Have a language expert improve your writing
Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.
- Knowledge Base
Methodology
- Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples
![](http://charunivedita.online/777/templates/cheerup2/res/banner1.gif)
Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples
Published on May 15, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.
Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when and how questions , but not why questions.
A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.
Table of contents
When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods, other interesting articles.
Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.
It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.
Descriptive research question examples
- How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
- Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
- What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
- What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
- How prevalent is disease A in population B?
Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting
Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:
- Academic style
- Vague sentences
- Style consistency
See an example
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://www.scribbr.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/dissertation-proofreading-service.png)
Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .
Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:
- Describing the demographics of a country or region
- Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
- Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services
Observations
Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.
Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.
Case studies
A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.
Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
- Normal distribution
- Degrees of freedom
- Null hypothesis
- Discourse analysis
- Control groups
- Mixed methods research
- Non-probability sampling
- Quantitative research
- Ecological validity
Research bias
- Rosenthal effect
- Implicit bias
- Cognitive bias
- Selection bias
- Negativity bias
- Status quo bias
Cite this Scribbr article
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
McCombes, S. (2023, June 22). Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/descriptive-research/
Is this article helpful?
Shona McCombes
Other students also liked, what is quantitative research | definition, uses & methods, correlational research | when & how to use, descriptive statistics | definitions, types, examples, what is your plagiarism score.
- Privacy Policy
![descriptive research design is also known as Research Method](https://researchmethod.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/logo.png)
Home » Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples
Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples
Table of Contents
![descriptive research design is also known as Descriptive Research Design](https://researchmethod.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Descriptive_Research_Design-1024x576.jpg)
Descriptive Research Design
Definition:
Descriptive research design is a type of research methodology that aims to describe or document the characteristics, behaviors, attitudes, opinions, or perceptions of a group or population being studied.
Descriptive research design does not attempt to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables or make predictions about future outcomes. Instead, it focuses on providing a detailed and accurate representation of the data collected, which can be useful for generating hypotheses, exploring trends, and identifying patterns in the data.
Types of Descriptive Research Design
Types of Descriptive Research Design are as follows:
Cross-sectional Study
This involves collecting data at a single point in time from a sample or population to describe their characteristics or behaviors. For example, a researcher may conduct a cross-sectional study to investigate the prevalence of certain health conditions among a population, or to describe the attitudes and beliefs of a particular group.
Longitudinal Study
This involves collecting data over an extended period of time, often through repeated observations or surveys of the same group or population. Longitudinal studies can be used to track changes in attitudes, behaviors, or outcomes over time, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.
This involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or situation to gain a detailed understanding of its characteristics or dynamics. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and business to explore complex phenomena or to generate hypotheses for further research.
Survey Research
This involves collecting data from a sample or population through standardized questionnaires or interviews. Surveys can be used to describe attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or demographic characteristics of a group, and can be conducted in person, by phone, or online.
Observational Research
This involves observing and documenting the behavior or interactions of individuals or groups in a natural or controlled setting. Observational studies can be used to describe social, cultural, or environmental phenomena, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.
Correlational Research
This involves examining the relationships between two or more variables to describe their patterns or associations. Correlational studies can be used to identify potential causal relationships or to explore the strength and direction of relationships between variables.
Data Analysis Methods
Descriptive research design data analysis methods depend on the type of data collected and the research question being addressed. Here are some common methods of data analysis for descriptive research:
Descriptive Statistics
This method involves analyzing data to summarize and describe the key features of a sample or population. Descriptive statistics can include measures of central tendency (e.g., mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (e.g., range, standard deviation).
Cross-tabulation
This method involves analyzing data by creating a table that shows the frequency of two or more variables together. Cross-tabulation can help identify patterns or relationships between variables.
Content Analysis
This method involves analyzing qualitative data (e.g., text, images, audio) to identify themes, patterns, or trends. Content analysis can be used to describe the characteristics of a sample or population, or to identify factors that influence attitudes or behaviors.
Qualitative Coding
This method involves analyzing qualitative data by assigning codes to segments of data based on their meaning or content. Qualitative coding can be used to identify common themes, patterns, or categories within the data.
Visualization
This method involves creating graphs or charts to represent data visually. Visualization can help identify patterns or relationships between variables and make it easier to communicate findings to others.
Comparative Analysis
This method involves comparing data across different groups or time periods to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help describe changes in attitudes or behaviors over time or differences between subgroups within a population.
Applications of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive research design has numerous applications in various fields. Some of the common applications of descriptive research design are:
- Market research: Descriptive research design is widely used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes. This helps companies to develop new products and services, improve marketing strategies, and increase customer satisfaction.
- Health research: Descriptive research design is used in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population. This helps healthcare providers to develop prevention and treatment strategies.
- Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs. This helps educators to improve teaching methods and develop effective educational programs.
- Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs. This helps researchers to understand social behavior and develop effective policies.
- Public opinion research: Descriptive research design is used in public opinion research to understand the opinions and attitudes of the general public on various issues. This helps policymakers to develop effective policies that are aligned with public opinion.
- Environmental research: Descriptive research design is used in environmental research to describe the environmental conditions of a particular region or ecosystem. This helps policymakers and environmentalists to develop effective conservation and preservation strategies.
Descriptive Research Design Examples
Here are some real-time examples of descriptive research designs:
- A restaurant chain wants to understand the demographics and attitudes of its customers. They conduct a survey asking customers about their age, gender, income, frequency of visits, favorite menu items, and overall satisfaction. The survey data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to describe the characteristics of their customer base.
- A medical researcher wants to describe the prevalence and risk factors of a particular disease in a population. They conduct a cross-sectional study in which they collect data from a sample of individuals using a standardized questionnaire. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to identify patterns in the prevalence and risk factors of the disease.
- An education researcher wants to describe the learning outcomes of students in a particular school district. They collect test scores from a representative sample of students in the district and use descriptive statistics to calculate the mean, median, and standard deviation of the scores. They also create visualizations such as histograms and box plots to show the distribution of scores.
- A marketing team wants to understand the attitudes and behaviors of consumers towards a new product. They conduct a series of focus groups and use qualitative coding to identify common themes and patterns in the data. They also create visualizations such as word clouds to show the most frequently mentioned topics.
- An environmental scientist wants to describe the biodiversity of a particular ecosystem. They conduct an observational study in which they collect data on the species and abundance of plants and animals in the ecosystem. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics to describe the diversity and richness of the ecosystem.
How to Conduct Descriptive Research Design
To conduct a descriptive research design, you can follow these general steps:
- Define your research question: Clearly define the research question or problem that you want to address. Your research question should be specific and focused to guide your data collection and analysis.
- Choose your research method: Select the most appropriate research method for your research question. As discussed earlier, common research methods for descriptive research include surveys, case studies, observational studies, cross-sectional studies, and longitudinal studies.
- Design your study: Plan the details of your study, including the sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis plan. Determine the sample size and sampling method, decide on the data collection tools (such as questionnaires, interviews, or observations), and outline your data analysis plan.
- Collect data: Collect data from your sample or population using the data collection tools you have chosen. Ensure that you follow ethical guidelines for research and obtain informed consent from participants.
- Analyze data: Use appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods to analyze your data. As discussed earlier, common data analysis methods for descriptive research include descriptive statistics, cross-tabulation, content analysis, qualitative coding, visualization, and comparative analysis.
- I nterpret results: Interpret your findings in light of your research question and objectives. Identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data, and describe the characteristics of your sample or population.
- Draw conclusions and report results: Draw conclusions based on your analysis and interpretation of the data. Report your results in a clear and concise manner, using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to present your findings. Ensure that your report follows accepted research standards and guidelines.
When to Use Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive research design is used in situations where the researcher wants to describe a population or phenomenon in detail. It is used to gather information about the current status or condition of a group or phenomenon without making any causal inferences. Descriptive research design is useful in the following situations:
- Exploratory research: Descriptive research design is often used in exploratory research to gain an initial understanding of a phenomenon or population.
- Identifying trends: Descriptive research design can be used to identify trends or patterns in a population, such as changes in consumer behavior or attitudes over time.
- Market research: Descriptive research design is commonly used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes.
- Health research: Descriptive research design is useful in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population.
- Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs.
- Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs.
Purpose of Descriptive Research Design
The main purpose of descriptive research design is to describe and measure the characteristics of a population or phenomenon in a systematic and objective manner. It involves collecting data that describe the current status or condition of the population or phenomenon of interest, without manipulating or altering any variables.
The purpose of descriptive research design can be summarized as follows:
- To provide an accurate description of a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research design aims to provide a comprehensive and accurate description of a population or phenomenon of interest. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon.
- To identify trends and patterns: Descriptive research design can help researchers to identify trends and patterns in the data, such as changes in behavior or attitudes over time. This can be useful for making predictions and developing strategies.
- To generate hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
- To establish a baseline: Descriptive research design can establish a baseline or starting point for future research. This can be useful for comparing data from different time periods or populations.
Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive research design has several key characteristics that distinguish it from other research designs. Some of the main characteristics of descriptive research design are:
- Objective : Descriptive research design is objective in nature, which means that it focuses on collecting factual and accurate data without any personal bias. The researcher aims to report the data objectively without any personal interpretation.
- Non-experimental: Descriptive research design is non-experimental, which means that the researcher does not manipulate any variables. The researcher simply observes and records the behavior or characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
- Quantitative : Descriptive research design is quantitative in nature, which means that it involves collecting numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical techniques. This helps to provide a more precise and accurate description of the population or phenomenon.
- Cross-sectional: Descriptive research design is often cross-sectional, which means that the data is collected at a single point in time. This can be useful for understanding the current state of the population or phenomenon, but it may not provide information about changes over time.
- Large sample size: Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
- Systematic and structured: Descriptive research design involves a systematic and structured approach to data collection, which helps to ensure that the data is accurate and reliable. This involves using standardized procedures for data collection, such as surveys, questionnaires, or observation checklists.
Advantages of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive research design has several advantages that make it a popular choice for researchers. Some of the main advantages of descriptive research design are:
- Provides an accurate description: Descriptive research design is focused on accurately describing the characteristics of a population or phenomenon. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the subject of interest.
- Easy to conduct: Descriptive research design is relatively easy to conduct and requires minimal resources compared to other research designs. It can be conducted quickly and efficiently, and data can be collected through surveys, questionnaires, or observations.
- Useful for generating hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
- Large sample size : Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
- Can be used to monitor changes : Descriptive research design can be used to monitor changes over time in a population or phenomenon. This can be useful for identifying trends and patterns, and for making predictions about future behavior or attitudes.
- Can be used in a variety of fields : Descriptive research design can be used in a variety of fields, including social sciences, healthcare, business, and education.
Limitation of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive research design also has some limitations that researchers should consider before using this design. Some of the main limitations of descriptive research design are:
- Cannot establish cause and effect: Descriptive research design cannot establish cause and effect relationships between variables. It only provides a description of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
- Limited generalizability: The results of a descriptive study may not be generalizable to other populations or situations. This is because descriptive research design often involves a specific sample or situation, which may not be representative of the broader population.
- Potential for bias: Descriptive research design can be subject to bias, particularly if the researcher is not objective in their data collection or interpretation. This can lead to inaccurate or incomplete descriptions of the population or phenomenon of interest.
- Limited depth: Descriptive research design may provide a superficial description of the population or phenomenon of interest. It does not delve into the underlying causes or mechanisms behind the observed behavior or characteristics.
- Limited utility for theory development: Descriptive research design may not be useful for developing theories about the relationship between variables. It only provides a description of the variables themselves.
- Relies on self-report data: Descriptive research design often relies on self-report data, such as surveys or questionnaires. This type of data may be subject to biases, such as social desirability bias or recall bias.
About the author
Muhammad Hassan
Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer
You may also like
![descriptive research design is also known as Transformative Design](https://researchmethod.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Transformative_Design-145x100.png)
Transformative Design – Methods, Types, Guide
![descriptive research design is also known as Experimental Research Design](https://researchmethod.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Experimental_Research_Design-145x100.png)
Experimental Design – Types, Methods, Guide
![descriptive research design is also known as Quasi-Experimental Design](https://researchmethod.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Quasi_Experimental_Research-145x100.png)
Quasi-Experimental Research Design – Types...
![descriptive research design is also known as Triangulation](https://researchmethod.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Triangulation-145x100.png)
Triangulation in Research – Types, Methods and...
![descriptive research design is also known as Ethnographic Research](https://researchmethod.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Ethnographic_Research-145x100.png)
Ethnographic Research -Types, Methods and Guide
![descriptive research design is also known as Textual Analysis](https://researchmethod.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Textual_Analysis-145x100.png)
Textual Analysis – Types, Examples and Guide
Have a language expert improve your writing
Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.
- Knowledge Base
- Methodology
- Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples
Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples
Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.
Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when , and how questions , but not why questions.
A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.
Table of contents
When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods.
Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.
It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when, and where it happens.
- How has the London housing market changed over the past 20 years?
- Do customers of company X prefer product Y or product Z?
- What are the main genetic, behavioural, and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
- What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
- How prevalent is disease A in population B?
Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.
Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .
Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analysed for frequencies, averages, and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:
- Describing the demographics of a country or region
- Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
- Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organisation’s services
Observations
Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social, and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.
Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models, or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.
Case studies
A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event, or organisation). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.
Rather than aiming to describe generalisable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .
Cite this Scribbr article
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.
McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 3 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/descriptive-research-design/
Is this article helpful?
Shona McCombes
Other students also liked, a quick guide to experimental design | 5 steps & examples, correlational research | guide, design & examples, qualitative vs quantitative research | examples & methods.
Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey
![descriptive research design is also known as What is Descriptive Research? Definition, Methods, Types and Examples](https://blog.researcher.life/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/male-hands-with-pencil-magnifying-glass-1-1.jpg)
What is Descriptive Research? Definition, Methods, Types and Examples
Descriptive research is a methodological approach that seeks to depict the characteristics of a phenomenon or subject under investigation. In scientific inquiry, it serves as a foundational tool for researchers aiming to observe, record, and analyze the intricate details of a particular topic. This method provides a rich and detailed account that aids in understanding, categorizing, and interpreting the subject matter.
Descriptive research design is widely employed across diverse fields, and its primary objective is to systematically observe and document all variables and conditions influencing the phenomenon.
After this descriptive research definition, let’s look at this example. Consider a researcher working on climate change adaptation, who wants to understand water management trends in an arid village in a specific study area. She must conduct a demographic survey of the region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what are the water management practices and trends in village X.” Note, however, that it will not cover any investigative information about “why” the patterns exist.
Table of Contents
What is descriptive research?
If you’ve been wondering “What is descriptive research,” we’ve got you covered in this post! In a nutshell, descriptive research is an exploratory research method that helps a researcher describe a population, circumstance, or phenomenon. It can help answer what , where , when and how questions, but not why questions. In other words, it does not involve changing the study variables and does not seek to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
![descriptive research design is also known as](https://blog.researcher.life/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/AAP-Banner-3-1024x410.png)
Importance of descriptive research
Now, let’s delve into the importance of descriptive research. This research method acts as the cornerstone for various academic and applied disciplines. Its primary significance lies in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview of a phenomenon, enabling researchers to gain a nuanced understanding of the variables at play. This method aids in forming hypotheses, generating insights, and laying the groundwork for further in-depth investigations. The following points further illustrate its importance:
Provides insights into a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research furnishes a comprehensive overview of the characteristics and behaviors of a specific population or phenomenon, thereby guiding and shaping the research project.
Offers baseline data: The data acquired through this type of research acts as a reference for subsequent investigations, laying the groundwork for further studies.
Allows validation of sampling methods: Descriptive research validates sampling methods, aiding in the selection of the most effective approach for the study.
Helps reduce time and costs: It is cost-effective and time-efficient, making this an economical means of gathering information about a specific population or phenomenon.
Ensures replicability: Descriptive research is easily replicable, ensuring a reliable way to collect and compare information from various sources.
When to use descriptive research design?
Determining when to use descriptive research depends on the nature of the research question. Before diving into the reasons behind an occurrence, understanding the how, when, and where aspects is essential. Descriptive research design is a suitable option when the research objective is to discern characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories without manipulating variables. It is therefore often employed in the initial stages of a study before progressing to more complex research designs. To put it in another way, descriptive research precedes the hypotheses of explanatory research. It is particularly valuable when there is limited existing knowledge about the subject.
Some examples are as follows, highlighting that these questions would arise before a clear outline of the research plan is established:
- In the last two decades, what changes have occurred in patterns of urban gardening in Mumbai?
- What are the differences in climate change perceptions of farmers in coastal versus inland villages in the Philippines?
Characteristics of descriptive research
Coming to the characteristics of descriptive research, this approach is characterized by its focus on observing and documenting the features of a subject. Specific characteristics are as below.
- Quantitative nature: Some descriptive research types involve quantitative research methods to gather quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample.
- Qualitative nature: Some descriptive research examples include those using the qualitative research method to describe or explain the research problem.
- Observational nature: This approach is non-invasive and observational because the study variables remain untouched. Researchers merely observe and report, without introducing interventions that could impact the subject(s).
- Cross-sectional nature: In descriptive research, different sections belonging to the same group are studied, providing a “snapshot” of sorts.
- Springboard for further research: The data collected are further studied and analyzed using different research techniques. This approach helps guide the suitable research methods to be employed.
Types of descriptive research
There are various descriptive research types, each suited to different research objectives. Take a look at the different types below.
- Surveys: This involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews to gather qualitative and quantitative data.
- Observational studies: This involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without influencing the study variables or manipulating the conditions. These may be further divided into cohort studies, case studies, and cross-sectional studies:
- Cohort studies: Also known as longitudinal studies, these studies involve the collection of data over an extended period, allowing researchers to track changes and trends.
- Case studies: These deal with a single individual, group, or event, which might be rare or unusual.
- Cross-sectional studies : A researcher collects data at a single point in time, in order to obtain a snapshot of a specific moment.
- Focus groups: In this approach, a small group of people are brought together to discuss a topic. The researcher moderates and records the group discussion. This can also be considered a “participatory” observational method.
- Descriptive classification: Relevant to the biological sciences, this type of approach may be used to classify living organisms.
Descriptive research methods
Several descriptive research methods can be employed, and these are more or less similar to the types of approaches mentioned above.
- Surveys: This method involves the collection of data through questionnaires or interviews. Surveys may be done online or offline, and the target subjects might be hyper-local, regional, or global.
- Observational studies: These entail the direct observation of subjects in their natural environment. These include case studies, dealing with a single case or individual, as well as cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, for a glimpse into a population or changes in trends over time, respectively. Participatory observational studies such as focus group discussions may also fall under this method.
