rice flour research paper

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Rice Flour: A Promising Food Material for Nutrition and Global Health

Affiliation.

1 Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University.
PMID: 31619613
DOI: 10.3177/jnsv.65.S13

Hunger and malnutrition, especially children, are still global issues today. Rice is a staple food for more than half of the world population and important nutritional source of not only carbohydrate but also protein. In recent aging societies, protein-energy malnutrition in elderly people emerges also as a social issue. Malnutrition in elderly people raises the risk of falling into age-related chronic diseases. Nutritional care can prevent elderly people from such age-related diseases. Rice and rice flour would be good foodstuff for preparation of diet suitable for and preferred by elderly people. Protein content of rice grains, like the other cereal grains, is less than 10% by weight, which is a little lower than meat and cheese, but higher than dairy milk and yoghurt. Nutritional quality of rice proteins is higher than the other cereal grains. Such relatively higher nutritional quality of rice proteins could be due to high copies of glutelin genes evolved from an ancestral gene common to soybean glycinin and resultant high content of legume-type seed storage proteins. Recently, rice flour became to be utilized for various processed food. The rice seed proteins as well as starch are accumulated in specific organelles termed protein bodies and amyloplast in the cells of endosperm and aleurone layer. By milling rice grains to flour particles consisting of protein and starch nanoparticles, processing characteristics of rice starch and proteins could be changed. To develop rice-based processed food for prevention of malnutrition, rice flour particles from various different rice sources could be blended for desired nutritional composition without spoiling the value of product food.

Keywords: 11S globulin; protein body; protein nutrition; rice flour; starch granule.

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Open access
Published: 26 April 2022

Influence of replacement of wheat flour by rice flour on rheo-structural changes, in vitro starch digestibility and consumer acceptability of low-gluten pretzels

Nusrat Jan ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6466-4533 1 ,
H. R. Naik 1 ,
Gousia Gani 1 ,
Omar Bashir 1 ,
Tawheed Amin 1 ,
Sajad Mohd Wani 1 &
Shakeel Ahmad Sofi 2

Food Production, Processing and Nutrition volume 4 , Article number: 9 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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This study aimed to access the influence of rice flour incorporation on various quality attributes of low-gluten wheat-based pretzels viz., functional, rheological, starch digestibility, color, textural and sensorial properties. Significant increase in swelling power (18.33 ± 0.51) and bulk density (0.58 ± 0.04) was observed in flour blend upon incorporation of rice flour, whereas, significant decrease in oil absorption capacity (0.62 ± 0.09), solubility index (6.72 ± 0.17), foaming capacity (9.67 ± 0.34), and foaming stability (3.39 ± 0.15) was recorded. Pasting properties of samples were studied using a Rapid Visco Analyser which indicated that all the pasting properties increased with an increase in rice flour incorporation. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic studies revealed no difference in the basic functional groups of flour blend upon the incorporation of rice flour, however, it had a pronounced effect on elastic modulus (G′) of flour blend. In vitro starch digestion characteristics revealed 7.23% surge in slowly digestible starch and 13.36% reduction in rapidly digestible starch of developed low-gluten pretzels upon the incorporation of rice flour. Apparent amylose content (27.3 ± 1.45) and resistant starch content (6.12 ± 0.97) increased and starch digestibility index (69.87 ± 1.72) decreased in developed low-gluten pretzels. In conclusion, the developed low-gluten pretzels had significantly ( p < 0.05) higher mineral profile and lightness ( L* ) and lower breaking strength in addition to having better overall acceptability. This study indicated that substituting wheat flour with rice flour up to a level of 35% affected the quality attributes of developed low-gluten pretzels.

Graphical abstract

Introduction

Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) has been used since time immemorial for the manufacture of several bakery items because of the presence of unique gluten protein which is responsible for providing the viscoelastic characteristics to dough. The two fractions of gluten-gliadins and glutenins give elastic and extensible properties to dough which is essential for producing good quality bakery products (Hamdani et al. 2020 ). Further, gluten is the main component of wheat which is responsible for bread and cake quality. However, gluten is responsible for celiac disease which is an autoimmune digestive disease caused by the digestion of gluten and thus, the sole treatment for this disease is consuming low-gluten or gluten-free diet. Therefore, the development of low-gluten products is imperative, it poses a major technological challenge. Nowadays, efforts are being made to identify now-wheat sources that could be utilized to replace wheat flour for the development of low-gluten bakery products. Such non-wheat flours are obtained from other cereals. Among them, rice flour is the most popular ingredient and could be used as a substitute for wheat flour (Cornejo & Rosell 2015 ).

Rice ( Oryza sativa L.), the principal diet for half of the global population (Amin et al. 2020 ) contains starch as the main ingredient, which is considered the principal constituent for most food preparations (Ashwar et al. 2016 ). The quality characteristics of rice-based foodstuffs including texture (Li et al. 2016 ), pasting, gelatinization (Jane et al. 1999 ), etc. are attributed to the starch structure. The starch molecule consists of amylose and amylopectin. The main factor that determines the functional and physicochemical characteristics of starch is the ratio of amylose and amylopectin (Ritika et al. 2010 ). Keeping the rate of digestion into consideration, starch has often been classified as resistant, slowly digestible, and rapidly digestible starches (Ashwar et al. 2016 ). Rice flour can be used as one of the major components for the manufacture of ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals and snacks because of the presence of a large amount of starch and excellent expansion characteristics (Ryu 2004 ). Furthermore, rice has various advantages over other cereals viz., low in fat and sodium content, cholesterol-free, non-allergenic, and a high content of easily digestible carbohydrates (Amin et al. 2020 ). The lack of gluten in rice flour gives an additional advantage, making it a promising alternative to wheat flour in bakery products, specifically for those associated with celiac disease (Amin et al. 2020 ).

Pretzels are commonly relished as snacks in various developed countries and are usually made from wheat by cooking followed by baking of the product. Pretzel consumption and production are increasing at a faster rate due to consumers’ demand for substitutes for fried-based snack products. Presently, the production of pretzels in developed countries is fully automized in order to satisfy consumer demands. However, no such product is accessible in India (Naik et al. 2007 ). Furthermore, because consumers demand low-fat, low-sugar, and low-calorie snacks, therefore, the production and consumption of low-gluten pretzels could possibly increase at a very fast rate (Jan et al. 2021 ). In the present study, partial replacement of wheat flour with rice flour is used for developing low-gluten pretzels. Rice flour does not develop into cohesive dough due to the absence of gluten protein (Jeong et al. 2017 ). Therefore, the present study has used wheat flour in combination with rice flour as an approach to lower gluten content and improve its organoleptic properties.

Over the past few years, various flour sources have been used for the replacement of wheat flour for the production of RTE breakfast cereals and snacks (Ding et al. 2005 ; Pardhi et al. 2019 ). However, the substitution of wheat flour cause changes in the concentration of starch and gluten network. Thus, various improvers, enzymes, and hydrocolloids have been employed in order to improve the strengthening and water absorption of dough and enhance its capacity to retain gas. However, if gluten network or concentration is lacking, the pore size of dough will also be affected which in turn could affect heat transfer, mass transfer, and other biochemical reactions including gelatinization of starch and consequently the thickening of dough and therefore, the mechanical properties of dough during baking. Thus, the structural changes in one phase of dough will probably affect other phases. In order to overcome the abovementioned changes, wheat flour was partially substituted with rice flour for the development of low-gluten pretzels without affecting the quality characteristics of dough. Moreover, the possible impact on the gluten content and starch digestion rate of low-gluten pretzels due to the incorporation of rice flour in wheat flour has not been explored so far and could be of significant industrial and nutritional importance. Perusal of literature shows only limited studies elsewhere and no study seems to be available in low-gluten pretzel production from Indian wheats. Therefore, the current research aimed to characterize the functional, and rheological properties of flour blend. Moreover, in vitro starch digestion, color, mineral content, texture, and sensory attributes of low-gluten pretzels were monitored.

Materials and methods

Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) flour was purchased from local market of Srinagar Kashmir and paddy (Variety Jhelum ) was obtained from Mountain Research Centre for Field Crops (MRCFC), Khudwani, Anantnag, Jammu & Kashmir, India of SKUAST-K, during the month of October 2018. Paddy was subjected to milling in modern rice mill (ASR RM 209) at the Division of Food Science and Technology, SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar, J&K. The small broken grains were ground to a fineness that passed through 200 μm sieve. The flour samples were packed in zipped pouches until further analysis.

Preparation of blend

Blended flour was prepared by replacing wheat flour with rice flour at 35% based on the preliminary trials and sensory evaluation by the expert panelists (Jan et al. 2021 ).

Characterization of raw material

Proximate composition.

