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106 Cultural Identity Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Cultural identity is a concept that refers to the sense of belonging and identification individuals have with a particular culture or ethnic group. It plays a significant role in shaping one's values, beliefs, traditions, and behaviors. Writing an essay on cultural identity allows individuals to explore and understand their own cultural backgrounds, as well as those of others. To help you get started, here are 106 cultural identity essay topic ideas and examples:

• Exploring the concept of cultural identity.
• How does cultural identity impact an individual's perspective on the world?
• The role of language in cultural identity.
• The influence of cultural identity on personal relationships.
• The impact of globalization on cultural identity.
• The challenges faced by individuals with a multicultural background.
• How cultural identity shapes one's perception of beauty.
• The connection between cultural identity and self-esteem.
• The portrayal of cultural identity in literature and art.
• The impact of cultural identity on educational achievements.
• How cultural identity affects one's career choices.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping political opinions.
• The influence of cultural identity on religious beliefs and practices.
• The impact of cultural identity on gender roles and expectations.
• The challenges of maintaining cultural identity in a foreign country.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping fashion trends.
• The impact of cultural identity on food and cuisine.
• The connection between cultural identity and music preferences.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping sports and athleticism.
• The influence of cultural identity on parenting styles and values.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards health and wellness.
• The impact of cultural identity on social media usage.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping travel preferences.
• The connection between cultural identity and environmental attitudes.
• The influence of cultural identity on communication styles.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards technology.
• The impact of cultural identity on social justice and activism.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping concepts of time and punctuality.
• The connection between cultural identity and storytelling traditions.
• The influence of cultural identity on celebrations and holidays.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards marriage and family.
• The impact of cultural identity on body image and beauty standards.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping leadership styles.
• The connection between cultural identity and historical narratives.
• The influence of cultural identity on funeral and mourning practices.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards disability and inclusion.
• The impact of cultural identity on concepts of privacy and personal space.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards immigration.
• The connection between cultural identity and social class.
• The influence of cultural identity on leisure and recreational activities.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards mental health and therapy.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of justice and fairness.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping concepts of beauty and attractiveness.
• The connection between cultural identity and social media activism.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards climate change.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards animal rights and conservation.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of technology and innovation.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards entrepreneurship.
• The connection between cultural identity and political engagement.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards globalization.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards multiculturalism and diversity.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of patriotism and national identity.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards immigration policy.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural appropriation.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural preservation.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural assimilation.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural imperialism.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural exchange.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural relativism.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural heritage.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural diplomacy.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural authenticity.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural tourism.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural genocide.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural nationalism.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural diversity.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural appropriation in fashion.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural preservation in architecture.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural exchange in music.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural assimilation in literature.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural imperialism in media.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural authenticity in food.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural heritage in museums.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural relativism in philosophy.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural diplomacy in politics.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural diversity in education.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural appropriation in art.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural preservation in language.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural exchange in dance.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural assimilation in film.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural imperialism in literature.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural authenticity in fashion.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural heritage in music.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural relativism in history.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural diplomacy in sports.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural diversity in the workplace.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural appropriation in music.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural preservation in theater.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural exchange in visual arts.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural assimilation in cuisine.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural imperialism in architecture.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural authenticity in literature.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural heritage in film.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural relativism in music.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural diplomacy in fashion.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural diversity in media.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural appropriation in theater.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural preservation in film.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural exchange in literature.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural assimilation in visual arts.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural imperialism in music.
• The impact of cultural identity on perceptions of cultural authenticity in theater.
• The role of cultural identity in shaping attitudes towards cultural heritage in dance.
• The connection between cultural identity and attitudes towards cultural relativism in fashion.
• The influence of cultural identity on attitudes towards cultural diplomacy in literature.
• How cultural identity affects attitudes towards cultural diversity in politics.

These cultural identity essay topic ideas and examples offer a wide range of options for exploring the intricate aspects of cultural identity. Remember to choose a topic that resonates with your personal experiences, interests, and perspectives. Good luck with your essay!

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Identity - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Identity is a complex interplay of individual, social, and cultural factors. Essays could explore personal identity development, the impact of societal expectations, or how identity intersects with other social categories. A substantial compilation of free essay instances related to Identity you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Gender Identity & Sexual Orientation Essay

Gender identity is how someone feels inside, which could be expressed in many ways, for example, by clothing, appearance, and behavior. There are a few gender identities other than the common two, female and male. When it comes to both terms, people tend to confuse the two, and although they may seem similar, it is two completely different things like being a masculine female or a feminine male, transgender and gender fluid. Some may not feel female or male and […]

The Loss of Identity in the Great Gatsby

In the novel The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald many themes and thoughts are expressed through subtlety and secrecy of characters and objects. With these underlying conceptions Fitzgerald is able to reveal Gatsby, the main character, as someone with a loss of identity which ultimately leads to his attempt to restore the past and failure to grasp the present before it’s overdue. Gatsby masks his old identity through speculation and contemplation in hope to reinvent his status and rebuild […]

New Country, New Life

Traveling, exploring, and moving are life changing experiences. The new things that individuals are able to explore gives them the chance to learn about the ways of life in another culture. People move to a new country for various reasons. I, along with my family, moved to the United States from England in 2004. However, long before this it all started with the Scandinavians who discovered native people in North America around A.D. 1000. Short lived as their stay was, […]

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Themes of Identity and Relationships in Young Adult Literature/ MLA

The key themes from the book are the themes of identity and relationships. These themes are valuable to young readers as these themes not only keep readers engaged through the personal connections that can be made, but they also help teach readers important core values and help readers develop an identity of their own. In the theme of identity, it is possible to look deeper into LGBTQ+ themes and within the theme of relationships follows themes of peer, family, and […]

Fight Club: Search for Identity

Fight Club is a famous novel by Chuck Palahniuk, telling the story of an unnamed protagonist, who has to manage the problem of insomnia. This novel has caused a lot of critical debates and controversies. The novel was characterized as revolutionary and cynical and it explores the theme of journey of the main hero towards his identity through his personality disorder. The protagonist is to manage various challenges in his life, his own emotional troubles, his homophobia, his desire for […]

The Revolution and a Beginning to have the Rights to Live and Life

In the book To Kill Mockingbird, the writer's intention was to talk about the amount of racism in Alabama history, where there were many events that show how aggressive the whites are toward blacks. Their definition and belief is that differing ideas, beliefs, convictions, and actions are what elevate the value of a particular group or category at the expense of other groups, based on inherited things related to people's abilities, typologies, or habits. Their reliance on skin color, culture, […]

Identity Formation in the Odyssey

Identity is what makes us who we are. The Odyssey by Homer is a story about a man named Odysseus who goes to war for 10 years, then decides to make trouble for himself, which leads him to face many obstacles to find his way back home. Odysseus’s identity is shaped by the people he meets, the things he does, and by the gods. One way Odysseus’s identity is shaped is by the people he meets. One of the people […]

Willy’s Struggle for Identity in “Death of a Salesman”

Willy Loman is a 63-year-old salesman, father, and husband. Willy believes that all you need to live the American dream is wealth which comes from being well-liked by others. Never have succeeded in his sellings, Willy is unable to face the truth, expects his sons to do great things and fulfill his own - dreams the ones he couldn’t fulfill himself. In Arthur Miller’s play, Death of a Salesman, parent’s deluded definition of the American dream can affect their relationships […]

Democratic Society and Racism

I think identity would be the most difficult political conflict to resolve because unlike the others, identity is something nobody can change. Your ethnic background, your race or sexual identity is something that is permanent. Identity influences and shapes people, and because we all have different identities this can create conflicts that cannot easily be resolved because the source for that conflict is unchangeable. Power, for example, can change through elections, or in the case of authoritarian regimes there is […]

Controversial Topic : Gender Identity

Transgender Identities bring up the controversial topic of gender identity in society. Gender identity is important because it is a way to self-identify based on expression of the internal self rather than just by the assigned gender at birth. Individuals who identify as transgender women are born male who later in life transition to female. Some argue that transgender women face the same oppression and sexism as cisgender women. Others, such as radical feminists, disapprove of transgender women entirely being […]

Perspective on Gender Roles and Identity in Family

Since the beginning of time, gender roles have been a major part of what made up the general rules of society. Gender roles can be seen in every aspect of living such as workplace, marriage, schools and the way society functions. As much as gender roles dominate in society, the rules of gender roles dominate even more in marriages. In heterosexual marriages, when men and women are married, gender roles are expressed more than in just regular societal situations. The […]

The Moment that Changed Everything in my Life: Self-Discovery

The 'Moment That Changed Everything': Understanding the Self through Philosophy and Experience I always thought of the idea of the self as something intangible, a given that I assumed everyone understood and therefore didn’t have to question. After reading Descartes’ Meditations, I found that my experiences and understanding of my “self” directly involved how I interpreted my past and how I decided that it would determine my future. Schechtman’s paper on “Personal Identity and The Past” was a really thought-provoking […]

Theme of Personal Identity to Socially Protest

"Langston Hughes utilizes the theme of personal identity to socially protest how blacks were treated in America during the modernism time period. There was strong racism in most parts of the country. Throughout his work “I, Too,” he tries to establish his identity as a black man. He uses “I, Too” to reveal the racism he experiences as a black man and combats racism by demonstrating how he is a proud black man in spite of how he’s treated. In […]

Gender Ruining Identity

Men, women, and anyone in between all know what it feels like to have to do something that isn’t them because of their gender. The novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston follows the main character Janie throughout her life displaying the social pressures black women were forced to live by. The novel also displays what gender roles did to the men in her life and how they treated her because of it. In the lives of […]

Exploring Identity Conflicts in Langston Hughes’ Poem

In this essay we will analyze Langston Hughes’ poem “Theme for English B.” This poem was published in 1951 and forms part of Hughes’ poetry book Montage of a Dream Deferred. Most of Hughes’ poetry focuses on African-American people, their lives, their struggles, their fight for justice, and their culture. In this particular poem, the speaker is an African-American student in a prestigious university. The poem is a response from the student to his English professor’s assignment. Hughes uses rhyme, […]

The Theme of Familial and Social Identity

One of the biggest ideas in the soliloquy in Act 1, Scene 2 is the theme of familial and social identity. This theme is seen through Edmund’s emotions and opinions towards the social laws put forth by man in regards to parent-child legitimacy. Edmund criticizes the core logic behind these social laws which spite him, “Why “bastard”? Wherefore “base,” When my dimensions are as well compact, My mind as generous and my shape as true as honest madam’s issue? Why […]

Five Sources of Conflict

When evaluating, one can easily identify the one prevailing issue affecting conflict on a global scale. To date, I consider identity issues to be the most difficult to resolve. For one, the struggle for power can at times be easily solved through government elections or even overthrowing a weak regime. While the struggle to acquire an abundance of resources can easily be resolved through a state’s brute military strength or strategy. So those two are out of the question. Finally, […]

Virtual Reality and Identity

Virtual reality as a simulation of a real or imaginary phenomenon allows freedom for the individuals within the environment. The virtual reality has no defined gender roles and defies society's definition of gender and boundaries. This is illustrated in the films the matrix and her the characters exhibit a form of freedom and no clearly defined boundaries. Virtual reality allows the change of identity and total control of the identity of the character. This is displayed by trinity in the […]

Racial, Gender and Sexual Identity

In the article "Fluid and Shifting: Racialized, Gendered, and Sexual Identity in African American Children," by Denise Isom, the author talks about a study on African American children and racialized gender identity. The researchers used various methods to conduct their research, including: 1) questionnaires, 2) face-to-face interviews, 3) ethnographic observation. The first part of the study was conducted from 2001-2002 in a "lower/working class African American community near a large mid-western city" (Isom, 2012). The subjects of this study were […]

Gender Identity and LGBTQ Rights

In this piece I’m going to explain how the LGBTQ community are being treated because of their Sex/Gender/Gender identity/sexuality an article that shows this was the privileges article a how people that comes out as straight or gay can help the gay community’s when they come out. I’m going to do this by explaining the way Carbados thinks that there’s a new way that heterosexual people tailored as “coming out” as heterosexual and this could affect the homosexual community in […]

Sex Education and Gender Identity

Could you imagine a society in which we are all separated by gender? Single-sex schools might be the first step in this direction. Gender-segregated schools have both advantages and disadvantages, but the downsides are more notable. Although some people believe that single-sex schools are better for both male and female students, research has shown single-sex schools promote sexism and gender stereotypes, offer no significant benefits (,) and often cause students to be ill-prepared for life outside of school. One reason […]

Beginning in the 1990s, a New Group of American Directors Emerged.