Researchers must carefully consider descriptive research methods, types, and examples to harness their full potential in contributing to scientific knowledge.
Examples of descriptive research
Now, let’s consider some descriptive research examples.
- In social sciences, an example could be a study analyzing the demographics of a specific community to understand its socio-economic characteristics.
- In business, a market research survey aiming to describe consumer preferences would be a descriptive study.
- In ecology, a researcher might undertake a survey of all the types of monocots naturally occurring in a region and classify them up to species level.
These examples showcase the versatility of descriptive research across diverse fields.
Advantages of descriptive research
There are several advantages to this approach, which every researcher must be aware of. These are as follows:
- Owing to the numerous descriptive research methods and types, primary data can be obtained in diverse ways and be used for developing a research hypothesis .
- It is a versatile research method and allows flexibility.
- Detailed and comprehensive information can be obtained because the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative.
- It is carried out in the natural environment, which greatly minimizes certain types of bias and ethical concerns.
- It is an inexpensive and efficient approach, even with large sample sizes
Disadvantages of descriptive research
On the other hand, this design has some drawbacks as well:
- It is limited in its scope as it does not determine cause-and-effect relationships.
- The approach does not generate new information and simply depends on existing data.
- Study variables are not manipulated or controlled, and this limits the conclusions to be drawn.
- Descriptive research findings may not be generalizable to other populations.
- Finally, it offers a preliminary understanding rather than an in-depth understanding.
To reiterate, the advantages of descriptive research lie in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview, aid hypothesis generation, and serve as a preliminary step in the research process. However, its limitations include a potential lack of depth, inability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, and susceptibility to bias.
Frequently asked questions
When should researchers conduct descriptive research.
Descriptive research is most appropriate when researchers aim to portray and understand the characteristics of a phenomenon without manipulating variables. It is particularly valuable in the early stages of a study.
What is the difference between descriptive and exploratory research?
Descriptive research focuses on providing a detailed depiction of a phenomenon, while exploratory research aims to explore and generate insights into an issue where little is known.
What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research?
Descriptive research observes and documents without manipulating variables, whereas experimental research involves intentional interventions to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Is descriptive research only for social sciences?
No, various descriptive research types may be applicable to all fields of study, including social science, humanities, physical science, and biological science.
How important is descriptive research?
The importance of descriptive research lies in its ability to provide a glimpse of the current state of a phenomenon, offering valuable insights and establishing a basic understanding. Further, the advantages of descriptive research include its capacity to offer a straightforward depiction of a situation or phenomenon, facilitate the identification of patterns or trends, and serve as a useful starting point for more in-depth investigations. Additionally, descriptive research can contribute to the development of hypotheses and guide the formulation of research questions for subsequent studies.
Editage All Access is a subscription-based platform that unifies the best AI tools and services designed to speed up, simplify, and streamline every step of a researcher’s journey. The Editage All Access Pack is a one-of-a-kind subscription that unlocks full access to an AI writing assistant, literature recommender, journal finder, scientific illustration tool, and exclusive discounts on professional publication services from Editage.
Based on 22+ years of experience in academia, Editage All Access empowers researchers to put their best research forward and move closer to success. Explore our top AI Tools pack, AI Tools + Publication Services pack, or Build Your Own Plan. Find everything a researcher needs to succeed, all in one place – Get All Access now starting at just $14 a month !
Related Posts
![descriptive research design is also known as Back to school 2024 sale](https://blog.researcher.life/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/beautiful-cheerful-female-student-smiling-greeting-holding-folders-outdoors-1-800x600.jpg)
Back to School – Lock-in All Access Pack for a Year at the Best Price
![descriptive research design is also known as journal turnaround time](https://blog.researcher.life/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/excited-diverse-people-watching-laptop-1-800x600.jpg)
Journal Turnaround Time: Researcher.Life and Scholarly Intelligence Join Hands to Empower Researchers with Publication Time Insights
- What is descriptive research?
Last updated
5 February 2023
Reviewed by
Cathy Heath
Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead
Descriptive research is a common investigatory model used by researchers in various fields, including social sciences, linguistics, and academia.
Read on to understand the characteristics of descriptive research and explore its underlying techniques, processes, and procedures.
Analyze your descriptive research
Dovetail streamlines analysis to help you uncover and share actionable insights
Descriptive research is an exploratory research method. It enables researchers to precisely and methodically describe a population, circumstance, or phenomenon.
As the name suggests, descriptive research describes the characteristics of the group, situation, or phenomenon being studied without manipulating variables or testing hypotheses . This can be reported using surveys , observational studies, and case studies. You can use both quantitative and qualitative methods to compile the data.
Besides making observations and then comparing and analyzing them, descriptive studies often develop knowledge concepts and provide solutions to critical issues. It always aims to answer how the event occurred, when it occurred, where it occurred, and what the problem or phenomenon is.
- Characteristics of descriptive research
The following are some of the characteristics of descriptive research:
Quantitativeness
Descriptive research can be quantitative as it gathers quantifiable data to statistically analyze a population sample. These numbers can show patterns, connections, and trends over time and can be discovered using surveys, polls, and experiments.
Qualitativeness
Descriptive research can also be qualitative. It gives meaning and context to the numbers supplied by quantitative descriptive research .
Researchers can use tools like interviews, focus groups, and ethnographic studies to illustrate why things are what they are and help characterize the research problem. This is because it’s more explanatory than exploratory or experimental research.
Uncontrolled variables
Descriptive research differs from experimental research in that researchers cannot manipulate the variables. They are recognized, scrutinized, and quantified instead. This is one of its most prominent features.
Cross-sectional studies
Descriptive research is a cross-sectional study because it examines several areas of the same group. It involves obtaining data on multiple variables at the personal level during a certain period. It’s helpful when trying to understand a larger community’s habits or preferences.
Carried out in a natural environment
Descriptive studies are usually carried out in the participants’ everyday environment, which allows researchers to avoid influencing responders by collecting data in a natural setting. You can use online surveys or survey questions to collect data or observe.
Basis for further research
You can further dissect descriptive research’s outcomes and use them for different types of investigation. The outcomes also serve as a foundation for subsequent investigations and can guide future studies. For example, you can use the data obtained in descriptive research to help determine future research designs.
- Descriptive research methods
There are three basic approaches for gathering data in descriptive research: observational, case study, and survey.
You can use surveys to gather data in descriptive research. This involves gathering information from many people using a questionnaire and interview .
Surveys remain the dominant research tool for descriptive research design. Researchers can conduct various investigations and collect multiple types of data (quantitative and qualitative) using surveys with diverse designs.
You can conduct surveys over the phone, online, or in person. Your survey might be a brief interview or conversation with a set of prepared questions intended to obtain quick information from the primary source.
Observation
This descriptive research method involves observing and gathering data on a population or phenomena without manipulating variables. It is employed in psychology, market research , and other social science studies to track and understand human behavior.
Observation is an essential component of descriptive research. It entails gathering data and analyzing it to see whether there is a relationship between the two variables in the study. This strategy usually allows for both qualitative and quantitative data analysis.
Case studies
A case study can outline a specific topic’s traits. The topic might be a person, group, event, or organization.
It involves using a subset of a larger group as a sample to characterize the features of that larger group.
You can generalize knowledge gained from studying a case study to benefit a broader audience.
This approach entails carefully examining a particular group, person, or event over time. You can learn something new about the study topic by using a small group to better understand the dynamics of the entire group.
- Types of descriptive research
There are several types of descriptive study. The most well-known include cross-sectional studies, census surveys, sample surveys, case reports, and comparison studies.
Case reports and case series
In the healthcare and medical fields, a case report is used to explain a patient’s circumstances when suffering from an uncommon illness or displaying certain symptoms. Case reports and case series are both collections of related cases. They have aided the advancement of medical knowledge on countless occasions.
The normative component is an addition to the descriptive survey. In the descriptive–normative survey, you compare the study’s results to the norm.
Descriptive survey
This descriptive type of research employs surveys to collect information on various topics. This data aims to determine the degree to which certain conditions may be attained.
You can extrapolate or generalize the information you obtain from sample surveys to the larger group being researched.
Correlative survey
Correlative surveys help establish if there is a positive, negative, or neutral connection between two variables.
Performing census surveys involves gathering relevant data on several aspects of a given population. These units include individuals, families, organizations, objects, characteristics, and properties.
During descriptive research, you gather different degrees of interest over time from a specific population. Cross-sectional studies provide a glimpse of a phenomenon’s prevalence and features in a population. There are no ethical challenges with them and they are quite simple and inexpensive to carry out.
Comparative studies
These surveys compare the two subjects’ conditions or characteristics. The subjects may include research variables, organizations, plans, and people.
Comparison points, assumption of similarities, and criteria of comparison are three important variables that affect how well and accurately comparative studies are conducted.
For instance, descriptive research can help determine how many CEOs hold a bachelor’s degree and what proportion of low-income households receive government help.
- Pros and cons
The primary advantage of descriptive research designs is that researchers can create a reliable and beneficial database for additional study. To conduct any inquiry, you need access to reliable information sources that can give you a firm understanding of a situation.
Quantitative studies are time- and resource-intensive, so knowing the hypotheses viable for testing is crucial. The basic overview of descriptive research provides helpful hints as to which variables are worth quantitatively examining. This is why it’s employed as a precursor to quantitative research designs.
Some experts view this research as untrustworthy and unscientific. However, there is no way to assess the findings because you don’t manipulate any variables statistically.
Cause-and-effect correlations also can’t be established through descriptive investigations. Additionally, observational study findings cannot be replicated, which prevents a review of the findings and their replication.
The absence of statistical and in-depth analysis and the rather superficial character of the investigative procedure are drawbacks of this research approach.
- Descriptive research examples and applications
Several descriptive research examples are emphasized based on their types, purposes, and applications. Research questions often begin with “What is …” These studies help find solutions to practical issues in social science, physical science, and education.
Here are some examples and applications of descriptive research:
Determining consumer perception and behavior
Organizations use descriptive research designs to determine how various demographic groups react to a certain product or service.
For example, a business looking to sell to its target market should research the market’s behavior first. When researching human behavior in response to a cause or event, the researcher pays attention to the traits, actions, and responses before drawing a conclusion.
Scientific classification
Scientific descriptive research enables the classification of organisms and their traits and constituents.
Measuring data trends
A descriptive study design’s statistical capabilities allow researchers to track data trends over time. It’s frequently used to determine the study target’s current circumstances and underlying patterns.
Conduct comparison
Organizations can use a descriptive research approach to learn how various demographics react to a certain product or service. For example, you can study how the target market responds to a competitor’s product and use that information to infer their behavior.
- Bottom line
A descriptive research design is suitable for exploring certain topics and serving as a prelude to larger quantitative investigations. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the “what” of the group or thing you’re investigating.
This research type acts as the cornerstone of other research methodologies . It is distinctive because it can use quantitative and qualitative research approaches at the same time.
What is descriptive research design?
Descriptive research design aims to systematically obtain information to describe a phenomenon, situation, or population. More specifically, it helps answer the what, when, where, and how questions regarding the research problem rather than the why.
How does descriptive research compare to qualitative research?
Despite certain parallels, descriptive research concentrates on describing phenomena, while qualitative research aims to understand people better.
How do you analyze descriptive research data?
Data analysis involves using various methodologies, enabling the researcher to evaluate and provide results regarding validity and reliability.
Should you be using a customer insights hub?
Do you want to discover previous research faster?
Do you share your research findings with others?
Do you analyze research data?
Start for free today, add your research, and get to key insights faster
Editor’s picks
Last updated: 18 April 2023
Last updated: 27 February 2023
Last updated: 22 August 2024
Last updated: 5 February 2023
Last updated: 16 August 2024
Last updated: 9 March 2023
Last updated: 30 April 2024
Last updated: 12 December 2023
Last updated: 11 March 2024
Last updated: 4 July 2024
Last updated: 6 March 2024
Last updated: 5 March 2024
Last updated: 13 May 2024
Latest articles
Related topics, .css-je19u9{-webkit-align-items:flex-end;-webkit-box-align:flex-end;-ms-flex-align:flex-end;align-items:flex-end;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-box-flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-box-pack:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;justify-content:center;row-gap:0;text-align:center;max-width:671px;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}}@media (max-width: 799px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}} decide what to .css-1kiodld{max-height:56px;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-1kiodld{display:none;}} build next, decide what to build next, log in or sign up.
Get started for free
![descriptive research design is also known as U.S. flag](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/coreutils/uswds/img/favicons/favicon-57.png)
An official website of the United States government
The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.
The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.
- Publications
- Account settings
Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .
- Advanced Search
- Journal List
- Perspect Clin Res
- v.10(1); Jan-Mar 2019
Study designs: Part 2 – Descriptive studies
Rakesh aggarwal.
Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Priya Ranganathan
1 Department of Anaesthesiology, Tata Memorial Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
One of the first steps in planning a research study is the choice of study design. The available study designs are divided broadly into two types – observational and interventional. Of the various observational study designs, the descriptive design is the simplest. It allows the researcher to study and describe the distribution of one or more variables, without regard to any causal or other hypotheses. This article discusses the subtypes of descriptive study design, and their strengths and limitations.
INTRODUCTION
In our previous article in this series,[ 1 ] we introduced the concept of “study designs”– as “the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research question.” Study designs are primarily of two types – observational and interventional, with the former being loosely divided into “descriptive” and “analytical.” In this article, we discuss the descriptive study designs.
WHAT IS A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY?
A descriptive study is one that is designed to describe the distribution of one or more variables, without regard to any causal or other hypothesis.
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
Descriptive studies can be of several types, namely, case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, and ecological studies. In the first three of these, data are collected on individuals, whereas the last one uses aggregated data for groups.
Case reports and case series
A case report refers to the description of a patient with an unusual disease or with simultaneous occurrence of more than one condition. A case series is similar, except that it is an aggregation of multiple (often only a few) similar cases. Many case reports and case series are anecdotal and of limited value. However, some of these bring to the fore a hitherto unrecognized disease and play an important role in advancing medical science. For instance, HIV/AIDS was first recognized through a case report of disseminated Kaposi's sarcoma in a young homosexual man,[ 2 ] and a case series of such men with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia.[ 3 ]
In other cases, description of a chance observation may open an entirely new line of investigation. Some examples include: fatal disseminated Bacillus Calmette–Guérin infection in a baby born to a mother taking infliximab for Crohn's disease suggesting that adminstration of infliximab may bring about reactivation of tuberculosis,[ 4 ] progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy following natalizumab treatment – describing a new adverse effect of drugs that target cell adhesion molecule α4-integrin,[ 5 ] and demonstration of a tumor caused by invasive transformed cancer cells from a colonizing tapeworm in an HIV-infected person.[ 6 ]
Cross-sectional studies
Studies with a cross-sectional study design involve the collection of information on the presence or level of one or more variables of interest (health-related characteristic), whether exposure (e.g., a risk factor) or outcome (e.g., a disease) as they exist in a defined population at one particular time. If these data are analyzed only to determine the distribution of one or more variables, these are “descriptive.” However, often, in a cross-sectional study, the investigator also assesses the relationship between the presence of an exposure and that of an outcome. Such cross-sectional studies are referred to as “analytical” and will be discussed in the next article in this series.
Cross-sectional studies can be thought of as providing a “snapshot” of the frequency and characteristics of a disease in a population at a particular point in time. These are very good for measuring the prevalence of a disease or of a risk factor in a population. Thus, these are very helpful in assessing the disease burden and healthcare needs.
Let us look at a study that was aimed to assess the prevalence of myopia among Indian children.[ 7 ] In this study, trained health workers visited schools in Delhi and tested visual acuity in all children studying in classes 1–9. Of the 9884 children screened, 1297 (13.1%) had myopia (defined as spherical refractive error of −0.50 diopters (D) or worse in either or both eyes), and the mean myopic error was −1.86 ± 1.4 D. Furthermore, overall, 322 (3.3%), 247 (2.5%) and 3 children had mild, moderate, and severe visual impairment, respectively. These parts of the study looked at the prevalence and degree of myopia or of visual impairment, and did not assess the relationship of one variable with another or test a causative hypothesis – these qualify as a descriptive cross-sectional study. These data would be helpful to a health planner to assess the need for a school eye health program, and to know the proportion of children in her jurisdiction who would need corrective glasses.
The authors did, subsequently in the paper, look at the relationship of myopia (an outcome) with children's age, gender, socioeconomic status, type of school, mother's education, etc. (each of which qualifies as an exposure). Those parts of the paper look at the relationship between different variables and thus qualify as having “analytical” cross-sectional design.
Sometimes, cross-sectional studies are repeated after a time interval in the same population (using the same subjects as were included in the initial study, or a fresh sample) to identify temporal trends in the occurrence of one or more variables, and to determine the incidence of a disease (i.e., number of new cases) or its natural history. Indeed, the investigators in the myopia study above visited the same children and reassessed them a year later. This separate follow-up study[ 8 ] showed that “new” myopia had developed in 3.4% of children (incidence rate), with a mean change of −1.09 ± 0.55 D. Among those with myopia at the time of the initial survey, 49.2% showed progression of myopia with a mean change of −0.27 ± 0.42 D.
Cross-sectional studies are usually simple to do and inexpensive. Furthermore, these usually do not pose much of a challenge from an ethics viewpoint.
However, this design does carry a risk of bias, i.e., the results of the study may not represent the true situation in the population. This could arise from either selection bias or measurement bias. The former relates to differences between the population and the sample studied. The myopia study included only those children who attended school, and the prevalence of myopia could have been different in those did not attend school (e.g., those with severe myopia may not be able to see the blackboard and hence may have been more likely to drop out of school). The measurement bias in this study would relate to the accuracy of measurement and the cutoff used. If the investigators had used a cutoff of −0.25 D (instead of −0.50 D) to define myopia, the prevalence would have been higher. Furthermore, if the measurements were not done accurately, some cases with myopia could have been missed, or vice versa, affecting the study results.
Ecological studies
Ecological (also sometimes called as correlational) study design involves looking for association between an exposure and an outcome across populations rather than in individuals. For instance, a study in the United States found a relation between household firearm ownership in various states and the firearm death rates during the period 2007–2010.[ 9 ] Thus, in this study, the unit of assessment was a state and not an individual.
These studies are convenient to do since the data have often already been collected and are available from a reliable source. This design is particularly useful when the differences in exposure between individuals within a group are much smaller than the differences in exposure between groups. For instance, the intake of particular food items is likely to vary less between people in a particular group but can vary widely across groups, for example, people living in different countries.