The moisture, crude fat, crude protein, crude fiber, and ash content of different samples were analyzed by following the standard AOAC ( 2005 ) protocols.

Functional properties

Water and oil absorption capacities.

The procedure of Ahmad et al. ( 2015 ) was followed for the determination of water absorption and oil absorption capacities.

Swelling power and solubility index

The procedure of Ahmad et al. ( 2015 ) was followed for the determination of swelling power and solubility index. The results were reported using eqs. ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) as given below.

Foaming capacity and stability

The procedure of Shah et al. ( 2016 ) was followed for the determination of foaming capacity and foam stability. The foaming capacity was reported using Eq. ( 3 ) as given below.

The foam stability was reported using Eq. ( 4 ) as given below.

Bulk density

The procedure of Shafi et al. ( 2016 ) was followed for the determination of bulk density.

Pasting properties

The pasting characteristics of flour were analyzed using Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA TECMASTER, Perten Instruments, Australia) followed the protocol of Nisar et al. ( 2021 ). Briefly, 25 g of water was added to 3.5 g of sample in the RVA canister and mixed properly before starting the analysis. The mixture was equilibrated at 50 °C for 1 min, heated at the rate of 12.2 °C /min to 95 °C, held for 2.5 min, cooled to 50 °C at the rate of 11.8 °C/min and again held at 50 °C for 2 min. A constant paddle rotational speed (160×g) was used throughout the entire analysis, except for rapid stirring at 960×g for the first 10 s to disperse the sample. All the typical pasting properties were defined from the resulting pasting curve viz., pasting temperature, peak time, peak, trough, breakdown, final, and setback viscosities.

ATR-Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy

The FTIR spectrometer system equipped with an ATR accessory (Cary 630 FTIR, Agilent Technologies, USA) was employed to obtain the ATR-FTIR spectra of the flour samples. The wavelength range was set at 4000-400 cm − 1 with 4 cm − 1 resolution (Ashwar et al. 2016 ).

Dynamic rheometry

The rheological measurements of flour dough samples were measured on a dynamic rheometer (MCR-101, Anton Paar, Austria) at ambient temperature (25 ± 1 °C). The viscoelastic behaviour of dough samples was analyzed by determining the storage (G′) and loss (G″) moduli against angular frequency (0.1–100/s) (Hamdani et al. 2020 ).

Preparation of low-gluten pretzels

Low-gluten pretzels were prepared following the method elucidated by Jan et al. ( 2021 ). The pretzels contained wheat-rice flour blend (65:35), salt (2 g), refined oil (3 mL), ammonium bicarbonate (0.4 g), compressed yeast (12 g), malt extract (2 g), and water (50 mL). All the constituents were mixed (7 min) in a dough mixer followed by manual extrusion of the resulting dough through a vermicelli machine equipped with minute pores (4 mm) at the exit. After passing through the extruder, the resulting small dough stands were reduced to 10-15 cm and molded into oval rings manually before arranging them on a tray for the proofing stage (10 min). The resulting product was cooked (81 °C for 15 s) in an alkali solution (1% NaOH) before baking (236 °C for 6 min) followed by drying (103 °C for 25 min) to get the pretzels ( Plate S ). In the case of control, only wheat flour was used.

Quality parameters of low-gluten pretzels

Apparent amylose and amylopectin content.

Apparent amylose and amylopectin contents were estimated following the procedure reported by Amin et al. ( 2018 ).

Total starch and resistant starch

Total and resistant starch contents were estimated following the protocols as elucidated by Amin et al. ( 2018 ) using the Megazyme Assay Kit (Megazyme International, Wicklow, Ireland).

In vitro starch digestion

The in vitro digestion profile of starch was categorized in the form of very rapidly digestible starch (VRDS), rapidly digestible starch (RDS), and slowly digestible starch (SDS). The VRDS, RDS, and SDS were reported as percent using Eqs. ( 5 ), ( 6 ), and ( 7 ), respectively.

Where, G 0 , G 1 , G 20 , G 120 refers to the amount of free glucose before digest, after 1 min, after 20 min, and after 120 min, respectively and TS refers to the total amount of starch. The factor (0.9) is the glucose to the starch conversion factor.

The difference between total starch (TS) and resistant starch (RS) was reported as Digestible starch (DS). The starch digestibility index (SDI) was calculated following Eq. ( 8 ) (Amin et al. 2018 ).

Mineral profile

Mineral profile analysis of low-gluten pretzels was estimated using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Labtronics, Model LT-2100) (Wani & Kumar 2015 ). Digestion of the sample (2 g) was carried out in a di-acid blend (HNO 3 :HClO 4 , 5:1, v/v). The digested material was dissolved in double-distilled water which was then filtered using Whatman no. 42. Finally, the volume was made up to 50 mL before subjecting it to mineral estimation.

Color values including luminosity ( L* ), redness ( a* ), and yellowness ( b* ) were measured on a Hunter Lab Colorimeter (A60-1010- 615 Model Colorimeter, Hunter Lab, Reston VA) after calibrating it against a standard white plate.

Texture analysis

Texture analysis of low-gluten pretzels was performed on a TA-XT2i Texture analyzer (Stable Micro System, Texture Technologies Corp., NY, USA). The Force of compression was measured using the P50 compression probe needed for breaking the sample, which indicates the breaking strength. The probe was programmed to travel a distance of 8 mm after touching the surface of pretzels with both the pre-test and test speeds set at 1.5 mm/s, while the post-test speed was set at 10 mm/s (Reshi et al. 2020 ).

Sensory analysis

Sensory analysis of the product was conducted by 30 semi-trained panelists including 11 males and 19 females. Panelists were trained to evaluate the pretzels for mouthfeel, texture, visual color, and overall acceptability on a 9-point hedonic scale, and results were averaged. Coded samples using random three-digit numbers were served unsystematically to panelists, and sensory evaluation was carried out in well-separated booths. The panelists were provided with a glass of water to rinse their mouths before and after each test and were given a 10 min break post each assessment.

Statistical analysis

The data for each analysis was reported as mean ± standard deviation of at least three determinations. Using SPSS statistical software (version 21), the means were compared by Duncan’s multiple range test of analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 5% level of significance.

Results and discussion

Raw material characterization.

Table 1 presented the composition of wheat flour, rice flour, and wheat-rice flour blend. A significant ( p < 0.05) difference was observed in all the parameters among the samples. The moisture content of the flour blend (9.73 ± 0.56%) was significantly ( p < 0.05) lower than wheat flour (11.72 ± 0.86%) and rice flour (9.95 ± 0.61%). The crude fiber, crude protein, crude fat, and ash contents of the wheat flour were significantly ( p < 0.05) higher than rice flour. Wheat-rice flour blend (65:35) showed fat (1.02 ± 0.11%), protein (10.21 ± 0.59%), fiber (1.14 ± 0.12%), and ash (0.39 ± 0.04%) which differ significantly ( p < 0.05) from both wheat and rice flour. Klunklin and Savage ( 2018 ) reported almost similar findings for the composition of refined wheat flour replaced with purple rice flour.

The results of water and oil absorption capacities are presented in Table 1 . The ability of flour to bind water under limited water addition describes its water absorption capacity (WAC) (Singh et al. 2000 ) whereas the capacity of flour to retain oil ascertains its oil absorption capacity (OAC) which is important with respect to flavor retention and improving the mouthfeel of the foods (Aremu et al. 2007 ). WAC of flour blend varied non-significantly ( p > 0.05) from wheat and rice flour. Compared to wheat flour, flour blend exhibited higher WAC (0.97 ± 0.11 mL/g), whereas its OAC was significantly ( p < 0.05) lower (0.62 ± 0.09 mL/g). Higher WAC of flour blend may be because of more hydrophilic constituents like polysaccharides (Chandra et al. 2015 ) possibly due to the addition of rice flour. Higher WAC of flour blend demonstrates its ability to be used in the formulation of some products like batters, gravies, soups, confectionery, and bakery products (Adebowale et al. 2005 ). Protein is the major component that influences OAC (Nisar et al. 2021 ). The lower OAC of flour blend may be because of the dilution of protein content in wheat flour possibly due to the addition of rice flour. The lower OAC of flour blend demonstrates its feasibility for the development of low oil uptake batters and thus more beneficial to health (Shah et al. 2016 ).

The results of swelling power (SP) and solubility index (SI) are presented in Table 1 . SP and SI denote the associations between starch and water in both amorphous as well as crystalline zones (Ali et al. 2016 ). SP was significantly ( p < 0.05) higher in flour blend (18.33 ± 0.51) than wheat flour (16.15 ± 0.49). The higher SP of flour blend is attributed to its higher WAC (Table 1 ). The higher SP of flour blend suggests good organoleptic characteristics in terms of mouthfeel of several processed foods which in turn indicates better water retention in swollen granules of starch (Falade & Okafor 2015 ). SI of flour blend (6.72 ± 0.17%) was significantly ( p < 0.05) lower than wheat flour (9.63 ± 0.21%). Complexation of starch with proteins or fats in rice flour decreases the soluble components in starch molecules resulting in lowering of SI of flour blend (Jan et al. 2021 ). Lower SI of flour blend suggests its capacity to stabilize food structures during cooking.