They were individuals with distinct styles, a fondness for pop culture, and new ideas about the relationship between art and audience. Critic Armond White dubbed them the 'American Eccentrics' distinguishing them from other filmmakers saying they are “ drawn to exploring American experience and pop tradition in order to understand their place in the world” (2007). Although their styles and subjects differed, each of their films is a variation on the basic theme of identity. The overriding concern is a […]

Gender Roles and Identity in Children

Gender roles have always been a focused topic throughout cultural history. Theoretical and empirical work on family gender roles focuses on the process in which parents convey behavior to their children. The family unit and gender roles that are played can directly affect society. There are people who believe there is a role set for them. Traditional American culture has identified a male as the head of the house hold. He is to be considered the Breadwinner . The female […]

Gender Identity & Roles

Abstract From birth, we as humans are grouped into two categories: male and female. Gender is the first and most basic way to define a person, not only in terms of physical attributions, but also through roles structured by culture and society. Gender roles are social constructs developed by cultures that put various expectations on each sex. They set a standard of what behavior is appropriate for a person according to whether they are male or female. These roles represent […]

Gender Identity and Freedom of Speech

The views of professor of psychology, Jordan Peterson at the University of Toronto on the issue of gender identity and his beliefs, position and refusal to use gender-neutral pronouns has sparked debates. The arguments by the professor have arisen a lot of objective and subjective intuition on his stand that his freedom of speech and need to become politically correct cannot determine by use of pronouns. Discussions are presented in different articles by Ellen Brait, a staff reporter for the […]

Gender Dysphoria & Identity: Teens

Have you ever wondered what harsh cruelties that some teens have to face, because of their gender identity? Gender fluidity is the belief that you feel male one day but feel like a female another day regardless of what sex you were born. Teens that discover they are gender fluid can experience bullying from peers and family. There are many cases of injustices against gender fluid teens experience. The older generations are usually unaccepting of the younger generations gender identity. […]

The Immensity of Political Activity 

 Human rights are rights to which all human beings are entitled, regardless of ethnicity, religion, skin color, or sex. One can defend the essential human rights of all people by being politically active. Martin Luther King jr was a minister and civil-rights activist who had a seismic impact on race relations in the United States by proclaiming and vigorously defending his beliefs. Martin Luther King became frustrated with the constant racial discrimination in the United States during the 1900s. In […]

Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Inequality

Social class has been traditionally defined by an individual’s occupation, education, and/or income and are then compared between individuals, if you fall somewhere within the same category as another you are then thought to be a part of the same social class (Hurst, 2013, p. 15). Something overlooked in terms of how we see the social class is the ignoring of intersectionality and its effects on a person’s social class.  Now, what is intersectionality? Intersectionality is how different aspects of […]

Gender Identity and Expression

Deep inside the young minds of our students are the seeds of growth and responsibility. They would like to foresee themselves as being productive and effective members of their community and our society. Parents and guardians of our young adolescents have profound provision of commitment of guiding and supporting them to reach their greatest potentials and significance to the nation. They offer their limitless and boundless care during the most precarious stage of being an adolescent; their identity and development […]

Heritage Identity and Resiliency

In her book Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome, Joy Degruy contrasts the resident populations of two small villages in South Africa. She then goes on to draw similarities between the South African tribes with Black Americans, presenting a argument for her concept of the post traumatic slave syndrome. This comparison shows the benefits of a shared cultural tradition and the detriment that losing that Identity can have on a population. I have seen a similar transition in my own life when […]

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Essay Samples on Identity

Talking about myself: unveiling my story.

Introduction Exploring one's own identity is a journey that unfolds through introspection, experiences, and self-expression. In this essay, I embark on the task of talking about myself, delving into various aspects that define who I am. From my background and interests to my values and...

• About Myself

Nature vs Nurture in Shaping My Identity

Introduction The age-old debate of nature versus nurture delves into the intricate interplay between genetics and environment, unraveling the factors that contribute to our individuality. In this essay, I embark on a personal exploration of this theme, delving into how both nature and nurture have...

Discovering Identity: A Narrative of Self

We are all protagonists in the stories of our lives, navigating the twists and turns that define our existence. In this narrative essay, I invite you to join me on a journey through the chapters of my own life – a journey of self-discovery, growth,...

Exploring Language and Identity in "Mother Tongue" by Amy Tan

Language is not merely a tool for communication; it is also a reflection of one's cultural background, experiences, and identity. In her essay "Mother Tongue," Amy Tan delves into the complexities of language and the profound impact it has on shaping an individual's sense of...

• Language and Linguistics
• Mother Tongue

Navigating College as a Middle Child: Embracing Individuality and Connection

Being a middle child has been an integral part of my identity, shaping my perspective and experiences as I embarked on the journey of college life. In a family dynamic where I straddle the line between older and younger siblings, I've learned to balance independence,...

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The Impact of Labelling and Identity in Healthcare

This essay will explain what labeling and identity is and why social workers should be aware of the impact of labelling when providing care. Additionally, it will describe why labelling patients can have a significant and negative impact on our interaction with them. I will...

• Individual Identity

Evolving Identities: The Concept of Self-Identity and Self-Perception

For centuries psychologists, like Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung have discussed the concept of self-identity and self-perception. In social sciences, identity refers to an individual's or party's sense of who they are and what defines them. As the human condition, we have evolved to form...

• Personal Identity
• Self Identity

The Struggle for Identity in Teenagers: Recognizing the Signs

As a teenager, we are all trying to figure out what our identity is. According to James Marcia, a psychologist, there are 4 stages of identity development: identity diffusion when the teen has not decided on his identity; identity foreclosure when a teen decides on...

Nature vs Nurture: Is Identity Innate or Learned

Introduction The idea of being loved whether it be by family, significant other, or even by society, is one that we all strive for in our day-to-day lives, however, is this love we are trying to receive based on things we have lack of control...

• Nature Versus Nurture

The Fragility of Identity in Paul Auster's City of Glass

Introduction Identity is what makes you, you. The social aspect of identity plays a big part in who we see ourselves as. Our identity can be influenced by many factors. Culture, environment, family, friends, colleagues, and groups we associate ourselves with makeup who we are....

Identity Politics in Post-Independence South Asia: A Comparative Study

Introduction Identity alludes to how we understand and define ourselves. We at some point question ourselves as to who we are and where we belong. This is because our sense of identity or who we think we are, tells about our morals, guides our decisions,...

• Nation Building
• National Identity

Belonging and Wellbeing: The Role of Social Identity in Mental Health

Introduction Being part of a group offers us a feeling of belonging and support, and this in turn has positive outcomes for mental health and well-being. We define ourselves in line with a given social identity, internalising with a specific group and viewing members of...

• Social Class

Best topics on Identity

1. Talking About Myself: Unveiling My Story

2. Nature vs Nurture in Shaping My Identity

3. Discovering Identity: A Narrative of Self

4. Exploring Language and Identity in “Mother Tongue” by Amy Tan

5. Navigating College as a Middle Child: Embracing Individuality and Connection

6. The Impact of Labelling and Identity in Healthcare

7. Evolving Identities: The Concept of Self-Identity and Self-Perception

8. The Struggle for Identity in Teenagers: Recognizing the Signs

9. Nature vs Nurture: Is Identity Innate or Learned

10. The Fragility of Identity in Paul Auster’s City of Glass

11. Identity Politics in Post-Independence South Asia: A Comparative Study

12. Belonging and Wellbeing: The Role of Social Identity in Mental Health

• Gender Roles
• Gender Stereotypes
• National Honor Society
• Social Media
• American Identity
• American Dream
• American Values

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simple essay writing tips

Great Identity Essay Writing Tips & 20 Topic Ideas

Among the essays encountered in your academic life, an identity essay proves the most challenging. Although many people can effortlessly write about their dog (Tommy), their family, and their best day, defining oneself often proves a challenge.

What defines me? Where do I start with my identity essay? If you were struggling with writing a self-identity essay, you are at the right place. This article will analyze the approach for writing a college essay about identity and offer some identity essay topics to guide your topic selection. 

What is an identity essay?

A self-identity essay is an essay geared toward explaining your beliefs, personality, and interests to a reader. This analytical narrative encapsulates your highlights in life and reactions to how various moments define you. 

Simply put, a self-identity essay is a narrative about yourself. 

How to write an identity essay

Often, students take the identity essay lightly seeing they are the subject of the narrative. Many often end up surprised at how hard it is to define oneself and confused as to where to start. Let’s look at the approach to writing an identity essay and some tips to start your paper.

Process of writing an identity essay

You are a product of your experiences from childhood up to this moment. Although each moment has led to the person you are, some experiences have provided much bearing to your life. 

Bearing this in mind, it is great to coalesce all the moments you find meaningful and organize your narrative before you put the pen on paper. The failure to do this may result in a paper lacking flow as you pursue the fond memories that spring in mind as you write your essay.

After jotting your key moments, organize them to achieve flow and lead towards the key idea on which you want to base your identity. Are you looking to define your empathy, persistence, or perseverance? Plan your experiences to highlight how this attribute was developed and how it currently defines you.

With your outline ready, you can proceed to write your work while adding the necessary information to make your narrative catchy. The draft allows you to gauge the gaps in your narrative, allowing you to fix your paper before submitting the final draft. 

An error-laden paper does little good in the way of your final score. After writing your paper, set aside time to proofread your work and fix any grammatical and structural errors. 

How to start a cultural identity essay

Often, students find themselves stuck with ‘I am, ‘I do’ openings in their essays and thus fail to hook a reader. Like other essays, the introduction for an essay on identity and culture should whet your reader’s appetite into knowing more about you. 

Some of the best methods to start an identity essay include:

• A famous quote

e.g.  We are defined not by our birth name but rather by our actions and although our name is often used to refer to us, our personality is what makes an image in the minds of people we interact with. In my case, I have come to discover an innate fondness for making people feel better about themselves. A need to elevate one’s confidence for I have experienced the downward spiral of lacking self-esteem.  

• Rhetorical questions

e.g.  In what way is an individual unique from a crowd? Are we not the product of our surroundings? Does our self-identity surpass our surname and fashion taste? Are we defined by our failures, achievements, interests, or actions? I believe that we are made unique by our actions and not by our failures. 

Tips for writing a self-identity essay

• Select a narrow idea that can highlight the traits you want to define within the provided word count. 
• Use definitive words to paint an image in your reader’s mind. 
• Use transitions to achieve a sense of flow in your narrative
• Proofread your paper to eliminate various errors

Essay topics on identity

Interesting identity essay topics.

• Racial identity – identity development process 
• Why do teenagers need to forge their unique identities? 
• How does your favorite music shape your individuality? 
• What traits, attitudes, and actions make up a man’s identity? 
• Identity and art 
• Personality development and the things that most impact it

Cultural identity essay topics

• Who are you now, and where do you envision yourself in the next 15 years? 
• The concept of your identity throughout your life
• What part does your family have in the development of your personality? 
• Cultural identification and socialization’s significance in learning 
• Globalization’s effect on identity and culture 

Gender identity essay topics

• What are by far the most vital elements of identity and culture?
• How does culture influence identity? 
• How childhood cultural experiences shape personality?
• Why should you think about cultural identity when making commercials? 

Personal identity essay topics

• Ethnic background serves as a prism through which people see other aspects of society
• Social identity and self-identity: transgender community issues
• Religion’s influence on self-identity 
• The importance of cultural identity preservation 
• Understanding personal identity’s importance

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Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, how do i write a college essay about my identity.

My identity has played a big role in my life, and I want to write about it in my college essay. How can I approach this topic in a way that showcases who I am without sounding cliché or overly dramatic? Thanks for any suggestions!

Hello! I'm glad to see that you're considering writing about your identity, as it's an important part of who you are. To avoid sounding cliché or overly dramatic, there are a few tips I'd like to share with you.

First, focus on specific experiences or moments that have shaped your identity. Instead of making general statements, think about the events in your life that have had a significant impact on you and what you learned from them. This will help you tell a unique story that only you can tell.

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Finally, make sure to tie your identity back to your goals, values, or aspirations. Show how your identity has influenced your choices and what you hope to accomplish in the future. This will give your essay a sense of purpose and demonstrate your growth as an individual.

I hope these tips help you craft a compelling essay that showcases your unique identity. Best of luck with your college applications!

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Identities: A developmental social-psychological perspective

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• https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2022.2104987

A parsimonious model to study iterative identity cycles

Identity development in social contexts, the interplay between personal and social identity, conclusions, disclosure statement, additional information.

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In this contribution, we review research that uses a cross-fertilisation approach to integrate developmental and social-psychological perspectives on how identities are formed and changed over time and how identity processes are genuinely social, being embedded in social contexts and fed by social contents. First, we outline the three-factor identity model as a parsimonious approach to understanding the dynamics of identity development. Second, we review empirical studies with longitudinal approaches to shed light on how identity processes are embedded in key contexts such as family, friendships and society at large through behaviours such as civic engagement. Third, we discuss the interplay between personal and social identities. We conclude by highlighting how adopting a cross-fertilisation approach that combines social-psychological and developmental perspective can significantly advance the theoretical understanding of identity dynamics. Finally, we address similarities and differences between personal identity and social identity approaches, and we provide an agenda for future research.