However, the ecological study design has some important limitations.First, an association between exposure and outcome at the group level may not be true at the individual level (a phenomenon also referred to as “ecological fallacy”).[ 10 ] Second, the association may be related to a third factor which in turn is related to both the exposure and the outcome, the so-called “confounding”. For instance, an ecological association between higher income level and greater cardiovascular mortality across countries may be related to a higher prevalence of obesity. Third, migration of people between regions with different exposure levels may also introduce an error. A fourth consideration may be the use of differing definitions for exposure, outcome or both in different populations.
Descriptive studies, irrespective of the subtype, are often very easy to conduct. For case reports, case series, and ecological studies, the data are already available. For cross-sectional studies, these can be easily collected (usually in one encounter). Thus, these study designs are often inexpensive, quick and do not need too much effort. Furthermore, these studies often do not face serious ethics scrutiny, except if the information sought to be collected is of confidential nature (e.g., sexual practices, substance use, etc.).
Descriptive studies are useful for estimating the burden of disease (e.g., prevalence or incidence) in a population. This information is useful for resource planning. For instance, information on prevalence of cataract in a city may help the government decide on the appropriate number of ophthalmologic facilities. Data from descriptive studies done in different populations or done at different times in the same population may help identify geographic variation and temporal change in the frequency of disease. This may help generate hypotheses regarding the cause of the disease, which can then be verified using another, more complex design.
DISADVANTAGES
As with other study designs, descriptive studies have their own pitfalls. Case reports and case-series refer to a solitary patient or to only a few cases, who may represent a chance occurrence. Hence, conclusions based on these run the risk of being non-representative, and hence unreliable. In cross-sectional studies, the validity of results is highly dependent on whether the study sample is well representative of the population proposed to be studied, and whether all the individual measurements were made using an accurate and identical tool, or not. If the information on a variable cannot be obtained accurately, for instance in a study where the participants are asked about socially unacceptable (e.g., promiscuity) or illegal (e.g., substance use) behavior, the results are unlikely to be reliable.
Financial support and sponsorship
Conflicts of interest.
There are no conflicts of interest.
Root out friction in every digital experience, super-charge conversion rates, and optimize digital self-service
Uncover insights from any interaction, deliver AI-powered agent coaching, and reduce cost to serve
Increase revenue and loyalty with real-time insights and recommendations delivered to teams on the ground
Know how your people feel and empower managers to improve employee engagement, productivity, and retention
Take action in the moments that matter most along the employee journey and drive bottom line growth
Whatever they’re are saying, wherever they’re saying it, know exactly what’s going on with your people
Get faster, richer insights with qual and quant tools that make powerful market research available to everyone
Run concept tests, pricing studies, prototyping + more with fast, powerful studies designed by UX research experts
Track your brand performance 24/7 and act quickly to respond to opportunities and challenges in your market
Explore the platform powering Experience Management
- Free Account
- Product Demos
- For Digital
- For Customer Care
- For Human Resources
- For Researchers
- Financial Services
- All Industries
Popular Use Cases
- Customer Experience
- Employee Experience
- Net Promoter Score
- Voice of Customer
- Customer Success Hub
- Product Documentation
- Training & Certification
- XM Institute
- Popular Resources
- Customer Stories
- Artificial Intelligence
Market Research
- Partnerships
- Marketplace
The annual gathering of the experience leaders at the world’s iconic brands building breakthrough business results, live in Salt Lake City.
- English/AU & NZ
- Español/Europa
- Español/América Latina
- Português Brasileiro
- REQUEST DEMO
- Experience Management
- Descriptive Research
Try Qualtrics for free
Descriptive research: what it is and how to use it.
8 min read Understanding the who, what and where of a situation or target group is an essential part of effective research and making informed business decisions.
For example you might want to understand what percentage of CEOs have a bachelor’s degree or higher. Or you might want to understand what percentage of low income families receive government support – or what kind of support they receive.
Descriptive research is what will be used in these types of studies.
In this guide we’ll look through the main issues relating to descriptive research to give you a better understanding of what it is, and how and why you can use it.
Free eBook: 2024 global market research trends report
What is descriptive research?
Descriptive research is a research method used to try and determine the characteristics of a population or particular phenomenon.
Using descriptive research you can identify patterns in the characteristics of a group to essentially establish everything you need to understand apart from why something has happened.
Market researchers use descriptive research for a range of commercial purposes to guide key decisions.
For example you could use descriptive research to understand fashion trends in a given city when planning your clothing collection for the year. Using descriptive research you can conduct in depth analysis on the demographic makeup of your target area and use the data analysis to establish buying patterns.
Conducting descriptive research wouldn’t, however, tell you why shoppers are buying a particular type of fashion item.
Descriptive research design
Descriptive research design uses a range of both qualitative research and quantitative data (although quantitative research is the primary research method) to gather information to make accurate predictions about a particular problem or hypothesis.
As a survey method, descriptive research designs will help researchers identify characteristics in their target market or particular population.
These characteristics in the population sample can be identified, observed and measured to guide decisions.
Descriptive research characteristics
While there are a number of descriptive research methods you can deploy for data collection, descriptive research does have a number of predictable characteristics.
Here are a few of the things to consider:
Measure data trends with statistical outcomes
Descriptive research is often popular for survey research because it generates answers in a statistical form, which makes it easy for researchers to carry out a simple statistical analysis to interpret what the data is saying.
Descriptive research design is ideal for further research
Because the data collection for descriptive research produces statistical outcomes, it can also be used as secondary data for another research study.
Plus, the data collected from descriptive research can be subjected to other types of data analysis .
Uncontrolled variables
A key component of the descriptive research method is that it uses random variables that are not controlled by the researchers. This is because descriptive research aims to understand the natural behavior of the research subject.
It’s carried out in a natural environment
Descriptive research is often carried out in a natural environment. This is because researchers aim to gather data in a natural setting to avoid swaying respondents.
Data can be gathered using survey questions or online surveys.
For example, if you want to understand the fashion trends we mentioned earlier, you would set up a study in which a researcher observes people in the respondent’s natural environment to understand their habits and preferences.
Descriptive research allows for cross sectional study
Because of the nature of descriptive research design and the randomness of the sample group being observed, descriptive research is ideal for cross sectional studies – essentially the demographics of the group can vary widely and your aim is to gain insights from within the group.
This can be highly beneficial when you’re looking to understand the behaviors or preferences of a wider population.
Descriptive research advantages
There are many advantages to using descriptive research, some of them include:
Cost effectiveness
Because the elements needed for descriptive research design are not specific or highly targeted (and occur within the respondent’s natural environment) this type of study is relatively cheap to carry out.
Multiple types of data can be collected
A big advantage of this research type, is that you can use it to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. This means you can use the stats gathered to easily identify underlying patterns in your respondents’ behavior.
Descriptive research disadvantages
Potential reliability issues.
When conducting descriptive research it’s important that the initial survey questions are properly formulated.
If not, it could make the answers unreliable and risk the credibility of your study.
Potential limitations
As we’ve mentioned, descriptive research design is ideal for understanding the what, who or where of a situation or phenomenon.
However, it can’t help you understand the cause or effect of the behavior. This means you’ll need to conduct further research to get a more complete picture of a situation.
Descriptive research methods
Because descriptive research methods include a range of quantitative and qualitative research, there are several research methods you can use.
Use case studies
Case studies in descriptive research involve conducting in-depth and detailed studies in which researchers get a specific person or case to answer questions.
Case studies shouldn’t be used to generate results, rather it should be used to build or establish hypothesis that you can expand into further market research .
For example you could gather detailed data about a specific business phenomenon, and then use this deeper understanding of that specific case.
Use observational methods
This type of study uses qualitative observations to understand human behavior within a particular group.
By understanding how the different demographics respond within your sample you can identify patterns and trends.
As an observational method, descriptive research will not tell you the cause of any particular behaviors, but that could be established with further research.
Use survey research
Surveys are one of the most cost effective ways to gather descriptive data.
An online survey or questionnaire can be used in descriptive studies to gather quantitative information about a particular problem.
Survey research is ideal if you’re using descriptive research as your primary research.
Descriptive research examples
Descriptive research is used for a number of commercial purposes or when organizations need to understand the behaviors or opinions of a population.
One of the biggest examples of descriptive research that is used in every democratic country, is during elections.
Using descriptive research, researchers will use surveys to understand who voters are more likely to choose out of the parties or candidates available.
Using the data provided, researchers can analyze the data to understand what the election result will be.
In a commercial setting, retailers often use descriptive research to figure out trends in shopping and buying decisions.
By gathering information on the habits of shoppers, retailers can get a better understanding of the purchases being made.
Another example that is widely used around the world, is the national census that takes place to understand the population.
The research will provide a more accurate picture of a population’s demographic makeup and help to understand changes over time in areas like population age, health and education level.
Where Qualtrics helps with descriptive research
Whatever type of research you want to carry out, there’s a survey type that will work.
Qualtrics can help you determine the appropriate method and ensure you design a study that will deliver the insights you need.
Our experts can help you with your market research needs , ensuring you get the most out of Qualtrics market research software to design, launch and analyze your data to guide better, more accurate decisions for your organization.
Related resources
Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.
Ready to learn more about Qualtrics?
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/site/f8e3e61133-1720599212/academy.png)
What is Descriptive Research and How is it Used?
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/authors/lauren-stewart/905df9b24f-1720599067/lauren.png)
Introduction
What does descriptive research mean, why would you use a descriptive research design, what are the characteristics of descriptive research, examples of descriptive research, what are the data collection methods in descriptive research, how do you analyze descriptive research data, ensuring validity and reliability in the findings.
Conducting descriptive research offers researchers a way to present phenomena as they naturally occur. Rooted in an open-ended and non-experimental nature, this type of research focuses on portraying the details of specific phenomena or contexts, helping readers gain a clearer understanding of topics of interest.
From businesses gauging customer satisfaction to educators assessing classroom dynamics, the data collected from descriptive research provides invaluable insights across various fields.
This article aims to illuminate the essence, utility, characteristics, and methods associated with descriptive research, guiding those who wish to harness its potential in their respective domains.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/research-hub/descriptive-research/b7273cd1fb-1720599274/descriptive-research.png)
At its core, descriptive research refers to a systematic approach used by researchers to collect, analyze, and present data about real-life phenomena to describe it in its natural context. It primarily aims to describe what exists, based on empirical observations .
Unlike experimental research, where variables are manipulated to observe outcomes, descriptive research deals with the "as-is" scenario to facilitate further research by providing a framework or new insights on which continuing studies can build.
Definition of descriptive research
Descriptive research is defined as a research method that observes and describes the characteristics of a particular group, situation, or phenomenon.
The goal is not to establish cause and effect relationships but rather to provide a detailed account of the situation.
The difference between descriptive and exploratory research
While both descriptive and exploratory research seek to provide insights into a topic or phenomenon, they differ in their focus. Exploratory research is more about investigating a topic to develop preliminary insights or to identify potential areas of interest.
In contrast, descriptive research offers detailed accounts and descriptions of the observed phenomenon, seeking to paint a full picture of what's happening.
The evolution of descriptive research in academia
Historically, descriptive research has played a foundational role in numerous academic disciplines. Anthropologists, for instance, used this approach to document cultures and societies. Psychologists have employed it to capture behaviors, emotions, and reactions.
Over time, the method has evolved, incorporating technological advancements and adapting to contemporary needs, yet its essence remains rooted in describing a phenomenon or setting as it is.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/research-hub/descriptive-research/0b7cfca5ef-1720599274/descriptive-research-is-useful-for-understanding-cultures-and-people.avif)
Descriptive research serves as a cornerstone in the research landscape for its ability to provide a detailed snapshot of life. Its unique qualities and methods make it an invaluable method for various research purposes. Here's why:
Benefits of obtaining a clear picture
Descriptive research captures the present state of phenomena, offering researchers a detailed reflection of situations. This unaltered representation is crucial for sectors like marketing, where understanding current consumer behavior can shape future strategies.
Facilitating data interpretation
Given its straightforward nature, descriptive research can provide data that's easier to interpret, both for researchers and their audiences. Rather than analyzing complex statistical relationships among variables, researchers present detailed descriptions of their qualitative observations . Researchers can engage in in depth analysis relating to their research question , but audiences can also draw insights from their own interpretations or reflections on potential underlying patterns.
Enhancing the clarity of the research problem
By presenting things as they are, descriptive research can help elucidate ambiguous research questions. A well-executed descriptive study can shine light on overlooked aspects of a problem, paving the way for further investigative research.
Addressing practical problems
In real-world scenarios, it's not always feasible to manipulate variables or set up controlled experiments. For instance, in social sciences, understanding cultural norms without interference is paramount. Descriptive research allows for such non-intrusive insights, ensuring genuine understanding.
Building a foundation for future research
Often, descriptive studies act as stepping stones for more complex research endeavors. By establishing baseline data and highlighting patterns, they create a platform upon which more intricate hypotheses can be built and tested in subsequent studies.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/research-hub/descriptive-research/b7fe943376-1720599274/descriptive-research-is-useful-for-identifying-pathways-for-future-research.avif)
Descriptive research is distinguished by a set of hallmark characteristics that set it apart from other research methodologies . Recognizing these features can help researchers effectively design, implement , and interpret descriptive studies.
Specificity in the research question
As with all research, descriptive research starts with a well-defined research question aiming to detail a particular phenomenon. The specificity ensures that the study remains focused on gathering relevant data without unnecessary deviations.
Focus on the present situation
While some research methods aim to predict future trends or uncover historical truths, descriptive research is predominantly concerned with the present. It seeks to capture the current state of affairs, such as understanding today's consumer habits or documenting a newly observed phenomenon.
Standardized and structured methodology
To ensure credibility and consistency in results, descriptive research often employs standardized methods. Whether it's using a fixed set of survey questions or adhering to specific observation protocols, this structured approach ensures that data is collected uniformly, making it easier to compare and analyze.
Non-manipulative approach in observation
One of the standout features of descriptive research is its non-invasive nature. Researchers observe and document without influencing the research subject or the environment. This passive stance ensures that the data gathered is a genuine reflection of the phenomenon under study.
Replicability and consistency in results
Due to its structured methodology, findings from descriptive research can often be replicated in different settings or with different samples. This consistency adds to the credibility of the results, reinforcing the validity of the insights drawn from the study.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/research-hub/descriptive-research/77c332ca0e-1720599274/macbook-06-1408x.jpg)
Analyze data quickly and efficiently with ATLAS.ti
Download a free trial to see how you can make sense of complex qualitative data.
Numerous fields and sectors conduct descriptive research for its versatile and detailed nature. Through its focus on presenting things as they naturally occur, it provides insights into a myriad of scenarios. Here are some tangible examples from diverse domains:
Conducting market research
Businesses often turn to data analysis through descriptive research to understand the demographics of their target market. For instance, a company launching a new product might survey potential customers to understand their age, gender, income level, and purchasing habits, offering valuable data for targeted marketing strategies.
Evaluating employee behaviors
Organizations rely on descriptive research designs to assess the behavior and attitudes of their employees. By conducting observations or surveys , companies can gather data on workplace satisfaction, collaboration patterns, or the impact of a new office layout on productivity.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/research-hub/descriptive-research/eb80033751-1720599274/observations-and-surveys-can-help-researchers-describe-workplace-cultures.avif)
Understanding consumer preferences
Brands aiming to understand their consumers' likes and dislikes often use descriptive research. By observing shopping behaviors or conducting product feedback surveys , they can gauge preferences and adjust their offerings accordingly.
Documenting historical patterns
Historians and anthropologists employ descriptive research to identify patterns through analysis of events or cultural practices. For instance, a historian might detail the daily life in a particular era, while an anthropologist might document rituals and ceremonies of a specific tribe.
Assessing student performance
Educational researchers can utilize descriptive studies to understand the effectiveness of teaching methodologies. By observing classrooms or surveying students, they can measure data trends and gauge the impact of a new teaching technique or curriculum on student engagement and performance.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/research-hub/descriptive-research/1f1ba9eff9-1720599274/descriptive-research-can-help-understand-the-effectiveness-of-teaching-methodologies.avif)
Descriptive research methods aim to authentically represent situations and phenomena. These techniques ensure the collection of comprehensive and reliable data about the subject of interest.
The most appropriate descriptive research method depends on the research question and resources available for your research study.
Surveys and questionnaires
One of the most familiar tools in the researcher's arsenal, surveys and questionnaires offer a structured means of collecting data from a vast audience. Through carefully designed questions, researchers can obtain standardized responses that lend themselves to straightforward comparison and analysis in quantitative and qualitative research .
Survey research can manifest in various formats, from face-to-face interactions and telephone conversations to digital platforms. While surveys can reach a broad audience and generate quantitative data ripe for statistical analysis, they also come with the challenge of potential biases in design and rely heavily on respondent honesty.
Observations and case studies
Direct or participant observation is a method wherein researchers actively watch and document behaviors or events. A researcher might, for instance, observe the dynamics within a classroom or the behaviors of shoppers in a market setting.
Case studies provide an even deeper dive, focusing on a thorough analysis of a specific individual, group, or event. These methods present the advantage of capturing real-time, detailed data, but they might also be time-intensive and can sometimes introduce observer bias .
Interviews and focus groups
Interviews , whether they follow a structured script or flow more organically, are a powerful means to extract detailed insights directly from participants. On the other hand, focus groups gather multiple participants for discussions, aiming to gather diverse and collective opinions on a particular topic or product.
These methods offer the benefit of deep insights and adaptability in data collection . However, they necessitate skilled interviewers, and focus group settings might see individual opinions being influenced by group dynamics.
Document and content analysis
Here, instead of generating new data, researchers examine existing documents or content . This can range from studying historical records and newspapers to analyzing media content or literature.
Analyzing existing content offers the advantage of accessibility and can provide insights over longer time frames. However, the reliability and relevance of the content are paramount, and researchers must approach this method with a discerning eye.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/research-hub/descriptive-research/3204f156c2-1720599274/document-analysis-helps-researchers-collect-descriptive-data-from-existing-sources.avif)
Descriptive research data, rich in details and insights, necessitates meticulous analysis to derive meaningful conclusions. The analysis process transforms raw data into structured findings that can be communicated and acted upon.
Qualitative content analysis
For data collected through interviews , focus groups , observations , or open-ended survey questions , qualitative content analysis is a popular choice. This involves examining non-numerical data to identify patterns, themes, or categories.
By coding responses or observations , researchers can identify recurring elements, making it easier to comprehend larger data sets and draw insights.