Foaming capacity (FC) and stability (FS) are depicted in Table 1 . FC refers to the capacity of flours to form foam and is being governed by the presence of soluble proteins (surface active) in their dispersion aqueous medium (Shah et al. 2016 ) whereas FS refers to the ability of proteins to maintain the formation of foam droplets by producing a thin continuous film around it (Chandra et al. 2015 ). FC (9.67 ± 0.34%) and FS (3.39 ± 0.15%) of flour blend were significantly ( p < 0.05) lower than wheat flour. This might be because of the dilution in protein contents of wheat flour due to the incorporation of rice flour. The lower FC and FS of the flour blend could be helpful for the production of several baked products like crackers and biscuits (Chandra et al. 2015 ).

Bulk density (BD) is mostly used for the estimation of expansion of flour and the porosity of substances apart from depicting the volume of packaging material (Shafi et al. 2016 ). The results of BD are shown in Table 1 . Higher BD of flour blend (0.58 ± 0.04 g/cm 3 ) than wheat flour (0.52 ± 0.04 g/cm 3 ) might be due to the addition of rice flour because the particle size of rice flour is comparatively larger and coarser than wheat flour (Ye et al. 2016 ). The results depict the increase in BD of flour blend with the addition of rice flour. Flour with higher BD is suitable for reducing the paste thickness in food preparations because of its low viscosity and for food products having rough textures whereas, flour with lower BD is feasible for food products having dense and smooth textures (Jamal et al. 2016 ).

Pasting profile presented in Table 2 is primarily related to the swelling and rupturing of starch granules which demonstrates the wider range of viscosity parameters for different flour samples. Pasting temperature (PT) indicates the minimum temperature at which the starch granules gelatinize by forming a viscous paste (Shafi et al. 2016 ). PT of flour blend (86.50 ± 1.31 °C) was lower although non-significantly ( p > 0.05) than wheat flour (87.40 ± 1.42 °C). Peak viscosity (PV) depicts the maximum viscosity acquired by starch during heating in water, reflecting the water-holding ability of starch granules (Shah et al. 2016 ). PV of flour blend (1945 ± 4.00 cp) was significantly ( p < 0.05) higher than wheat flour (1718 ± 3.00 cp). Rice flour had a PV of 2145.00 ± 5.00 cp, therefore, its incorporation into the wheat flour resulted in an increase in its PV. It is also evidenced from the results of PT as PT was slightly higher in wheat flour, indicating its low PV. Trough viscosity (TV) was significantly ( p < 0.05) higher in flour blend (1379 ± 3.00 cp) than wheat flour (1254 ± 2.00 cp). Higher TV of flour blend is due to its higher PV. Breakdown viscosity (BDV) is a measure of the degree of disintegration of swollen granules of starch by heating and physical agitation. Higher BDV indicates a lesser capacity of the starch granules to withstand high temperature and shearing stress during cooking (Shah et al. 2016 ). BDV of flour blend (566 ± 2.00 cp) was significantly ( p < 0.05) higher than wheat flour (464 ± 1.00 cp) which indicates its higher susceptibility to shear-induced degradation during cooking. Final viscosity (FV) depicts the tendency of flour suspension by forming a viscous paste after cooking and cooling. FV of wheat flour was found to be 2199 ± 4.00 cp, and that of rice flour and flour blend was 2687 ± 6.00 cp and 2423 ± 5.00 cp, respectively. This indicates that the FV of flour blend was significantly ( p < 0.05) higher than wheat flour possibly because of its swollen granules of starch which have a capacity to form a viscous paste (Nisar et al. 2021 ). It is also indicated from the results of BDV as BDV was lower in wheat flour, depicting its low FV. Setback viscosity (SBV) denotes the tendency of starchy substances to re-associate and retrograde upon cooling (Shah et al. 2016 ). SBV of wheat flour was found to be 945 ± 2.00 cp, and that of rice flour and flour blend 1265 ± 3.00 cp and 1044 ± 3.00 cp, respectively. This indicates that the SBV of flour blend was significantly ( p < 0.05) higher than wheat flour which reflects its higher retrogradation tendency. Peak time reflects the time required to reach peak in viscosity and ease of cooking a particular sample. Peak time in flour blend (5.71 ± 0.41 min) was found to be non-significantly ( p > 0.05) lower than wheat flour (5.93 ± 0.43 min).

The ATR-FTIR analysis of wheat flour, rice flour, and wheat-rice flour blend is presented in Fig. 1 . The absorption bands at 3270 cm − 1 , 2925 cm − 1 and 1636 cm − 1 correspond to alcoholic O-H, C-H and O-H stretches of water, respectively. The absorption band at 993 cm − 1 corresponds to the C=O stretch of glucose ring. These characteristic functional groups in wheat flour and rice flour have previously been reported by different researchers (Ashwar et al. 2016 ; Bhat et al. 2016 ). The results however revealed that the blending of wheat and rice flour samples did not cause any kind of change in the functional groups studied which is being reflected in their similar absorption bands.

Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectra of wheat flour, rice flour and flour blend

The visco-elastic characteristics of dough determine the quality attributes of bakery products (Hamdani et al. 2020 ). The rheological behavior of dough samples was examined and was reported as elastic/storage modulus (G′) and viscous/loss modulus (G″) (Fig. 2 ). The elastic (G′) and viscous (G″) moduli of dough samples were found to increase with angular frequency. G′ of all the samples was higher than G″ throughout the whole range of frequency. This indicates the viscoelastic characteristics of the samples. Higher gap between G′ and G″ values of dough samples indicates that the elastic behavior is predominant over viscous behavior (Hamdani et al. 2020 ). The addition of rice flour diluted the gluten proteins in flour blend, thereby resulting in the lowering of both G′ and G″ (Wang et al. 2003 ). The changes in moduli values after incorporating rice flour to wheat flour were more evident in G′ compared to G″. This depicts that rice flour incorporation had a more proclaimed effect on elastic properties than viscous.

Dynamic viscoelastic measurement of wheat flour, rice flour, and flour blend

Table 3 depicts the in vitro starch digestion properties of raw materials (wheat flour-WF and rice flour-RF) and low-gluten pretzels (LGP). Total starch of LGP (73.4 ± 1.29%) was higher than WF (68.5 ± 1.28%) possibly due to the incorporation of RF which is rich in starch. Due to the addition of 35% RF, the apparent amylose content (AAC) and resistant starch (RS) contents in LGP increased to 27.3 ± 1.45% and 6.12 ± 0.97%, respectively (Table 3 ). Baking results in the hydrolysis of α-D-(1-6) glycosidic bonds of amylopectin molecules, thereby enhancing the AAC which leads to an increase in RS content in baked products due to retrogradation after cooling (Yadav 2011 ). Further, a significant ( p < 0.05) decrease in very rapidly digestible starch (VRDS), rapidly digestible starch (RDS), and significant ( p < 0.05) increase in slowly digestible starch (SDS) was found in developed LGP. Since, both amylose and fat contents of LGP is higher than the raw materials used, therefore, they may have formed the amylose-lipid complex whose susceptibility to enzymatic hydrolysis is considered to be much lower (Li & Zhu 2019 ). This might have resulted in a decrease in RDS. Further, fats and RS contents in food hinder the degradation of starch and delay the rate of gastric emptying in the small intestine (Amin et al. 2018 ), thus contributing to the lowering of RDS. These factors contribute to the slower release of glucose from the developed LGP during enzyme hydrolysis. Thus the developed LGP had higher SDS and lower RDS contents (Table 3 ). In conclusion, it was found that there was a 7.23% increase in SDS and 13.36% decrease in RDS upon the incorporation of rice flour.

Digestible starch was significantly ( p < 0.05) lower in LGP (67.28 ± 1.35%). Starch digestible index (SDI), which indicates the relative rate of digestion of starch was found to be 86.42 ± 2.23%, 83.43 ± 2.14%, and 69.87 ± 1.72% for wheat flour, rice flour, and LGP, respectively. A significantly ( p < 0.05) lower value of SDI was observed in LGP despite its higher TS content as compared to wheat flour. The higher SDS fraction of LGP justifies its low SDI. This confirms the relevance of the starch fractions in food rather than TS (Amin et al., 2018 ).

