essay on culture sociology

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3.1 Culture and the Sociological Perspective

Learning objectives.

• Describe examples of how culture influences behavior.
• Explain why sociologists might favor cultural explanations of behavior over biological explanations.

As this evidence on kissing suggests, what seems to us a very natural, even instinctual act turns out not to be so natural and biological after all. Instead, kissing seems best understood as something we learn to enjoy from our culture , or the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts (material objects) that are part of a society. Because society, as defined in Chapter 1 “Sociology and the Sociological Perspective” , refers to a group of people who live in a defined territory and who share a culture, it is obvious that culture is a critical component of any society.

If the culture we learn influences our beliefs and behaviors, then culture is a key concept to the sociological perspective. Someone who grows up in the United States differs in many ways, some of them obvious and some of them not so obvious, from someone growing up in China, Sweden, South Korea, Peru, or Nigeria. Culture influences not only language but the gestures we use when we interact, how far apart we stand from each other when we talk, and the values we consider most important for our children to learn, to name just a few. Without culture, we could not have a society.

The profound impact of culture becomes most evident when we examine behaviors or conditions that, like kissing, are normally considered biological in nature. Consider morning sickness and labor pains, both very familiar to pregnant women before and during childbirth, respectively. These two types of discomfort have known biological causes, and we are not surprised that so many pregnant women experience them. But we would be surprised if the husbands of pregnant women woke up sick in the morning or experienced severe abdominal pain while their wives gave birth. These men are neither carrying nor delivering a baby, and there is no logical—that is, biological—reason for them to suffer either type of discomfort.

And yet scholars have discovered several traditional societies in which men about to become fathers experience precisely these symptoms. They are nauseous during their wives’ pregnancies, and they experience labor pains while their wives give birth. The term couvade refers to these symptoms, which do not have any known biological origin. Yet the men feel them nonetheless, because they have learned from their culture that they should feel these types of discomfort (Doja, 2005). And because they should feel these symptoms, they actually do so. Perhaps their minds are playing tricks on them, but that is often the point of culture. As sociologists William I. and Dorothy Swaine Thomas (1928) once pointed out, if things are perceived as real, then they are real in their consequences. These men learn how they should feel as budding fathers, and thus they feel this way. Unfortunately for them, the perceptions they learn from their culture are real in their consequences.

The example of drunkenness further illustrates how cultural expectations influence a behavior that is commonly thought to have biological causes. In the United States, when people drink too much alcohol, they become intoxicated and their behavior changes. Most typically, their inhibitions lower and they become loud, boisterous, and even rowdy. We attribute these changes to alcohol’s biological effect as a drug on our central nervous system, and scientists have documented how alcohol breaks down in our body to achieve this effect.

Culture affects how people respond when they drink alcohol. Americans often become louder and lose their sexual inhibitions when they drink, but people in some societies studied by anthropologists often respond very differently, with many never getting loud or not even enjoying themselves.

Melissa Wang – bp tourney – CC BY-SA 2.0.

This explanation of alcohol’s effect is OK as far as it goes, but it turns out that how alcohol affects our behavior depends on our culture. In some small, traditional societies, people drink alcohol until they pass out, but they never get loud or boisterous; they might not even appear to be enjoying themselves. In other societies, they drink lots of alcohol and get loud but not rowdy. In some societies, including our own, people lose sexual inhibitions as they drink, but in other societies they do not become more aroused. The cross-cultural evidence is very clear: alcohol as a drug does affect human behavior, but culture influences the types of effects that occur. We learn from our culture how to behave when drunk just as we learn how to behave when sober (McCaghy, Capron, Jamieson, & Carey, 2008).

Culture and Biology

These examples suggest that human behavior is more the result of culture than it is of biology. This is not to say that biology is entirely unimportant. As just one example, humans have a biological need to eat, and so they do. But humans are much less under the control of biology than any other animal species, including other primates such as monkeys and chimpanzees. These and other animals are governed largely by biological instincts that control them totally. A dog chases any squirrel it sees because of instinct, and a cat chases a mouse for the same reason. Different breeds of dogs do have different personalities, but even these stem from the biological differences among breeds passed down from one generation to another. Instinct prompts many dogs to turn around before they lie down, and it prompts most dogs to defend their territory. When the doorbell rings and a dog begins barking, it is responding to ancient biological instinct.

Because humans have such a large, complex central nervous system, we are less controlled by biology. The critical question then becomes, how much does biology influence our behavior? Predictably, scholars in different disciplines answer this question in different ways. Most sociologists and anthropologists would probably say that culture affects behavior much more than biology does. In contrast, many biologists and psychologists would give much more weight to biology. Advocating a view called sociobiology , some scholars say that several important human behaviors and emotions, such as competition, aggression, and altruism, stem from our biological makeup. Sociobiology has been roundly criticized and just as staunchly defended, and respected scholars continue to debate its premises (Freese, 2008).

Why do sociologists generally favor culture over biology? Two reasons stand out. First, and as we have seen, many behaviors differ dramatically among societies in ways that show the strong impact of culture. Second, biology cannot easily account for why groups and locations differ in their rates of committing certain behaviors. For example, what biological reason could explain why suicide rates west of the Mississippi River are higher than those east of it, to take a difference discussed in Chapter 2 “Eye on Society: Doing Sociological Research” , or why the U.S. homicide rate is so much higher than Canada’s? Various aspects of culture and social structure seem much better able than biology to explain these differences.

Many sociologists also warn of certain implications of biological explanations. First, they say, these explanations implicitly support the status quo. Because it is difficult to change biology, any problem with biological causes cannot be easily fixed. A second warning harkens back to a century ago, when perceived biological differences were used to justify forced sterilization and mass violence, including genocide, against certain groups. As just one example, in the early 1900s, some 70,000 people, most of them poor and many of them immigrants or African Americans, were involuntarily sterilized in the United States as part of the eugenics movement, which said that certain kinds of people were biologically inferior and must not be allowed to reproduce (Lombardo, 2008). The Nazi Holocaust a few decades later used a similar eugenics argument to justify its genocide against Jews, Catholics, gypsies, and gays (Kuhl, 1994). With this history in mind, some scholars fear that biological explanations of human behavior might still be used to support views of biological inferiority (York & Clark, 2007).