Using descriptive statistics
When dealing with quantitative data from surveys or experiments, descriptive statistics are invaluable. Measures such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and frequency distributions help summarize data sets, providing a snapshot of the overall patterns.
Graphical representations like histograms, pie charts, or bar graphs can further help in visualizing these statistics.
Coding and categorizing the data
Both qualitative and quantitative data often require coding. Coding involves assigning labels to specific responses or behaviors to group similar segments of data. This categorization aids in identifying patterns, especially in vast data sets.
For instance, responses to open-ended questions in a survey can be coded based on keywords or sentiments, allowing for a more structured analysis.
Visual representation through graphs and charts
Visual aids like graphs, charts, and plots can simplify complex data, making it more accessible and understandable. Whether it's showcasing frequency distributions through histograms or mapping out relationships with networks, visual representations can elucidate trends and patterns effectively.
In the realm of research , the credibility of findings is paramount. Without trustworthiness in the results, even the most meticulously gathered data can lose its value. Two cornerstones that bolster the credibility of research outcomes are validity and reliability .
Validity: Measuring the right thing
Validity addresses the accuracy of the research. It seeks to answer the question: Is the research genuinely measuring what it aims to measure? In descriptive research, where the objective is to paint an authentic picture of the current state of affairs, ensuring validity is crucial.
For instance, if a study aims to understand consumer preferences for a product category, the questions posed should genuinely reflect those preferences and not veer into unrelated territories. Multiple forms of validity, including content, criterion, and construct validity, can be examined to ensure that the research instruments and processes are aligned with the research goals.
Reliability: Consistency in findings
Reliability, on the other hand, pertains to the consistency of the research findings. When a study demonstrates reliability, this suggests that others could repeat the study and the outcomes would remain consistent across repetitions.
In descriptive research, factors like the clarity of survey questions , the training of observers , and the standardization of interview protocols play a role in enhancing reliability. Techniques such as test-retest and internal consistency measurements can be employed to assess and improve reliability.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/research-hub/descriptive-research/7fc0cc9cc0-1720599274/neu_nehmen_packshots.webp)
Make your research happen with ATLAS.ti
Analyze descriptive research with our powerful data analysis interface. Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://atlasti.com/media/pages/authors/roehl-sybing/5afa3c4e4e-1720599066/roehl3.png)
- Descriptive Research Designs: Types, Examples & Methods
![descriptive research design is also known as busayo.longe](https://www.formpl.us/blog/static/dist/img/fpls.png)
One of the components of research is getting enough information about the research problem—the what, how, when and where answers, which is why descriptive research is an important type of research. It is very useful when conducting research whose aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, correlations, and categories.
This research method takes a problem with little to no relevant information and gives it a befitting description using qualitative and quantitative research method s. Descriptive research aims to accurately describe a research problem.
In the subsequent sections, we will be explaining what descriptive research means, its types, examples, and data collection methods.
What is Descriptive Research?
Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population, situation, or phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses on answering the how, what, when, and where questions If a research problem, rather than the why.
This is mainly because it is important to have a proper understanding of what a research problem is about before investigating why it exists in the first place.
For example, an investor considering an investment in the ever-changing Amsterdam housing market needs to understand what the current state of the market is, how it changes (increasing or decreasing), and when it changes (time of the year) before asking for the why. This is where descriptive research comes in.
What Are The Types of Descriptive Research?
Descriptive research is classified into different types according to the kind of approach that is used in conducting descriptive research. The different types of descriptive research are highlighted below:
- Descriptive-survey
Descriptive survey research uses surveys to gather data about varying subjects. This data aims to know the extent to which different conditions can be obtained among these subjects.
For example, a researcher wants to determine the qualification of employed professionals in Maryland. He uses a survey as his research instrument , and each item on the survey related to qualifications is subjected to a Yes/No answer.
This way, the researcher can describe the qualifications possessed by the employed demographics of this community.
- Descriptive-normative survey
This is an extension of the descriptive survey, with the addition being the normative element. In the descriptive-normative survey, the results of the study should be compared with the norm.
For example, an organization that wishes to test the skills of its employees by a team may have them take a skills test. The skills tests are the evaluation tool in this case, and the result of this test is compared with the norm of each role.
If the score of the team is one standard deviation above the mean, it is very satisfactory, if within the mean, satisfactory, and one standard deviation below the mean is unsatisfactory.
- Descriptive-status
This is a quantitative description technique that seeks to answer questions about real-life situations. For example, a researcher researching the income of the employees in a company, and the relationship with their performance.
A survey will be carried out to gather enough data about the income of the employees, then their performance will be evaluated and compared to their income. This will help determine whether a higher income means better performance and low income means lower performance or vice versa.
- Descriptive-analysis
The descriptive-analysis method of research describes a subject by further analyzing it, which in this case involves dividing it into 2 parts. For example, the HR personnel of a company that wishes to analyze the job role of each employee of the company may divide the employees into the people that work at the Headquarters in the US and those that work from Oslo, Norway office.
A questionnaire is devised to analyze the job role of employees with similar salaries and who work in similar positions.
- Descriptive classification
This method is employed in biological sciences for the classification of plants and animals. A researcher who wishes to classify the sea animals into different species will collect samples from various search stations, then classify them accordingly.
- Descriptive-comparative
In descriptive-comparative research, the researcher considers 2 variables that are not manipulated, and establish a formal procedure to conclude that one is better than the other. For example, an examination body wants to determine the better method of conducting tests between paper-based and computer-based tests.
A random sample of potential participants of the test may be asked to use the 2 different methods, and factors like failure rates, time factors, and others will be evaluated to arrive at the best method.
- Correlative Survey
Correlative surveys are used to determine whether the relationship between 2 variables is positive, negative, or neutral. That is, if 2 variables say X and Y are directly proportional, inversely proportional or are not related to each other.
Examples of Descriptive Research
There are different examples of descriptive research, that may be highlighted from its types, uses, and applications. However, we will be restricting ourselves to only 3 distinct examples in this article.
- Comparing Student Performance:
An academic institution may wish 2 compare the performance of its junior high school students in English language and Mathematics. This may be used to classify students based on 2 major groups, with one group going ahead to study while courses, while the other study courses in the Arts & Humanities field.
Students who are more proficient in mathematics will be encouraged to go into STEM and vice versa. Institutions may also use this data to identify students’ weak points and work on ways to assist them.
- Scientific Classification
During the major scientific classification of plants, animals, and periodic table elements, the characteristics and components of each subject are evaluated and used to determine how they are classified.
For example, living things may be classified into kingdom Plantae or kingdom animal is depending on their nature. Further classification may group animals into mammals, pieces, vertebrae, invertebrae, etc.
All these classifications are made a result of descriptive research which describes what they are.
- Human Behavior
When studying human behaviour based on a factor or event, the researcher observes the characteristics, behaviour, and reaction, then use it to conclude. A company willing to sell to its target market needs to first study the behaviour of the market.
This may be done by observing how its target reacts to a competitor’s product, then use it to determine their behaviour.
What are the Characteristics of Descriptive Research?
The characteristics of descriptive research can be highlighted from its definition, applications, data collection methods, and examples. Some characteristics of descriptive research are:
- Quantitativeness
Descriptive research uses a quantitative research method by collecting quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. This is very common when dealing with research in the physical sciences.
- Qualitativeness
It can also be carried out using the qualitative research method, to properly describe the research problem. This is because descriptive research is more explanatory than exploratory or experimental.
- Uncontrolled variables
In descriptive research, researchers cannot control the variables like they do in experimental research.
- The basis for further research
The results of descriptive research can be further analyzed and used in other research methods. It can also inform the next line of research, including the research method that should be used.
This is because it provides basic information about the research problem, which may give birth to other questions like why a particular thing is the way it is.
Why Use Descriptive Research Design?
Descriptive research can be used to investigate the background of a research problem and get the required information needed to carry out further research. It is used in multiple ways by different organizations, and especially when getting the required information about their target audience.
- Define subject characteristics :
It is used to determine the characteristics of the subjects, including their traits, behaviour, opinion, etc. This information may be gathered with the use of surveys, which are shared with the respondents who in this case, are the research subjects.
For example, a survey evaluating the number of hours millennials in a community spends on the internet weekly, will help a service provider make informed business decisions regarding the market potential of the community.
- Measure Data Trends
It helps to measure the changes in data over some time through statistical methods. Consider the case of individuals who want to invest in stock markets, so they evaluate the changes in prices of the available stocks to make a decision investment decision.
Brokerage companies are however the ones who carry out the descriptive research process, while individuals can view the data trends and make decisions.
Descriptive research is also used to compare how different demographics respond to certain variables. For example, an organization may study how people with different income levels react to the launch of a new Apple phone.
This kind of research may take a survey that will help determine which group of individuals are purchasing the new Apple phone. Do the low-income earners also purchase the phone, or only the high-income earners do?
Further research using another technique will explain why low-income earners are purchasing the phone even though they can barely afford it. This will help inform strategies that will lure other low-income earners and increase company sales.
- Validate existing conditions
When you are not sure about the validity of an existing condition, you can use descriptive research to ascertain the underlying patterns of the research object. This is because descriptive research methods make an in-depth analysis of each variable before making conclusions.
- Conducted Overtime
Descriptive research is conducted over some time to ascertain the changes observed at each point in time. The higher the number of times it is conducted, the more authentic the conclusion will be.
What are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research?
- Response and Non-response Bias
Respondents may either decide not to respond to questions or give incorrect responses if they feel the questions are too confidential. When researchers use observational methods, respondents may also decide to behave in a particular manner because they feel they are being watched.
- The researcher may decide to influence the result of the research due to personal opinion or bias towards a particular subject. For example, a stockbroker who also has a business of his own may try to lure investors into investing in his own company by manipulating results.
- A case-study or sample taken from a large population is not representative of the whole population.
- Limited scope:The scope of descriptive research is limited to the what of research, with no information on why thereby limiting the scope of the research.
What are the Data Collection Methods in Descriptive Research?
There are 3 main data collection methods in descriptive research, namely; observational method, case study method, and survey research.
1. Observational Method
The observational method allows researchers to collect data based on their view of the behaviour and characteristics of the respondent, with the respondents themselves not directly having an input. It is often used in market research, psychology, and some other social science research to understand human behaviour.
It is also an important aspect of physical scientific research, with it being one of the most effective methods of conducting descriptive research . This process can be said to be either quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative observation involved the objective collection of numerical data , whose results can be analyzed using numerical and statistical methods.
Qualitative observation, on the other hand, involves the monitoring of characteristics and not the measurement of numbers. The researcher makes his observation from a distance, records it, and is used to inform conclusions.
2. Case Study Method
A case study is a sample group (an individual, a group of people, organizations, events, etc.) whose characteristics are used to describe the characteristics of a larger group in which the case study is a subgroup. The information gathered from investigating a case study may be generalized to serve the larger group.
This generalization, may, however, be risky because case studies are not sufficient to make accurate predictions about larger groups. Case studies are a poor case of generalization.
3. Survey Research
This is a very popular data collection method in research designs. In survey research, researchers create a survey or questionnaire and distribute it to respondents who give answers.
Generally, it is used to obtain quick information directly from the primary source and also conducting rigorous quantitative and qualitative research. In some cases, survey research uses a blend of both qualitative and quantitative strategies.
Survey research can be carried out both online and offline using the following methods
- Online Surveys: This is a cheap method of carrying out surveys and getting enough responses. It can be carried out using Formplus, an online survey builder. Formplus has amazing tools and features that will help increase response rates.
- Offline Surveys: This includes paper forms, mobile offline forms , and SMS-based forms.
What Are The Differences Between Descriptive and Correlational Research?
Before going into the differences between descriptive and correlation research, we need to have a proper understanding of what correlation research is about. Therefore, we will be giving a summary of the correlation research below.
Correlational research is a type of descriptive research, which is used to measure the relationship between 2 variables, with the researcher having no control over them. It aims to find whether there is; positive correlation (both variables change in the same direction), negative correlation (the variables change in the opposite direction), or zero correlation (there is no relationship between the variables).
Correlational research may be used in 2 situations;
(i) when trying to find out if there is a relationship between two variables, and
(ii) when a causal relationship is suspected between two variables, but it is impractical or unethical to conduct experimental research that manipulates one of the variables.
Below are some of the differences between correlational and descriptive research:
- Definitions :
Descriptive research aims is a type of research that provides an in-depth understanding of the study population, while correlational research is the type of research that measures the relationship between 2 variables.
- Characteristics :
Descriptive research provides descriptive data explaining what the research subject is about, while correlation research explores the relationship between data and not their description.
- Predictions :
Predictions cannot be made in descriptive research while correlation research accommodates the possibility of making predictions.
Descriptive Research vs. Causal Research
Descriptive research and causal research are both research methodologies, however, one focuses on a subject’s behaviors while the latter focuses on a relationship’s cause-and-effect. To buttress the above point, descriptive research aims to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena of a particular or specific population or situation.
It focuses on providing an accurate and detailed account of an already existing state of affairs between variables. Descriptive research answers the questions of “what,” “where,” “when,” and “how” without attempting to establish any causal relationships or explain any underlying factors that might have caused the behavior.
Causal research, on the other hand, seeks to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. It aims to point out the factors that influence or cause a particular result or behavior. Causal research involves manipulating variables, controlling conditions or a subgroup, and observing the resulting effects. The primary objective of causal research is to establish a cause-effect relationship and provide insights into why certain phenomena happen the way they do.
Descriptive Research vs. Analytical Research
Descriptive research provides a detailed and comprehensive account of a specific situation or phenomenon. It focuses on describing and summarizing data without making inferences or attempting to explain underlying factors or the cause of the factor.
It is primarily concerned with providing an accurate and objective representation of the subject of research. While analytical research goes beyond the description of the phenomena and seeks to analyze and interpret data to discover if there are patterns, relationships, or any underlying factors.
It examines the data critically, applies statistical techniques or other analytical methods, and draws conclusions based on the discovery. Analytical research also aims to explore the relationships between variables and understand the underlying mechanisms or processes involved.
Descriptive Research vs. Exploratory Research
Descriptive research is a research method that focuses on providing a detailed and accurate account of a specific situation, group, or phenomenon. This type of research describes the characteristics, behaviors, or relationships within the given context without looking for an underlying cause.
Descriptive research typically involves collecting and analyzing quantitative or qualitative data to generate descriptive statistics or narratives. Exploratory research differs from descriptive research because it aims to explore and gain firsthand insights or knowledge into a relatively unexplored or poorly understood topic.
It focuses on generating ideas, hypotheses, or theories rather than providing definitive answers. Exploratory research is often conducted at the early stages of a research project to gather preliminary information and identify key variables or factors for further investigation. It involves open-ended interviews, observations, or small-scale surveys to gather qualitative data.
Read More – Exploratory Research: What are its Method & Examples?
Descriptive Research vs. Experimental Research
Descriptive research aims to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena of a particular population or situation. It focuses on providing an accurate and detailed account of the existing state of affairs.
Descriptive research typically involves collecting data through surveys, observations, or existing records and analyzing the data to generate descriptive statistics or narratives. It does not involve manipulating variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
Experimental research, on the other hand, involves manipulating variables and controlling conditions to investigate cause-and-effect relationships. It aims to establish causal relationships by introducing an intervention or treatment and observing the resulting effects.
Experimental research typically involves randomly assigning participants to different groups, such as control and experimental groups, and measuring the outcomes. It allows researchers to control for confounding variables and draw causal conclusions.
Related – Experimental vs Non-Experimental Research: 15 Key Differences
Descriptive Research vs. Explanatory Research
Descriptive research focuses on providing a detailed and accurate account of a specific situation, group, or phenomenon. It aims to describe the characteristics, behaviors, or relationships within the given context.
Descriptive research is primarily concerned with providing an objective representation of the subject of study without explaining underlying causes or mechanisms. Explanatory research seeks to explain the relationships between variables and uncover the underlying causes or mechanisms.
It goes beyond description and aims to understand the reasons or factors that influence a particular outcome or behavior. Explanatory research involves analyzing data, conducting statistical analyses, and developing theories or models to explain the observed relationships.
Descriptive Research vs. Inferential Research
Descriptive research focuses on describing and summarizing data without making inferences or generalizations beyond the specific sample or population being studied. It aims to provide an accurate and objective representation of the subject of study.
Descriptive research typically involves analyzing data to generate descriptive statistics, such as means, frequencies, or percentages, to describe the characteristics or behaviors observed.
Inferential research, however, involves making inferences or generalizations about a larger population based on a smaller sample.
It aims to draw conclusions about the population characteristics or relationships by analyzing the sample data. Inferential research uses statistical techniques to estimate population parameters, test hypotheses, and determine the level of confidence or significance in the findings.
Related – Inferential Statistics: Definition, Types + Examples
Conclusion
The uniqueness of descriptive research partly lies in its ability to explore both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Therefore, when conducting descriptive research, researchers have the opportunity to use a wide variety of techniques that aids the research process.
Descriptive research explores research problems in-depth, beyond the surface level thereby giving a detailed description of the research subject. That way, it can aid further research in the field, including other research methods .
It is also very useful in solving real-life problems in various fields of social science, physical science, and education.
![descriptive research design is also known as Logo](https://www.formpl.us/static/images/logo/Small-White.png)
Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!
- descriptive research
- descriptive research method
- example of descriptive research
- types of descriptive research
- busayo.longe
![descriptive research design is also known as Formplus](https://www.formpl.us/blog/static/dist/img/logo-white.png)
You may also like:
Extrapolation in Statistical Research: Definition, Examples, Types, Applications
In this article we’ll look at the different types and characteristics of extrapolation, plus how it contrasts to interpolation.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://www.formpl.us/blog/static/dist/img/fpls.png)
Cross-Sectional Studies: Types, Pros, Cons & Uses
In this article, we’ll look at what cross-sectional studies are, how it applies to your research and how to use Formplus to collect...
Acceptance Sampling: Meaning, Examples, When to Use
In this post, we will discuss extensively what acceptance sampling is and when it is applied.
Type I vs Type II Errors: Causes, Examples & Prevention
This article will discuss the two different types of errors in hypothesis testing and how you can prevent them from occurring in your research
Formplus - For Seamless Data Collection
Collect data the right way with a versatile data collection tool. try formplus and transform your work productivity today..
![descriptive research design is also known as Enago Academy](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/enago-academy-sitelogo.png)
Bridging the Gap: Overcome these 7 flaws in descriptive research design
![descriptive research design is also known as ' src=](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Shrutika-profile-pic-170x150.jpg)
Descriptive research design is a powerful tool used by scientists and researchers to gather information about a particular group or phenomenon. This type of research provides a detailed and accurate picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or subject. By observing and collecting data on a given topic, descriptive research helps researchers gain a deeper understanding of a specific issue and provides valuable insights that can inform future studies.