Data from Table 4 shows significantly ( p < 0.05) higher mineral profile of the developed LGP than wheat and rice flour. This increase may be attributed to the addition of ingredients and capacity of minerals to hold up well during baking (Wani & Kumar 2015 ). Among the macro minerals, sodium content was found in the highest concentration in developed LGP (563.30 ± 4.60 mg/100 g). This is due to the cooking in alkali solution which is in agreement with Naik et al. ( 2007 ). Sodium is required for regulation of cellular membrane potential and nutrition absorption in the small intestine as well as regulation of volume of extracellular fluid which helps to keep blood volume and blood pressure (He & MacGregor 2010 ). Among the micro minerals, zinc was significantly ( p < 0.05) higher in LGP (21.40 ± 1.70 mg/100 g) than wheat flour (18.20 ± 1.10 mg/100 g) and rice flour (11.20 ± 1.20 mg/100 g). Zinc helps in the stabilization of membrane structures and cellular protection by avoiding lipid peroxidation and lowering the generation of free radicals (Coppen et al. 1985 ). Incorporation of rice flour significantly ( p < 0.05) increased the mineral content and thus improved the nutritional quality of the LGP.

The color characteristics of control and LGP are presented in Table 5 . The L* value of LGP (56.49 ± 2.37) was significantly ( p < 0.05) higher while as a* (8.71 ± 1.67) and b* (17.59 ± 1.19) values were significantly ( p < 0.05) lower than control pretzels. LGP had a white crust, whereas the crust of control was yellowish. The lower L* value of control (43.57 ± 2.12) may be due to Maillard’s reaction takes between proteins and reducing sugars during baking which is actually responsible for imparting brown color to baked products (Shafi et al. 2017 ). As the protein content of developed LGP is lower than control, therefore, less development of color due to Maillard’s reaction is expected, thus lower L* value.

Breaking strength (BS) of control and LGP are listed in Table 5 . BS depicts the hardness and is considered an important parameter in terms of extrudates (Ruskova et al. 2015 ). Rice flour incorporation remarkably decreased the BS of LGP. The lower BS of LGP (7.37 ± 1.34 N) could be related to the lower amount of proteins due to which the gluten structure of pretzel dilutes. Further, starch is believed to provide a softer texture to pretzels (Cornejo & Rosell 2015 ). Chevallier et al. ( 2000 ) depicted that BS/hardness is because of the associations through hydrogen bonding between starch and protein. The difference in composition between control and LGP might have influenced the associations between starch and protein, thus resulting in the differences in BS values.

Sensory evaluation

The sensory attributes of LGP and control is presented in Fig. 3 . Mouthfeel, determined as a sensation perceived by the nervous system in the cavity of the mouth (Singh et al. 2019 ), was found higher for control (8.35 ± 0.05) compared to LGP (6.87 ± 0.03). The lower mouthfeel of LGP was possibly due to the bland taste of rice. Highest visual color scores were recorded for the LGP (8.66 ± 0.04) while as control recorded the lowest visual color score (6.76 ± 0.02). The comparatively bright and white color of rice flour could be the possible reason for high visual color score of developed LGP. At the same time, lowest visual color score of control might be due to darker color. LGP was rated highest score by panelists for texture (8.56 ± 0.05) and lowest for control (6.73 ± 0.03) possibly due to the higher starch content in rice flour (Table 3 ) which reduces the hardness of LGP. Ruskova et al. ( 2015 ) reported that extrudates with lower hardness values are desirable. Overall acceptability was found higher for LGP (8.03 ± 0.04) while lower overall acceptability score was recorded for control (7.28 ± 0.02). On the basis of overall acceptability score, LGP was found to be the best compared to those made from wheat flour.

Sensory analysis of control and low-gluten pretzels

Rice-wheat composite flour could be used as a new base material for the preparation of bakery products like pretzels. The product developed was not only low-gluten but also showed better attributes for consumer acceptability. The findings of the present study concluded that replacing wheat flour with rice flour to a level of 35% (w/w) improved functional, pasting, and rheological characteristics of wheat-rice flour blend, suggesting its possible use for the development of low-gluten or gluten-free products. In vitro starch digestion profile revealed that low-gluten pretzels had significantly lower rapidly digestible starch whereas, slowly digestible starch was significantly higher. Mineral profile was higher in low-gluten pretzels indicating improvement in its nutritional status. Lightness ( L* ) of the low-gluten pretzels was comparatively higher than control and breaking strength decreased upon the incorporation of rice flour. Overall acceptability of developed low-gluten pretzels was better than control with enhanced quality characteristics. Thus, the incorporation of rice flour at this concentration is probably the most desirable choice for the development of better low-gluten pretzels.

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Nusrat Jan, H. R. Naik, Gousia Gani, Omar Bashir, Tawheed Amin & Sajad Mohd Wani

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Nusrat Jan- Acquisition, analysis, interpretation of data, writing, review and editing the original draft; H. R. Naik- conceptualization; Gousia Gani- formal analysis; Omar Bashir- creation of new software used in this work; Tawheed Amin- design of the work; Sajad Mohd Wani-substantially revised it; Shakeel Ahmad Sofi- drafted the work. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

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Low-gluten pretzels from the blend of wheat flour (65%) and rice flour (35%).

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Jan, N., Naik, H.R., Gani, G. et al. Influence of replacement of wheat flour by rice flour on rheo-structural changes, in vitro starch digestibility and consumer acceptability of low-gluten pretzels. Food Prod Process and Nutr 4 , 9 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-022-00088-y

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The effect of different milling methods on the physicochemical and in vitro digestibility of rice flour, 1. introduction, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. materials, 2.2. preparation of rice flour, 2.3. physicochemical compositions, 2.4. crystalline structure of rice flour, 2.5. determination of particle size distribution, 2.6. pasting properties of rice flour, 2.7. thermal properties, 2.8. gel properties of rice flour, 2.9. determination of starch digestibility, 2.10. statistic analyse, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. particle size distribution of rice flour, 3.2. damaged starch content and relative crystallinity of rice flour, 3.3. pasting properties, 3.4. thermal properties, 3.5. gel properties, 3.6. starch digestibility, 4. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

Sample	DRF	SRF	WRF	JRF
D10 (μm)	13.30 ± 0.00	9.66 ± 0.47	7.68 ± 0.12	4.07 ± 0.06
D50 (μm)	59.45 ± 0.21	39.10 ± 0.09	23.43 ± 0.09	14.65 ± 0.07
D90 (μm)	154.50 ± 0.71	96.15 ± 4.41	107.93 ± 2.52	29.15 ± 0.35

Sample	DRF	SRF	WRF	JRF
Pasting Properties
Pasting Temperature (°C)	73.50 ± 0.05	77.12 ± 0.94	80.67 ± 0.06	72.68 ± 1.17
Peak Viscosity (cP)	5466 ± 60	5667 ± 25	5613 ± 137	4960 ± 23
Though Viscosity (cP)	3443 ± 100	3881 ± 102	3822 ± 117	3581 ± 49
Final Viscosity (cP)	6705 ± 47	6863 ± 61	7100 ± 106	6118 ± 7
Breakdown (cP)	2023 ± 43	1786 ± 88	1790 ± 34	1379 ± 25
Setback (cP)	3262 ± 60	2982 ± 48	3278 ± 23	2536 ± 56
Thermal Properties
To (°C)	61.32 ± 0.09	60.75 ± 0.12	59.29 ± 0.27	64.14 ± 0.06
Tp (°C)	67.07 ± 0.17	66.02 ± 0.09	64.68 ± 0.13	69.54 ± 0.00
Tc (°C)	71.46 ± 0.51	70.14 ± 0.24	69.09 ± 0.20	74.69 ± 0.08
c (J/g)	5.75 ± 0.07	7.85 ± 0.13	8.21 ± 0.06	4.12 ± 0.10

Sample	DRF	SRF	WRF	JRF
Hardness (N)	6.96 ± 0.42	5.37 ± 0.20	3.50 ± 0.15	3.74 ± 0.07
Adhesiveness(N.s)	−17.38 ± 3.39	−14.40 ± 2.23	−5.65 ± 0.64	−11.87 ± 1.25
Resilience (%)	4.21 ± 0.82	5.48 ± 0.49	2.49 ± 0.68	4.08 ± 0.75
Cohesiveness	0.54 ± 0.03	0.52 ± 0.01	0.42 ± 0.03	0.58 ± 0.01
Springiness (%)	94.96 ± 6.18	87.76 ± 6.40	84.48 ± 8.38	96.03 ± 2.92
Gumminess	384.01 ± 41	286.04 ± 8	150.31 ± 15	220.81 ± 6
Chewiness	362.38 ± 37	250.86 ± 16	127.93 ± 26	212.14 ± 11