Key Takeaways

• Culture refers to the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that are part of any society.
• Because culture influences people’s beliefs and behaviors, culture is a key concept to the sociological perspective.
• Many sociologists are wary of biological explanations of behavior, in part because these explanations implicitly support the status quo and may be used to justify claims of biological inferiority.

For Your Review

• Have you ever traveled outside the United States? If so, describe one cultural difference you remember in the nation you visited.
• Have you ever traveled within the United States to a very different region (e.g., urban versus rural, or another part of the country) from the one in which you grew up? If so, describe one cultural difference you remember in the region you visited.
• Do you share the concern of many sociologists over biological explanations of behavior? Why or why not?

Doja, A. (2005). Rethinking the couvade . Anthropological Quarterly, 78, 917–950.

Freese, J. (2008). Genetics and the social science explanation of individual outcomes [Supplement]. American Journal of Sociology, 114, S1–S35.

Kuhl, S. (1994). The Nazi connection: Eugenics, American racism, and German national socialism . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Lombardo, P. A. (2008). Three generations, no imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme Court, and Buck v. Bell . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

McCaghy, C. H., Capron, T. A., Jamieson, J. D., & Carey, S. H. (2008). Deviant behavior: Crime, conflict, and interest groups . Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Thomas, W. I., & Thomas, D. S. (1928). The child in America: Behavior problems and programs . New York, NY: Knopf.

York, R., & Clark, B. (2007). Gender and mathematical ability: The toll of biological determinism. Monthly Review, 59, 7–15.

Sociology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Discuss the major theoretical approaches to cultural interpretation

Music, fashion, technology, and values—all are products of culture. But what do they mean? How do sociologists perceive and interpret culture based on these material and nonmaterial items? Let’s finish our analysis of culture by reviewing them in the context of three theoretical perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

Functionalists view society as a system in which all parts work—or function—together to create society as a whole. They often use the human body as an analogy. Looking at life in this way, societies need culture to exist . Cultural norms function to support the fluid operation of society, and cultural values guide people in making choices. Just as members of a society work together to fulfill a society’s needs, culture exists to meet its members’ social and personal needs.

Functionalists also study culture in terms of values. For example, education is highly valued in the U.S. The culture of education—including material culture such as classrooms, textbooks, libraries, educational technology, dormitories and non-material culture such as specific teaching approaches—demonstrates how much emphasis is placed on the value of educating a society’s members. In contrast, if education consisted of only providing guidelines and some study material without the other elements, that would demonstrate that the culture places a lower value on education.

Functionalists view the different categories of culture as serving many functions. Having membership in a culture, a subculture, or a counterculture brings camaraderie and social cohesion and benefits the larger society by providing places for people who share similar ideas.

Conflict theorists, however, view social structure as inherently unequal, based on power differentials related to issues like class, gender, race, and age. For a conflict theorist, established educational methods are seen as reinforcing the dominant societal culture and issues of privilege. The historical experiences of certain groups— those based upon race, sex, or class, for instance, or those that portray a negative narrative about the dominant culture—are excluded from history books. For a long time, U.S. History education omitted the assaults on Native American people and society that were part of the colonization of the land that became the United States. A more recent example is the recognition of historical events like race riots and racially based massacres like the Tulsa Massacre, which was widely reported when it occurred in 1921 but was omitted from many national historical accounts of that period of time. When an episode of HBO’s Watchmen showcased the event in stunning and horrific detail, many people expressed surprise that it had occurred and it hadn’t been taught or discussed (Ware 2019).

Historical omission is not restricted to the U.S. North Korean students learn of their benevolent leader without information about his mistreatment of large portions of the population. According to defectors and North Korea experts, while famines and dire economic conditions are obvious, state media and educational agencies work to ensure that North Koreans do not understand how different their country is from others (Jacobs 2019).

Inequities exist within a culture’s value system and become embedded in laws, policies, and procedures. This inclusion leads to the oppression of the powerless by the powerful. A society’s cultural norms benefit some people but hurt others. Women were not allowed to vote in the U.S. until 1920, making it hard for them to get laws passed that protected their rights in the home and in the workplace. Same-sex couples were denied the right to marry in the U.S. until 2015. Elsewhere around the world, same-sex marriage is only legal in 31 of the planet’s 195 countries.

At the core of conflict theory is the effect of economic production and materialism. Dependence on technology in rich nations versus a lack of technology and education in poor nations. Conflict theorists believe that a society’s system of material production has an effect on the rest of culture. People who have less power also have fewer opportunities to adapt to cultural change. This view contrasts with the perspective of functionalism. Where functionalists would see the purpose of culture—traditions, folkways, values—as helping individuals navigate through life and societies run smoothly, conflict theorists examine socio-cultural struggles, including the power and privilege created for some by using and reinforcing a dominant culture that sustains their position in society.

Symbolic interactionism is the sociological perspective that is most concerned with the face-to-face interactions and cultural meanings between members of society. It is considered a micro-level analysis. Instead of looking how access is different between the rich and poor, interactionists see culture as being created and maintained by the ways people interact and in how individuals interpret each other’s actions. In this perspective, people perpetuate cultural ways. Proponents of this theory conceptualize human interaction as a continuous process of deriving meaning from both objects in the environment and the actions of others. Every object and action has a symbolic meaning, and language serves as a means for people to represent and communicate interpretations of these meanings to others. Symbolic interactionists perceive culture as highly dynamic and fluid, as it is dependent on how meaning is interpreted and how individuals interact when conveying these meanings. Interactionists research changes in language. They study additions and deletions of words, the changing meaning of words, and the transmission of words in an original language into different ones.

We began this chapter by asking, “What is culture?” Culture is comprised of values, beliefs, norms, language, practices, and artifacts of a society. Because culture is learned, it includes how people think and express themselves. While we may like to consider ourselves individuals, we must acknowledge the impact of culture on us and our way of life. We inherit language that shapes our perceptions and patterned behavior, including those of family, friends, faith, and politics.