In this blog, we will explore the definition, characteristics, and common flaws in descriptive research design, and provide tips on how to avoid these pitfalls to produce high-quality results. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or a student just starting, understanding the fundamentals of descriptive research design is essential to conducting successful scientific studies.
Table of Contents
![](http://charunivedita.online/777/templates/cheerup2/res/banner1.gif)
What Is Descriptive Research Design?
The descriptive research design involves observing and collecting data on a given topic without attempting to infer cause-and-effect relationships. The goal of descriptive research is to provide a comprehensive and accurate picture of the population or phenomenon being studied and to describe the relationships, patterns, and trends that exist within the data.
Descriptive research methods can include surveys, observational studies , and case studies, and the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative . The findings from descriptive research provide valuable insights and inform future research, but do not establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Importance of Descriptive Research in Scientific Studies
1. understanding of a population or phenomenon.
Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or phenomenon, allowing researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the topic.
2. Baseline Information
The information gathered through descriptive research can serve as a baseline for future research and provide a foundation for further studies.
3. Informative Data
Descriptive research can provide valuable information and insights into a particular topic, which can inform future research, policy decisions, and programs.
4. Sampling Validation
Descriptive research can be used to validate sampling methods and to help researchers determine the best approach for their study.
5. Cost Effective
Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods , making it a cost-effective way to gather information about a particular population or phenomenon.
6. Easy to Replicate
Descriptive research is straightforward to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.
Key Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design
The primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon.
2. Participants and Sampling
Descriptive research studies a particular population or sample that is representative of the larger population being studied. Furthermore, sampling methods can include convenience, stratified, or random sampling.
3. Data Collection Techniques
Descriptive research typically involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data through methods such as surveys, observational studies, case studies, or focus groups.
4. Data Analysis
Descriptive research data is analyzed to identify patterns, relationships, and trends within the data. Statistical techniques , such as frequency distributions and descriptive statistics, are commonly used to summarize and describe the data.
5. Focus on Description
Descriptive research is focused on describing and summarizing the characteristics of a particular population or phenomenon. It does not make causal inferences.
6. Non-Experimental
Descriptive research is non-experimental, meaning that the researcher does not manipulate variables or control conditions. The researcher simply observes and collects data on the population or phenomenon being studied.
When Can a Researcher Conduct Descriptive Research?
A researcher can conduct descriptive research in the following situations:
- To better understand a particular population or phenomenon
- To describe the relationships between variables
- To describe patterns and trends
- To validate sampling methods and determine the best approach for a study
- To compare data from multiple sources.
Types of Descriptive Research Design
1. survey research.
Surveys are a type of descriptive research that involves collecting data through self-administered or interviewer-administered questionnaires. Additionally, they can be administered in-person, by mail, or online, and can collect both qualitative and quantitative data.
2. Observational Research
Observational research involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without manipulating variables or controlling conditions. It can be conducted in naturalistic settings or controlled laboratory settings.
3. Case Study Research
Case study research is a type of descriptive research that focuses on a single individual, group, or event. It involves collecting detailed information on the subject through a variety of methods, including interviews, observations, and examination of documents.
4. Focus Group Research
Focus group research involves bringing together a small group of people to discuss a particular topic or product. Furthermore, the group is usually moderated by a researcher and the discussion is recorded for later analysis.
5. Ethnographic Research
Ethnographic research involves conducting detailed observations of a particular culture or community. It is often used to gain a deep understanding of the beliefs, behaviors, and practices of a particular group.
Advantages of Descriptive Research Design
1. provides a comprehensive understanding.
Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon, which can be useful in informing future research and policy decisions.
2. Non-invasive
Descriptive research is non-invasive and does not manipulate variables or control conditions, making it a suitable method for sensitive or ethical concerns.
3. Flexibility
Descriptive research allows for a wide range of data collection methods , including surveys, observational studies, case studies, and focus groups, making it a flexible and versatile research method.
4. Cost-effective
Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods. Moreover, it gives a cost-effective option to many researchers.
5. Easy to Replicate
Descriptive research is easy to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.
6. Informs Future Research
The insights gained from a descriptive research can inform future research and inform policy decisions and programs.
Disadvantages of Descriptive Research Design
1. limited scope.
Descriptive research only provides a snapshot of the current situation and cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.
2. Dependence on Existing Data
Descriptive research relies on existing data, which may not always be comprehensive or accurate.
3. Lack of Control
Researchers have no control over the variables in descriptive research, which can limit the conclusions that can be drawn.
The researcher’s own biases and preconceptions can influence the interpretation of the data.
5. Lack of Generalizability
Descriptive research findings may not be applicable to other populations or situations.
6. Lack of Depth
Descriptive research provides a surface-level understanding of a phenomenon, rather than a deep understanding.
7. Time-consuming
Descriptive research often requires a large amount of data collection and analysis, which can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.
7 Ways to Avoid Common Flaws While Designing Descriptive Research
![descriptive research design is also known as](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/SmartImage_V4-1-440x230.jpg)
1. Clearly define the research question
A clearly defined research question is the foundation of any research study, and it is important to ensure that the question is both specific and relevant to the topic being studied.
2. Choose the appropriate research design
Choosing the appropriate research design for a study is crucial to the success of the study. Moreover, researchers should choose a design that best fits the research question and the type of data needed to answer it.
3. Select a representative sample
Selecting a representative sample is important to ensure that the findings of the study are generalizable to the population being studied. Researchers should use a sampling method that provides a random and representative sample of the population.
4. Use valid and reliable data collection methods
Using valid and reliable data collection methods is important to ensure that the data collected is accurate and can be used to answer the research question. Researchers should choose methods that are appropriate for the study and that can be administered consistently and systematically.
5. Minimize bias
Bias can significantly impact the validity and reliability of research findings. Furthermore, it is important to minimize bias in all aspects of the study, from the selection of participants to the analysis of data.
6. Ensure adequate sample size
An adequate sample size is important to ensure that the results of the study are statistically significant and can be generalized to the population being studied.
7. Use appropriate data analysis techniques
The appropriate data analysis technique depends on the type of data collected and the research question being asked. Researchers should choose techniques that are appropriate for the data and the question being asked.
Have you worked on descriptive research designs? How was your experience creating a descriptive design? What challenges did you face? Do write to us or leave a comment below and share your insights on descriptive research designs!
![descriptive research design is also known as ' src=](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/ap_avatars/cfcd208495d565ef66e7dff9f98764da.jpg)
extremely very educative
Indeed very educative and useful. Well explained. Thank you
Simple,easy to understand
Excellent and easy to understand queries and questions get answered easily. Its rather clear than any confusion. Thanks a million Shritika Sirisilla.
Easy to understand. Well written , educative and informative
Rate this article Cancel Reply
Your email address will not be published.
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/800-X-210-1.jpg)
Enago Academy's Most Popular Articles
![descriptive research design is also known as Graphical Abstracts vs. Infographics: Best Practices for Visuals - Enago](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/FeatureImages-62-210x136.png)
- Promoting Research
Graphical Abstracts Vs. Infographics: Best practices for using visual illustrations for increased research impact
Dr. Sarah Chen stared at her computer screen, her eyes staring at her recently published…
![descriptive research design is also known as 10 Tips to Prevent Research Papers From Being Retracted - Enago](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/FeatureImages-10-210x136.png)
- Publishing Research
10 Tips to Prevent Research Papers From Being Retracted
Research paper retractions represent a critical event in the scientific community. When a published article…
![descriptive research design is also known as 2024 Scholar Metrics: Unveiling research impact (2019-2023)](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/FeatureImages-1-210x136.png)
- Industry News
Google Releases 2024 Scholar Metrics, Evaluates Impact of Scholarly Articles
Google has released its 2024 Scholar Metrics, assessing scholarly articles from 2019 to 2023. This…
![descriptive research design is also known as What is Academic Integrity and How to Uphold it [FREE CHECKLIST]](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/FeatureImages-59-210x136.png)
Ensuring Academic Integrity and Transparency in Academic Research: A comprehensive checklist for researchers
Academic integrity is the foundation upon which the credibility and value of scientific findings are…
![descriptive research design is also known as 7 Step Guide for Optimizing Impactful Research Process](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/FeatureImages-40-210x136.png)
- Reporting Research
How to Optimize Your Research Process: A step-by-step guide
For researchers across disciplines, the path to uncovering novel findings and insights is often filled…
Choosing the Right Analytical Approach: Thematic analysis vs. content analysis for…
Comparing Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Studies: 5 steps for choosing the right…
Research Recommendations – Guiding policy-makers for evidence-based decision making
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/iwwa_dashboard.png)
Sign-up to read more
Subscribe for free to get unrestricted access to all our resources on research writing and academic publishing including:
- 2000+ blog articles
- 50+ Webinars
- 10+ Expert podcasts
- 50+ Infographics
- 10+ Checklists
- Research Guides
We hate spam too. We promise to protect your privacy and never spam you.
- AI in Academia
- Career Corner
- Diversity and Inclusion
- Infographics
- Expert Video Library
- Other Resources
- Enago Learn
- Upcoming & On-Demand Webinars
- Peer Review Week 2024
- Open Access Week 2023
- Conference Videos
- Enago Report
- Journal Finder
- Enago Plagiarism & AI Grammar Check
- Editing Services
- Publication Support Services
- Research Impact
- Translation Services
- Publication solutions
- AI-Based Solutions
- Thought Leadership
- Call for Articles
- Call for Speakers
- Author Training
- Edit Profile
I am looking for Editing/ Proofreading services for my manuscript Tentative date of next journal submission:
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://www.enago.com/academy/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/ai-survey-sticky.jpg)
In your opinion, what is the most effective way to improve integrity in the peer review process?
Child Care and Early Education Research Connections
Descriptive research studies.
Descriptive research is a type of research that is used to describe the characteristics of a population. It collects data that are used to answer a wide range of what, when, and how questions pertaining to a particular population or group. For example, descriptive studies might be used to answer questions such as: What percentage of Head Start teachers have a bachelor's degree or higher? What is the average reading ability of 5-year-olds when they first enter kindergarten? What kinds of math activities are used in early childhood programs? When do children first receive regular child care from someone other than their parents? When are children with developmental disabilities first diagnosed and when do they first receive services? What factors do programs consider when making decisions about the type of assessments that will be used to assess the skills of the children in their programs? How do the types of services children receive from their early childhood program change as children age?
Descriptive research does not answer questions about why a certain phenomenon occurs or what the causes are. Answers to such questions are best obtained from randomized and quasi-experimental studies . However, data from descriptive studies can be used to examine the relationships (correlations) among variables. While the findings from correlational analyses are not evidence of causality, they can help to distinguish variables that may be important in explaining a phenomenon from those that are not. Thus, descriptive research is often used to generate hypotheses that should be tested using more rigorous designs.
A variety of data collection methods may be used alone or in combination to answer the types of questions guiding descriptive research. Some of the more common methods include surveys, interviews, observations, case studies, and portfolios. The data collected through these methods can be either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are typically analyzed and presenting using descriptive statistics . Using quantitative data, researchers may describe the characteristics of a sample or population in terms of percentages (e.g., percentage of population that belong to different racial/ethnic groups, percentage of low-income families that receive different government services) or averages (e.g., average household income, average scores of reading, mathematics and language assessments). Quantitative data, such as narrative data collected as part of a case study, may be used to organize, classify, and used to identify patterns of behaviors, attitudes, and other characteristics of groups.
Descriptive studies have an important role in early care and education research. Studies such as the National Survey of Early Care and Education and the National Household Education Surveys Program have greatly increased our knowledge of the supply of and demand for child care in the U.S. The Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey and the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Program have provided researchers, policy makers and practitioners with rich information about school readiness skills of children in the U.S.
Each of the methods used to collect descriptive data have their own strengths and limitations. The following are some of the strengths and limitations of descriptive research studies in general.
Study participants are questioned or observed in a natural setting (e.g., their homes, child care or educational settings).
Study data can be used to identify the prevalence of particular problems and the need for new or additional services to address these problems.
Descriptive research may identify areas in need of additional research and relationships between variables that require future study. Descriptive research is often referred to as "hypothesis generating research."
Depending on the data collection method used, descriptive studies can generate rich datasets on large and diverse samples.
Limitations:
Descriptive studies cannot be used to establish cause and effect relationships.
Respondents may not be truthful when answering survey questions or may give socially desirable responses.
The choice and wording of questions on a questionnaire may influence the descriptive findings.
Depending on the type and size of sample, the findings may not be generalizable or produce an accurate description of the population of interest.
- Skip to main content
- Skip to primary sidebar
- Skip to footer
- QuestionPro
![descriptive research design is also known as survey software icon](https://www.questionpro.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/surveys-cube-80px.png)
- Solutions Industries Gaming Automotive Sports and events Education Government Travel & Hospitality Financial Services Healthcare Cannabis Technology Use Case AskWhy Communities Audience Contactless surveys Mobile LivePolls Member Experience GDPR Positive People Science 360 Feedback Surveys
- Resources Blog eBooks Survey Templates Case Studies Training Help center
![descriptive research design is also known as descriptive research design is also known as](https://www.questionpro.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/flags/us.png)
Home Market Research
Descriptive Research: Definition, Characteristics, Methods + Examples
![descriptive research design is also known as Descriptive Research](https://www.questionpro.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Descriptive-Research-1.jpg)
Suppose an apparel brand wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York’s buyers, then it must conduct a demographic survey of the specific region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment.
The study will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but will not cover any investigative information about “ why ” the patterns exist. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the study’s main goal. Let’s talk about it.
What is descriptive research?
Descriptive research is a research method describing the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This descriptive methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.
The method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the research subject without covering “why” it happens.
Characteristics of descriptive research
The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, the design of the study, and data analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of the research study variables are influenced in any capacity.
Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
- Quantitative research: It is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
- Uncontrolled variables: In it, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
- Cross-sectional studies: It is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
- The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.
Applications of descriptive research with examples
A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before getting into any survey , though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:
- Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For example, understand millennials and the hours per week they spend browsing the internet. All this information helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.
- Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.
- Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location, geographic segmentation , etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing fixes or even create a new product line to cater to high-growth potential groups.
- Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative observation , researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-depth analysis . Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a population.
- Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.
Advantages of descriptive research
Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:
![descriptive research design is also known as Advantages of descriptive research](https://www.questionpro.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/21-Adventages-of-descriptive-research-min.jpg)
- Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods like observational method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three, all primary data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even for developing a hypothesis for your research object.
- Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
- Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.
- Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.
Descriptive research methods
There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:
Observational method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.
A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score question .
Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.
Case study method
Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.
Survey research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls . They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions . The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.
Examples of descriptive research
Some examples of descriptive research are:
- A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
- Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issue. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change.
Some other research problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:
- Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.
- A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
- A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than textbooks.
- To understand if its wellness questionnaire programs enhance the overall health of the employees.
LEARN MORE FREE TRIAL
MORE LIKE THIS
![descriptive research design is also known as closed-loop management](https://www.questionpro.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Closed-Loop-Management.jpg)
Closed-Loop Management: The Key to Customer Centricity
Sep 3, 2024
![descriptive research design is also known as Net Trust Score](https://www.questionpro.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Net-Trust-Score.jpg)
Net Trust Score: Tool for Measuring Trust in Organization
Sep 2, 2024
![descriptive research design is also known as](https://www.questionpro.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/xdaycover-20241.jpg)
Why You Should Attend XDAY 2024
Aug 30, 2024
![descriptive research design is also known as Alchemer vs Qualtrics](https://www.questionpro.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/alchemer-vs-qualtrics.jpg)
Alchemer vs Qualtrics: Find out which one you should choose
Other categories.