• friendships
• adolescence
• longitudinal

Wondering about one’s own identities is one of the most human endeavours at almost at any stage of life (Crocetti et al., Citation 2018 ). Identity questions are posed at the individual level (Who am I? Who are you?) and at the collective level (Who are we? Who are they?). Given the centrality of identity questions to the human experience it is not surprising that “identity is one of the most commonly constructs in the social sciences” (Vignoles et al., Citation 2011 , p. 1). Two main research traditions have devoted considerable attention to the study of identity. Identity theorisations and research advanced in developmental and social psychology have paved the way to studying personal and social identities , respectively. These two traditions have largely followed different “streams”, focusing on different identity facets, using different assessment methods, and addressing different implications of identity, as briefly outlined below.

In developmental psychology, the Eriksonian and neo-Eriksonian approaches (for reviews, see, Schwartz, Citation 2001 ; Schwartz et al., Citation 2014 ) have focused on personal identity . Within this tradition, identity is mainly conceptualised in terms of the processes by which individuals commit to meaningful life domains and, thus, arrive at a personal synthesis of different identifications and experiences (Erikson, Citation 1968 ). Research conducted within this framework has relied heavily on longitudinal methods to tackle how individuals develop their identity over time, which factors affect the development of identity, and what the implications of different developmental trajectories are (for reviews, see, e.g., Kroger et al., Citation 2010 ; Meeus, Citation 2011 ). In terms of implication, most attention has been paid to the effects of identity processes on mental health and adjustment at the individual level (e.g., anxiety; Lillevoll et al., Citation 2013 ).

In social psychology, drawing on the seminal contribution of Tajfel and Turner ( Citation 1979 ), social identity is conceptualised as ” … the part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership” (Tajfel, Citation 1978 , p. 63). Within this tradition, experimental methods have primarily been used to examine how social identity can provide a heuristic framework for understanding intra-group (e.g., sense of loyalty to one’s group) and inter-group processes (Ashmore et al., Citation 2004 ; Brewer & Gardner, Citation 1996 ; Postmes et al., Citation 2005 ). In terms of implications, social identity has mainly been related to social and collective outcomes, such as intergroup attitudes and discrimination (e.g., Brown, Citation 2000 ; Spears, Citation 2011 ).

In this contribution, we review a novel line of research that fruitfully integrates these developmental and social-psychological perspectives by adopting a cross-fertilisation approach. We start from two main reference points: the first is that, as emphasised by the developmental tradition, identity is a life-long endeavour, in the sense that identity is never achieved once and for all, but is subjected to continual changes. Hence, a theoretical developmental framework and longitudinal methods are necessary to understanding such plasticity. The second anchor point is that, as underscored by the social-psychological perspective, identity is never constructed in a vacuum; it is fed by social memberships and experiences of individuals. Thus, identity investigation needs to be the research into “identity development in context” (Bosma & Kunnen, Citation 2008 ; Branje, Citation 2022 ). By bridging developmental and social-psychological “streams” upon these two pillars, we sought to unravel how identities are formed and changed over time and how identity processes are genuinely social by being embedded in social contexts.

In this review, we address the steps taken to reach this goal. First, we outline the three-factor identity model (Crocetti et al., Citation 2008 ) as a parsimonious approach to understanding the dynamics by which identity develops over time and discuss how identity processes are intertwined with socio-cognitive identity strategies (Berzonsky, Citation 2011 ) and other components of the self-concept, such as self-concept clarity (Campbell et al., Citation 1996 ). The second section reviews empirical studies that use a longitudinal approach to shed light on how self and identity processes are embedded in social reality, considering both proximal (family and friendships) and distal (society) contexts. Third, we address the interplay of personal and social identities and review empirical evidence. We conclude by highlighting the theoretical and practical implications of this integrative line of research.

This section reviews the literature on personal identity that, inspired by Erikson’s ( Citation 1950 , Citation 1968 ) seminal work, has progressively shed light on the iterative dynamic by which identity is formed and changed over time. Theoretical advancements have led to the development of process-oriented models (Meeus, Citation 2011 ) that have provided a fertile ground for studying “identity-in-context” and tackling the interplay of personal and social identities (as further discussed in sections two and three). We also introduce the importance of longitudinal methods as the most appropriate approach to trace identity developmental trajectories.

From Erikson’s psychosocial theory to identity process-oriented models

Erikson’s ( Citation 1950 , Citation 1968 ) psychosocial theory has inspired research on personal identity up to the present time (Schachter & Galliher, Citation 2018 ). A fundamental tenet of Erikson’s view is that identity formation is a core task that individuals strive to address throughout their entire life span, especially when they cope with important changes, which might undermine their sense of stability (Erikson, Citation 1950 , Citation 1968 ). This happens especially in adolescence when rapid multiple changes taking place at the biological, cognitive, emotional and social levels make identity questions particularly salient. For this reason, Erikson ( Citation 1968 ) conceptualised the conflict between identity versus identity confusion as the primary developmental task of adolescence. Adolescents who adequately perform this task reach a condition of identity achievement, combining and integrating relevant earlier identifications in a unique and personal guise. In contrast, young people who fail in this task remain in a state of identity confusion, in which they miss meaningful commitments that could provide them with a sense of direction.

Marcia’s ( Citation 1966 ) identity status paradigm is probably the most well-known elaboration of Erikson’s views on identity formation. Marcia conceptualised identity statuses as an individual’s style of coping with the identity crisis described by Erikson. The author proposed that, in addition to Erikson’s two poles (i.e., identity versus identity confusion), other statuses should be differentiated based on the extent to which individuals have committed to significant life domains, after having explored, or otherwise, the available options. Thus, Marcia introduced commitment and exploration as the two key processes to differentiate four identity statuses: achievement (a commitment is made after active exploration of different alternatives); foreclosure (a commitment is made without exploring other options); moratorium (a commitment has not been made yet, the exploration phase is still ongoing); and diffusion (in this status both commitment and exploration are absent).

Consistent with Marcia’s ( Citation 1966 , Citation 1980 ) view, the identity status paradigm has mainly been applied to the study of inter-individual differences among youth classified into various identity statuses. On the one hand, a large corpus of evidence highlighted that adolescents in different identity statuses could be further differentiated in terms of personality characteristics and psychosocial problems (for a review see, Kroger & Marcia, Citation 2011 ). On the other hand, longitudinal studies started to provide preliminary evidence showing that although during adolescence progressive (e.g., from foreclosure to achievement) are more common than regressive changes (e.g., from achievement to moratorium), only a small percentage of youth (about 20%) reaches the status of identity achievement by the end of adolescence (Kroger et al., Citation 2010 ). This indicates that identity is not achieved once and for all, especially in post-modern societies, but is a life-long task, as Erikson ( Citation 1950 ) originally theorised.

Marcia’s ( Citation 1966 ) identity status paradigm has been criticised for not fully capturing the process by which people can question and change their identity over time (e.g., Côté & Levine, Citation 1988 ). To address this problem, neo-Eriksonian models and conceptualisations have been proposed to uncover further identity processes and dynamics (for reviews cf., McLean & Syed, Citation 2015 ; Schwartz et al., Citation 2011 ). In this fertile ground, the three-factor model has been proposed.

The three-factor identity model: its origins and assumptions

Starting from the 1980s, awareness of the importance of studying the process of identity formation increased. In this context, Bosma ( Citation 1985 ) and Meeus ( Citation 1996 ) reflected on the meaning of commitment and exploration, and underlined the importance of (a) studying their intensity, rather than their presence or absence, as initially done in the identity status paradigm, and (b) considering different functions they might serve. In line with these considerations, Bosma ( Citation 1985 ) differentiated between commitment making and identification with commitment, underscoring that making a choice (e.g., voting for a specific political party) does not necessarily mean that individuals identify strongly with it. Meeus ( Citation 1996 ) distinguished past exploration, needed to find new commitments, and present exploration, necessary to validate existing commitments. This differentiation implies that if a person has weighed up different alternatives before making a choice, he/she does not necessarily continue to explore the meaning of commitment in the present.

Table 1. Overview of the identity and self constructs examined in this review

Commitment refers to enduring choices individuals have made about various developmental domains and to the self-confidence they derive from these choices (akin to the concept of identification with commitment proposed by Bosma, Citation 1985 ). In-depth exploration indicates the extent to which individuals think actively about the commitments they have made, reflecting on their choices, searching for additional information, talking with others about their commitments (referring to the concept of present exploration proposed by Meeus, Citation 1996 ). Reconsideration of commitment refers to comparing current commitments with possible alternatives because the current ones are no longer satisfactory. This new process was added to express a way of searching for new commitments (as it was the concept of exploration proposed by Marcia) that stems from current experience and is fuelled by dissatisfaction with existing choices.

Figure 1. The three-factor model: The dual cycle.

Hence, the three-factor model provides a parsimonious approach to understanding the dynamic through which identity develops over time (Crocetti, Citation 2017 , Citation 2018 ). Extensive longitudinal studies conducted with this model have highlighted systematic evidence of maturing identity in adolescence. This means that it is possible to document increases in commitment and in-depth exploration throughout adolescence and decreases in reconsideration (for reviews, see, Meeus, Citation 2011 , Citation 2016 ). Thus, while identity certainty (as indicated by high levels of commitment and in-depth exploration) increases, identity uncertainty (indicated by high reconsideration of commitment) tends to diminish. A similar pattern is documented when the focus is on the identity cycles; adolescents tend to transit from the identity formation cycle to the identity maintenance cycle (for a review, see, Meeus, Citation 2018 ). This is a general pattern in which it is possible to find considerable heterogeneity among individuals’ trajectories and non-linear processes. It is not uncommon to shift from the identity maintenance cycle to searching for a new one (Meeus, Citation 2016 ).

So, on the one hand, the three-factor model is conceived as a framework to capture changes in identity, in line with the key tenet of Erikson’s theory. On the other hand, it contends that identity development does not occur in a vacuum but is firmly rooted in the social context. This latter applies to both identity cycles.

First, it is assumed that adolescents develop their identity by re-questioning their preliminary commitments, rooted in childhood identifications. Thus, the commitment formation cycle is based on comparing current choices with available alternatives, offered by the specific contexts in which adolescents grow up. For instance, young adolescents might be interested in arts because they are inspired by their parents’ passion and then become more interested in science when participating in a school programme aimed at increasing early adolescents’ interest in STEM disciplines. The school major they will choose would be the result of the dynamic interplay between their former commitment and the alternatives available in their school context, as happens in the identity formation cycle.

Second, the social context’s role is also prominent in the identity maintenance cycle. Here, through in-depth exploration of their commitments, adolescents can verify them. This active evaluation includes both intra-personal and interpersonal processes. For instance, young adolescents can reflect on the extent to which their current education matches their interests and future aspirations of becoming a journalist. To understand this, they can gather information from significant others (e.g., asking what their parents and their friends think about this). Thus, validating existing commitments also implies a process of social verification and social comparison with others (Crocetti et al., Citation 2018 ).

Identity processes and socio-cognitive identity strategies

Given this iterative and social nature of identity dynamics proposed by the three-factor model, it is of utmost importance to provide a fine-grained understanding of how individuals manage their commitments and change their identity over time in interactions with their social experiences. In this respect, research connecting the three-factor model (Crocetti et al., Citation 2008 ) with the social-cognitive perspective on identity construction (Berzonsky, Citation 1989 , Citation 2004 , Citation 2011 ) has shown systematic relations with the strategies that individuals adopt in processing, structuring, utilising, and revising self-relevant information.

More specifically, individuals relying on an information-oriented strategy are self-reflective, actively seek out and explore self-relevant information, and are likely to define themselves using personal attributes, like “my values,” “my goals,” and “my standards” (Berzonsky, Citation 1989 ). Individuals focusing on a normative strategy tend to enact commitments in a more automatic fashion, by adopting prescriptive behaviours and values from significant others and conforming to their expectations; in this vein, they mainly define themselves on the basis of collective self-attributes, such as “my family,” “my religion,” and “my ethnicity” (Berzonsky, Citation 2004 ). By contrast, individuals with a diffuse-avoidant strategy procrastinate and delay dealing with identity issues for as long as possible, and have a propensity to emphasise contingent social aspects of their self-elements, such as reputation, popularity, and impression management (Berzonsky, Citation 2011 ).

Consistent empirical research (Crocetti et al., Citation 2009 , Citation 2013 ; Negru-Subtirica et al., Citation 2017 ; Zimmermann et al., Citation 2012 ) has highlighted that identity processes at the basis of the identity maintenance cycle (commitment and in-depth exploration) are positively associated with the information-oriented and normative strategies. This indicates that, by taking a more personal stance (such as the information-oriented strategy) or a more social one (as in the case of the normative one) when approaching identity issues, young people can actively consolidate their sense of identity. Notably, when young people show that they combine the information-oriented and normative strategies, positive implications of this plasticity are evident, as they express higher commitment and in-depth exploration than their peers who rely predominantly either on the information-oriented or the normative strategy (Crocetti, Berzonsky et al., Citation 2012 ).

By contrast, the diffuse-avoidant strategy is intertwined with high reconsideration of commitment (Crocetti et al., Citation 2009 , Citation 2013 ; Negru-Subtirica et al., Citation 2017 ; Zimmermann et al., Citation 2012 ). This points to a dark side of reconsideration of commitment (Beyers & Luyckx, Citation 2016 ) that, especially when very prolonged, can hamper engagement with meaningful choices. In other words, individuals who continue to reconsider their commitments without identifying options that might suit their identity search might get trapped into a condition of identity uncertainty.