To an extent, culture is a social comfort. After all, sharing a similar culture with others is precisely what defines societies. Nations would not exist if people did not coexist culturally. There could be no societies if people did not share heritage and language, and civilization would cease to function if people did not agree on similar values and systems of social control.

Culture is preserved through transmission from one generation to the next, but it also evolves through processes of innovation, discovery, and cultural diffusion. As such, cultures are social constructions. The society approves or disapproves of items or ideas, which are therefore included or not in the culture. We may be restricted by the confines of our own culture, but as humans we have the ability to question values and make conscious decisions. No better evidence of this freedom exists than the amount of cultural diversity around the world. The more we study another culture, the better we become at understanding our own.

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Essays on the Sociology of Culture

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Karl Mannheim was one of the leading sociologists of the twentieth century. Essays on the Sociology of Culture , originally published in 1956, was one of his most important books. In it he sets out his ideas of intellectuals as producers of culture and explores the possibilities of a democratization of culture. This new edition includes a superb new preface by Bryan Turner which sets Mannheim's study in the appropriate historical and intellectual context and explains why his thought on culture remains essential for students engaged in debates about mass culture, the politics of culture and postmodernity.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter | 13  pages, introduction, part | 75  pages, towards the sociology of the mind, chapter | 11  pages, first approach to the subject, chapter | 34  pages, the false and the proper concepts of history and society, chapter | 23  pages, the proper and improper concept of the mind, chapter | 6  pages, an outline of the sociology of the mind, chapter | 1  pages, recapitulation: the sociology of the mind as an area of inquiry, part | 80  pages, the problem of the intelligentsia, part | 76  pages, the democratization of culture 1, chapter | 4  pages, some problems of political democracy at the stage of its full development, chapter | 72  pages, the problem of democratization as a general cultural phenomenon.

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Karl Mannheim was one of the leading sociologists of the twentieth century. Essays on the Sociology of Culture , originally published in 1956, was one of his most important books. In it he sets out his ideas of intellectuals as producers of culture and explores the possibilities of a democratization of culture. This new edition includes a superb new preface by Bryan Turner which sets Mannheim's study in the appropriate historical and intellectual context and explains why his thought on culture remains essential for students engaged in debates about mass culture, the politics of culture and postmodernity.

Table of Contents

Karl Mannheim

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Culture in Sociology (Definition, Types and Features)

Sourabh Yadav (MA)

Sourabh Yadav is a freelance writer & filmmaker. He studied English literature at the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University. You can find his work on The Print, Live Wire, and YouTube.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Culture, as used in sociology, is the “way of life” of a particular group of people: their values, beliefs, norms, etc.

Think of a typical day in your life. You wake up, get ready, and then leave for school or work. Once the day is over, you probably spend your time with family/friends or pursue your hobbies. 

Almost every aspect of this—your means of travel, how you behave among your colleagues, or what kind of recreation you prefer—comes under culture. It is something that we acquire socially and plays a huge role in shaping who we are.

Sociologists have come up with various theories about culture (why it exists, how it functions, etc.), which we will discuss later. But before that, let us learn about the concept in more detail and look at some examples.

Sociological Definition of Culture

Edward Tylor defined culture as 

“that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” (1871)

Another definition comes from Scott, who sees culture as “all that in human society which is socially rather than biologically transmitted” (2014). 

Since the beginning of civilization, humans have lived together in communities and developed common ways of dealing with life (acquiring food, raising children, etc.). These common ways are what make culture. 

Culture consists of both intangible and tangible things. The former is known as nonmaterial culture, which includes things like ideas or values of a society. In contrast, material culture has a physical existence, such as a clothing item. 

Both nonmaterial and material are linked because physical items often symbolize cultural ideas (Little, 2016). For example, you wear a suit (not a pair of shorts) to a business meeting, which is linked to the workplace values of formality & decorum.

Two of the most important elements of culture are its values & beliefs. Values refer to what a society considers good and just: individuality, for example, is a key value in most Western countries. Beliefs are the convictions that people hold to be true, such as the American belief that hard work can make anybody successful.

Values and beliefs are deeply entrenched in a culture, and going against them can have consequences. These can range from minor cultural sanctions (say being frowned upon) to major legal actions. In contrast, upholding values & beliefs leads to social approval. 

Cultural values differ across cultures. The individualism of Western cultures seems solipsistic & arrogant to many Non-Western cultures, who instead value collectivism. Besides such variations, values also evolve with time.

Culture vs Society

The terms “culture” and “society” are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, but they refer to different things.

Society refers to a group of people who live together in a common territory & share a culture. This common territory can be any definable region, say a small neighborhood or a large country. 

When we use the term “society”, we are referring to social structures & their organization.

Culture, in contrast, is the “way of life” of a group of people; it consists of values, beliefs, and artifacts. 

For example, in the United States, African-Americans have historically been oppressed, and even today, they often do not get equal opportunities. Here, we are talking about social structures, which include race and class. 

African-American culture has—such as the literary works of Zora Neale Hurston or the jazz music of Duke Ellington—developed in response to these (unfair) social structures. So, both society & culture are mutually connected; neither can exist without the other.

Features of Cultures

The following are 10 key features of culture that we explore in sociology:

• Symbols: Symbols can be words, gestures, or objects that carry particular meanings recognized by those who share the same culture. For instance, the bald eagle functions as a symbol of freedom and authority in American culture .
• Language: Language is a key aspect of culture, as it is the means of communication that conveys cultural heritage and values. For example, the French language, rich in literature and philosophy, reveals much about French culture’s emphasis on art, intellect, and romance.
• Rituals and Traditions: These are practices or ceremonies that are regularly performed in a culture and bear symbolic meaning. An example of a ritual would be Diwali, the festival of lights celebrated by Hindus, symbolizes the spiritual victory of light over darkness, good over evil.
• Norms: Norms are behavioral standards and expectations that culture sets. In British culture, for instance, queueing is a significant societal norm, signifying order and fairness. See: cultural norms .
• Values: These are the learned beliefs that guide individual and collective behavior and decisions, such as respect for human rights evident in many democratic societies. See: cultural values .
• Social Structures: Social structures are the arranged relationships and patterned interactions between members of a culture, like the extended family system prevalent in many Latin American cultures.
• Artifacts: Physical objects or architectural structures that represent cultural accomplishments, such as the Pyramids in Egypt representing ancient Egyptian civilization. See: cultural artifacts .
• Rules and Laws: Codified principles that guide societal behavior. For example, the constitution in the U.S. reflects its cultural emphasis on democracy and individual freedom.
• Religion and Spirituality: Beliefs about a higher power, rituals related to this belief, and moral codes derived from these beliefs. Buddhism, for instance, is a significant part of East Asian cultures.
• Food and Diet: Specific to each culture, these are dietary habits and special cuisines, like the Mediterranean diet filled with seafood, olives, and vegetables, reflecting coastal cultures of Greece and Italy.