- Academic Research
- Artificial Intelligence
- Assessments
- Brand Awareness
- Case Studies
- Communities
- Consumer Insights
- Customer effort score
- Customer Engagement
- Customer Experience
- Customer Loyalty
- Customer Research
- Customer Satisfaction
- Employee Benefits
- Employee Engagement
- Employee Retention
- Friday Five
- General Data Protection Regulation
- Insights Hub
- Life@QuestionPro
- Market Research
- Mobile diaries
- Mobile Surveys
- New Features
- Online Communities
- Question Types
- Questionnaire
- QuestionPro Products
- Release Notes
- Research Tools and Apps
- Revenue at Risk
- Survey Templates
- Training Tips
- Tuesday CX Thoughts (TCXT)
- Uncategorized
- What’s Coming Up
- Workforce Intelligence
Research Design | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Demystifying the research process: understanding a descriptive comparative research designCitation metadata, document controls, main content. Demystifying the research process often involves understanding research terminology, the rationale for the selection of a research design, and the known benefits and consequences in the selection of a design. This commentary discusses the major aspects of a well-known and used quantitative research design in nursing research used by Tourigny, Clendinneng, Chartrand, and Gaboury (2011) to evaluate the utility of a virtual education tool for pediatric patients undergoing same-day surgery. The rationale for why this design was chosen by these nurse researchers and its advantages and disadvantages are discussed. A research design is the overall plan for answering research questions and hypotheses. The design spells out strategies the researcher adopts to gather accurate, objective, and interpretable information (Polit & Beck, 2007). Tourigny et al. (2011) used a non-experimental, quantitative research design known as a descriptive, comparative design. It is also known as casual comparative research and pre-experimental research. The basic purpose of these designs is to determine the relationship among variables. The most important distinctions between these designs and experimental designs are no control (manipulation) of the independent variable (IV) and no random assignment of study subjects to the intervention or control group. These designs are frequently used in nursing research studies because nurse researchers are often faced with these specific limitations. In summary, the known properties of descriptive, comparative research studies are 1) no manipulation of an independent variable, 2) no random assignment to groups, and 3) often inclusion of a control or comparison group. The paradigm for these studies is diagrammed in Figure 1. In this diagram (see Figure 1), the researcher hypothesizes that "X" is related to and a determinant (cause) of "Y," but the presumed causes are not manipulated, and subjects are not randomly assigned to groups (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 2010). Rather, a group of subjects who has experienced "X" in a natural situation is located, and a control group of subjects who has not experienced "X" is chosen. The behavior performance or condition of the two groups is compared to determine whether the exposure to "X" had an effect predicted by the hypothesis (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 2010). Tourigny et al. (2011) hypothesized a determinant of study participants' level of knowledge about hospital equipment and procedures, and their emotional state would differ based upon whether or not they viewed the Surgery Virtual Tour presentation. In this study, the exposed group resulted from participants choosing to view the Surgery Virtual Tour. These researchers then compared this group with a group at the same institution who did not view the Surgery Virtual Tour presentation. Tourigny et al. (2011) noted that the Surgery Virtual Tour was posted on the hospital's Web site and available to all children, adolescents, and parents being cared for at this institution. Thus, these researchers had no control over which study participants viewed or did not view the educational program. Prohibiting access of this educational program to some participants for the purposes of conducting this research study would have violated these children's, adolescents', and parents' ethical right to fair treatment. The right to fair treatment is based on the ethical principle of justice that each person should be treated fairly and should receive what he or she is due or owed (Burns & Grove, 2005). An important criterion in determining a research design's rigor is its potential to generate findings that are interpretable. The term interpretable relates to the credibility and dependability of data generated by a study, and is based on the study's design to sufficiently test "cause and effect" relationships. The term "causality" implies that a systematic relationship exists between the independent variable (IV), which is the "cause" or intervention of the study design, and the dependent variable(s) (DV) or the outcome(s) of the study. In other words, confidence that the outcome of a research study is a consequence of the effects of the intervention must exist. There are three criteria for causality: 1) the cause (the IV) must precede the effect (the DV) in time, such that the IV had to occur before the DV); 2) an empirical relationship exists between the IV and DV, meaning that a relationship that is measurable must exist between the presumed cause and effect; and 3) the relationship between the IV and DV cannot be explained by a third variable. Of these three criteria, researchers are most concerned about ensuring results of their study are due to the experimental treatment and not due to the characteristics of the subjects or other competing explanations for the results. Characteristics of the subjects or other competing explanations are known as internal validity threats. There are several limitations in the design used by Tourigny et al. (2011) that threaten the confidence in their study's findings, specifically having no control over the internal validity and characteristics of the subjects influencing the outcome of the study. The internal validity threat due to characteristics of the subjects is known as selection bias and is always a threat if random assignment to groups does not occur. Researchers are cautioned to be aware that when intact groups are compared, differences existing between the two groups before the start of the experiment could have affected the outcome of the study. People "self-select" to a group based on personal characteristics and preferences, and these personal characteristics and preferences can influence the outcome of a study. Tourigny et al. (2011) addressed this potential threat operating in their study's findings by measuring selected differences in sociodemographic variables that could have accounted for dissimilarities between the groups. There were no significant differences in socio-demographic variables between participants who viewed or did not view the Virtual Tour, with the exception that families who took the Tour were more likely to have access to the Internet at home (Tourigny et al., 2011). These findings provide some evidence that these socio-demographic variables can be ruled out as internal validity threats operating in this study; however, it remains unknown if characteristics not measured by Tourigny and colleagues could be operating as threats to the study's interal validity. It is not feasible to measure an exhaustive list of socio-demographic characteristics that could pose every possible internal validity threat related to study participants' characteristics, but researchers carefully select known factors from previous studies and their clinical experiences as was done by Tourigny et al. Another strategy used by Tourigny et al. (2011) to increase the internal validity of their study was to establish inclusion and exclusion criteria to determine the study's sample. Inclusion and exclusion criteria are guidelines or the standards determining who can or cannot be in the study. Population descriptors, also known as important characteristics of a population, are criteria that set the standards. These characteristics can also operate as internal validity threats in a study. In their study, Tourigny et al. identified the inclusion criteria for their study as only allowing children and adolescents 6 to 18 years of age, able to understand or read and write in English, be at a schoolage cognitive level, and who gave an assent or written consent to be in the study. They also excluded children with any developmental or physical state that could prevent them from completing the questionnaires. These criteria placed more control over potential internal validity threats operating in the study, but as a consequence of doing so, the external validity of the study's findings was decreased. External validity addresses the ability to generalize the findings of the study to other groups. The findings generated by Tourigny et al. are not generalizable to children younger than 6 years, who are unable to understand or read and write in English, are not at a school-age cognitive level, or have a developmental or physical impairment. Internal and external validity have an inverse relationship; the more internal validity control a study design employs, the more likely its external validity will be limited. In summary, Tourigny and colleagues (2011) selected a feasible research design; its implementation protected research participants' ethical rights, tested the identified intervention, and generated interpretable findings. A researcher's choice in selecting a research design is dependent on many factors, and researchers usually make conscious decisions in their selection to augment some aspects of rigor in their study while foregoing others. Selection of a research design requires creativity to maximize interpretable findings within known limitations in conducting the investigation. Burns, S., & Groves, S.K. (2004). Understanding nursing research (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. LoBiondo-Wood, G., & Haber, J. (2010). Nursing research: Methods and critical appraisal for evidence-based practice (7th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier. Polit, D.F., & Beck, C.T. (2007). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Figure 1 . Seeing a police car behind you would probably affect your driving behavior. (credit: Michael Gil) It is critical that the observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible: when people know they are being watched, they are less likely to behave naturally. If you have any doubt about this, ask yourself how your driving behavior might differ in two situations: In the first situation, you are driving down a deserted highway during the middle of the day; in the second situation, you are being followed by a police car down the same deserted highway (Figure 1). It should be pointed out that naturalistic observation is not limited to research involving humans. Indeed, some of the best-known examples of naturalistic observation involve researchers going into the field to observe various kinds of animals in their own environments. As with human studies, the researchers maintain their distance and avoid interfering with the animal subjects so as not to influence their natural behaviors. Scientists have used this technique to study social hierarchies and interactions among animals ranging from ground squirrels to gorillas. The information provided by these studies is invaluable in understanding how those animals organize socially and communicate with one another. The anthropologist Jane Goodall, for example, spent nearly five decades observing the behavior of chimpanzees in Africa (Figure 2). As an illustration of the types of concerns that a researcher might encounter in naturalistic observation, some scientists criticized Goodall for giving the chimps names instead of referring to them by numbers—using names was thought to undermine the emotional detachment required for the objectivity of the study (McKie, 2010). ![]() Figure 2 . (a) Jane Goodall made a career of conducting naturalistic observations of (b) chimpanzee behavior. (credit “Jane Goodall”: modification of work by Erik Hersman; “chimpanzee”: modification of work by “Afrika Force”/Flickr.com) The greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting. Having individuals behave as they normally would in a given situation means that we have a higher degree of ecological validity, or realism, than we might achieve with other research approaches. Therefore, our ability to generalize the findings of the research to real-world situations is enhanced. If done correctly, we need not worry about people or animals modifying their behavior simply because they are being observed. Sometimes, people may assume that reality programs give us a glimpse into authentic human behavior. However, the principle of inconspicuous observation is violated as reality stars are followed by camera crews and are interviewed on camera for personal confessionals. Given that environment, we must doubt how natural and realistic their behaviors are. The major downside of naturalistic observation is that they are often difficult to set up and control. In our restroom study, what if you stood in the restroom all day prepared to record people’s handwashing behavior and no one came in? Or, what if you have been closely observing a troop of gorillas for weeks only to find that they migrated to a new place while you were sleeping in your tent? The benefit of realistic data comes at a cost. As a researcher, you have no control of when (or if) you have behavior to observe. In addition, this type of observational research often requires significant investments of time, money, and a good dose of luck. Sometimes studies involve structured observation. In these cases, people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks. An excellent example of structured observation comes from Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth (you will read more about this in the module on lifespan development). The Strange Situation is a procedure used to evaluate attachment styles that exist between an infant and caregiver. In this scenario, caregivers bring their infants into a room filled with toys. The Strange Situation involves a number of phases, including a stranger coming into the room, the caregiver leaving the room, and the caregiver’s return to the room. The infant’s behavior is closely monitored at each phase, but it is the behavior of the infant upon being reunited with the caregiver that is most telling in terms of characterizing the infant’s attachment style with the caregiver. Another potential problem in observational research is observer bias . Generally, people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations. To protect against this type of bias, researchers should have clear criteria established for the types of behaviors recorded and how those behaviors should be classified. In addition, researchers often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers, in order to test inter-rater reliability : a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers. Often, psychologists develop surveys as a means of gathering data. Surveys are lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally (Figure 3). Generally, the survey itself can be completed in a short time, and the ease of administering a survey makes it easy to collect data from a large number of people. Surveys allow researchers to gather data from larger samples than may be afforded by other research methods . A sample is a subset of individuals selected from a population , which is the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in. Researchers study the sample and seek to generalize their findings to the population. ![]() Figure 3 . Surveys can be administered in a number of ways, including electronically administered research, like the survey shown here. (credit: Robert Nyman) There is both strength and weakness of the survey in comparison to case studies. By using surveys, we can collect information from a larger sample of people. A larger sample is better able to reflect the actual diversity of the population, thus allowing better generalizability. Therefore, if our sample is sufficiently large and diverse, we can assume that the data we collect from the survey can be generalized to the larger population with more certainty than the information collected through a case study. However, given the greater number of people involved, we are not able to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study. Another potential weakness of surveys is something we touched on earlier in this module: people don’t always give accurate responses. They may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good. For example, people may report drinking less alcohol than is actually the case. Any number of research questions can be answered through the use of surveys. One real-world example is the research conducted by Jenkins, Ruppel, Kizer, Yehl, and Griffin (2012) about the backlash against the US Arab-American community following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Jenkins and colleagues wanted to determine to what extent these negative attitudes toward Arab-Americans still existed nearly a decade after the attacks occurred. In one study, 140 research participants filled out a survey with 10 questions, including questions asking directly about the participant’s overt prejudicial attitudes toward people of various ethnicities. The survey also asked indirect questions about how likely the participant would be to interact with a person of a given ethnicity in a variety of settings (such as, “How likely do you think it is that you would introduce yourself to a person of Arab-American descent?”). The results of the research suggested that participants were unwilling to report prejudicial attitudes toward any ethnic group. However, there were significant differences between their pattern of responses to questions about social interaction with Arab-Americans compared to other ethnic groups: they indicated less willingness for social interaction with Arab-Americans compared to the other ethnic groups. This suggested that the participants harbored subtle forms of prejudice against Arab-Americans, despite their assertions that this was not the case (Jenkins et al., 2012). Archival Data and Case StudiesSome researchers gain access to large amounts of data without interacting with a single research participant. Instead, they use existing records to answer various research questions. This type of research approach is known as archival research. Archival research relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships. For example, a researcher might access the academic records of all individuals who enrolled in college within the past ten years and calculate how long it took them to complete their degrees, as well as course loads, grades, and extracurricular involvement. Archival research could provide important information about who is most likely to complete their education, and it could help identify important risk factors for struggling students (Figure 4). ![]() Figure 4 . A researcher doing archival research examines records, whether archived as a (a) hardcopy or (b) electronically. (credit “paper files”: modification of work by “Newtown graffiti”/Flickr; “computer”: modification of work by INPIVIC Family/Flickr) In comparing archival research to other research methods, there are several important distinctions. For one, the researcher employing archival research never directly interacts with research participants. Therefore, the investment of time and money to collect data is considerably less with archival research. Additionally, researchers have no control over what information was originally collected. Therefore, research questions have to be tailored so they can be answered within the structure of the existing data sets. There is also no guarantee of consistency between the records from one source to another, which might make comparing and contrasting different data sets problematic. https://assessments.lumenlearning.com/assessments/2712 ![]() A good test will aid researchers in assessing a particular psychological construct. What is a good test? Researchers want a test that is standardized, reliable, and valid. A standardized test is one that is administered, scored, and analyzed in the same way for each participant. This minimizes differences in test scores due to confounding factors, such as variability in the testing environment or scoring process, and assures that scores are comparable. Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. Researchers consider three types of consistency: over time (test-retest reliability), across items (internal consistency), and across different researchers (interrater reliability). Validity is the extent to which the scores from a measure represent the variable they are intended to. When a measure has good test-retest reliability and internal consistency, researchers should be more confident that the scores represent what they are supposed to. There are various types of tests used in psychological research. Self-report measures are those in which participants report on their own thoughts, feelings, and actions, such as the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale or the Big Five Personality Test. Some tests measure performance, ability, aptitude, or skill, like the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale or the SATs.There are also tests that measure physiological states, including electrical activity or blood flow in the brain. Video 2. Methods of Data Collection explains various means for gathering data for quantitative and qualitative research. A closed-captioned version of this video is available here . Studying Changes over TimeSometimes, especially in developmental research, the researcher is interested in examining changes over time and will need to consider a research design that will capture these changes. Remember, research methods are tools that are used to collect information, while r esearch design is the strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information. Research design dictates which methods are used and how. There are three types of developmental research designs: cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential. Video 3. Developmental Research Designs Cross-Sectional DesignThe majority of developmental studies use cross-sectional designs because they are less time-consuming and less expensive than other developmental designs. Cross-sectional research designs are used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time. Let’s suppose that researchers are interested in the relationship between intelligence and aging. They might have a hypothesis that intelligence declines as people get older. The researchers might choose to give a particular intelligence test to individuals who are 20 years old, individuals who are 50 years old, and individuals who are 80 years old at the same time and compare the data from each age group. This research is cross-sectional in design because the researchers plan to examine the intelligence scores of individuals of different ages within the same study at the same time; they are taking a “cross-section” of people at one point in time. Let’s say that the comparisons find that the 80-year-old adults score lower on the intelligence test than the 50-year-old adults, and the 50-year-old adults score lower on the intelligence test than the 20-year-old adults. Based on these data, the researchers might conclude that individuals become less intelligent as they get older. Would that be a valid (accurate) interpretation of the results? ![]() Figure 5. Example of cross-sectional research design No, that would not be a valid conclusion because the researchers did not follow individuals as they aged from 20 to 50 to 80 years old. One of the primary limitations of cross-sectional research is that the results yield information about age differences not necessarily changes over time. That is, although the study described above can show that the 80-year-olds scored lower on the intelligence test than the 50-year-olds, and the 50-year-olds scored lower than the 20-year-olds, the data used for this conclusion were collected from different individuals (or groups). It could be, for instance, that when these 20-year-olds get older, they will still score just as high on the intelligence test as they did at age 20. Similarly, maybe the 80-year-olds would have scored relatively low on the intelligence test when they were young; the researchers don’t know for certain because they did not follow the same individuals as they got older. With each cohort being members of a different generation, it is also possible that the differences found between the groups are not due to age, per se, but due to cohort effects. Differences between these cohorts’ IQ results could be due to differences in life experiences specific to their generation, such as differences in education, economic conditions, advances in technology, or changes in health and nutrition standards, and not due to age-related changes. Another disadvantage of cross-sectional research is that it is limited to one time of measurement. Data are collected at one point in time, and it’s possible that something could have happened in that year in history that affected all of the participants, although possibly each cohort may have been affected differently. Longitudinal Research Design![]() Longitudinal research designs are used to examine behavior in the same individuals over time. For instance, with our example of studying intelligence and aging, a researcher might conduct a longitudinal study to examine whether 20-year-olds become less intelligent with age over time. To this end, a researcher might give an intelligence test to individuals when they are 20 years old, again when they are 50 years old, and then again when they are 80 years old. This study is longitudinal in nature because the researcher plans to study the same individuals as they age. Based on these data, the pattern of intelligence and age might look different than from the cross-sectional research; it might be found that participants’ intelligence scores are higher at age 50 than at age 20 and then remain stable or decline a little by age 80. How can that be when cross-sectional research revealed declines in intelligence with age? ![]() Figure 6. Example of a longitudinal research design Since longitudinal research happens over a period of time (which could be short term, as in months, but is often longer, as in years), there is a risk of attrition. Attrition occurs when participants fail to complete all portions of a study. Participants may move, change their phone numbers, die, or simply become disinterested in participating over time. Researchers should account for the possibility of attrition by enrolling a larger sample into their study initially, as some participants will likely drop out over time. There is also something known as selective attrition— this means that certain groups of individuals may tend to drop out. It is often the least healthy, least educated, and lower socioeconomic participants who tend to drop out over time. That means that the remaining participants may no longer be representative of the whole population, as they are, in general, healthier, better educated, and have more money. This could be a factor in why our hypothetical research found a more optimistic picture of intelligence and aging as the years went by. What can researchers do about selective attrition? At each time of testing, they could randomly recruit more participants from the same cohort as the original members to replace those who have dropped out. The results from longitudinal studies may also be impacted by repeated assessments. Consider how well you would do on a math test if you were given the exact same exam every day for a week. Your performance would likely improve over time, not necessarily because you developed better math abilities, but because you were continuously practicing the same math problems. This phenomenon is known as a practice effect. Practice effects occur when participants become better at a task over time because they have done it again and again (not due to natural psychological development). So our participants may have become familiar with the intelligence test each time (and with the computerized testing administration). Another limitation of longitudinal research is that the data are limited to only one cohort. As an example, think about how comfortable the participants in the 2010 cohort of 20-year-olds are with computers. Since only one cohort is being studied, there is no way to know if findings would be different from other cohorts. In addition, changes that are found as individuals age over time could be due to age or to time of measurement effects. That is, the participants are tested at different periods in history, so the variables of age and time of measurement could be confounded (mixed up). For example, what if there is a major shift in workplace training and education between 2020 and 2040, and many of the participants experience a lot more formal education in adulthood, which positively impacts their intelligence scores in 2040? Researchers wouldn’t know if the intelligence scores increased due to growing older or due to a more educated workforce over time between measurements. Sequential Research DesignSequential research designs include elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs. Similar to longitudinal designs, sequential research features participants who are followed over time; similar to cross-sectional designs, sequential research includes participants of different ages. This research design is also distinct from those that have been discussed previously in that individuals of different ages are enrolled into a study at various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same individuals as they age, and to account for the possibility of cohort and/or time of measurement effects Consider, once again, our example of intelligence and aging. In a study with a sequential design, a researcher might recruit three separate groups of participants (Groups A, B, and C). Group A would be recruited when they are 20 years old in 2010 and would be tested again when they are 50 and 80 years old in 2040 and 2070, respectively (similar in design to the longitudinal study described previously). Group B would be recruited when they are 20 years old in 2040 and would be tested again when they are 50 years old in 2070. Group C would be recruited when they are 20 years old in 2070, and so on. ![]() Figure 7. Example of sequential research design Studies with sequential designs are powerful because they allow for both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons—changes and/or stability with age over time can be measured and compared with differences between age and cohort groups. This research design also allows for the examination of cohort and time of measurement effects. For example, the researcher could examine the intelligence scores of 20-year-olds at different times in history and different cohorts (follow the yellow diagonal lines in figure 3). This might be examined by researchers who are interested in sociocultural and historical changes (because we know that lifespan development is multidisciplinary). One way of looking at the usefulness of the various developmental research designs was described by Schaie and Baltes (1975): cross-sectional and longitudinal designs might reveal change patterns while sequential designs might identify developmental origins for the observed change patterns. Since they include elements of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, sequential research has many of the same strengths and limitations as these other approaches. For example, sequential work may require less time and effort than longitudinal research (if data are collected more frequently than over the 30-year spans in our example) but more time and effort than cross-sectional research. Although practice effects may be an issue if participants are asked to complete the same tasks or assessments over time, attrition may be less problematic than what is commonly experienced in longitudinal research since participants may not have to remain involved in the study for such a long period of time. Comparing Developmental Research DesignsWhen considering the best research design to use in their research, scientists think about their main research question and the best way to come up with an answer. A table of advantages and disadvantages for each of the described research designs is provided here to help you as you consider what sorts of studies would be best conducted using each of these different approaches. Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of different research designs
![]() Privacy Policy
![]()
Take a peek at our powerful survey features to design surveys that scale discoveries. Download feature sheet.