The self-regulatory function of identity

In the Eriksonian tradition, substantial attention has been paid to how identity contributes to individuals’ adaptation and well-being. Drawing on Erikson’s ( Citation 1968 ) principle that identity fulfils a self-regulatory function (Serafini & Adams, Citation 2002 ), it has been highlighted (Crocetti et al., Citation 2013 ) that the identity processes of commitment and in-depth exploration, together with normative and information-oriented strategies, provide individuals with a framework enabling them to process and understand self-relevant information and achieve a sense of consistency and coherence among their chosen values and beliefs. Furthermore, making meaningful commitments provides individuals with a sense of direction, future orientation, and continuity between past, present, and future. Finally, the more individuals consolidate their identity, the more they perceive a sense of personal control, free will, or agency that enables active self-regulation in the process of setting and attaining goals and moving towards future plans. These considerations are of the utmost importance, as they provide a theoretical framework for understanding why identity commitment and, to a certain extent, in-depth exploration (as opposed to reconsideration of commitment), and information-oriented and normative strategies (as opposed to diffuse-avoidant strategy), are related to multiple positive correlates, including several components of adjustment and mental health (e.g., Berzonsky & Kinney, Citation 2019 ; Hatano et al., Citation 2020 ; Karaś et al., Citation 2015 ; Mercer et al., Citation 2017 ; for reviews, see, Berzonsky, Citation 2011 ; Crocetti, Citation 2017 ; Meeus, Citation 2011 ).

Identity dynamics and self-concept clarity

After discussing how identity processes and identity strategies matter for individuals’ well-being, it is essential to go a step further and consider how they are related to the content of the self-concept. In this respect, it is worth considering self-concept clarity as an overall index of how well-organised the contents of the self-concept are (Lodi-Smith & DeMarree, Citation 2017 ). More specifically, self-concept clarity refers to “the extent to which the contents of an individual’s self-concept (e.g., perceived personal attributes) are clearly and confidently defined, internally consistent, and temporally stable” (Campbell et al., Citation 1996 , p. 141). Thus, while identity processes and identity strategies tackle how the self-concept develops and changes, “self-concept clarity might indicate how well the process of developing an own identity is going” (Crocetti & Van Dijk, Citation 2017 , p. 1). In other words, “personal identity is framed as an active agent, the ‘I’, that sorts through and organises self-relevant information. Self-concept clarity is framed as the object, the ‘me’, that represents the self-conception being constructed” (Schwartz et al., Citation 2017 , p. 145).

In her original work, Campbell ( Citation 1990 ) introduced self-concept clarity as a key concept that could be used to explain differences between individuals high and low in self-esteem. She demonstrated that individuals with low self-esteem were more susceptible to situational influences, such as false feedback or social pressures, because they had lower clarity or certainty in their self-conceptions. Since her seminal work, the concept of self-concept clarity has been applied in several domains, and it has been used to account for individual differences in mental health and well-being (for extensive reviews, see, Lodi-Smith & DeMarree, Citation 2017 ). For instance, it has recently been found that self-concept clarity even plays an important protective role even in the stress process related to the adaptation to the COVID-19 outbreak and lockdown conditions (Alessandri et al., Citation 2021 ). The concept has also been discussed in relation to important theorisations, such as the identity-uncertainty theory (Hogg, Citation 2007 , Citation 2012 ). In this regard, self-concept clarity may serve the function of reducing self-uncertainty.

Moreover, a large corpus of evidence has highlighted that self-concept clarity is positively associated with endorsement of identity commitments, whereas it is negatively related to identity crises driven by reconsidering and discarding current commitments (Crocetti et al., Citation 2008 , Citation 2010 ; Morsünbül et al., Citation 2014 ; Schwartz et al., Citation 2011 , Citation 2012 ). Similarly, self-concept clarity is negatively related to diffuse-avoidant identity strategy (Szabo & Ward, Citation 2015 ). Thus, individuals’ striving for a meaningful identity helps to enhance self-concept clarity. But this is not a merely unidirectional process: when individuals have low self-concept clarity, they can engage in the identity formation cycle (Schwartz et al., Citation 2011 , Citation 2012 ), and question their current identity to search for more satisfying alternatives.

This first section reviewed how the three-factor identity model was developed. Rooted in the Eriksonian tradition, this model offers a parsimonious framework to express the iterative nature of identity, with its oscillations between identity formation and maintenance cycles. We reviewed how the three pivotal identity processes (i.e., commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment) are meaningfully related to the socio-cognitive strategies (i.e., information-oriented, normative, and diffuse avoidant) that individuals can use to process self-relevant information. We also discussed why identity processes and strategies have important implications for individuals’ well-being. Finally, we examined the importance of self-concept clarity as an overall estimate of how clearly defined the contents of the self-concept are. In the next section of this review, we go a step further to examine how identity processes, socio-cognitive strategies, and self-concept clarity (for an overview of these constructs their respective measures, see, Table 1 ) are embedded in the social contexts in which adolescents come of age.

Figure 2. Model linking parents’ and adolescents’ self-concept clarity.

Figure 3. Model linking family relationships and identity commitment.

Figure 4. Model linking family relationships and identity in-depth exploration.

Figure 5. Model linking family relationships and identity reconsideration of commitment.

Figure 6. Model linking identity processes, social responsibility, and volunteer and political engagement.

Figure 7. Model linking identity socio-cognitive strategies and civic engagement.

Figure 8. Model linking self-concept clarity and prosociality.

Figure 9. Model linking personal and social identities.

Figure 10. Model linking identification with proximal groups, identification with humanity, and social well-being.

Figure 11. Model linking multiple categorisation, social dominance orientation, prejudice, and human identification.

The family context

The family context represents the first micro-system in which individual development occurs (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, Citation 2006 ) and greatly impacts successive experiences with other proximal (e.g., peer groups, school contexts) and more distal systems. How can parents positively influence and support their children’s self and identity formation? In our research programme (Crocetti et al., Citation 2017 ; Crocetti, Rubini et al., Citation 2016 ), we addressed this question by considering two core mechanisms. First, we examined whether parents can affect adolescents’ development by communicating who they are and acting as modelling agents (Crocetti, Rubini et al., Citation 2016 ). Second, we considered the impact of the quality of family relationships on adolescents’ identity processes (Crocetti et al., Citation 2017 ).

Parents as modelling agents: intergenerational transmission processes

Parents can deeply influence their adolescent children by acting as modelling agents (Wiese & Freund, Citation 2011 ). These considerations are rooted in social learning theory (Bandura, Citation 1977 ) that emphasises the centrality of the concept of modelling to understanding the socialisation process. Thus, parents who hold well-defined self-belief might represent a stronger point of reference for adolescents in search of their identity as compared to parents with uncertain self-beliefs.

We documented this effect in a longitudinal study in which we examined intergenerational transmission of self-concept clarity in families with adolescents (Crocetti, Rubini et al., Citation 2016 ). Participants were 497 Dutch families, including fathers, mothers, and their adolescent children. The fathers, mothers, and adolescents reported their own self-concept clarity for six annual assessments when adolescents were 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18 years old. The results provided consistent evidence of uni-directional transmission processes ( Figure 2 ). The self-concept clarity of fathers and mothers had positive effects on that of adolescent children over time, while adolescents’ self-concept clarity did not influence that of their parents. Furthermore, the pattern of influence in same-sex dyads (i.e., father-son, mother-daughter) was similar to the pattern in opposite-sex dyads (i.e., father-daughter, mother-son). Overall, this evidence underscores that when adolescents can count on parents high in self-certainty, they are more likely to increase their self-concept clarity throughout adolescence.

It is worth noting that the evidence of intergenerational transmission of self-concept clarity is consistent with intergenerational transmission processes occurring in other domains of adolescent development (cf., Meeus, Citation 2016 , for a review). For instance, transmissions of cultural orientations and attitudes (Meeusen, Citation 2014 ; Ter Bogt et al., Citation 2005 ; Vollebergh et al., Citation 2001 ) and conflict resolution styles (Van Doorn et al., Citation 2007 ) are also uni-directional processes: While parents influence their children, children do not influence their parents. Thus, longitudinal studies document parental dominance in intergenerational transmission processes.

This dominance can be further understood by considering the higher stability of parents’ self-views. In this regard, our study highlighted that parents reported having greater self-concept clarity and also displayed higher rank-order stability compared to their adolescent children (this was especially true for males). Thus, as they have a relatively more stable self than adolescents, parents are more likely to influence them than the other way around. In this vein, the impact of parents’ self-concept clarity on that of adolescents is consistent with the theoretical principle that systems with a higher degree of stability are more likely to affect those with a lower degree (Asendorpf & Van Aken, Citation 2003 ).

To conclude, longitudinal studies clearly show intergenerational transmission processes. Self-concept clarity, as well as attitudes, values, orientations, and interpersonal styles (e.g., for meta-analyses, see, Cemalcilar et al., Citation 2018 ; Degner & Dalege, Citation 2013 ) are transmitted from parents to offspring. Thus, by communicating who they are, parents work as modelling agents for their children and consistently impact their development.

The impact of family relationship quality

Another core mechanism through which parents can promote the identity development of their children is by forming high-quality relationships that provide adolescents with a “secure basis” to explore their own identity. This idea is rooted in the attachment theory (Bowlby, Citation 1988 ), according to which a secure bond with parents is necessary for exploring identity with confidence and making autonomous choices and decisions. Cross-sectional studies have confirmed that identity commitment and in-depth exploration are positively related to warm and supportive family relationships, whereas reconsideration of commitment is related to poor quality relationships (Crocetti et al., Citation 2008 , Citation 2010 ; Morsünbül et al., Citation 2014 ).

Studies using longitudinal design can substantially advance understanding of the associations between identity processes and quality of family relationships by discovering the predominant direction of effects. On the one hand, family literature has widely theorised that family relationships influence adolescents’ identity formation (Årseth et al., Citation 2009 ). On the other hand, building upon Erikson’s ( Citation 1950 , Citation 1968 ) psychosocial theory, it can be argued that changes in adolescents’ identity formation might in turn impact the quality of family relationships. Quoting Erikson ( Citation 1968 , p. 167), “true engagement with others is the result and the test of firm self-definition”. In line with the assumption of Erikson’s psychosocial theory that optimal resolution of the identity formation task is a developmental precursor of intimate and caring (generative) relationships (Lawford et al., Citation 2020 ), it is reasonable to expect that the more adolescents develop a clear sense of who they are, the more they can establish warm and balanced relationships with significant others.

We tested these two competing hypotheses in the longitudinal study mentioned before (Crocetti, Rubini et al., Citation 2016 ) which involved 497 Dutch families. In this case, differently from the prior one, the sample included not only the target adolescents, their fathers and mothers, but also their siblings, and all participants took part in the study for five years (Crocetti et al., Citation 2017 ). Thus, we examined the associations between adolescents’ identity processes (commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment) and quality of relationship assessed by considering multiple indicators (support, negative interaction, and power; Furman & Buhrmester, Citation 1985 ) reported directly by adolescents’ fathers, mothers, and siblings. A novelty of this study was the focus on siblings too. Although sibling relationships have received less attention, they are an essential component of family relationships (Buist et al., Citation 2013 ), and siblings can influence adolescents’ identity formation by engaging in meaningful conversations regarding identity issues (e.g., Cardwell & Soliz, Citation 2020 ).

The main results indicated that the quality of family relationships had an impact on adolescents’ identity formation (i.e., mothers’ levels of support negatively predicted changes in adolescents’ reconsideration of commitment throughout adolescence), but most of the effects were in the other direction (i.e., from adolescents’ identity to later quality of family relationships; Figures 3–5 ). More specifically, adolescents’ commitment had a positive effect on the relationships with the mother (that over time became more supportive and less conflictual) and with the sibling (that over time became more egalitarian; Figure 3 ). Over time adolescents’ in-depth exploration improved the relationship with all family members, leading to a more supportive and mutual relationship with the father, a more supportive and less conflictual relationship with the mother, and a more supportive relationship with the sibling ( Figure 4 ). Adolescents’ reconsideration of commitment reduced paternal support ( Figure 5 ). Notably, multi-group analyses indicated that results were not moderated by adolescent gender, sibling gender similarity, or sibling age.

Overall, this study indicates that adolescents’ identity can function as a developmental precursor of the quality of relationships with parents and siblings. This evidence is consistent with other longitudinal studies documenting bidirectional links between family relationships and identity in adolescents (Schwartz et al., Citation 2009 ) and in emerging adults (Beyers & Goossens, Citation 2008 ; Luyckx et al., Citation 2007 ) and showing that identity reduced loneliness (Kaniušonytė et al., Citation 2019 ).

In general terms, this evidence highlights that parents do not unilaterally influence the development of youth identity, but it is rather a process of reciprocal influence where adolescents play an active, transactional role (Sameroff, Citation 2009 ). In this vein, adolescents’ identity development significantly impacts on interaction with family members. When parents and siblings perceive ongoing changes in adolescents’ identity leading to increased maturity and certainty, they relate better. By contrast, when adolescents reconsider their identity and show problematic behaviours (e.g., reporting high aggression or being very anxious), they enter into a negative loop that gives rise to a progressive erosion of the quality of family relationships (Crocetti, Moscatelli et al., Citation 2016 ; Hale et al., Citation 2016 ).