Sample	DRF	SRF	WRF	JRF
K (×10 )	2.99 ± 0.04	2.54 ± 0.15	2.08 ± 0.01	3.32 ± 0.05
C∞ (%)	87.20 ± 0.61	85.10 ± 0.92	83.78 ± 0.38	90.59 ± 0.66
AUC	180.15 ± 1.65	170.75 ± 1.28	161.00 ± 0.93	189.62 ± 1.12
eGI	94.47 ± 0.79	89.97 ± 0.61	85.30 ± 0.45	99.27 ± 0.59

The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

Tian, Y.; Ding, L.; Liu, Y.; Shi, L.; Wang, T.; Wang, X.; Dang, B.; Li, L.; Gou, G.; Wu, G.; et al. The Effect of Different Milling Methods on the Physicochemical and In Vitro Digestibility of Rice Flour. Foods 2023 , 12 , 3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12163099

Tian Y, Ding L, Liu Y, Shi L, Wang T, Wang X, Dang B, Li L, Gou G, Wu G, et al. The Effect of Different Milling Methods on the Physicochemical and In Vitro Digestibility of Rice Flour. Foods . 2023; 12(16):3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12163099

Tian, Yaning, Lan Ding, Yonghui Liu, Li Shi, Tong Wang, Xueqing Wang, Bin Dang, Linglei Li, Guoyuan Gou, Guiyun Wu, and et al. 2023. "The Effect of Different Milling Methods on the Physicochemical and In Vitro Digestibility of Rice Flour" Foods 12, no. 16: 3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12163099

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J Res Med Sci

Gluten-free products in celiac disease: Nutritional and technological challenges and solutions

Seyede marzieh hosseini.

Department of Food Science and Technology, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Nafiseh Soltanizadeh

1 Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

Parisa Mirmoghtadaee

2 Specialist in Community and Preventive Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran

Parisa Banavand

Leila mirmoghtadaie, saeedeh shojaee-aliabadi.

In celiac patient exposure to even only a small amount of gluten can lead to malabsorption of some important nutrients including calcium, iron, folic acid, and fat-soluble vitamins because of small-intestine inflammation. A strictly followed gluten-free (GF) diet throughout the patient's lifetime is the only effective treatment for celiac disease; however, elimination of gluten from cereal-based product leads to many technological and nutritional problems. This report discusses different substitutes to replace gluten functionality and examines the economic and social impacts of adherence to a GF diet. Better knowledge about the molecular basis of this disorder has encouraged the search for new methods of patient treatment. The new and common GF sources and different challenges encountered in production and consumption of these products and different solutions for improving their properties are discussed in this review.

INTRODUCTION

Celiac disease is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the intestine which being asymptomatic to causing severe malnutrition.[ 1 ] The prevalence of celiac disease is <0.5%–1% worldwide.[ 2 ] Gluten is the storage protein of wheat and includes glutenin and alcohol-soluble gliadin. Gliadin and other prolamins in rye (secalins) and barley (hordeins) are toxic for patients with celiac disease.[ 3 ] A gluten-free diet (GFD) is the mainstay of celiac disease treatment.[ 3 ] Adherence to a GFD improves many clinical and serological symptoms[ 4 ] and reduces the incidence of malignancies.[ 5 ] Furthermore, it can prevent the development of many autoimmune diseases such as hematologic disorders, hepatitis, and inflammatory bowel and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus diseases.[ 6 ] While a limited amount of gluten is permitted in a celiac patient's diet, the amount of tolerable gluten varies widely between 10 mg and 34–36 mg gluten per day.[ 7 ] This has led to confusion about labeling “GF” products. For example, in Canada, such products must meet standards of <20 ppm gluten (20 mg gluten/1 kg), whereas other countries specify a maximum of 200 ppm.[ 8 ] However, producing food that provides a daily gluten intake of <10 mg is acceptable.[ 7 ] Omitting or reducing gluten lowers the quality of end products; this could be overcome with gluten substitutes. This paper aims to review the current knowledge on different GF cereals and gluten substitutes used for the production of GF food and the recent advances in molecular knowledge of celiac disease which can help in the development of new methods for celiac therapy.

DIFFERENT SOURCE OF GLUTEN-FREE FLOUR

Hitherto, total lifelong avoidance of gluten ingestion has remained the primary treatment for celiac disease. The overall objective of the GFD is maintaining health through the adoption of a well-balanced diet without using gluten. Observing a strict GFD is not easy, not least because it contributes to the social isolation of patients with celiac disease. In addition, nutritional deficiencies in Vitamins D and B, iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, and fiber may occur. Furthermore, developing good-quality GF products could be challenging due to the unique properties of gluten.[ 9 ]

Several significant properties of rice – it lacks gluten, has a bland taste, is colorless and hypoallergenic, has low levels of protein, sodium, fat, and fiber, and contains high amounts of easily digested carbohydrates – make it suitable for making flour that can be used to prepare GF products. As rice contains a relatively small amount of prolamin, it is necessary to combine it with some sort of gum, emulsifier, enzymes, modified starch, or dairy products to obtain viscoelastic properties.[ 10 ] The color of the crust and texture characteristics of acidic extruded rice-flour bread is been found to be similar to those of wheat bread, but it has a low specific volume.[ 11 ] Rice–noodle products are important foods in many Asian countries. Since rice protein cannot participate in the forming of a cohesive dough structure, gelatinized starch plays a role as a binder.[ 12 ] Rice can also be formed into flakes: rice is cooked, coated with skim milk as a nutritious ingredient, and then partially dried, tempered, passed through flaking rolls, and toasted in an oven. Crackers can be also obtained using either nonwaxy or waxy rice.[ 13 ] Technological characteristics of rice-flour products could be improved by the addition of a protein source such as spirulina.[ 1 , 14 ]

The high protein, fat, and fiber content of pure oats make them a suitable choice for celiac patients.[ 15 ] However, the safety of oats in a GFD has been questioned in some studies due to possible contamination of the oats with gluten-containing cereals[ 16 , 17 ] during growing cycle in the farm, cleaning, transportation, storage, or processing. Therefore, it is necessary to extend strategies that would supply uncontaminated oats. The Professional Advisory Board of the Canadian Celiac Association in cooperation with Health Canada had reviewed the literatures on pure oat safety in celiac disease and had recommended the consumption of only limited amount of pure oats about 20–25 g/day (65 ml or ¼-cup dry-rolled oats) for celiac children and 50–70 g/day (125–175 ml or ½ to 3/4-cup dry-rolled oats) for celiac adults.[ 18 ] Fermented oat slurry provides a yoghurt-type product that can be used by patients with celiac disease, lactose intolerance, or a milk allergy.[ 19 ] Moreover, oat β-glucans are technologically feasible thickening agents in soups and have high acceptance among consumers.[ 13 ]

Pseudocereals

In contrast to the most common grains, pseudocereals are composed mainly of albumins and globulins and contain very little or no storage prolamin proteins;[ 18 ] thus, they are good substitutes for cereal in GF foods. The nutritional values of wheat and different important GF flour are compared in Table 1 .[ 18 ]

Certain mineral content of pseudocereals

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Amaranth consists of small seeds with a nutritional value better than that of any other vegetable, including cereals, and much higher amounts of fiber and minerals than any other GF grain. It has a high amount of lysine, arginine, tryptophan, and sulfur-containing amino acids.[ 20 ] Amaranth flour has already been used to enrich cereal-based foods, including GF pasta.[ 21 ] Amaranth bread, which has higher levels of protein, fiber, and minerals, is acceptable for celiac patients.[ 20 ] A mixture of popped and raw amaranth flour produces bread loaves with a higher specific volume and more homogeneous crumb than other kinds of GF bread.[ 21 ]

Quinoa protein is rich in lysine, methionine, and cysteine. Thus, it is a good complement for legumes, which have low methionine and cysteine. In addition, quinoa is a relatively good source of Vitamin E and B-group vitamins and has high levels of calcium, iron, and phosphorous. It also has a suitable fatty acid composition.[ 22 ] Dogan and Karwe demonstrated that quinoa could be used to make a novel, healthy, extruded snack product. Quinoa's high lipid and low amylase contents make it necessary to have a high shear in extrusion cooking.[ 23 ]

Buckwheat seeds contain fagopyritols, a type of soluble carbohydrates. Fagopyritols are a source of D-chiro-inositol, a compound that has shown efficiency in patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes through improved glycemic control. Buckwheat has a low glycemic index and also shows a beneficial effect on human health, lowering blood pressure and helping cholesterol metabolism.[ 24 ] Replacement of cornstarch with buckwheat flour in GF bread has been shown to have a positive effect on bread texture and delays staling because of buckwheat flour's lower starch gelatinization enthalpy.[ 25 ] Utilization of buckwheat in the production of GF crackers leads to a product with acceptable sensory qualities.[ 26 ] Buckwheat and quinoa breads have a higher volume than other kinds of GF breads.