Types of Culture in Sociology

• National Culture: This represents the shared customs, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a nation, for instance, the Brazilian culture marked by energetic music and vibrant festivals.
• Subculture : A cultural group existing within larger cultures distinguished by their unique practices and beliefs. For example, The Amish in the United States have a distinct lifestyle centered around simplicity and community.
• Counterculture : This represents groups that reject mainstream norms and values, seeking to challenge the status quo. The Punk movement of the 1970s in the UK, known for its rebellious attitudes and alternative fashion, is a clear example. Countercultures often cause widespread moral panic among the dominant culture in a society .
• Folk Culture : Traditional, community-based customs representing the shared cultural heritage, such as folk music and folklore of Irish culture.
• Pop Culture : Mainstream trends influenced by mass media, fashion, and celebrities, like K-Pop’s influence on global music and fashion trends.
• High Culture : Artifacts and activities considered ‘refined’ or ‘sophisticated’ by elite society, such as opera and ballet in European cultures (Bourdieu, 2010). This is contrasted to low culture , which represents the culture of the working-class.
• Material Culture : Tangible artifacts of human society like architecture, fashion, or food. The medieval castles peppered throughout France offer insight into its material culture. This is of great concern, for example, to archaeologists.
• Non-Material Culture : Intangible aspects of a culture, such as values and norms. The continued emphasis on politeness in British culture is an example of this. This is of great concern, for example, to sociocultural anthropologists.
• Professional Culture: Standards and behaviors specific to a particular profession. The Hippocratic Oath and an emphasis on patient care are integral to medical culture.
• Organizational Culture: Refers to the shared values, beliefs, and behaviors that form the unique social and psychological environment of an organization. Google’s culture of innovation and employee freedom reflects this.

For More, Read: 17 Types of Culture

Theoretical Approaches to Culture in Sociology

Sociologists have come up with various theories of culture, explaining why and how they exist. 

1. Functionalism

Functionalism sees society as a group of elements that function together to maintain a stable whole.

Émile Durkheim, one of the founders of sociology, used an organic analogy to explain this. In a biological creature, all the constituent body parts work together to maintain an organic whole; in the same way, the parts of a society work together to ensure its stability. 

Under such a view, culture is something that helps society to exist as a stable entity: cultural norms, for example, guide people’s behavior and ensure that they appropriately. Talcott Parsons said that culture performs “latent pattern maintenance”, meaning that it maintains social patterns of behavior and allows orderly change (Little).

To put it in one sentence, culture ensures that our “way of life” remains stable. Functionalism can provide excellent insights into all cultural expressions, even ones that seem quite irrational. For example, sports in themselves may seem quite “useless”.

What exactly is the point of trying to hit a ball far or kicking one into a net? Functionalists would explain that sports brings people together and creates a collective experience. It provides an outlet for aggressive energies, teaches us the value of teamwork, and of course, makes us physically fit.

Real culture allows a given society to see how far its aspirations lie from its achievements, allowing it to take redressal steps.

Read More about Functionalism in Sociology Here

2. Conflict Theory

Conflict theory focuses on the power relations that exist in society and believes that culture is entrenched in this power play.

These sociologists emphasize the unequal nature of social structures, and how they are related to factors of class, race, gender, etc. For them, culture is another tool for reinforcing and perpetuating these differences.

A key focus of conflict theory is on critiquing “ideology”, which is seen as a set of ideas that support or conceal the existing power relations in society. For example, as we discussed earlier, one of the key beliefs in the United States is the “American Dream”: anyone can work hard to achieve success.

But this belief hardly takes into account larger social factors (historical oppression, generational wealth, etc.). For a white, middle-class man, it may certainly be possible to work hard and achieve incredible success. But for a poor black woman, the American dream is mostly a myth. 

Case Study: Conflict Theory and Culture

Conflict Theorists (and some functionalists) argue that there are two types of culture: ideal and real. The ideal culture is the culture that society strives toward – it’s the standard that maintains a goal of society. This is contrasted to real culture , which sociologist Max Weber says is the real-life manifestation of culture. This includes the elements of oppression and inequalities, which ideal culture does not consider. For example, if ideal culture talks about democracy, real culture points out how politics is biased toward privileged people.

3. Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism focuses on face-to-face interactions of individuals and sees culture as an outcome of these. 

Such sociologists believe that human interactions are a continuous process of finding meaning from the actions of others and the objects in the environment (Little). All these actions & objects have a “symbolic meaning”.

Culture is how this symbolic meaning is shared and interpreted. Symbolic interactions also believe that our social world is quite dynamic: instead of obsessing over rigid structures, they emphasize how situations and meanings are constantly changing.

For a symbolic interactionist, something as simple as a t-shirt communicates a symbolic meaning. They would argue that clothes do not simply play a “functional” role (protection) but also express something about the wearer. 

See Also: Examples of Symbolic Interactionism

Culture includes the values, practices, and artifacts of a group of people; it is our shared “way of life”.

Most human behavior —from what we eat at breakfast to when we go back to sleep—is socially acquired through culture. It gives us a shared sense of “meaning” and guides human behavior, helping to maintain a stable society. However, it is also entrenched in power relations and can both enforce/challenge those relations. 

Little, William. (2016). Introduction to Sociology – 1st Canadian Edition . OpenEd.