Friendships

In adolescence, young people increasingly spend time with their friends (De Goede et al., Citation 2009 ), who become a primary source of intimacy and support (cf., Brown & Larson, Citation 2009 for a review). According to the classical concept proposed by Sherif and Sherif ( Citation 1964 ), when adolescents interact with their friends, they are in a “social laboratory”. In this context, they can experiment with different behaviours and self-presentation strategies, receive informative feedback from others, and benefit from social comparison processes.

Friendships, like family relationships, can influence the development of adolescents’ identity in different ways. In particular, two distinct mechanisms can operate. First of all, the way in which friends develop their own identity might affect the identity formation of their fellow mates. Second, friendships can form a safe interpersonal context in which adolescents test their identity choices through social comparison (McLean & Jennings, Citation 2012 ). In this vein, the quality of relationships with friends may significantly impact adolescents’ identity development.

These two mechanisms were tested in a five-wave longitudinal study with 464 Dutch adolescents and their self-nominated best friends (Van Doeselaar et al., Citation 2016 ). On the one hand, the study provided limited evidence of transmission processes: in fact, correlations between the educational identity of the target adolescents and of their best friends were small, and over time higher levels of adolescents’ commitment predicted a slight decrease in best friends’ commitment (but only in stable, as compared to unstable, friendships). However, on the other hand, the study highlighted reciprocal associations between the educational identity of the target adolescents and the quality of the relationship with the best friend, assessed with a measure of balanced relatedness (i.e., the extent to which adolescents increasingly accept the opinions and ideas of their friend, even when they differ from their own; Shulman & Knafo, Citation 1997 ). More specifically, target adolescents’ commitment and in-depth exploration over time predicted a positive increase in balanced relatedness, whereas balanced relatedness predicted a relative decrease in reconsideration of commitment.

Overall, this evidence indicates the protective role of high-quality friendships. When adolescents feel accepted and supported by their friends, over time they show lower problematic reconsideration of commitment in the educational domain. Furthermore, educational identity processes of commitment and in-depth exploration were found to foster balanced relatedness in the relationship with the best friend. Thus, as was documented for family relationships (Crocetti et al., Citation 2017 ), with friendships too, reciprocal effects are involved and reveal how adolescents developing their own identity can exert agency in interpersonal contexts.

Experiencing commitment in the society at large

So far, we have discussed how self and identity processes are embedded in the main adolescents’ proximal contexts of socialisation (i.e., family and friendships). We now consider how identity processes are intertwined with participation in broader civil society. Theoretically, the clearer a view adolescents have of who they are, the more they can care for others and express their agency in society. This hypothesis was tested in a cross-sectional study with 392 Italian adolescents (Crocetti, Jahromi et al., Citation 2012 ). The findings confirmed that identity commitment and in-depth exploration were positively related to both volunteer and political engagement, and this effect was mediated by increased social responsibility ( Figure 6 ). Although, on the one hand, this study highlighted meaningful associations between identity and different forms of participation in civil society, on the other hand, its cross-sectional design did not allow us to test the direction of these effects (Hardy et al., Citation 2011 ). To fill this gap, we conducted two longitudinal studies, in which we examined long-term associations between identity socio-cognitive strategies and civic engagement (Crocetti et al., Citation 2014 ) and between self-concept clarity and prosociality (Crocetti, Moscatelli et al., Citation 2016 ), respectively.

In the first study, we tackled associations between identity socio-cognitive strategies and civic engagement (i.e., participation in school self-government activities, volunteering activities, youth political organisations, and non-political organisations) in a two-wave longitudinal study with 1,308 Lithuanian adolescents (Crocetti et al., Citation 2014 ). The main results ( Figure 7 ) revealed that identity strategies were a stronger predictor of civic engagement (i.e., each identity strategy affected civic engagement at a later time) rather than the opposite (i.e., civic engagement determined changes at later times only in one out of three identity strategies). We found that adolescents with a preference for an information-oriented strategy might make use of more psychosocial resources to approach civic engagement. However, defining themselves mainly on the basis of individual characteristics may prevent them from establishing a sense of connection and belongingness, which is an essential component of civic participation (Yates & Youniss, Citation 1996 ). By contrast, adolescents using a normative strategy might be more driven by external motivations when approaching civic engagement (e.g., desire to make a good impression on others) but be more likely to appreciate their experience based on their tendency to form and maintain strong social bonds. Moreover, adolescents who delay and postpone identity issues as long as possible are less prone to care and become committed in the civic domain. In addition to these effects of identity on civic engagement, we found that civic engagement also predicted positive changes in identity one year later (i.e., high civic engagement lessened reliance on the diffuse-avoidant strategy).

In a second six-wave longitudinal study with 244 Dutch adolescents transitioning to emerging adulthood (Crocetti, Moscatelli et al., Citation 2016 ), we found that participants’ self-concept clarity was related to their prosociality (i.e., the tendency to perform voluntary activities regarded as beneficial to others, including helping, sharing, comforting, guiding, rescuing, and defending others; Padilla-Walker & Carlo, Citation 2014 ). The results indicated that, on the one hand, the clearer view adolescents had of themselves, the more willing they were to help other people; on the other hand, the more young people behaved prosocially, the more their self-concept clarity increased ( Figure 8 ). Interestingly, the effect of prosociality on self-concept clarity was stronger than the reciprocal effect of self-concept clarity on prosociality. This suggests that the likelihood of being involved in prosocial activities can enhance self-understanding, leading to more stable and confident self-definition.

Overall, these longitudinal studies provide convergent evidence on how self and identity processes are related to participation in civil society. On the one hand, achieving greater self-certainty and a relatively stable identity lays the basis for establishing caring relationships with others, especially with people that might be in a condition of need (Hatano et al., Citation 2022 ). As part of a virtuous circle, the multiple social experiences that adolescents have when they help others and are actively engaged in their communities provide them with a sense of industry and self-efficacy derived from being actively involved in activities of societal relevance; opportunities to strengthen social bonds with people from different in-groups (e.g., the volunteering group in which adolescents perform their prosocial activities) and out-groups (e.g., a marginalised group towards which volunteer activities are targeted) and to reflect on their core values (Yates & Youniss, Citation 1996 ). These experiences increase self-understanding and a more mature identity (Erentaitė et al., Citation 2019 ).

Taken together, the longitudinal studies reviewed in this second section illustrate how identity processes are deeply embedded in the interactions that adolescents have within multiple social contexts. Notably, two main conclusions can be drawn from this research programme (and the broader adolescent psychosocial literature). Significant others, especially parents, strongly contribute to shaping the identity development of their adolescent children by “showing who they are”. Indeed, intergenerational transmission of self-concept clarity, as well as of values and personality characteristics, are characterised by uni-directional effects (from parents to adolescents) that pervasively help to influence adolescents. In contrast, adolescents’ identity and interactions with significant others in both proximal (family and peers) and distal (civil society) contexts display bi-directional effects, showing that not only meaningful relationships and diversified experiences among significant others and adolescents influence how the latter define their identity, but also that adolescents are active agents in these contexts and have a significant impact on them. Building upon this evidence, in the third section of the review, we will explore associations with social identity processes, with a specific focus on social identification (Crocetti et al., Citation 2018 ).

This third section reviews studies that considered both personal and social identities in adolescence. First, we outline how personal and social identity processes can be intertwined, even though they have mainly been studied separately. Second, we outline how identifications with proximal and abstract groups can lead to social well-being (Keyes, Citation 1998 ), which is conceived as a “public phenomenon” (Rollero & De Piccoli, Citation 2010 ) referring to the extent to which individuals are integrated into society and can actively contribute to its development (Keyes, Citation 2006 ). Finally, we consider how different cognitions influence symbolic processes such as identification with the most inclusive group, that is, the human group (Albarello, Crisp et al., Citation 2018 ; Albarello & Rubini, Citation 2012 ; Turner et al., Citation 1987 ).

The interplay between personal and social identification processes

How can personal and social identification processes be intertwined? In recent contributions, we tackled this issue by combining a developmental and a social psychological perspective (Albarello, Crocetti et al., Citation 2018 ; Albarello et al., Citation 2020 , Citation 2021 ). As a first step, we examined the longitudinal interplay between personal and social identity processes in adolescence (Albarello, Crocetti et al., Citation 2018 ). In a three-wave longitudinal study with 304 Italian adolescents attending the 11 th and 12 th grades, we examined within-time and across time associations between personal identity processes (i.e., identity commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment) in the educational and interpersonal domains and social identification with two salient social groups, experienced daily (i.e., classmates and friends met outside school).

The results indicated that personal and social identity processes were associated, both concurrently and longitudinally ( Figure 9 ). Identification with classmates was positively related to educational commitment at each time point. In addition, identification with the group of friends was positively associated with interpersonal commitment and in-depth exploration and negatively linked to reconsideration of commitment. Most importantly, the results highlighted significant paths from identification with classmates to interpersonal commitment and interpersonal in-depth exploration and from identification with friends to interpersonal commitment and interpersonal reconsideration of commitment. This evidence reveals that social identifications primarily influenced personal identity formation and maintenance in the interpersonal identity domain. This implies that symbolic processes involving adolescents as members of social groups can affect their personal identity development. In this vein, it has to be underlined that such processes should not be examined in isolation if we aim to acquire a deep understanding of how adolescents deal with identity processes in their increasingly complex social context.

Social identifications with proximal and distal groups

Going a step further, in view of the increased variety of adolescents’ experiences with the social environment they are embedded in, we examined the developmental trajectory of social identification (Albarello et al., Citation 2021 ). Differently from the studies reported above (e.g., Crocetti et al., Citation 2017 ; Van Doeselaar et al., Citation 2016 ) which considered as social variables, social factors that are external to participants (e.g., beliefs of parents and peers), in this further set of studies, we focused on participant’s identification with different social groups. In this way, we tapped into personal perceptions and meaning of social memberships, an aspect that is known to have crucial implications for intergroup behaviours (cf., Ellemers et al., Citation 2002 ; Tajfel & Turner, Citation 1979 ; Turner et al., Citation 1987 ). More specifically, we analysed longitudinal association between identifications with proximal (i.e., classmates and friends) and more abstract groups, such as the human group (i.e., the most inclusive group that encompasses the whole variety of social groups and can be considered as the most abstract). We also focused on the impact of these identifications on social well-being, as an indicator of youth adaptation in their societies and communities, at a later time. Specifically, well-being as the “appraisal of one’s circumstance and functioning in society” (Keyes, Citation 1998 , p. 122) refers to the extent to which individuals “feel socially integrated and socially contributive” (Keyes, Citation 1998 , p. 133), that is, feel part of the groups and societies in which they live and perceive that they can contribute something valuable to the common good. It comprises multiple components that rely on the evaluation of the self with respect to the social context (social integration, social contribution), the evaluation of other people (social acceptance), and the evaluation of society (social coherence, social actualisation) (see, Cicognani et al., Citation 2008 ; Rollero & De Piccoli, Citation 2010 ). Reasoning that social well-being can be regarded as a crucial achievement of adolescence and an indicator of positive youth development (Cicognani et al., Citation 2008 ), we analysed how social identification with proximal and more abstract groups can affect social well-being in a three-way longitudinal study with Italian adolescents (Albarello et al., Citation 2021 ).

Our results highlighted that identification with proximal social groups (especially classmates) was positively associated with identification with the human group, and identifying with both proximal and abstract groups was related to adolescents’ social well-being over time ( Figure 10 ). Furthermore, identification with the human group and identification with the group of friends mediated the longitudinal effects of identification with classmates on social well-being. Thus, such findings highlighted the importance of experiences with proximal social groups (especially classmates) in shaping more complex and abstract identification processes (i.e., human identification), which in turn can affect the way in which young people think and behave as society members at a later time. These results resonate with the idea that belonging and being identified with groups is a core need of human beings (Fiske, Citation 2010 ). Interestingly, these results add that fulfilling this need can also produce a sense of social well-being, with all it entails in terms of functional adaptation of youth and active involvement in their community and society.

Individual cognitions and symbolic processes

Besides producing beneficial outcomes for in-group members such as self-esteem enhancement (Smith & Silva, Citation 2011 ; Tajfel & Turner, Citation 1979 ), social identity processes also have important implications for intergroup relationships. Along this line, we considered the impact of beneficial and detrimental factors on prejudice against the stigmatised out-group of migrants. With regard to beneficial factors, that is factors that can hinder or reduce prejudice, we focused on using multiple categorisations to define migrants. In this study, unlike what has generally been done with the multiple categorisation paradigm (Albarello & Rubini, Citation 2012 ; Crisp et al., Citation 2001 ; Crisp & Hewstone, Citation 2007 ; for a recent review see, Prati et al., Citation 2021 ), we assessed the extent to which individuals rated four combinations of multiple categorisation as definitions that can be applicable to the outgroup of migrants. A multiple categorisation mean score was then obtained by averaging the means of the four items. High scores indicate that multiple categorisation definitions are a suitable way of describing migrants. In contrast, low scores indicate that multiple categorisation definitions are less suitable to define them. In this vein, multiple categorisation of migrants can reflect individual cognition, which varies among individuals. The extent to which individuals consider multiple categorisation as applicable to the definition of migrants can affect prejudice towards them.