Schoenlechner et al . compared different characteristics of amaranth, quinoa, and buckwheat pasta. They found that the firmness and cooking time of amaranth pasta was lower than those for the other flours, while the cooking loss of quinoa pasta was greater than other flours. Decreasing the moisture content to 30% and using higher amount of egg white powder and emulsifier (distilled monoglycerides) led to a firmness that was more acceptable than that for the wheat pasta.[ 22 ]

Maize's high yields have made it a key crop in ensuring food availability and promoting food security.[ 27 ] It is recommended as a safe source for the production of GF pasta. In addition, products such as curls, puffs, and balls can be produced by extrusion cooking of maize grits or meal, and fried snack products such as tortilla chips can be made from alkaline-processed maize. Breakfast cereals such as flakes, shreds, granules, puffs, or other forms can also be produced from maize.[ 13 ]

One good source of nutrients, especially fiber, calcium, and other minerals, is millet.[ 28 ] Protein makes up about 7%–12% of the grain. Lysine is a limiting amino acid in millet, while tryptophan and threonine are not deficient.[ 9 ] The best-known flat breads produced from millet are injera, kisra (fermented), and roti (unfermented). Injera made from millet stales much more slowly than that made from sorghum or other cereals. Teff is a kind of millet that has protein content similar to the other cereals (10%–12%) and is a good source of minerals, particularly calcium and iron. The main use of teff grain in human food is in injera.[ 29 ] Teff starch has a slow retrogradation rate that delays bread staling.[ 13 , 30 ] Millet's lysine deficiency can be overcome by blending it with a lysine-rich flour such as legume flours. Baby foods, snack foods,[ 31 ] and breakfast cereals[ 32 ] are other products made from millet. Germinated, popped, and roasted millet flours have been used along with milk solids, legume flour, and other cereals for the production of complementary and infant foods.[ 33 ]

White, pleasant-tasting, and GF flour can be produced from sorghum.[ 34 ] The nutrition quality of sorghum protein is poor, as sorghum is deficient in essential amino acids. Malting can increase lysine and improve protein quality.[ 35 ] Breads produced from sorghum have lower volume than wheat bread.[ 36 ] For sorghum bread, soft batters rather than firmer dough are required to obtain sufficient rise and good elasticity without brittleness; thus, more water is generally required.[ 34 ] In GF products, gas cells should be surrounded by liquid films and stabilized by surface-active substances such as polar lipids, soluble proteins, and soluble pentosans; these are present in sorghum, making it suitable for producing bread without any additives. However, using hydrocolloids could improve sorghum bread's quality.[ 34 ] Various researchers have studied the effect of using different additives on sorghum bread quality. Some of these studies are presented in Table 2 . Sorghum flours have also been used to produce biscuits, granolas, infant food, and snack foods such as crisps and chips.[ 35 , 37 ]

Different gluten substitute used in different gluten-free food

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Chestnut flour contains high-quality proteins with 4%–7% essential amino acids, 20%–32% sugar, 50%–60% starch, 4%–10% dietary fiber, 2%–4% fat, and some vitamins and minerals, such as B-group vitamins and Vitamin E, phosphorous, magnesium, and potassium. Since the amounts of Vitamin B, iron, folate, and dietary fiber are not sufficient in most GF flour, the use of chestnut flour seems to be advantageous for improving nutritional value. Unfortunately, the qualities of chestnut bread, such as volume and color, are not suitable because of weak interactions between components of the chestnut dough,[ 1 ] inadequate starch gelatinization, and high amounts of sugar and fiber. This flour is more suitable for pastry making.[ 38 ] However, blending chestnut flour with other flours such as rice flour[ 38 ] and adding some hydrocolloids such as guar gum, xanthan gum, or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)[ 1 ] can help to overcome these problems.

The chia ( Salvia hispanica L.) seed and flour were one of the main staple foods in Central America. It attracts a great deal of interest due to its nutritional and functional potential in food and pharmaceutical industries. The chia seed is a good source of phenolic compounds, dietary fiber (20%–37%), protein (18%–25%), and oil (21%–33%) with approximately 60%–63% α-linolenic acid. Sandri et al . used chia flour, potato starch, and rice flour in a GF bread formulation by application of mixture design and response surface methodology to achieve the best sensory properties. They found no suitable physical and sensory properties when whole chia flour alone was used. After that, 5%, 10%, and 14% whole chia flour was added to GF bread-containing rice flour as a main ingredient that led to negligibly decrease in crumb moisture, crumb firmness, and loaf volume.[ 39 ] Huerta et al . observed no significant differences in replacing rice and soy flour with 2.5%, 5.0%, and 7.5% whole chia flour in specific volume, baking loss, and sensory acceptability (scores ranging from 4.5 to 5.5, on a 7-point hedonic scale) on GF bread in comparison to control.[ 40 ] In another study, 2.5%–7.5% whole chia flour was used in chestnut flour-based GF bread formulation. They found improved in the dough rheological properties of elasticity, viscosity, and stability up to using 7.5% chia flour.[ 41 , 42 ] Steffolani et al . found that replacing of rice flour with 15% whole chia flour reduced the specific volume, darkened the GFB color, and increased the bread hardness but does not have significant effect on overall acceptability.[ 43 ]

Breads produced from legumes such as pea isolate, chickpea flour, soya flour, or carob germ flour showed good sensory profiles and physicochemical characteristics. Carob germ flour produced batters with good rheological characteristics, but its bread had poor properties. However, chickpea flour and pea isolate kinds of bread obtained good results in all parameters.[ 44 ] In another study, Gularte et al . made GF cake using chickpea, pea, lentil, and bean flours along with rice in a proportion of 50:50. Application of legume flours, especially lentil, led to lower batter viscosity and consequently higher specific volume than in the control sample. In addition, lentil-enriched cakes showed similar crumb hardness and higher springiness than the control cake. In terms of nutritional quality, legumes have a higher protein content and protein availability than cereals; this makes legumes as a recommended flour for enriching GF cakes.[ 45 ] Tsatsaragkou et al . (2014) showed replacing 15% of rice flour with carob flour resulted in the production of GF bread with better crumb structure and color, and lower moisture loss but harder crumbs and lower specific volume than rice bread. The decrease in size of carob flour led to a slower rate of firming.[ 46 ]

DIFFERENT CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN USING GLUTEN-FREE FOOD

A comparison between GF commercial foods and their gluten-containing counterparts shows that GF food is more expensive.[ 47 ] The price of one loaf of GF bread is two or three times that of regular bread. Activities such as baking celiac-specific cereal products, buying foods in large quantities with friends or support-group members, and choosing longer lasting products such as carrots, potatoes, and parsnips, seasonal products, and legumes could help patients to reduce food costs.[ 48 ]

Nutritional deficiencies

Between 20% and 38% of celiac patients show nutritional deficiencies: 12%–69% display iron deficiency and 8%–41% display Vitamin B 12 deficiency. In addition, damaged villi in celiac patients lead to lactose intolerance because of decreased lactase production, resulting in phosphorus, calcium, and Vitamin D deficiencies.[ 47 ]

Using starches and refined flours with low fiber content in GF products leads to inadequate fiber intake.[ 47 ] The incidence of anemia in newly diagnosed celiac patients was reported as 4% in the United States. Gluten-containing products have higher folate content than their GF counterparts. Therefore, fortification of GF products with folate is essential.[ 49 ] Immediately after diagnosis of a deficiency in these and other micronutrients, GF vitamins and minerals should be added to the patient's diet in therapeutic doses based on individual factors, including laboratory test results, age, overall eating habits, and compliance with the GFD.[ 8 ] Patients should be encouraged to use foods rich in Vitamin B 12 (such as meat, milk, fish, and poultry), folate (such as dried beans and legumes, flax seeds, dark leafy greens, and citrus fruit), heme iron (such as lean meats, poultry, and seafood), and nonheme iron (such as legumes, seeds, and nuts), as well as vitamin C-rich food to increase iron absorption. Pseudocereals such as amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa are good sources of iron, fiber, and some B vitamins.[ 50 ]

Recent studies showed a high prevalence of obesity in some celiac patients.[ 51 ] Almost half of all adult patients with celiac disease have a body mass index of 25 or more;[ 52 ] however, obesity is more prevalent in celiac children, and it is, therefore, necessary to test for celiac disease in obese children.[ 52 ] Hyper caloric content of commercially available GF foods might be resulted to obesity and weight gain.[ 53 ] Furthermore, damage of intestinal villi can lead to problems in food digestion and absorption that result in obesity.