Murdock, George P. (1949). Social Structure . Macmillan.

Scott, Taylor. (2014). A Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford.

Tylor, E. B. (1871). Primitive culture: Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art, and custom. J. Murray.

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Sociology 101

This lesson introduces how sociologists think about culture. Culture is one of the fundamental elements of social life and, thus, an essential topic in sociology. Many of the concepts presented here will come up again in almost every subsequent lesson. Because culture is learned so slowly and incrementally, we are often unaware of how it becomes ingrained in our ways of thinking. Applying the sociological perspective to culture requires us to recognize the strangeness in our own culture. This lesson outlines the basics of studying culture and allows you to test potential relationships between television depictions of families and marriage rates. Although culture is familiar to us, you should be seeing it in a new and different way by the time you finish this lesson.

Learning Objectives ¶

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Describe how sociologists define the components of culture.

Identify variation in culture and cultural change.

Analyze the relationship between culture and family.

Deadlines ¶

Be sure to hand these in before the deadline

Inquizitive Chapter 3 (Thursday at 9:30am)

Obesity case study (Sunday at 10:00pm)

Disclosure reflection (Sunday at 10:00pm)

Class Lecture Recorded 2/9. Slides

Cultures, Subcultures, & Countercultures

Symbols, Values, & Norms

Discuss (Thursday during class): ¶

Disclosure ¶.

is an unprecedented, eye-opening look at transgender depictions in film and television, revealing how Hollywood simultaneously reflects and manufactures our deepest anxieties about gender. Leading trans thinkers and creatives, including Laverne Cox, Lilly Wachowski, Yance Ford, Mj Rodriguez, Jamie Clayton, and Chaz Bono, share their reactions and resistance to some of Hollywood’s most beloved moments. Grappling with films like A Florida Enchantment (1914), Dog Day Afternoon, The Crying Game, and Boys Don’t Cry, and with shows like The Jeffersons, The L-Word, and Pose, they trace a history that is at once dehumanizing, yet also evolving, complex, and sometimes humorous. What emerges is a fascinating story of dynamic interplay between trans representation on screen, society’s beliefs, and the reality of trans lives. Reframing familiar scenes and iconic characters in a new light, director Sam Feder invites viewers to confront unexamined assumptions, and shows how what once captured the American imagination now elicit new feelings. Disclosure provokes a startling revolution in how we see and understand trans people.. Official Description

We will be applying our sociological tools to the film Disclosure on Netflix. We will watch it together starting Thursday during class.

Be sure to have the movie ready to roll at the start of class.

Login to the course Slack at 9:30am and say hi to your group!

Case Study: Obesity ¶

In this assignment, you will read about a sociological study that examined whether obesity spreads like a contagion through social networks. You will then be asked five questions about the research. These case studies help you develop your ability to understand and evaluate social science research and make connections between research and our theoretical toolkit.

Note: Once you start, you only have 30 minutes to complete this assignment. Students with ARS accomodations may have additional time.

You can find the case study on Sakai under Tests and Quizzes. It is only available during this lesson week.

Questions ¶

If you have any questions at all about what you are supposed to do on this assignment, please remember I am here to help. Reach out any time so I can support your success.

Post it in the Slack #questions channel!

Signup for virtual office hours !

Email me or your TA.

Lesson Keywords ¶

ethnocentrism

cultural relativism

material culture

symbolic culture

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

social control

Dominant culture

counterculture

ideal culture

real culture

cultural diffusion

cultural imperialism

The least you need to know ¶

Theoretical perspectives and culture

Extra Resources ¶

Teaching videos ¶.

Overview of culture (Khan Academy)

Culture and society (Khan Academy)

Subculture vs counterculture (Khan Academy)

Culture lag and culture shock (Khan Academy)

Diffusion (Khan Academy)

What is normal? Exploring folkways, mores, and taboos (Khan Academy)

Other Resources ¶

To Code Switch or Not to Code Switch? (8 minute TEDx Talk by Katelynn Duggins)

Tropes vs. Women in Video Games (Anita Sarkeesian’s series of video essays on gender and the gamer community)

The Story of Stuff (Annie Leonard on where our stuff comes from.]

Sociology, Cultural Studies and the Cultural Turn

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• Gregor McLennan  

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For 40 years, the relationship between sociology and cultural studies has posed central questions of self-definition and practice for both projects. By orchestrating a range of manifesto-style statements — the full literature can only be gestured towards — this chapter offers an analytical profile of the unfolding dealings between the two formations, starting with the prevailing discourse around sociology at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) in the 1970s (‘Birmingham’). The second sketch — ‘postmodern con-juncturalism’ — takes as background the worldwide growth of cultural studies as an undergraduate quasi-discipline, involving the active displacement of disciplinary sociology. In a third movement —‘sociological readjustment’ — the tables are ostensibly turned once again, but at this point the whole notion of the ‘cultural turn’, which rhetorically governs most of the debate, requires critical focus. In the years after 2000, a mood of ‘pragmatic reflexivity’ emerges in cultural studies and sociology alike, in which, despite latent tensions, various balances are struck between culture and economy, theory and method, political purpose and academic professionalism. With these developments, the prospect of a more principled partnership between the ‘warring twins’ (D. Inglis, 2007) could be glimpsed. However, several recent currents of thought and research are undermining the ‘culture and society’ problematic that has sustained most versions of the sociology-cultural studies encounter.

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Cultural Sociology in Scandinavia

The “Cultural Turn” and the Changing Face of the Humanities in Poland

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McLennan, G. (2014). Sociology, Cultural Studies and the Cultural Turn. In: Holmwood, J., Scott, J. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Sociology in Britain. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137318862_23

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Essays on the Sociology of Culture

• K. Mannheim
• Published 1992

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The sociology of knowledge: a preliminary analysis on the sociological approach to the development of islamic religious scıences, criticism of marxism as a proto-theory of cultural capital and the “new class”: j. w. machajski’s theory of intelligentsia, the new sociology, from political to social generations, authoritative knowledge and heteronomy in classical sociological theory*, reflections on the theatrical nature of a human being: suggestion and its hidden potential, from political to social generations: a critical reappraisal of mannheim’s classical approach, remarks on technology and culture, the protestant ethic and the spirit of political power: sociopolitical conditions underlying the development of calvinism, on the civilising of objectification. language use, discursive patterns and the psychological expertise of work planning, related papers.