As regards detrimental factors (i.e., factors that are usually associated with severe prejudice), we considered social dominance orientation (Sidanius & Pratto, Citation 2001 ). Social dominance orientation is an individual trait expressing “a generalized orientation towards and desire for unequal and dominant/subordinate relations among salient social groups, regardless of whether this implies ingroup domination or subordination” (Pratto et al., Citation 2006 , p. 282). It is often associated with great prejudice and legitimisation of social inequalities. In fact, people high in social dominance orientation are characterised by insensitivity to moral violations and the welfare of others. In contrast, people low in social dominance orientation are motivated by egalitarianism and altruistic social concern and prioritise fairness and harm-avoidance (Duckitt, Citation 2001 ).

In a novel way, besides unravelling how multiple categorisations and social dominance orientation interact in explaining prejudice over time, this research also aimed to puzzle out the associations between prejudice and social inclusivity over time. The latter was measured as the extent to which individuals identify with the common human group (Albarello et al., Citation 2020 ). Notably, prejudice and social inclusivity cannot be conceived merely as two faces of the same coin, but are most likely driven by different processes (e.g., tolerance appears at a different developmental stage; Van Zalk & Kerr, Citation 2014 ).

Findings of a three-wave longitudinal study with Italian adolescents underlined both the positive role of multiple categorisations in reducing prejudice and the negative role of social dominance orientation in leading to high prejudice, at a later time ( Figure 11 ). The extent to which adolescents used multiple categorisations was negatively related to prejudice against migrants later. By contrast, social dominance orientation was positively associated with later prejudice. Interestingly, the results also showed that the association between social dominance orientation and prejudice was bidirectional; that is, prejudice was positively associated with social dominance orientation at a later time, highlighting a “dark chain” through which prejudice can work as a legitimising myth of social inequalities. Moreover, and most importantly, we also found that the association between social dominance orientation and human identification (McFarland et al., Citation 2019 ) is mediated by the view (i.e., prejudice) that individuals have about some very salient outgroups that can be included in the human ingroup, such as migrants. That is, prejudice against migrants played an active (i.e., mediating) role in explaining adolescents’ identification with humanity at a later time.

This finding highlights that prejudice should not only be considered an outcome of individual-level processes such as categorisation, but can also affect other phenomena, such as social inclusivity, as a symbolic outcome of an individual’s perception and experience of others. Such intriguing novel evidence underlines the close interplay between individual and symbolic processes that can explain young people’s inclusive identifications, with all it entails in terms of promoting harmonious relations in diverse societies (e.g., reduction of dehumanisation; Albarello & Rubini, Citation 2012 ). It also suggests that it is important to consider developmental trajectories of more complex and abstract cognition about one’s memberships in order to thoroughly analyse what factors can foster this form of social inclusivity.

In this section, we highlighted that personal and social identification processes can be deeply intertwined. Social identification has been emphasised as a factor affecting the development of personal identity. For instance, this means that identity formation in adolescence must also be studied by considering the social bounds of young people with the groups to which they belong in order to achieve a deeper understanding of such developmental processes. A combined analysis of the interplay of various (proximal and more abstract) social identifications can help us to understand other developmental tasks such as fostering adolescents’ social well-being as a means of individuals’ adjustment to their communities. Other social level phenomena such as prejudice can also affect the way in which individuals define and feel interconnected with others through human identification. This suggests that identification, at the personal as well as at the social level, needs to be analysed by considering the (wider) social contexts in which individuals are embedded in, to be thoroughly understood. In other words, the cognitions that individuals develop about themselves as single persons, as group members, and as human beings can be deeply influenced by their views about self and others – for instance, in terms of stereotypes and prejudice held about outgroups – as well. Considering such intertwined social cognitive processes, rather than conceiving them as separate and independent, is thus crucial to augmenting our understanding of identity in its different facets.

The research programme reviewed in this article offers in-depth, convergent evidence showing that the process by which individuals define their own identity is intertwined with diversified and continuous experiences in multiple contexts. Thus, this review sheds light on the dynamic and transactional process by which adolescents’ identity is nourished by social interactions and, in a reciprocal loop, affects social experiences.

We reviewed a set of longitudinal studies conducted with Southern (i.e., Italian; Albarello, Crocetti et al., Citation 2018 ; Albarello et al., Citation 2020 , Citation 2021 ), Eastern (i.e., Lithuanian; Crocetti et al., Citation 2014 ) and Western (i.e., Dutch; Crocetti et al., Citation 2017 ; Crocetti, Moscatelli et al., Citation 2016 ; Crocetti, Rubini et al., Citation 2016 ; Van Doeselaar et al., Citation 2016 ) European adolescents. Overall, they provided consistent evidence that individuals’ identities are defined in close interaction with proximal (family, friends) and distant (civic society) life contexts. At the same time, the more individuals achieve a more established sense of who they are, the more they can exert a powerful influence on their contexts as well.

Overall, this review underscores that adopting a cross-fertilisation approach, where a classic social-psychological phenomenon (i.e., self and identity) is examined from a developmental perspective, can significantly advance the understanding of identity development processes. Along this line, this contribution sheds light on the social nature of identity development by highlighting that, although identity processes reside and develop within the individual, they are nevertheless systematically influenced by the social contexts in which people live in terms of providing options for identity choices, memberships of social groups, contents of self and others’ definition.

It should be taken into account that whereas research on personal identity was initially pursued from an intra-individual perspective leaving in shadow the role of others and using longitudinal methods that make it possible to address how identity is formed and transformed over time, social identity research has focussed from the very beginning on the self-others interplay, using mainly experimental methods that made it possible to advance theoretical explanations in a controlled way. Although personal identity research has considered exploration as the fundamental process to acquire information on a given life domain and establish a related identity choice, social identity tradition recognises social categorisation as the initial process of identity formation. Once the self recognises that a certain categorisation provides a usable and significant self-definition (Turner et al., Citation 1987 ) and others define the self accordingly, social identity is acquired to the extent that the self also identifies with that particular category/group (Brown, Citation 2000 ). Postmes et al. ( Citation 2005 ) provided a more finely grained explanation of social identity formation by referring to deductive and inductive processes rooted in the collective characteristics of group members.

In general terms, the notion that is common to personal and social identity is commitment. In the domain of personal identity, commitment is the process through which relatively stable choices are made in the various life domains. In the context of social identity, commitment has been addressed as an important component of group identification (Doosje et al., Citation 1999 ). It is plausible to argue that commitment manifests itself at the cognitive level through the awareness of being a member of a certain group, at the emotional level through the affective commitment to one’s own ingroups, and at the behavioural level through the actions performed to maintain and advance one’s own groups.

Another communality between personal and social identity resides in the strategies enacted when one’s own personal or social identity is no longer satisfying. On the front of personal identity, through in-depth exploration, one can reconfirm commitment to a certain identity choice or decide to leave the current commitment after pondering reconsideration of commitment. As for social identity,Tajfel ( Citation 1981 ) had already contended that one could enact mobility strategies if it is easy to move from one group to another or adopt collective social-change strategies if group boundaries are not very permeable. In this vein, what is important for both personal and social identity is that individuals can achieve relatively stable identity choices that can be submitted to change when altered conditions (whether personal, social or structural ones) jeopardise their identities.

In general terms, inspired by the advances of research on personal (Crocetti, Citation 2017 ) and social identity (Prati et al., Citation 2021 ) it is very important that adolescents and people in general can rely on relatively stable and yet flexible identities to be able to adapt to the multiple challenges of contemporary societies successfully and to be inclusive of diverse people and groups. Conversely, making identity choices in only a few domains and being strongly identified with only a few groups can lead to ethnocentrism, discrimination and any other kind of social prejudice (Crocetti et al., Citation 2021 ).

Directions for future research

Drawing on the developmental social-psychological perspective of this review, future research might increase theoretical understanding of identity dynamics in several directions. First, future research should directly address the issue of social identity and group belongingness in longitudinal designs. This would make it possible to understand when and how youth start to be aware of their group memberships, how they maintain, enlarge or change their adherence to these important social psychological experiences, especially in the light of the renewed ethnic and cultural mosaic of contemporary societies that has dramatically changed due to migration processes (United Nations, Citation 2017 ). In this vein, the increasing diversity of societies requires adolescents to manage their identities in a complex way, acknowledging that how they address the core question “who am I?” could be the result of a dynamic process based on multiple and diverse social interactions with individuals from ethnic and cultural groups different from their own in-group. For adolescents with a migrant background (e.g., refugees, first-generation, and second-generation immigrants, international students), the identity formation task can be particularly challenging, as they have to manage several (and sometimes even conflictual) alternatives proposed, on the one hand, by their culture and family of origin, and, on the other hand, by the host society (e.g., Karataş et al., Citation 2020 ; Schwartz et al., Citation 2013 ). As a result, they can be more uncertain about their identity choices, and can keep on considering and reconsidering their commitments in various life domains (Crocetti et al., Citation 2011 ). Similarly, for adolescents without a migrant background growing up in societies with increasing diversity provides the opportunity to consider different cultural systems and explore diverse identity pathways. Thus, future research is needed to tackle how adolescents’ identity formation is related to the quality of intergroup contact experiences in multiple socialisation contexts.

Second, the current state-of-the-art indicates that identity is a multifaceted construct (Crocetti & Salmela-Aro, Citation 2018 ) and that identity processes have important implications for adolescents’ well-being (Crocetti et al., Citation 2018 ). However, longitudinal research in this domain is still fragmented and sparse. While there is evidence that the development of personal identity affects psychological well-being and mental health (e.g., Hatano et al., Citation 2020 ), the implications of personal identity formation for other components of well-being, such as social integration and physical health, still need further investigation. Similarly, social and human identities have mainly been related to collective outcomes, such as intergroup attitudes and discrimination (e.g., Albarello & Rubini, Citation 2012 ), while deserving more attention to shed light on how these identities affect multiple dimensions of adolescents’ well-being over time. Above all, the next frontier for identity research requires the development of integrative frameworks to uncover how the dynamic interplay of personal and social identity processes (instead of considering only one identity facet) affects multiple components of well-being in adolescence.

In this vein, it has been suggested that “personal and social identities form a fundamental symbolic tool that individuals use to adapt to the multiple domains of their lives. In a continuous flow of interaction with their social context, people can use and strengthen their personal and social identities to satisfy the main needs and motives underlying human behaviour” (Crocetti et al., Citation 2018 , p. 306). Notably, future research could explore the impact of multiple personal and social identity processes on adolescents’ well-being to test whether fulfilment of fundamental human needs and motives (such as need to belong and to be competent; cf., Fiske, Citation 2010 ; Vignoles, Citation 2011 ) are key factors (i.e., mediators) underlying these associations.

From a methodological perspective, in this review, we discussed studies that were mainly aimed at disentangling the predominant direction of effects, by uncovering whether a certain factor influences a related one or vice-versa. To do so, the results of cross-lagged models were discussed. However, increasing attention has been devoted to the importance of differentiating between-persons effects (as examined in traditional cross-lagged models) and within-person effects (that can be detected by applying a random intercept cross-lagged panel model; Hamaker et al., Citation 2015 ). Studies (e.g., Crocetti et al., Citation 2015 ; Mercer et al., Citation 2017 ; Miklikowska, Citation 2018 ; Negru-Subtirica et al., Citation 2020 ) in which both models were applied and compared highlighted that, while some results might be replicated, others can be attributed either mainly to a difference in the relative standing of an individual within a group (i.e., between-person effects) or to deviations from individuals’ average scores (i.e., within-person effects). Thus, further research might further clarify which effects operate at which level and, in doing so, inform more precisely evidence-based interventions (Meeus, Citation 2016 ; Orth et al., Citation 2021 ).

To conclude, we do believe that this review has highlighted the value of studying identities from a developmental social-psychological perspective and, in doing so, has paved the way for future research aimed at further understanding how identities are formed and how they impact adolescents’ well-being in contemporary societies.

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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Identity Development Process Essay

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Introduction

Literature review, interview questions used in the study, interview results, synthesis of the results.

The process of identity development among individuals is rooted at infant stage, and develops significantly until it clearly emerges out at adolescence stage. It has been revealed that, the major goal of many adolescents is to achieve a specific identity in order to avoid any form of confusion in their future lives.

According to Kroger (2007), physical, cognitive and social transformations among adolescents form a strong basis for the development of their future identity in their later adulthood.

Particularly, the emergence abstract reasoning among teenagers facilitates their ultimate development of specific identities in order to make them to be focused in realizing self actualization.

More so, the physical and social environment in which an individual grows up in has been revealed quite significant in identity development among adolescents. In this study, an in-depth learning on the key contexts for identity development among adolescents will be facilitated.

To facilitate this study interviews with a boy and a girl aged 14 and 15 years respectively have been conducted. As observed in these adolescents, their anticipated future careers are largely embedded on their parental core values and practices.

