. A third is the classic “rise and fall” narrative that describes the life-course trajectories of 1950s mobsters, many of whom came-of-age during the prohibition era. For each grand narrative, however, there is a counter-narrative. First, criminal organizations resemble informal criminal networks, not the formal corporate hierarchy of big business. Second, criminal networks, for the most part, consist of unidimensional relationships, and not different types of relations. Third, criminal trajectories in organized crime do not persist throughout the entire life-course, but only for a couple of decades.

The sharp contrast of the grand narratives in comparison to their counter-narratives leaves many questions. Is the formal hierarchy of the mafia independent of the informal criminal networks that emerge outside of it? Are criminal networks truly webs of different types of interdependent relationships, or more rudimentary in design, and what effect, if any, do those relations have on group behavior? Is there one uniform life-course persistent criminal trajectory in organized crime, or do different life-course narratives describe the criminal trajectories of different groups?

In this thesis, I test each of those three research questions. To do so, I use police records from historic criminal investigations into New York City’s mafia during the 1950s. The police files present unique insights into the formal hierarchy of the mafia and the informal criminal networks of hundreds of suspects; different types of criminal, social, and business relationships that represent different layers to their criminal networks; and the criminal histories of suspects provide insights into life-course narratives. Findings do not support the true-or-false dichotomy of grand narratives or the counter-narratives; rather, the grand narratives effectively characterize some cases, but do not generalize to every case. The main findings illustrate the differences in the structure of criminal organizations, differences in the depths of the relationships that connect criminal associates, and group differences in criminal trajectories.

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