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Essays on the Sociology of Culture

Karl mannheim , bryan s. turner  ( foreword ) , professor bryan s turner  ( foreword ).

First published January 1, 1956

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Sociological Imagination

Essays on Sociological Imagination

Sociological imagination essay topic examples, argumentative essays.

Argumentative sociological imagination essays require you to present and defend a viewpoint on a sociological issue or concept. Consider these topic examples:

• 1. Argue for or against the idea that social media has transformed the way we form and maintain relationships, considering its impact on social interactions and personal identity.
• 2. Defend your perspective on the role of economic inequality in shaping opportunities and life outcomes, and discuss potential solutions to address this issue.

Example Introduction Paragraph for an Argumentative Sociological Imagination Essay: The sociological imagination allows us to examine how individual experiences are intertwined with larger societal forces. In this essay, I will argue that the rise of social media has redefined our notions of friendship and identity, fundamentally altering the way we connect and interact with others.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for an Argumentative Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, our sociological examination of the impact of social media on relationships highlights the need for a nuanced understanding of modern social interactions. As we navigate this evolving landscape, we must consider the profound influence of technology on our lives.

Compare and Contrast Essays

Compare and contrast sociological imagination essays involve analyzing the differences and similarities between sociological concepts, theories, or societal phenomena. Consider these topics:

• 1. Compare and contrast the perspectives of functionalism and conflict theory in explaining the role of education in society, emphasizing their views on social inequality and the education system.
• 2. Analyze the differences and similarities between rural and urban communities in terms of social structure, opportunities, and challenges, highlighting the impact of location on individuals' lives.

Example Introduction Paragraph for a Compare and Contrast Sociological Imagination Essay: Sociological theories provide diverse lenses through which we can analyze and understand society. In this essay, we will compare and contrast the perspectives of functionalism and conflict theory in their explanations of the role of education in shaping social inequalities and the education system.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for a Compare and Contrast Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, the comparison and contrast of functionalism and conflict theory underscore the complexity of educational systems and their implications for social inequality. As we delve into these theories, we are reminded of the multifaceted nature of sociological analysis.

Descriptive Essays

The sociological imagination prompts us to explore the complex interactions within society and culture. For those looking to deepen their analysis and needing support to craft thorough and insightful examinations, there are specialized services available. Read about the best websites where you can do your homework with the help of experts, ensuring academic success as you navigate these intricate topics.

Descriptive essays on sociological imagination allow you to provide in-depth accounts and analyses of societal phenomena, social issues, or individual experiences. Here are some topic ideas:

• 1. Describe the impact of globalization on cultural diversity, exploring how it has shaped the cultural landscape and individuals' sense of identity.
• 2. Paint a vivid picture of the challenges faced by immigrant communities in adapting to a new cultural and social environment, emphasizing their experiences and resilience.

Example Introduction Paragraph for a Descriptive Sociological Imagination Essay: The sociological imagination encourages us to delve into the intricate dynamics of society and culture. In this essay, I will immerse you in the transformative effects of globalization on cultural diversity, examining how it has redefined our identities and cultural experiences.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for a Descriptive Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, the descriptive exploration of the impact of globalization on cultural diversity reveals the interconnectedness of our world and the evolving nature of cultural identities. As we navigate this globalized society, we are challenged to embrace diversity and promote intercultural understanding.

Persuasive Essays

Persuasive sociological imagination essays involve convincing your audience of the significance of a sociological issue, theory, or perspective, and advocating for a particular viewpoint or action. Consider these persuasive topics:

• 1. Persuade your readers of the importance of gender equality in the workplace, emphasizing the societal benefits of promoting diversity and inclusion.
• 2. Argue for the integration of sociological education into school curricula, highlighting the value of fostering sociological thinking skills for informed citizenship.

Example Introduction Paragraph for a Persuasive Sociological Imagination Essay: Sociological insights have the power to shape our understanding of pressing issues. In this persuasive essay, I will make a compelling case for the significance of promoting gender equality in the workplace, underscoring its positive effects on society as a whole.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for a Persuasive Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, the persuasive argument for gender equality in the workplace highlights the broader societal benefits of creating inclusive and diverse environments. As we advocate for change, we are reminded of the transformative potential of sociological perspectives in addressing contemporary challenges.

Narrative Essays

Narrative sociological imagination essays allow you to share personal stories, experiences, or observations related to sociological concepts, theories, or societal phenomena. Explore these narrative essay topics:

• 1. Narrate a personal experience of cultural adaptation or encountering cultural diversity, reflecting on how it has shaped your perspectives and understanding of society.
• 2. Share a story of social activism or involvement in a community project aimed at addressing a specific societal issue, highlighting the impact of collective action.

Example Introduction Paragraph for a Narrative Sociological Imagination Essay: The sociological imagination encourages us to explore our personal experiences within the broader context of society. In this narrative essay, I will take you through my personal journey of encountering cultural diversity and reflect on how it has influenced my worldview and understanding of society.

Example Conclusion Paragraph for a Narrative Sociological Imagination Essay: In conclusion, the narrative of my cultural adaptation experience underscores the transformative power of personal encounters with diversity. As we embrace the sociological imagination, we are reminded that our stories contribute to the broader narrative of societal change.

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The Role of Sociological Imagination in Our Lives

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The concept of sociological imagination involves the ability to step outside of our familiar daily routines and examine them from a fresh and critical perspective. It encourages us to think beyond the confines of our personal experiences and consider the broader social, cultural, and historical factors that shape our lives.

The phrase was introduced by C. Wright Mills, an American sociologist, in his 1959 publication "The Sociological Imagination." Mills used this term to describe the unique perspective and understanding that sociology provides. He emphasized the importance of looking beyond individual experiences and examining the larger social structures and historical contexts that shape our lives.