Since the interviewees are in their high school educational level, their focus in developing their future careers seems clearly developed, as depicted by their subsequent specialized study patterns.

It was observed that, these interviewees had set their educational achievement goals based on the core values upheld by their close relationships including families and their peers (Clarke, 2005).

On choosing these interviewees, I considered adolescence stage as the focal point of identity development, since individuals at this stage are at verge of developing abstract reasoning skills.

More so, the adolescence stage marks the transition stage between adulthood and childhood, where individuals tend to develop key values and behaviors to identify themselves with.

By choosing a 14 year old boy and a 15 year old girl, their response will be fundamental in developing the relationship between identity development and the underlying environmental influences among individuals.

Since these interviewees at the stage of personal development where they are capable of reasoning deductively and inductively, their career development seems much embedded on their key values in their lives.

Considering that this study focuses on the relationship between identity development and environmental influences, an interview with the two adolescents seems more accurate in developing an accurate framework of ideas on how both social and physical environment impacts on individuals’ identity (Ferrer-Wreder et al, 2002).

According to Taveira & Moreno (2003), the process of identity development is a complex framework of experiences originating from adulthood to become well defined at adolescence stage.

As it has been revealed, adolescents’ main focus is to align their goals to the societal norms and values, in order to enhance coherence in their personal development. Being a multi-dimensional aspect of personality, identity involves sexuality, occupation, religion and ethical values, which an individual pursues to achieve in his/her life.

On this basis, identity is an innate and personalized ambitions among individuals to realize self-actualization. Since the social and physical environments are very influential in the development of behaviors, self actualization corresponds to social values and norms among individuals.

It is important to note that, identity development is largely determined by creativity among individuals. Creativity is a personal skill that cannot be ignored at any cost, as it determines core identity values among the people (Clarke, 2005). For a society to develop, it requires creativity by its members.

Since the society is composed of persons, each individual’s personal identities have been largely dependent on the core values and norms upheld in the society. It is hence significant for any society and individuals to think of share and play with new ideas.

This enhances the well being of the mind of the individuals and often results in material benefit which improves their lives. On this basis, the development of identity among adolescents is one of the major achievements that adolescents acquire as they pursue success in their endeavors.

As noted by Ferrer-Wreder et al (2002), the ability of adolescents to think and reason abstractively facilitates the development of their core competencies in their areas of interest, which is largely influenced by the environment they grow in.

With regard to Taveira & Moreno (2003), hypothetical development of identity among individuals is based on two main steps. The first step involves adolescents breaking away from their childhood beliefs in search of new alternatives in specific areas considered as important in their areas.

The second step involves personal commitment through identifying various opportunities capable of enhancing the realization of the desired goals.

As noted by Kroger (2007), adolescents’ ambitions to achieve their desired goals and objectives may be foreclosed, a situation which may arise when such individuals get committed to achieve self actualization without proper exploration of the possible alternatives.

As a result, frustrations are subsequently experienced among such individuals, since their ambitions will be out of scope of their potential. It is important to note that, parental ideas and values are accepted automatically among individuals as they organize their strategies to identify themselves with various aspects of societal values.

According to Ferrer-Wreder et al (2002), adolescents start developing an in-depth analysis of their parents’ influences through beliefs and ideas, a process referred as moratorium. At adolescence stage, individuals become active explorers of the available alternatives in their lives.

This is reflected by their tendency to start engaging in new beliefs and practices as they tryout various social opportunities. On the process of alternatives exploration, by-identity achievement is usually achieved, since at this stage individuals will be able to think and reason abstractively.

Despite that such adolescents explore various aspects of their identities; some of them may fail to achieve any significant identity development as a result of their multi-dimensional perspectives.

As a result, diffusion of values among such individuals becomes a key aspect of identity development; as such individuals tend to encompass the core values upheld in their social environment.

As held by Clarke (2005), active parental, educational and community involvement is quite important as a nurturing factor for the development of identity among adolescents. Since identity achievement is largely associated with self esteem, individuals are compelled to reason critically on their verge to choose alternatives for their identity.

It is also important to note that, the physical changes among individuals at puberty level facilitate their development in reasoning capacity in terms of moral values.

With respect to Taveira & Moreno (2003), the development of abstract thought among adolescents enhances their capacity to explore various religious matters as they seek to establish the best spiritual beliefs to associate themselves with.

According to Head (1997), about 60% of adolescents, their identification with a particular religion is a fundamental achievement in their lives. Considering the impact of social relationships among individuals, their tendency to associate themselves with religion belonging to their treasured social identities has been prevalent.

Though many adolescents have been revealed to associate themselves with childhood beliefs, the process of exploration in achieving identities in religious beliefs remains a significant for them.

As revealed by Boan & Piquette-Tomei (2009), the failure of parents to create conducive environment for children in terms of creativity inhibit the child’s potential. When the parents are not creative themselves, it usually becomes hard for the children to develop creativity, since they tend to consider their parents as the ultimate mentors for their life.

Considering that the family is the first social group that individuals interact with, much of the families’ core values and behaviors are acquired by these children. This forms a basis for individuals’ development of identity with their families or relatives.

As noted by Taveira & Moreno (2003), a family environment that inhibits the creativity of children has a diverse impact on the development of skills even beyond creativity.

For instance, parents who are extremely strict to their children may make them develop hostile behaviors, since such children will tend to identify themselves with the behavior of their parents.

Though many children have their goals and objectives that they wish to fulfill in their future lives, it is not until adolescence life that their identity becomes clearly developed. As reported by Ferrer-Wreder et al (2002), many adolescents usually pursue career goals and objectives which align with their career identities.

For instance, a young girl who is fond of science related subjects may have strong desires to identify herself with careers that are related to science like astronomy, teaching career and medical practitioners among others. According to Kroger (2007), there are three main stages of career development among teenagers.

The first phase is ‘crystallization’, which is associated with tentative choosing of specific aspects related to their treasured identities. At this stage, the young adolescents may engage in pursuing a variety of career options which facilitates the identification of their core competencies in the chosen areas.

In this stage, Boan & Piquette-Tomei (2009) considers the ability of teens to choose specific subjects which they are more interested in and wish to base their future careers on them.

The second stage of career development is ‘specification’, which is associated with specific choosing or subject areas with respect to their desired careers (Taveira & Moreno, 2003).

At this stage, individuals tend to choose specified study areas in which they are most interested in, so that they can identify themselves with them in their future career life. Since this phase happens at later stage of adolescence, it forms a strong base for incorporation of the personal interests in their life careers.

On completing all the training courses relevant to the identified careers, individuals enter into the field to practice their gained skills, a phase called ‘implementation’. Implementation is the last stage which involves actual engagement of individuals in their long-desired careers or jobs with regard to personal values and desires.

At this stage, the various aspects of the chosen career become part of them and subsequently start identifying themselves with such careers.

As revealed by Clarke (2005), identity development at adolescence stage acts as one of the fundamental aspects of adulthood development among individuals. During their adolescence stage, individuals tend to use their own understanding to build foundations for constructing their future identities.

More specifically, adolescents tend to develop lifespan creations which links their identity development and the ‘adult-self’.

It is quite important to note that, ‘lifespan construct’ is an integral of past, present and future experiences and cultural practices to facilitate personal identification, which includes scenario and social aspects of identity development.

The scenario aspects include individuals’ expectations of what they will become or do in their future dates. On the other hand, the social aspect links all previous events and the future aspirations to come up with more defined identity.

Generally, identity development is a lifelong journey integrated with a variety of experiences and cultures among individuals. Though the process of identity development is similar, the overall outcome of such individuals is ultimately different since different individuals have diverse preferences and desires.

Though adolescence stage forms a basis for the development of identity among individuals, various stages have been reveled to offer opportunities for reevaluation of the desired goals and objectives.

As noted by Ferrer-Wreder et al (2002), identity development is a multi-dimensional process that offers individuals with specific and focal concentration on particular aspects of culture of experiences for perfections, resulting into self actualization.

• Question 1: What do you aspire to be in your future life?
• Question 2: What subjects do you find the most interesting in your studies?
• Question 3: What is the motivation behind your intense interest in these subjects?
• Question 4: Does you parents follow up your learning studies at home?
• Question 5: What are your views on your parents’ engagement in your learning? Are they significant in your career development?
• Question 6: What are some of the challenges that you often face in your self actualization?
• Question 7: Are teachers and peers significant in your career ambitions?
• Question 8: Why do you think so?
• Question 9: Among the three groups, that is parents, teachers and peers, which one do you think has influenced your thinking and reasoning patterns most?
• Question 10: What are the reasons for your perception?

According to the 15 year-old girl, her future-life aspirations is to become an aviation engineer. As it was revealed, the girl’s most interesting studies are science-based, in which the most treasured subjects were physics and mathematics.

Being an adolescent, the girl’s ability to reason and think abstractively seems to have been developing effectively and efficiently. One of the main motivating agents for the girl’s aspirations in becoming an aviation engineer is largely based on her father’s encouragements to pursue aviation technology.

More so, the girl revealed how she finds it easy to understand the concepts in mathematics and physics, making her develop innate interest towards the careers related to these study areas (Personal Communication, May 7, 2011).

On the other hand, the 14 year-old boy revealed how he is much interested in becoming a lawyer in his future life. According to the boy, political science and constitutional affairs are the most treasured areas of specialization.

At this age of development, the boy showed a lot of interest in understanding legal matters associated with social interactions in the society. Particularly, abstract reasoning various legal proceeding associated with social interactions in this boy seemed to have developed well.

As revealed by this interviewee’s interest and motivation towards legal matters was attributed by his brother who was one of the prospective lawyers in the state. In addition, the boy revealed how his deceased father used to encourage him to follow the foot-prints of his brother.

As a result, the boy’s interest in identifying himself with lawyer career has largely been part of his aspirations and ambitions (Personal Communication, May 7, 2011).

As revealed by the 15 year-old girl, her parents were actively involved in her studies since her father was occasionally having a talk with her about her studies and future career.

Due to her high concern of her parents towards her education, the girl seemed quite motivated in her studies, which inherently reflected her identity development towards scientific innovations.

According to the fifteen-year old girl, her parental involvement in her studies have largely impacted her in her concentration in science subjects in order to fulfill her fathers desire oh her becoming an aviation engineer.

Particularly, the involvement of this girl’s parents in her studies has played a very significant role in determining her decision to pursue in aviation engineering for her career (Personal Communication, May 7, 2011).

On the other hand, the 14 year-old boy revealed how his parents have been playing significant role in the decisions he take about her studies. Though her father is deceased, this interviewee revealed how the father used to encourage him to pursue engineering career in his future life.

As a result, the boy’s interest in legal studies and political science has largely been triggered by his father’s encouragements to pursue the lawyer career. More so, the boy revealed how her mother never ceases to check over his books to see how he performs.

It is this direct parental concern over his education that has facilitated the development of high interests in legal studies in this boy.

Precisely, the impact of parental encouragements in the boy’s preferences and wishes in studies that have enhanced his deep interests in identifying himself with career in the judicial matters in his future life (Personal Communication, May 7, 2011).

As revealed by the 15 year-old girl, one of the main challenges that she was encountering in her self actualization is that, some of her peer group members used to discourage her a lot on her decisions to pursue on science subjects.

Since mathematics and physics are perceived as quite challenging subjects for females, the girl has greatly been finding it a bit challenging to cope with her peers’ discouragements. However, the girl revealed how her ambitions are strongly embedded on her parents’ powerful influences on her career development.

On this basis, the challenges the girl was facing in her ambitions to attain self actualization through succeeding in aviation studies have largely been countered by her parents’ strong influences on her academic life (Personal Communication, May 7, 2011).

Further, the 14 year-old revealed that, one of the main challenges he has been facing in his ambitions to realize self actualization is discouragements from his tutor. As the boy reported, his tutor never recommended anything positive on her performance, which makes him afraid of his competence in comprehending legal issues.

Particularly, the lack of positive remarks from his tutor has always been a challenging issue in this boy’s efforts to acquire self actualization through his success in pursuing political science and judicial studies and subsequently become a lawyer.

However, the boy has been able to counter this challenge by reflecting on his outstanding performance in subjects related to judicial matters. More so, the encouragements from his brother have been quite influential in his ambitions to develop successful identity with career in judicial matters (Personal Communication, May 7, 2011).

In addition, the two respondents revealed how peers and teachers have been of great influence in their desired career development. According to the 14 year-old boy, his teacher has negatively been influencing his ambitions to become a lawyer.

By being non-encouraging and absolutely not recommending any potential ability in the boy, the teacher has been acting as a strong barrier for the boy’s career development.

On the other hand, the 15 year-old girl revealed how her physics teacher has been encouraging her to pursue science related careers in her future studies, since she had the capacity to succeed in the subject area.

However, most of the girl’s peers have been quite discouraging in her ambitions to pursue science-related career. On the other hand, the 14 year-old boy revealed how his peer group members have not been of any influence on his career development (Personal Communication, May 7, 2011).

Among parents, teachers, and peer group members, the 14 year-old boy revealed how parental influences are the most remarkable in his preferences to become a lawyer.