Explore Voxco Need to map Voxco’s features & offerings? We can help! Watch a Demo Download Brochures Get a Quote
![]() Get exclusive insights into research trends and best practices from top experts! Access Voxco’s ‘State of Research Report 2024 edition’ . We’ve been avid users of the Voxco platform now for over 20 years. It gives us the flexibility to routinely enhance our survey toolkit and provides our clients with a more robust dataset and story to tell their clients. VP Innovation & Strategic Partnerships, The Logit Group
Explore Regional Offices
![]() Find the best survey software for you! (Along with a checklist to compare platforms) Get Buyer’s Guide
Explore Voxco Watch a Demo Download Brochures
Find the best customer experience platform Uncover customer pain points, analyze feedback and run successful CX programs with the best CX platform for your team. Get the Guide Now ![]() VP Innovation & Strategic Partnerships, The Logit Group
![]() Descriptive Research Design
Voxco’s Descriptive Research guide helps uncover the how, when, what, and where questions in a research problem SHARE THE ARTICLE ON When conducting a study, researchers generally try to find an explanation for the existence of a phenomenon. They want to understand “why” the phenomenon occurred. However, before identifying why a phenomenon occurred, it is integral to answer other questions first. You need to have answers to the “what,” “when,” “how,” and “where” before you can understand the “why.” This is where descriptive research comes in. The descriptive research design involves using a range of qualitative and quantitative research methods to collect data that aids in accurately describing a research problem. What is Descriptive Research Design?Descriptive research design is a type of research design that aims to systematically obtain information to describe a phenomenon, situation, or population. More specifically, it helps answer the what, when, where, and how questions regarding the research problem rather than the why. A researcher can conduct this research using various methodologies. It predominantly employs quantitative data, although qualitative data is sometimes used for descriptive purposes. It is important to note that in the descriptive research method, the researcher does not control or manipulate any variables, unlike in experimental research. Instead, the variables are only identified, observed, and measured. Surveys and observation are the most used method to conduct this research design. You can leverage online survey tools or offline survey tools to gather data as per your research objective. “Relying on Voxco as our survey software provider has proved to be an excellent choice for our business.”Valeria Tsamis, Managing Director FocusBari Read how Voxco helped FocusBari gather data in one centralized database. What are the Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design?Let’s take a look at the defining characteristics of the descriptive research design: 1. Quantitative in natureDescriptive research involves the collection of quantifiable and systematic data that can be used for the statistical analysis of the research problem. 2. Uncontrolled variablesOne of the most prominent characteristics of descriptive research is that, unlike in experimental research, the variables are not controlled or manipulated. Instead, they are simply identified, observed, and measured. 3. A basis for further researchThe data collected in descriptive research provides a base for further research as it helps obtain a comprehensive understanding of the research question so that it can be answered appropriately. 4. Cross-sectional studiesThe descriptive research method is generally carried out through cross-sectional studies. A cross-sectional study is a type of observational study that involves gathering information on various variables at the individual level at a given point in time. Example of Descriptive Research DesignTo gain a deeper understanding of the descriptive method of research, let’s consider the following descriptive design research example: Company XYZ is a girls’ shoe brand catering to girls, specifically between the ages of 4 to 14. They want to start selling shoes for boys of the same age group as well and therefore want to gather information on the kind of shoes boys want to wear. They decide to conduct market research & choose the observational method to learn about different shoes boys wear nowadays. Naturalistic observation can be conducted by observing boys’ shoes in schools, malls, playgrounds, and other public spaces. This will help company XYZ identify the kind of shoe boys wear nowadays so that they can create the kind of products that will appeal to this audience. ![]() Why use Descriptive Research Design?A descriptive approach to research allows researchers to thoroughly investigate the background of a research problem before further research can be carried out. It can be used in social science research to explore and document the nature and scope of a problem, to identify trends and patterns, and to provide a basis for subsequent research. The findings of descriptive research can help inform decision-making, policy development, and program planning. There are many different contexts in which the use of a descriptive research design is beneficial. Here are some important uses of descriptive research design: 1. To measure data trendsThe descriptive method of research can be used to measure changes in variables over a period of time, allowing trends to be identified and analyzed. 2. To compare variablesDescriptive research can be used to compare different variables and how different demographics respond to different variables. 3. To define the characteristics of subjectsIt can also be used to determine the different characteristics of the subjects. This can include characteristics such as opinions, traits, behavior, etc. 4. To verify or validate existing conditionsDescriptive research can prove to be a useful tool when trying to test the validity of an existing condition as it involves conducting an in-depth analysis of every variable before drawing conclusions. What Are Some Examples of Descriptive Research Questions?Here are some examples of descriptive research questions that can be addressed using a descriptive research design include:
What Are the Advantages of Descriptive Research Design?The following are a few advantages of using a descriptive research design: 1. Multiple methods of data collectionResearch can use a wide range of methods for data collection, such as case studies, observational, and survey methods. They can also decide how they want to collect the data, online, offline, or via phone. 2. Fast and cost-effectiveAs the descriptive research design often employs the use of surveys, data can be collected from a very large sample size quickly and cost-effectively. Researchers aiming to conduct market research using this research design should leverage integrated market research software . It will enable them to conduct product, customer, brand, and market research using suitable channels. 3. ComprehensiveDescriptive research often uses quantitative and qualitative research in amalgamation, providing a more holistic understanding of the research topic. 4. External validityResults obtained through the descriptive method of research often have high external validity as research is conducted in the respondent’s natural environment and no variables are manipulated. Voxco offers easy-to-use online survey tools with robust features to create interactive and engaging surveys.40+ Question Types, skip-logic, multi-lingual capability, white-label, and more. What Are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research Design?The following are a few disadvantages of using a descriptive research design: 1. Cannot test or verify the research questionThe descriptive method of research cannot be used to test or verify the research problem as the data collected does not help explain the cause of the phenomena being studied. 2. Lack of reliabilityIf the research problem isn’t formulated well, then the data collected may not be entirely reliable. This also makes it more tedious to carry out a credible investigation. 3. Risk of untrue responsesDescriptive research relies on the responses of people, especially when conducted using surveys. There may be instances when people provide false responses, compromising the validity of the data collected and the research results. 4. Risk of sampling errorThe descriptive research method generally employs random sampling while selecting a sample group. The randomness may lead to sampling error if the sample group isn’t representative of the larger population. Sampling error would lead to unreliable and inaccurate results. What Are the Different Methods of Descriptive Research Design?There are three most important descriptive research design methods: In survey research, questionnaires or polls are used to collect information on a specific topic from respondents. Surveys should involve a mix of closed-ended and open-ended questions, as both have their own advantages. Online survey tools allow multiple data collection channels such as email, website, and SMS surveys. They are also popularly used in market research to collect customer feedback to optimize products and strategies and improve customer experience (CX). Some popular market research surveys are Net Promoter Score® (NPS®) surveys , brand tracking surveys , and conjoint analysis surveys . 2. Case StudiesThe case study method involves the in-depth research of individuals or groups of individuals. Case studies involve gathering detailed data on a narrowly defined subject rather than gathering a large volume of data to identify correlations and patterns. Therefore, this method is often used to describe a specific subject’s different characteristics rather than generalizable facts. Case studies allow researchers to create hypotheses that can widen the scope of evaluation while studying the phenomenon. However, it is important to note that case studies cannot be used to outline the cause-and-effect relationship between variables as they cannot make accurate predictions due to the risk of researcher bias. 3. Observations methodIn this method, researchers observe respondents in their natural environment, from a distance, and therefore do not influence the variables being studied. This allows them to gather information on the behaviors and characteristics being studied without having to rely on respondents for honest and accurate responses. The observational method is considered the most effective method for carrying out descriptive research. It involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. You can leverage offline survey tools to gather data digitally, even without the Internet. Quantitative observation should be related to or understood in terms of quantity and can be analyzed with the use of statistical data analysis methods. A few examples of quantitative observations include age, weight, height, etc. Qualitative observations, on the other hand, involve monitoring variables whose values do not need to be related to numerical measurements. When employing this research method, the researcher can choose to be a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. The observational method is generally used in psychological, social, and market research to obtain data that explains how people behave in real-life settings. Surveys built with Voxco are intuitive, and customizable, and generate actionable insights Build surveys with Voxco What Are the Types of Descriptive Research Design Surveys?The following are the different types of descriptive survey studies: 1. Census surveyA census survey is a kind of survey where information is gathered from all units of a population. Data collected through a census study is highly generalizable to the population as all or most units of the population are sampled. 2. Sample surveyA sample survey involves gathering information from a small subgroup of the entire population. When selecting a sample, the aim is to select a group of individuals representing the target population so that the data collected can be generalized to the larger population. Sample groups allow research to be conducted in a fast and cost-effective way. 3. Cross-sectional surveyIn this type of survey, standardized data is collected from a cross-section of the pre-determined population at a given point in time. There are two main types of cross-sectional surveys ; those with a single variable and those with two or more variables. 4. Longitudinal surveyLongitudinal surveys are used in longitudinal studies where the same variables are observed over a long period of time. This allows researchers to investigate the status of variables at different points in time. There are three main types of longitudinal studies ; trend, panel, and cohort. 5. Comparative surveyComparative surveys are used to compare the status of two or more variables. The variables are compared using specific criteria that must be delineated as criterion variables. 6. Evaluative surveyAn evaluative survey is generally used to evaluate a program, policy, or curriculum. It involves gathering information that can be used to rate the effectiveness and worthwhileness of a program or policy, or institution. 7. Documentary surveyA documentary survey involves gathering and analyzing information using pre-existing data that is already available. This data can be research papers, review articles, books, official records, etc. In documentary studies, the researcher evaluates the available literature on the research topic. Voxco powers 1B surveys annually and helps 500+ global brands gather data, measure sentiment, uncover insights, and act on them. Get a personalized demo to see how Voxco can help enhance your research efficiency. How to Conduct a Descriptive Research DesignUse the following steps to conduct a study using the descriptive method of research: Step-1: Outline the research objectiveThe first step is to identify and outline the objectives of your research and then translate these objectives into criteria of investigation. You must clearly identify the different issues and questions in the context of which the knowledge of the situation must be surveyed. This must be framed in the form of objectives. Once you’ve clearly stated your criteria and objectives, you must also specify the nature of the data that must be gathered. Step-2: Determine the tools and techniques to be used for data collectionIn this step, you must determine the tools you will employ for the data collection process. Some examples of different tools that can be used are interviews, questionnaires, observation schedules, reaction scales, etc. In this stage, you will have to identify which tools and techniques are relevant and valid to your study. Leverage robust survey software that offers you multiple channels, thus enabling you to utilize various channels to gather insights. Step-3: Define the target population and sample groupIn the fourth step, you will have to outline your target population. The target population is the group of individuals that you are examining in your research study. Additionally, unless you are conducting a census study and collecting data from the entire population, you must select a sample group. You can also use an audience panel to accelerate your research. A survey panel gives you access to diverse respondents so you can create your ideal panel. Additional read: Types of sampling methods . Step-4: Select a method for data collectionIn the data collection stage, you must have a clear plan of how your data will be collected. This involves clearly outlining the type of data you require, the tools that will be used to gather it, the level of training required by researchers to collect the data, the time required for data collection and fieldwork, and so on. As you collect data, keep your research question and objectives in mind and aim to gather authentic and objective data without personal bias. Step-5: Analyse the data collectedOnce you’ve collected your data, you reach the sixth stage of descriptive research: data analysis. In this stage, you will have to evaluate all the data collected from all your different sources, quantify and qualify them, and then categorize them component-wise. If you are working with quantitative and qualitative data, you must employ a range of different quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques to analyze the data collected. Leverage survey analytics software that allows you to run statistical analysis and observe data on a live dashboard. Step-6: Write the reportThe final step of survey research involves writing the report. As survey research involves working with extensive data, it is important to keep the focus of the investigation in mind. The report must be precise and objective-oriented. ![]() Why Use Voxco for Descriptive Research Design?Voxco being an omnichannel survey software , can be a valuable tool in descriptive research design. It can provide its users with a convenient and efficient means of collecting data from a large number of respondents. It allows researchers to design and distribute surveys to a targeted sample of participants, collect data in a standardized format, and analyze the results. Here are some ways in which Voxco helps with descriptive research design:
Overall, Voxco survey software is an effective tool for conducting descriptive research design, as it provides a streamlined and efficient way to gather, measure, and analyze survey data. Wondering what will be the cost of conducting a survey using Voxco? This sums up our article on descriptive research design. This research method helps uncover the hidden element of a customer’s behavior. It helps you create a foundation for your research by helping you create an outline of your research subject. Begin your descriptive research with a free step-by-step guide to descriptive research What is descriptive research?Descriptive research design is a type of research methodology that researchers mostly use to analyze and document the behaviors and characteristics of a particular group of people. It gives a detailed analysis of a situation to explore the relation between two variables. What is descriptive research study used for?A descriptive research study is a type of observational research and is used for exploring and documenting the nature and scope of a problem, identifying its trends and patterns, and providing a basis for subsequent research. The outcome of a descriptive study is helpful in making decisions, developing policies, and planning social programs. It is primarily concerned with describing the current state of a given phenomenon rather than explaining why it exists or how it came to be. Why is descriptive research design used?Descriptive research design can be used for a variety of reasons, including
What is an example of a descriptive method?A case study that examines the experiences of a small business run by women can be an example of a descriptive method of research. Let’s For instance, a researcher may conduct a case study of a small business solely run by women that have successfully implemented sustainable business practices in their food cloth manufacturing business. The case study could involve interviews with the owners of the business, observation of their business practices, and analysis of their financial data to document the costs and benefits of sustainability initiatives. The researchers can then use the findings of the case study to provide a detailed account of the business’s approach to sustainability and to identify best practices that could be applied to other businesses. Net Promoter ® , NPS ® , NPS Prism ® , and the NPS-related emoticons are registered trademarks of Bain & Company, Inc., Satmetrix Systems, Inc., and Fred Reichheld. Net Promoter Score℠ and Net Promoter System℠ are service marks of Bain & Company, Inc., Satmetrix Systems, Inc., and Fred Reichheld. Explore Voxco Survey Software ![]() + Omnichannel Survey Software + Online Survey Software + CATI Survey Software + IVR Survey Software + Market Research Tool + Customer Experience Tool + Product Experience Software + Enterprise Survey Software Customer SatisfactionCustomer Satisfaction SHARE THE ARTICLE ON Table of Contents Customer satisfaction is the chief focal point of an association since customers drive business. Gathering customer ![]() Face-to-Face SurveysFace-to-Face Surveys: A Quick Guide Retain a hint of personal touch in the digital era with face-to-face surveys. Book a Demo What are Face-to-Face Surveys? ![]() Brand Awareness Tracking: 5 Strategies that can be used to Effectively Track Brand AwarenessBrand Awareness Tracking: 5 Strategies that can be used to Effectively Track Brand Awareness SHARE THE ARTICLE ON Table of Contents What is Brand Awareness? ![]() How to ask for product feedbackHow to Ask For Product Feedback SHARE THE ARTICLE ON Table of Contents Customer feedback is a significant asset to any business. Receiving feedback from ![]() All you need to know about conducting focus group researchAll you need to know about conducting focus group research Try a free Voxco Online sample survey! Unlock your Sample Survey SHARE THE ARTICLE ON ![]() Data Driven Customer EngagementData Driven Customer Engagement Introduction __ International Coffee Chain designed a robust engagement strategy utilizing customer lifetime value and Churn Prediction to influence Customer behaviour. We use cookies in our website to give you the best browsing experience and to tailor advertising. By continuing to use our website, you give us consent to the use of cookies. Read More
Looking for the best research tools? Voxco offers the best online & offline survey research tools! ![]() Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices. Chapter 3. Psychological Science 3.2 Psychologists Use Descriptive, Correlational, and Experimental Research Designs to Understand BehaviourLearning objectives.
Psychologists agree that if their ideas and theories about human behaviour are to be taken seriously, they must be backed up by data. However, the research of different psychologists is designed with different goals in mind, and the different goals require different approaches. These varying approaches, summarized in Table 3.2, are known as research designs . A research design is the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data . Psychologists use three major types of research designs in their research, and each provides an essential avenue for scientific investigation. Descriptive research is research designed to provide a snapshot of the current state of affairs . Correlational research is research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge . Experimental research is research in which initial equivalence among research participants in more than one group is created, followed by a manipulation of a given experience for these groups and a measurement of the influence of the manipulation . Each of the three research designs varies according to its strengths and limitations, and it is important to understand how each differs.