The roots of sociological imagination can be traced back to earlier sociological thinkers such as Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber, who emphasized the importance of understanding society as a whole and the impact of social structures on individuals. Throughout the years, sociological imagination has evolved and expanded, with various scholars and researchers contributing to its development. It has become a fundamental tool for sociologists to analyze social issues, explore the intersections of individual lives and societal structures, and understand the complexities of human behavior. Today, sociological imagination continues to be a crucial concept in sociology, empowering individuals to critically analyze the social world and recognize the larger societal forces that shape their lives.

The application of sociological imagination encompasses a wide range of areas and disciplines, allowing us to understand and analyze various social phenomena, such as: Social Problems: Poverty, inequality, crime, and discrimination by understanding their underlying social structures and historical contexts. Public Policy: By analyzing social issues from a sociological perspective, policymakers can develop more informed and effective solutions. It helps in understanding the impact of policies on different social groups and anticipating their consequences. Education: Sociological imagination helps educators understand how social factors influence student experiences and academic outcomes. It highlights the significance of social class, race, gender, and other dimensions of inequality in educational settings, enabling educators to create inclusive and equitable learning environments. Health and Well-being: Applying sociological imagination to health allows us to recognize how social factors such as socioeconomic status, access to healthcare, and cultural norms impact individual and community well-being. Media and Culture: Sociological imagination aids in analyzing media representations, cultural practices, and popular trends. It helps us understand how media influences public opinion, shapes cultural values, and perpetuates or challenges social norms and stereotypes.

Functionalism, Conflict Theory, Symbolic Interactionism, Structuralism, Feminist Theory, Postmodernism.

The topic of sociological imagination holds immense importance as it allows us to go beyond our individual experiences and understand the broader social forces that shape our lives. It encourages critical thinking and helps us make connections between personal troubles and societal issues. By developing sociological imagination, we gain a deeper awareness of the social structures, cultural norms, and historical contexts that influence our thoughts, actions, and relationships. Sociological imagination enables us to challenge taken-for-granted assumptions and recognize the complexities of social life. It fosters empathy by helping us understand diverse perspectives and experiences. Furthermore, it empowers us to analyze social problems and inequalities, contributing to the pursuit of social justice and positive social change. The application of sociological imagination extends beyond academia, as it has practical implications for various fields such as policy-making, social work, and community development. It equips individuals with the skills to critically engage with the world, navigate complex social dynamics, and contribute to building more inclusive and equitable societies.

The topic of sociological imagination is essential for studying various social phenomena and understanding the intricate connections between individuals and society. Incorporating sociological imagination into the study process enhances critical thinking skills, expands analytical perspectives, and encourages a deeper comprehension of the social world. By utilizing sociological imagination, students can transcend individualistic explanations and recognize the broader social forces at play. It enables them to analyze social issues from multiple angles, considering historical, cultural, economic, and political factors that shape human behavior and social structures. This sociological lens challenges preconceived notions and encourages a more nuanced understanding of complex social phenomena. Moreover, the application of sociological imagination in study helps students develop empathy and cultural sensitivity by fostering an appreciation for diverse perspectives and experiences. It promotes a holistic view of society, emphasizing the interconnections between individuals and social institutions. By employing sociological imagination, students can better grasp the mechanisms of power, inequality, and social change, enabling them to contribute to informed decision-making, policy development, and social advocacy.

1. Hughes, E. C. (1963). Race relations and the sociological imagination. American Sociological Review, 879-890. (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2090308) 2. Mudge, S. L., & Chen, A. S. (2014). Political parties and the sociological imagination: Past, present, and future directions. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 305-330. (https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145632) 3. Denzin, N. K. (1990). Presidential address on the sociological imagination revisited. Sociological Quarterly, 31(1), 1-22. (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1990.tb00314.x) 4. Holliday, A. (1996). Developing a sociological imagination: Expanding ethnography in international English language education. Applied Linguistics, 17(2), 234-255. (https://academic.oup.com/applij/article-abstract/17/2/234/142850) 5. Durham, D. (2000). Youth and the social imagination in Africa: Introduction to parts 1 and 2. Anthropological quarterly, 73(3), 113-120. (https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/35/article/2059/summary) 6. Benjamin, R. (2016). Racial fictions, biological facts: Expanding the sociological imagination through speculative methods. Catalyst: Feminism, Theory, Technoscience. (https://oar.princeton.edu/handle/88435/pr1kc67) 7. Dannefer, D., Kelley-Moore, J., & Huang, W. (2016). Opening the social: Sociological imagination in life course studies. Handbook of the Life Course: Volume II, 87-110. (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-20880-0_4) 8. Horowitz, I. L. (1962). In Memoriam: The Sociological Imagination of C. Wright Mills. (https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/223270?journalCode=ajs)

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Cross-Cultural Psychology

The crisis of modern culture: it's not what you think, can we no longer understand the circumstances of our lives.

Posted June 29, 2024 | Reviewed by Ray Parker

• There is an ever-widening gap between society's “objective” culture and the “subjective” culture of persons.
• Individuals now depend on information provided by organizations. Skills become issues of access and choice.
• Public moral standards have softened into personal preferences. Values merge with self-interest.
• Such changes denote a shrinking capacity of individuals to understand and speak for the public good.

In a recent post, I discussed some famous answers to the question: “What’s wrong with life today?” Included in those answers were such themes as the decline of community, meaninglessness, marginality as powerlessness, money culture, and the “extravagant expectations” that many of us have. As might be imagined, other great thinkers have offered additional diagnoses, many of which I’ve recounted in my book Anatomies of Modern Discontent .

One of the most interesting explanations was provided by the German sociologist Georg Simmel. Writing during the early decades of the 20th century, Simmel pondered the changes in daily life he saw occurring all around him. A tradition-bound rural world was being lost—dominated by religious faith, local community, and intensely personal and sentimental relationships. In its stead, a colder market-based society, which prized individual achievement and social mobility, was arising. Cities were centers for the new ethic. Millions of strangers and semi-strangers wandered the streets, each aspiring to something better. Bureaucratic organizations, much like buildings and armies, became gigantic. Change was in the air.

A committed Berliner, Simmel loved the excitement and diversity of that urban milieu. However, he also saw that the progress he relished was problematic. Life, or so it seemed, was moving beyond human scale.