Since his teacher has not been of any motivation in his ambitions in academic life, the boy revealed how his decision to pursue judicial studies for his career has largely been attributed to his parents’ encouragements.

Similarly, the 15 year-old girl reported how her parental efforts in her future career are more recommendable than her teachers’. In addition, the girl revealed how her peers are the least influential in her ambitions to identify herself with aviation technology in her career life (Personal Communication, May 7, 2011).

As revealed by Kail & Cavanaugh (2001), young people tend to choose their future careers with regard to special values associated with the chosen career. More precisely motivation is one of the most significant aspects facilitating the development of career among young individuals at their adolescence stage.

As noted by Germeijs & Verschueren (2006), orientation on career choice is one of the most important aspects or career development among adolescents.

With respect to the interviewee’s motivation in their specific career preferences, parental encouragements and other motivating factors have been found quite important in the adolescents’ positive attitude towards the subjects they consider as helping them build their careers on.

By having active parents’ in their education, the participants’ attitude towards the preferred careers can be attributed to external forces, rather than their own efforts.

Quite importantly, protocol is one of the most facilitators of career identity development among adolescents. With the perception of their parents influences as the most reliable and useful for their careers, the interviewees in this study can be described to be lacking the exposure to explore careers on their own.

Since self exploration is one of the major identity developments among adolescents as they advance to adulthood, there is likelihood of these two interviewees to change their careers after they get exposed to high levels of exploration.

Meanwhile, there are chances of their attachment to their career dreams in cases where they fail to get exposed much to a wider range of diverse knowledge which may sway their careers (Clarke, 2005).

According to Ferrer-Wreder et al (2002), successful development of career identity requires skills needed for exploring and comparing various alternatives at their disposal. In this case, individuals who fail to be exposed to situations of self exploration to compare various alternatives emerge out as having instabilities in their future careers.

Though the development of career identity is largely controlled by the social environment among adolescents, their exposure to wider range of learning and exploration skills is quite significant.

Considering the case between the two interviewees in this study, their lack of exposure to acquire self-exploration skills may result into their careers being faced by various problems.

This is on the basis that, such individuals will come to explore other alternatives at their later career life, which may adversely affect their efficiency in such careers.

As noted by Head (1997), junior adolescents tend to identify themselves with careers which entice their most treasured people like relatives and teachers. As a result of future exploration of various alternatives, such individuals may uphold these careers or change them according to the influences they get on the course of their exploration.

As reported by Kroger (2007), the tendency of adolescents to explore the world through abstract reasoning is one of the major exploration aspects as they decide the specific careers they would like to associate themselves with.

Though at later stages adolescents are much influenced by their empirical experience with the world, much of their preferences is large embedded on their family and social-life orientations.

As it has been observed in the thirteen-year old boy, his family perceptions of judicial studies careers as the best can be attributed to his decision to pursue law in his future career.

Similarly, the fifteen-year old girl seems to be much influenced by his father to consider aviation engineering as her future career. On this basis, the impact of parental involvement in the development of career identity among adolescents remains quite remarkable among many teenagers.

As held by Taveira & Moreno (2003) adolescents at their senior stage of becoming adults become active explorers of the available alternatives in their lives, especially for their careers.

This is reflected by their tendency to start engaging in new beliefs and practices as they try out various social opportunities and alternatives at their disposal. Though most of their practices are largely controlled by their social orientations in life, many of them tend to be swayed away by new influences.

As a result, their tendency to change their previously established career-dreams may be adversely affected, resulting into them choosing new careers. Since the interviewees in this study are still in their early development stages of their adolescence, crystallization seems to dominate most of their career identity attributes.

As they advance to their late adolescence stage, much of influences from the real world experiences are expected to facilitate their career choices, as they engage in ‘specialization’.

Particularly, Boan & Piquette-Tomei (2009) considers free will of expression among adolescents as they try to associate themselves with the societal norms and values in their efforts to acquire self actualization.

As noted by Clarke (2005), the understanding of adolescent development is a key aspect of consideration when creating career planning models for teenagers. In this case, parental and teachers’ involvement plays very important roles in facilitating the development of the most effective careers capable of meeting the needs of the adolescents in their future life.

Since at the stage of adolescence individuals’ cognitive ability is high, their ability to think on their careers and their various aspects of social becomes clearly elaborated through abstract reasoning.

In this regard, the tendency of the interviewees’ parents to encourage them to get engrossed in specific careers makes sense in the way parents usually have overall understanding of their children and usually want the best for them.

Through various encouragements they get from their parents, there is high likelihood of the interviewees used in this study to strongly remain embedded in their anticipated careers.

Since career formation is essentially enhanced through continued interests, relevant tasks and discussions should be maintained among the adolescents. As Kail & Cavanaugh (2001) argues, adolescents should be engaged in more practical learning and activities which relate to their anticipated careers in order to enhance advancement of career skills as they venture to specialization.

This practice is quite important in the sense that, advanced exploration and perfection is easily achieved through practice, promoting employability among the adolescents.

As observed in this study, the ability of teachers and parents of the 15 year-old girl to encourage her and subsequently help her realize her potential in science-related subjects seems quite appropriate to enhance self exploration of the anticipated career of aviation engineering.

Since career forms one of the most fundamental aspects of self actualization, Germeijs & Verschueren (2006) reveals how career identity is significant among adolescents. As Ferrer-Wreder et al (2002) holds, many adults tend to identify themselves with their occupations, an indication of how careers are impactful among the people.

On this basis, nurturing of career identity among adolescents seems a very useful strategy, since such individuals will be able to employ the knowledge they acquire in their early life to innovate in their careers.

Particularly, when individuals realize their potential and abilities in their early life, chances of remarkable success in their future endeavors are high.

This is on the basis that, repeated usage of knowledge related to their preferred careers and subsequently engage in empirical experiences of such careers establishes strong bases for successful career development in them.

On this basis, the tendency of the two interviewees in this study to be engaged in career choosing at their early life will enhance success in their future endeavors, since they will sequentially gain exposure and experience in the filed related to their careers.

As it has been revealed, career identity development is one of fundamental aspects of personal development among adolescents, as it culminates to self actualization. With respect to the interviewed teenagers in this study, it has clearly bee exposed on how significant and influential parental and teachers impacts are on career development among the studied teenagers.

Though they are at their early age of development, their close engagement with their family members seems to be one of the core factors facilitating their specific career identity development.

Though science-related are considered as highly challenging to females, the 15 year-old girl interviewed is brought out as identifying herself with engineering career as a result of influence from her parents and teachers.

As it has been noted, cognitive development among teenagers facilitates their ability to identify themselves with various careers. In this regard, culture and social relationships in which such individuals interact with influence their career development largely.

Basically many adolescents are brought out as having the capacity to develop specific attitudes towards a particular career, in which they prefer to identify themselves with in their adulthood.

In this regard, explorations and experiences are quite significant among such adolescents, since they facilitate skills and knowledge perfection in their areas of specialization in their future careers.

Boan, S. & Piquette-Tomei, N. (2009). Adolescent Development and Career Planning in Schools. Web.

Clarke, E. (2005). Identity Development – Aspects of Identity . Web.

Ferrer-Wreder, L. et al. (2002). Promoting Identity Development in Marginalized Youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17: 168-187.

Germeijs, V. & Verschueren, K. (2006). High School Students’ Career Decision-Making Process: a Longitudinal Study of one Choice. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68: 189-204.

Head, J. (1997). Working With adolescents: Constructing Identity. London: Falmer Press.

Kail, R. & Cavanaugh, J. (2001). Human Development: A Lifespan View , 2nd edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishers.

Kroger, J. (2007). Identity Development: Adolescence through Adult-hood. New York: Sage Publications, Inc.

Taveira, D., & Moreno, M. (2003). Guidance theory and practice: The status of career Exploration. British Journal of Guidance and Counseling , 31(2): 189-208.

• Identity, Language, and Culture
• Subjectivity and Aspects of Contemporary Identity
• Higher Education for Academic and Career Actualization
• Self Actualization and Self Realization
• Adolescence and Emotion Relations
• Why We Are Responsible For Being Born
• African Identity: Domingo Alvarez
• American Immigrants and Identity Crisis
• Importance and Challenges of Hyphenated Identity
• Language and Political Theory in Construction of Japanese Identity
• Chicago (A-D)
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Bibliography

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• Oakland University
• Oakland University Alumni Association
• Class Notes

OUWB’s Afonso, Wasserman named Dean’s Distinguished Professors

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Two professors from Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine have each achieved the faculty rank of Dean’s Distinguished Professor. 

The Oakland University Board of Trustees approved the title changes recommended by Oakland University President Ora Hirsch Pescovitz, M.D., at its regular meeting on June 28, 2024.

Nelia Afonso, M.D., professor, and Jason Wasserman, Ph.D., professor — both from OUWB’s Department of Foundational Medical Studies — each received the title.

“This prestigious recognition is not merely a personal achievement but a testament to the collaborative efforts of our academic community,” said Afonso.

Wasserman shared similar thoughts.

“The thing that means the most to me is that it was the result of a nomination of at least 10 of my colleagues,” he said. “It’s a really nice honor.”

The rank of Dean’s Distinguished Professor was established in 2021 upon approval from the OU Provost and the OU Assistant Vice President of Academic Human Resources. It’s a permanent, honorific title that acknowledges contributions of employed, full-time, tenured faculty at the rank of professor.

According to the recommendations from Pescovitz, the designation “shall be afforded to awardees who have superior teaching skills that encompass the breadth and depth of their discipline, a distinguished record of public service, and scholarly, creative, and artistic achievements.”

‘Truly been a privilege’

Sarah Lerchenfeldt, Pharm.D., associate professor and interim co-chair, Department of Foundational Medical Studies, nominated Afonso.

In her nomination, Lerchenfeldt said Afonso “exemplifies the criteria” for the title.

“Since joining OUWB as a founding faculty member, she has demonstrated unparalleled dedication to medical education, significantly enhancing both the academic and practical aspects of these fields,” wrote Lerchenfeldt.

The nomination noted Afonso’s scholarly excellence, particularly in the domains of education, clinical skills, women’s health, and vaccine hesitancy. Lerchenfeldt said that Afonso was principal investigator for the Merck Investigator Studies program project called “Promoting Vaccine Confidence in Medical and Dental Students.” The project secured about $179,000 in funding.

The nomination also pointed to Afonso’s efforts to develop and refine the curriculum for OUWB’s Art and Practice of Medicine (APM) course, previous awards she received, commitment to service, and leadership roles with organizations like the Southeast Michigan Center for Medical Education.

“Dr. Afonso’s tenure at OUWB has been marked by a commitment to advancing medical education, research, and community health,” wrote Lerchenfeldt. “Her work not only reflects the values and mission of our institution, but also sets a benchmark for academic and professional excellence.”

Afonso said it has “truly been a privilege” to receive the title.

“I have been fortunate to be part of this medical school since its inception and I am grateful for the numerous opportunities provided that have fostered my growth as a physician, educator, and researcher,” she said. “I appreciate the dedication and commitment of our faculty and staff, whose support has been instrumental in implementing various curricular innovations.”

‘Invaluable member of OUWB faculty’  

Wasserman , who joined OUWB in 2013, was nominated by a group of 10 other faculty from the Department of Foundational Medical Studies.

They called him a “prolific and influential scholar” on several topics: homelessness, clinical bioethics, and Holocaust medicine.

“His scholarship and research range from core bioethics topics, such as autonomy and informed consent, to empirical research and qualitative inquiry into homelessness and medical ethics,” they wrote, and noted that he has published three books, 12 book chapters and supplements, 64 peer-reviewed journal articles, 22 editor-reviewed articles, and seven invited articles.

“Dr. Wasserman’s extensively cited research has contributed to important debates surrounding ethics in medical education, care for homeless individuals, pediatric ethical concerns, euthanasia, the rights of patients without decision-making capacity, and immunization policy,” wrote the nominators.

They also noted Wasserman’s roles in shaping the Medical Humanities and Clinical Bioethics (MHCB) curriculum, replacing traditional essay assignments with extemporaneous self-reflection videos, development of interactive iBooks, serving as a mentor to more than 50 OUWB students for their  Embark  projects, and developing a national training course in bioethics for the Arnold P. Gold Foundation.

The nominators also mentioned Wasserman’s history of service. In 2020, he was appointed as one of only two Provost Fellows for Faculty Diversity at Oakland University. In 2022, he was honored with the OU Founder’s Day Award for Faculty Excellence in Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion. He also chaired the admissions committee for five years, served as director of student professionalism for nine years, co-founded  Street Medicine Oakland , launched the Center for Moral Values in Health Medicine, and more.

And he has plans to do even more, including launching a new student-led journal on ethics, humanities, and social justice, and a health care ethics debate tournament that will be open to all OU students.  

“One of the reasons I came to OUWB was because it was a new school and there was a lot of opportunity to be entrepreneurial,” he said. “I didn’t want to go to some well-established place where the expectation is you teach your courses, you write papers, and otherwise just let things run.”

For more information, contact Andrew Dietderich, senior marketing specialist, OUWB, at [email protected] .

To request an interview, visit the OUWB Communications & Marketing  webpage .

This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License .