Bone disease

Consumption of calcium-rich and Vitamin D-rich foods should be recommended throughout patients’ lives, particularly those patients with osteopenic bone disease.[ 54 ] Calcium-rich foods include milk, cheese, and calcium-fortified beverages such as orange or apple juice, and enriched, GF soy, almond, or rice milk, GF yogurt, sardines, or canned salmon with bones.[ 55 ] Vitamin D-rich foods include fatty fish and fish oils, egg yolk, liver, Vitamin D-fortified milk, and some GF enriched beverages; additionally, patients should be encouraged to expose their skin to sunshine during late spring, summer, and early fall.

Lactose intolerance

A common problem for celiac is bloating, gas, and diarrhea; these may indicate lactose intolerance. Lactose consumption should be avoided and limited for one or more months in this situation until lactase enzyme production recovers. Different recommended strategies include using lactose-reduced or lactose-free products such as Lactaid® milk, aged cheese, and GF yogurt with live and active cultures, enriched dairy-free/GF beverages such as soy, almond, or rice milk, and supplementation with GF lactase enzyme supplements.[ 55 ]

Technological challenges

As mentioned before in detail, the quality, mouth-feel, and flavor of GF products are lower than those of conventional wheat products. The elasticity and extensibility of dough and the volume of the loaves are attributed to gluten.[ 56 ] Cereal products baked with different GF cereals (with the exception of oats) have been shown to have lower volume and an inferior physical texture but a slower staling rate than wheat containing samples.[ 57 ] Different additives, such as hydrocolloids, emulsifiers, starch, eggs, and other materials, have been used as improvers in the production of GF products. Some of these additives are discussed in [ Table 2 ].

Hydrocolloids

Hydrocolloids can be applied as gluten substitutes in the production of GF food due to their polymeric structure.[ 32 ] The properties of hydrocolloids used as gluten replacers, such as network forming, film formation, thickening, and water-holding capacity, are useful in the formulation of GF products. Guar gum and xanthan gum are the two most common hydrocolloids used in GF-baked products.[ 9 ] Addition of xanthan to GF formulations leads to a farinograph curve typical of wheat flour dough.[ 58 ] This gum has a positive effect on bread volume and leads to a product with a higher volume than do pectin and guar gum.[ 59 ] Increased xanthan content reduces the hardness of bread.[ 59 ] In addition, when xanthan gum was applied as a network former in the preparation of cornstarch bread, the resulting product had a good specific volume but a coarse crumb texture, without flavor.[ 60 ]

HPMC is a cellulose derivative that has a positive effect on the reduction of cholesterol and has also been used in GF breads to increase loaf volume.[ 61 ] The use of HPMC as a substitute for gluten ensures good gas-retaining and structure-forming properties in the crumb of rice bread.[ 62 ] In fact, a comparative study using different gums (xanthan gum, guar gum, agar, carrageenan, locust bean gum, and HPMC) in a rice–bread formulation showed that HPMC gave the highest specific loaf volume.[ 63 ] The cellulose carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) has been used as a gluten replacer in the production of bread. CMC can increase the porosity and crumb elasticity of bread as well as the overall acceptability of a GF formulation.[ 58 ] When this gum has been used for the production of rice-flour cake, better sensory properties in terms of uniformity, crust property, rupture, aroma, taste, and flavor were obtained in comparison with control rice-flour cake.[ 64 ] Furthermore, an appropriate amount of CMC and HPMC improved rice-cracker texture.[ 65 ]

Pectin,[ 59 ] agarose,[ 59 ] oat β-glucan,[ 58 ] psyllium,[ 66 ] Arabic gum,[ 67 ] konjac,[ 68 ] locust bean gum,[ 56 ] agar-agar,[ 69 ] and guar gum[ 38 ] are other hydrocolloids that have improved the texture, rheology, appearance, sensory perceptions, and general quality of GF formulations. Some authors have investigated the effect of mixture of hydrocolloids.[ 70 ] Sumnu et al . studied the effects of different concentrations of xanthan and guar gums and their blends on the staling of GF rice cakes. They found that a blend of xanthan and guar gum decreased hardness, weight loss, enthalpy of retrogradation, and the change in setback viscosity values of cakes during storage, thus retarding staling.[ 70 ] Using xanthan, CMC, xanthan-guar, xanthan-locust bean, and HPMC have been shown to yield the lowest porosity, the lowest average area of pores, and the highest number of pores; this, in turn, leads to a finer texture of these crumbs along with lower hardness and higher cohesiveness and springiness.[ 38 ]

Starch plays a key role in the texture of many kinds of food products. In some cases, native starch does not provide the functional properties, such as thickening and stabilization, for the production of some special foods. Therefore, starches used in the food industry are often modified to overcome undesirable changes in product appearance and texture caused by retrogradation or breakdown of starch during processing and storage.[ 71 ] The most widely used starches in the food industry are hydroxypropylated, acetylated, and cross-linked starches. Hydroxypropylated starch influences the viscoelastic properties of dough. One of the main factors that could modify the rheological properties of GF modified starch as a part of the dough is water-binding capacity. However, the application of hydroxypropylated starches has not been shown to have a significant impact on pasting characteristics.[ 72 ] Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate enhances the volume of GF loaves. This is accompanied by a decrease in average cell size and an increase in average cell number.[ 73 ]

Acetylation of starch is an important substitution method used for thickening GF food products.[ 15 ] Like hydroxypropylated starch, acetylated distarch adipate could enhance the volume of GF bread. Addition of modified starch causes a more elastic crumb structure. A slight decrease in the hardness and chewiness of the crumb was also observable on the day of baking.[ 73 ] Application of acetylated starch in cake batter could increase batter viscosity, cake volume, and whiteness of crust.[ 15 ] When high and stable viscosity is required in food, cross-linked starches are used as the thickener. Cross-linked starches play an important role in increasing shear resistance and providing viscous batter.[ 74 ] Cross-linked cornstarch provides stronger and more stable dough and increases the loaf volume.[ 75 ] The use of resistant starch has been shown to elevate zero-shear viscosity and reduce both creep and recovery compliance. Modified starch has shown higher starch gelatinization temperatures and lower viscosity. It has been found that loaves baked with a proportion of resistant starch had a softer crumb than the control sample.[ 76 ] Hydrolysis of some proportions of starch into a low molecular weight using amylolytic enzymes is another method of starch modification. The resulting modified starch, called maltodextrin or dextrin, significantly increases pasting temperature and reduces the viscosity of the obtained pastes. Maltodextrins can attenuate structure and increase deformation sensitivity. The addition of maltodextrins with low dextrose equivalent (DE) decreases loaf volume and causes the deterioration of bread quality. Maltodextrins with the higher DE positively influence bread volume and have a beneficial effect on crumb hardening during storage. Maltodextrin with the highest DE also effectively reduces the recrystallization enthalpy of amylopectin.[ 77 ]

Phongthai and D’Amico (2017) studied the properties of rice-flour-based GF pasta enriched by whey protein concentrate (WP), egg albumen (EB), soy protein (SP) and rice bran protein concentrate, separately. Using WP caused decrease in optimal cooking time. The enrichment of 9% (w/w) EB led to prevent structure from disintegration, improved pasta firmness, and decrease in cooking loss of P < 0.05, whereas using rice bran protein concentrate caused highest cooking loss ( P < 0.05). The GF pasta enrichment with 6% SP concentrate had similar L* values in comparison with commercial sample. Among the four sources of protein tested, EB had the highest potential for improving cooking properties of rice-flour-based GF pasta.[ 78 ]

In addition, application of modified protein could improve the quality of GF products. Deamidated oat protein has been shown to cause lower viscosity, a higher volume, and a darker color.[ 15 ] The substitution of a combination of deamidated protein and acetylated starch could improve oat-flour cake properties.[ 79 ]

GF flour often tends to have reduced fiber compared with products containing gluten. Different fiber sources, such cereal bran, legume outer layer, modified cellulose and resistant starch, and by-products of apple and potato processing, have been used in producing GF products. The replacement of 20% rice flour with a mixture of oat fiber and inulin in GF layer cakes has been shown to increase the cakes’ specific volume and quality.[ 45 ] The degree of polymerization of inulin and the proportion of low-molecular-weight sugars in the recipe could influence dough properties. The incorporation of inulin to dough formulations causes a significant decrease in paste viscosity and an increase in gelatinization temperature. Inulin significantly reduces the enthalpy of retrograded amylopectin, resulting in slower staling.[ 80 ] Addition of rice bran containing a high amount of soluble dietary fiber produces better bread color, a higher specific volume, and softer crumb with a better porosity profile. Furthermore, sensory acceptance increases and shelf life extends in higher levels of soluble dietary fiber.[ 81 ]