Simmel called the “crisis” of modern culture the increasing separation between objective and subjective culture. Objective culture is the set of publicly available resources, not only material items like buildings and machines but also symbolic ones like ideas, technologies, and values. That sphere of public creation was expanding at an accelerating rate. Falling ever farther behind was subjective culture, the sphere of knowledge, skills, and values held by individuals themselves. Essentially, people were losing control of the world they lived in.

It’s worth emphasizing that Simmel wrote during the early decades of the 20th century. He understood clearly the implications of automobiles and trains, assembly line production, technologized warfare, and the surge in scientific invention. Still to come was the world we know—with its airplanes, public radio broadcasts, sound-based movies, television, internet, and computer-managed processes.

Like Simmel, most of us are amazed by what people have accomplished collectively. We gape at the skyscrapers, travel on jet planes, and undergo the most complicated medical interventions. Our involvement in cell phones, global positioning systems, and cashless economic transactions is second nature to us now. But how much of these far-flung interactive systems do we understand? Have we become little more than button-pushers in a vast configuration of artifices that follow their own imperatives rather than the needs of their users?

In that spirit, let’s update Simmel to the 21st century.

Knowledge: Information bombardment

A key concept for Simmel is the “over-stimulation” of modern existence. Every day, we are bombarded with information, much of it an attempt to sell us some product or service. Media producers want us to consume “news,” the very modern notion that there are continually changing public events we as citizens should follow.

A century after Simmel’s death, these claims for our attention have expanded dramatically. We are expected to know of environmental catastrophes, governmental shifts, and military incursions from every corner of the earth. There are weather and sports reports. Add celebrity tittle-tattle, political jockeying, and spectacles of corporate malfeasance—movements in the stock market creep across the bottoms of our TV screens. There are “human interest” stories, perhaps about a missing dog or an athlete with a prosthetic leg. Like the proverbial weather, we talk about these things but can do little to change. Nor are we asked to remember much about them. Yesterday’s news is gone forever; there is only the clamor of the emerging present.

Advertisers' claims—pitches in mailed circulars, television promos, and magazine and website imagery—are beyond quantification. Most of us say we tune them out. Still, they insert themselves in our perceptual realm and distract us from other things we might be doing. Moreover, the collective effect of thousands of these ads each day is to shift our general sensibility. We should be “keeping up” with things. The “good life” can be purchased. Personal progress means having better possessions and experiences.

Emphasize the proliferating specialized forms of knowledge central to institutions such as education , law, medicine, science, and government. Clearly, we depend on experts who themselves have trouble keeping up with the latest developments and, indeed, may send us to a “specialist” of one sort or the other.

This is the world we’re used to. But it means that we know very little of the matters at hand. Huge organizations become the gatekeepers of knowledge. We enter their premises, sometimes with hat in hand, only dimly aware of the resources they possess. “Getting the answers” means having these supplied by strangers.

Skills: From control to access

Most of us have some awareness of the experiences of earlier generations on this continent, first Native Americans and then waves of immigrants who displaced the first peoples and “settled” those territories. We know those people depended on communities of similarly situated folk. Jobs like hunting, raising crops, making shelters, cooking, sewing, and raising children were things they did for themselves. It was a strenuous life, but they persevered.

Nowadays, we depend on specialized service providers for most of these jobs. A broken car is taken to the shop, a paid seamstress makes alterations, a plumber changes the pipes. The person operating as their own doctor or lawyer is considered a fool.

As consumers, what is our part of the modern bargain? It is to pay the experts for their services and perhaps complain if they don’t do these well enough. Pointedly, we no longer know how to do many of the tasks at issue. Our “skill,” if one can call it that, is discovering and choosing the workers in question.

Many would say that this is how life works in an advanced industrial society with its highly specialized division of labor. Fair enough. But acknowledge the dependency of the new arrangement. And entertain the idea that knowing how to cook a meal, sew a skirt, fix a leaky faucet, and grow one’s own vegetables is a broadening, rather than a shrinking, of personal capacity.

Values: From principles to preferences

For the most part, our ancestors possessed strong moral principles and standards for operating in the world. These values, which came from their parents, were reinforced by churches, schools, and the local community. In that sense, moral frameworks were public affairs.

We moderns tend to be less strict and less judgmental in our moral codes. Our assessments of right and wrong defer less to ancient traditions than our sense of what is appropriate to our current situation. We pride ourselves on being flexible and open-minded. Our judgments, as we see it, are personal rather than public matters.

Such changes are consistent with what Simmel called the cult of individuality that characterizes modern society. Many of us would say that shift is a good thing. After all, public judgments in the past could be very harsh and bigoted.

However, the softening of moral standards means that principles are drifting into attitudes or even preferences. Pointedly, principles are beliefs that are often uncomfortable, indeed, that force you to adjust to them. Preferences are much weaker amalgams of belief, feeling, and interest. Often, they are just statements of things we “want” to do. In that sense, we prefer one car type, breakfast cereal, or presidential candidate to another. At least, that’s how we feel today. Tomorrow, we may change.

Critical then to the modern dilemma is the question of how we decide what is right for ourselves—and for others. All too often, our frame of reference is simply the individual self, as a mix of personal ambitions and insights. The question of how to decide the wider society's future is beyond our ken.

In all these ways, people have found themselves unable to control the vast social and cultural settings they live in. Commonly, they content themselves with “living small,” focusing only on their immediate circle of family and friends. Their purchases and votes are just expressions of self-interest. That shrinking of human commitment is the crisis of modern culture.

Henricks, T. (2022). Anatomies of Modern Discontent: Visions from the Human Sciences . London and New York: Routledge.

Henricks, T. (2024). “What’s Wrong with Life Today? Here are Some Famous Answers.” www.psychologytoday.com . (Posted March 25, 2024.)

Simmel, G. (1997). Simmel on Culture . Edited by D. Frisby and M. Featherstone. London: Sage.

Thomas Henricks, Ph.D., is Danieley Professor of Sociology and Distinguished University Professor at Elon University.

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Essays on the sociology of culture

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