Dairy ingredient

The incorporation of dairy ingredients has long been established in the baking industry due to their nutritional and functional benefits, including improved flavor and texture and longer shelf life. Dairy products may be used as a gluten substitute to increase water absorption and enhance the handling properties of the batter.[ 82 ] All powders derived from milk increase crumb hardness with the exception of demineralized whey powder. Sensory analysis has shown a preference for breads containing skim milk, sodium caseinate, and milk protein isolate.[ 56 ] Other novel ingredients, such as calcium-fortified caseinate, were found to be suitable for gluten replacement, where calcium bonds in caseinate played the same role as sulfur-sulfur bonds in gluten.[ 9 ] Another benefit of using dairy products is the doubling of the bread's protein content.[ 56 ]

The enzyme transglutaminase (TGase) (EC 2.3.2.13) has been used in many industries, including dairy, bakery, and meat processing. TGase, a γ-glutamyltransferase, can catalyze the reaction between lysine residues (ε-amino group on protein bound) and glutamine residues (β-carboxamide group on protein bond), which cross-link proteins via covalent bonds, leading to the decrease in the number of free amino groups. TGase was found to have a severe effect on dough water absorption, modifying viscoelastic behavior and enhancing thermal stability.[ 83 ] Furthermore, TGase has a significant effect on the specific volume of bread. Application of skim milk protein with 10 unit of enzyme has been shown to lead to the most compact structure, as reflected in the crumb texture profile. This could be due to the formation of a protein network in GF bread with the addition of TGase.[ 84 ] Another enzyme that affects dough's rheological properties and bread's physical quality is protease. Protease-treated rice bread had better crumb appearance, high volume, soft texture, and slower staling rate, depending on the amount of enzyme added.[ 85 ] The aggregation of partially degraded storage proteins surrounding the starch granules and protein-starch interaction may improve gas retention before baking and increase specific loaf volume.[ 86 ] In another study, application of protease of Aspergillus oryzae on the rheological properties of rice dough showed an increase in batter viscosity and a decrease in flour-settling behavior because of the aggregation of flour particles after partial cleavage of storage proteins.[ 86 ]

The use of sourdough represents an alternative to increase the quality of both gluten-containing and GF breads. Acidification of flour by sourdough fermentation can replace the function of gluten to some extent and enhance the swelling properties of polysaccharides, leading to a better bread structure. It also improves bread volume and crumb structure, flavor, nutritional value, and mold-free shelf life. Sourdough lactic acid bacteria could break down nongluten proteins and starch components, thus increasing the dough elasticity and delaying staling.[ 87 ] Furthermore, long-chain sugar polymers called exo-polysaccharides can be produced by many lactic acid bacteria and act as prebiotics and hydrocolloids to improve the technological as well as nutritional properties of GF breads.[ 87 ] Rühmkorf et al . optimized homoexo-polysaccharide production by lactobacilli in GF sourdoughs to achieve high amounts of exo-polysaccharides.[ 88 ] The complementary peptidases located in the cytoplasm of lactobacilli hydrolyze gluten and reduce its amount to <10 ppm through routine sourdough fermentation.[ 89 ] On the other hand, the proteolytic system of lactic acid bacteria has the ability to hydrolyze α-gliadin fragments and reduce gliadin levels to some extent. Furthermore, the application of these peptidases seems to be a possible technological alternative to reduce the gliadin concentration in wheat dough without using living bacteria as a starter.[ 90 ] Lactic acid bacteria can also produce antifungal, antimycotoxigenic, bioactive, and aroma compounds that have the ability to improve overall bread quality.[ 87 , 91 ]

Other materials

So far, some studies have been conducted in this area using uncommon materials as gluten alternatives. For example, the study of replacing wheat flour with a mixture of GF flours and psyllium showed no change in the preference or acceptability of modified products compared with standard products. Healthful, tasty, and low-cost products could be made at home using this replacement.[ 66 ] Another material, which contains high amounts of protein, dietary fiber, calcium, and ω-3 fatty acids, is the pulpy by-product of soy milk named okara. It can play an important role as a gluten substitute, which develops proper product texture, mouthfeel, and volume after some reformation. Okara has large amounts of fiber that interferes with protein-starch interactions. Decreasing the fiber size can overcome this problem. In addition, in comparison with a commercial GF flour in batter formulations, okara has been suggested as a novel marketable ingredient for the formulation of a variety of GF products.[ 92 ]

NUTRIGENOMICS

As mentioned above, the traditional concept of celiac disease is a chronic inflammatory disorder that identified by malabsorption in human.[ 93 , 99 ] Although celiac disease is treatable by the total lifelong GFD,[ 94 , 100 ] due to mentioned problems, the use of other controlling methods can delay symptoms. Nutrigenomics can be used as a new method for celiac disease control. Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics are two research fields that elucidate some interactions between diet, nutrients, and genes. Nutrigenomics studies the functional interactions of food with the genome. Some food ingredients such as plant flavonoids, carotenoids, and long-chain ω-3 fatty acids can modulate oxidative stress, gene expression, and production of inflammatory mediators; this modulation activity can preserve the integrity of the intestinal barrier and protect against the toxicity of gliadin peptides; thus, these ingredients can be used in nutritional therapy for celiac disease.[ 93 ] Vitamins C and E can modulate immune responses in several ways, such as via leukocyte function and lymphocyte proliferation. They have also antioxidant activity that leads to modulations of the inflammatory process. Vitamin E, especially γ-tocopherol, decreases the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-8 and PAI-1. In addition, Vitamin C can inhibit the augmented secretion of interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and IL-6 and increase the expression of IL-15 triggered by gliadin; this is beneficial in the treatment of celiac disease.[ 101 ] Other effective compounds on the intestinal epithelial cells are several polyphenols and carotenoids found in fruit and vegetables that have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Flavonoids reduce the concentration of prostanoids and leukotrienes through inhibiting the activity of eicosanoid-generating enzymes such as phospholipase A 2 and preventing the induction and expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in different cell models. In addition, carotenoids can inhibit the expression of enzymes/proteins that play a role in inflammation, partly by suppressing the activation of the transcription factor NF-κB. Other flavonoids such as lycopene, quercetin, tyrosol, epigallocatechin, gallate, genistein, and myricetin also have a protective effect on intestinal-barrier function. On the other hand, fatty acids can act via cell-surface and intracellular receptors/sensors that control inflammatory cell signaling and gene expression patterns. Although eicosanoids produced from ω-6 fatty acids (such as arachidonic acid) have a pro-inflammatory role, eicosanoids from ω-3 fatty acids (such as eicosapentaenoic acid) have anti-inflammatory properties. It has been presented that the release of arachidonic acid from intra-epithelial lymphocytes after incubation with gliadin leads to the activation of cytosolic phospholipase A2 cPLA2, which results in the lymphocyte cytolysis and immune response of celiac disease. Furthermore, it has been shown that docosahexaenoic acid, as a long chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, can disturb the pro-inflammatory effects of arachidonic acid.[ 93 , 101 ]

Celiac patients usually need to adhere to a strictly GFD for the rest of their lives. Different GF cereals and additives have been used in GF products; the additives contribute structure-building and water-binding properties to GF-baked goods. The comparison between previous studies showed that pseudocereals and legumes are appropriate choices for making GF products because of their significantly higher levels of protein, fat, fiber, and minerals. From an economic perspective, pseudocereals offer a cheaper alternative to wheat that can help increase dietary compliance by reducing the economic pressure of a GFD. Each method for the production of GF food suffers from limitations, such as nutrition deficiency or deterioration of functional properties. As a result, the unpalatability and weak functional properties must overcome while maintaining nutritional value and safety.

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Influence of replacement of wheat flour by rice flour on rheo-structural changes, in vitro starch digestibility and consumer acceptability of low-gluten pretzels

Graphical abstract

Introduction

Materials and methods

Preparation of blend

Characterization of raw material

Functional properties

Swelling power and solubility index

Foaming capacity and stability

Bulk density

Pasting properties

ATR-Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy

Dynamic rheometry

Preparation of low-gluten pretzels

Quality parameters of low-gluten pretzels

Total starch and resistant starch

Mineral profile

Texture analysis

Sensory analysis

Statistical analysis

Results and discussion

Sensory evaluation

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Gluten-free products in celiac disease: Nutritional and technological challenges and solutions

Nafiseh Soltanizadeh

Parisa Mirmoghtadaee

Parisa Banavand

INTRODUCTION

DIFFERENT SOURCE OF GLUTEN-FREE FLOUR

Pseudocereals

DIFFERENT CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN USING GLUTEN-FREE FOOD

Nutritional deficiencies

Bone disease

Lactose intolerance

Technological challenges

Hydrocolloids

Dairy ingredient

Other materials

NUTRIGENOMICS

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