Descriptive Research: Assessing the Current State of AffairsDescriptive research is designed to create a snapshot of the current thoughts, feelings, or behaviour of individuals. This section reviews three types of descriptive research : case studies , surveys , and naturalistic observation (Figure 3.4). Sometimes the data in a descriptive research project are based on only a small set of individuals, often only one person or a single small group. These research designs are known as case studies — descriptive records of one or more individual’s experiences and behaviour . Sometimes case studies involve ordinary individuals, as when developmental psychologist Jean Piaget used his observation of his own children to develop his stage theory of cognitive development. More frequently, case studies are conducted on individuals who have unusual or abnormal experiences or characteristics or who find themselves in particularly difficult or stressful situations. The assumption is that by carefully studying individuals who are socially marginal, who are experiencing unusual situations, or who are going through a difficult phase in their lives, we can learn something about human nature. Sigmund Freud was a master of using the psychological difficulties of individuals to draw conclusions about basic psychological processes. Freud wrote case studies of some of his most interesting patients and used these careful examinations to develop his important theories of personality. One classic example is Freud’s description of “Little Hans,” a child whose fear of horses the psychoanalyst interpreted in terms of repressed sexual impulses and the Oedipus complex (Freud, 1909/1964). Another well-known case study is Phineas Gage, a man whose thoughts and emotions were extensively studied by cognitive psychologists after a railroad spike was blasted through his skull in an accident. Although there are questions about the interpretation of this case study (Kotowicz, 2007), it did provide early evidence that the brain’s frontal lobe is involved in emotion and morality (Damasio et al., 2005). An interesting example of a case study in clinical psychology is described by Rokeach (1964), who investigated in detail the beliefs of and interactions among three patients with schizophrenia, all of whom were convinced they were Jesus Christ. In other cases the data from descriptive research projects come in the form of a survey — a measure administered through either an interview or a written questionnaire to get a picture of the beliefs or behaviours of a sample of people of interest . The people chosen to participate in the research (known as the sample) are selected to be representative of all the people that the researcher wishes to know about (the population). In election polls, for instance, a sample is taken from the population of all “likely voters” in the upcoming elections. The results of surveys may sometimes be rather mundane, such as “Nine out of 10 doctors prefer Tymenocin” or “The median income in the city of Hamilton is $46,712.” Yet other times (particularly in discussions of social behaviour), the results can be shocking: “More than 40,000 people are killed by gunfire in the United States every year” or “More than 60% of women between the ages of 50 and 60 suffer from depression.” Descriptive research is frequently used by psychologists to get an estimate of the prevalence (or incidence ) of psychological disorders. A final type of descriptive research — known as naturalistic observation — is research based on the observation of everyday events . For instance, a developmental psychologist who watches children on a playground and describes what they say to each other while they play is conducting descriptive research, as is a biopsychologist who observes animals in their natural habitats. One example of observational research involves a systematic procedure known as the strange situation , used to get a picture of how adults and young children interact. The data that are collected in the strange situation are systematically coded in a coding sheet such as that shown in Table 3.3.
The results of descriptive research projects are analyzed using descriptive statistics — numbers that summarize the distribution of scores on a measured variable . Most variables have distributions similar to that shown in Figure 3.5 where most of the scores are located near the centre of the distribution, and the distribution is symmetrical and bell-shaped. A data distribution that is shaped like a bell is known as a normal distribution . A distribution can be described in terms of its central tendency — that is, the point in the distribution around which the data are centred — and its dispersion, or spread . The arithmetic average, or arithmetic mean , symbolized by the letter M , is the most commonly used measure of central tendency . It is computed by calculating the sum of all the scores of the variable and dividing this sum by the number of participants in the distribution (denoted by the letter N ). In the data presented in Figure 3.5 the mean height of the students is 67.12 inches (170.5 cm). The sample mean is usually indicated by the letter M . In some cases, however, the data distribution is not symmetrical. This occurs when there are one or more extreme scores (known as outliers ) at one end of the distribution. Consider, for instance, the variable of family income (see Figure 3.6), which includes an outlier (a value of $3,800,000). In this case the mean is not a good measure of central tendency. Although it appears from Figure 3.6 that the central tendency of the family income variable should be around $70,000, the mean family income is actually $223,960. The single very extreme income has a disproportionate impact on the mean, resulting in a value that does not well represent the central tendency. The median is used as an alternative measure of central tendency when distributions are not symmetrical. The median is the score in the center of the distribution, meaning that 50% of the scores are greater than the median and 50% of the scores are less than the median . In our case, the median household income ($73,000) is a much better indication of central tendency than is the mean household income ($223,960). A final measure of central tendency, known as the mode , represents the value that occurs most frequently in the distribution . You can see from Figure 3.6 that the mode for the family income variable is $93,000 (it occurs four times). In addition to summarizing the central tendency of a distribution, descriptive statistics convey information about how the scores of the variable are spread around the central tendency. Dispersion refers to the extent to which the scores are all tightly clustered around the central tendency , as seen in Figure 3.7. Or they may be more spread out away from it, as seen in Figure 3.8. One simple measure of dispersion is to find the largest (the maximum ) and the smallest (the minimum ) observed values of the variable and to compute the range of the variable as the maximum observed score minus the minimum observed score. You can check that the range of the height variable in Figure 3.5 is 72 – 62 = 10. The standard deviation , symbolized as s , is the most commonly used measure of dispersion . Distributions with a larger standard deviation have more spread. The standard deviation of the height variable is s = 2.74, and the standard deviation of the family income variable is s = $745,337. An advantage of descriptive research is that it attempts to capture the complexity of everyday behaviour. Case studies provide detailed information about a single person or a small group of people, surveys capture the thoughts or reported behaviours of a large population of people, and naturalistic observation objectively records the behaviour of people or animals as it occurs naturally. Thus descriptive research is used to provide a relatively complete understanding of what is currently happening. Despite these advantages, descriptive research has a distinct disadvantage in that, although it allows us to get an idea of what is currently happening, it is usually limited to static pictures. Although descriptions of particular experiences may be interesting, they are not always transferable to other individuals in other situations, nor do they tell us exactly why specific behaviours or events occurred. For instance, descriptions of individuals who have suffered a stressful event, such as a war or an earthquake, can be used to understand the individuals’ reactions to the event but cannot tell us anything about the long-term effects of the stress. And because there is no comparison group that did not experience the stressful situation, we cannot know what these individuals would be like if they hadn’t had the stressful experience. Correlational Research: Seeking Relationships among VariablesIn contrast to descriptive research, which is designed primarily to provide static pictures, correlational research involves the measurement of two or more relevant variables and an assessment of the relationship between or among those variables. For instance, the variables of height and weight are systematically related (correlated) because taller people generally weigh more than shorter people. In the same way, study time and memory errors are also related, because the more time a person is given to study a list of words, the fewer errors he or she will make. When there are two variables in the research design, one of them is called the predictor variable and the other the outcome variable . The research design can be visualized as shown in Figure 3.9, where the curved arrow represents the expected correlation between these two variables. One way of organizing the data from a correlational study with two variables is to graph the values of each of the measured variables using a scatter plot . As you can see in Figure 3.10 a scatter plot is a visual image of the relationship between two variables . A point is plotted for each individual at the intersection of his or her scores for the two variables. When the association between the variables on the scatter plot can be easily approximated with a straight line , as in parts (a) and (b) of Figure 3.10 the variables are said to have a linear relationship . When the straight line indicates that individuals who have above-average values for one variable also tend to have above-average values for the other variable , as in part (a), the relationship is said to be positive linear . Examples of positive linear relationships include those between height and weight, between education and income, and between age and mathematical abilities in children. In each case, people who score higher on one of the variables also tend to score higher on the other variable. Negative linear relationships , in contrast, as shown in part (b), occur when above-average values for one variable tend to be associated with below-average values for the other variable. Examples of negative linear relationships include those between the age of a child and the number of diapers the child uses, and between practice on and errors made on a learning task. In these cases, people who score higher on one of the variables tend to score lower on the other variable. Relationships between variables that cannot be described with a straight line are known as nonlinear relationships . Part (c) of Figure 3.10 shows a common pattern in which the distribution of the points is essentially random. In this case there is no relationship at all between the two variables, and they are said to be independent . Parts (d) and (e) of Figure 3.10 show patterns of association in which, although there is an association, the points are not well described by a single straight line. For instance, part (d) shows the type of relationship that frequently occurs between anxiety and performance. Increases in anxiety from low to moderate levels are associated with performance increases, whereas increases in anxiety from moderate to high levels are associated with decreases in performance. Relationships that change in direction and thus are not described by a single straight line are called curvilinear relationships . The most common statistical measure of the strength of linear relationships among variables is the Pearson correlation coefficient , which is symbolized by the letter r . The value of the correlation coefficient ranges from r = –1.00 to r = +1.00. The direction of the linear relationship is indicated by the sign of the correlation coefficient. Positive values of r (such as r = .54 or r = .67) indicate that the relationship is positive linear (i.e., the pattern of the dots on the scatter plot runs from the lower left to the upper right), whereas negative values of r (such as r = –.30 or r = –.72) indicate negative linear relationships (i.e., the dots run from the upper left to the lower right). The strength of the linear relationship is indexed by the distance of the correlation coefficient from zero (its absolute value). For instance, r = –.54 is a stronger relationship than r = .30, and r = .72 is a stronger relationship than r = –.57. Because the Pearson correlation coefficient only measures linear relationships, variables that have curvilinear relationships are not well described by r , and the observed correlation will be close to zero. It is also possible to study relationships among more than two measures at the same time. A research design in which more than one predictor variable is used to predict a single outcome variable is analyzed through multiple regression (Aiken & West, 1991). Multiple regression is a statistical technique, based on correlation coefficients among variables, that allows predicting a single outcome variable from more than one predictor variable . For instance, Figure 3.11 shows a multiple regression analysis in which three predictor variables (Salary, job satisfaction, and years employed) are used to predict a single outcome (job performance). The use of multiple regression analysis shows an important advantage of correlational research designs — they can be used to make predictions about a person’s likely score on an outcome variable (e.g., job performance) based on knowledge of other variables. An important limitation of correlational research designs is that they cannot be used to draw conclusions about the causal relationships among the measured variables. Consider, for instance, a researcher who has hypothesized that viewing violent behaviour will cause increased aggressive play in children. He has collected, from a sample of Grade 4 children, a measure of how many violent television shows each child views during the week, as well as a measure of how aggressively each child plays on the school playground. From his collected data, the researcher discovers a positive correlation between the two measured variables. Although this positive correlation appears to support the researcher’s hypothesis, it cannot be taken to indicate that viewing violent television causes aggressive behaviour. Although the researcher is tempted to assume that viewing violent television causes aggressive play, there are other possibilities. One alternative possibility is that the causal direction is exactly opposite from what has been hypothesized. Perhaps children who have behaved aggressively at school develop residual excitement that leads them to want to watch violent television shows at home (Figure 3.13): Although this possibility may seem less likely, there is no way to rule out the possibility of such reverse causation on the basis of this observed correlation. It is also possible that both causal directions are operating and that the two variables cause each other (Figure 3.14). Still another possible explanation for the observed correlation is that it has been produced by the presence of a common-causal variable (also known as a third variable ). A common-causal variable is a variable that is not part of the research hypothesis but that causes both the predictor and the outcome variable and thus produces the observed correlation between them . In our example, a potential common-causal variable is the discipline style of the children’s parents. Parents who use a harsh and punitive discipline style may produce children who like to watch violent television and who also behave aggressively in comparison to children whose parents use less harsh discipline (Figure 3.15) In this case, television viewing and aggressive play would be positively correlated (as indicated by the curved arrow between them), even though neither one caused the other but they were both caused by the discipline style of the parents (the straight arrows). When the predictor and outcome variables are both caused by a common-causal variable, the observed relationship between them is said to be spurious . A spurious relationship is a relationship between two variables in which a common-causal variable produces and “explains away” the relationship . If effects of the common-causal variable were taken away, or controlled for, the relationship between the predictor and outcome variables would disappear. In the example, the relationship between aggression and television viewing might be spurious because by controlling for the effect of the parents’ disciplining style, the relationship between television viewing and aggressive behaviour might go away. Common-causal variables in correlational research designs can be thought of as mystery variables because, as they have not been measured, their presence and identity are usually unknown to the researcher. Since it is not possible to measure every variable that could cause both the predictor and outcome variables, the existence of an unknown common-causal variable is always a possibility. For this reason, we are left with the basic limitation of correlational research: correlation does not demonstrate causation. It is important that when you read about correlational research projects, you keep in mind the possibility of spurious relationships, and be sure to interpret the findings appropriately. Although correlational research is sometimes reported as demonstrating causality without any mention being made of the possibility of reverse causation or common-causal variables, informed consumers of research, like you, are aware of these interpretational problems. In sum, correlational research designs have both strengths and limitations. One strength is that they can be used when experimental research is not possible because the predictor variables cannot be manipulated. Correlational designs also have the advantage of allowing the researcher to study behaviour as it occurs in everyday life. And we can also use correlational designs to make predictions — for instance, to predict from the scores on their battery of tests the success of job trainees during a training session. But we cannot use such correlational information to determine whether the training caused better job performance. For that, researchers rely on experiments. Experimental Research: Understanding the Causes of BehaviourThe goal of experimental research design is to provide more definitive conclusions about the causal relationships among the variables in the research hypothesis than is available from correlational designs. In an experimental research design, the variables of interest are called the independent variable (or variables ) and the dependent variable . The independent variable in an experiment is the causing variable that is created (manipulated) by the experimenter . The dependent variable in an experiment is a measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the experimental manipulation . The research hypothesis suggests that the manipulated independent variable or variables will cause changes in the measured dependent variables. We can diagram the research hypothesis by using an arrow that points in one direction. This demonstrates the expected direction of causality (Figure 3.16): Research Focus: Video Games and AggressionConsider an experiment conducted by Anderson and Dill (2000). The study was designed to test the hypothesis that viewing violent video games would increase aggressive behaviour. In this research, male and female undergraduates from Iowa State University were given a chance to play with either a violent video game (Wolfenstein 3D) or a nonviolent video game (Myst). During the experimental session, the participants played their assigned video games for 15 minutes. Then, after the play, each participant played a competitive game with an opponent in which the participant could deliver blasts of white noise through the earphones of the opponent. The operational definition of the dependent variable (aggressive behaviour) was the level and duration of noise delivered to the opponent. The design of the experiment is shown in Figure 3.17 Two advantages of the experimental research design are (a) the assurance that the independent variable (also known as the experimental manipulation ) occurs prior to the measured dependent variable, and (b) the creation of initial equivalence between the conditions of the experiment (in this case by using random assignment to conditions). Experimental designs have two very nice features. For one, they guarantee that the independent variable occurs prior to the measurement of the dependent variable. This eliminates the possibility of reverse causation. Second, the influence of common-causal variables is controlled, and thus eliminated, by creating initial equivalence among the participants in each of the experimental conditions before the manipulation occurs. The most common method of creating equivalence among the experimental conditions is through random assignment to conditions, a procedure in which the condition that each participant is assigned to is determined through a random process, such as drawing numbers out of an envelope or using a random number table . Anderson and Dill first randomly assigned about 100 participants to each of their two groups (Group A and Group B). Because they used random assignment to conditions, they could be confident that, before the experimental manipulation occurred, the students in Group A were, on average, equivalent to the students in Group B on every possible variable, including variables that are likely to be related to aggression, such as parental discipline style, peer relationships, hormone levels, diet — and in fact everything else. Then, after they had created initial equivalence, Anderson and Dill created the experimental manipulation — they had the participants in Group A play the violent game and the participants in Group B play the nonviolent game. Then they compared the dependent variable (the white noise blasts) between the two groups, finding that the students who had viewed the violent video game gave significantly longer noise blasts than did the students who had played the nonviolent game. Anderson and Dill had from the outset created initial equivalence between the groups. This initial equivalence allowed them to observe differences in the white noise levels between the two groups after the experimental manipulation, leading to the conclusion that it was the independent variable (and not some other variable) that caused these differences. The idea is that the only thing that was different between the students in the two groups was the video game they had played. Despite the advantage of determining causation, experiments do have limitations. One is that they are often conducted in laboratory situations rather than in the everyday lives of people. Therefore, we do not know whether results that we find in a laboratory setting will necessarily hold up in everyday life. Second, and more important, is that some of the most interesting and key social variables cannot be experimentally manipulated. If we want to study the influence of the size of a mob on the destructiveness of its behaviour, or to compare the personality characteristics of people who join suicide cults with those of people who do not join such cults, these relationships must be assessed using correlational designs, because it is simply not possible to experimentally manipulate these variables. Key Takeaways
Exercises and Critical Thinking
Image AttributionsFigure 3.4: “ Reading newspaper ” by Alaskan Dude (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reading_newspaper.jpg) is licensed under CC BY 2.0 Aiken, L., & West, S. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions . Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Ainsworth, M. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78 (4), 772–790. Damasio, H., Grabowski, T., Frank, R., Galaburda, A. M., Damasio, A. R., Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. G. (2005). The return of Phineas Gage: Clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient. In Social neuroscience: Key readings. (pp. 21–28). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Freud, S. (1909/1964). Analysis of phobia in a five-year-old boy. In E. A. Southwell & M. Merbaum (Eds.), Personality: Readings in theory and research (pp. 3–32). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. (Original work published 1909). Kotowicz, Z. (2007). The strange case of Phineas Gage. History of the Human Sciences, 20 (1), 115–131. Rokeach, M. (1964). The three Christs of Ypsilanti: A psychological study . New York, NY: Knopf. Stangor, C. (2011). Research methods for the behavioural sciences (4th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Cengage. Long DescriptionsFigure 3.6 long description: There are 25 families. 24 families have an income between $44,000 and $111,000 and one family has an income of $3,800,000. The mean income is $223,960 while the median income is $73,000. [Return to Figure 3.6] Figure 3.10 long description: Types of scatter plots.
[Return to Figure 3.10] Introduction to Psychology - 1st Canadian Edition Copyright © 2014 by Jennifer Walinga and Charles Stangor is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted. Share This Book![]() Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices. Chapter 5: Qualitative descriptive researchDarshini Ayton Learning outcomesUpon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
What is a qualitative descriptive study? The key concept of the qualitative descriptive study is description. Qualitative descriptive studies (also known as ‘exploratory studies’ and ‘qualitative description approaches’) are relatively new in the qualitative research landscape. They emerged predominantly in the field of nursing and midwifery over the past two decades. 1 The design of qualitative descriptive studies evolved as a means to define aspects of qualitative research that did not resemble qualitative research designs to date, despite including elements of those other study designs. 2 Qualitative descriptive studies describe phenomena rather than explain them. Phenomenological studies, ethnographic studies and those using grounded theory seek to explain a phenomenon. Qualitative descriptive studies aim to provide a comprehensive summary of events. The approach to this study design is journalistic, with the aim being to answer the questions who, what, where and how. 3 A qualitative descriptive study is an important and appropriate design for research questions that are focused on gaining insights about a poorly understood research area, rather than on a specific phenomenon. Since qualitative descriptive study design seeks to describe rather than explain, explanatory frameworks and theories are not required to explain or ‘ground’ a study and its results. 4 The researcher may decide that a framework or theory adds value to their interpretations, and in that case, it is perfectly acceptable to use them. However, the hallmark of genuine curiosity (naturalistic enquiry) is that the researcher does not know in advance what they will be observing or describing. 4 Because a phenomenon is being described, the qualitative descriptive analysis is more categorical and less conceptual than other methods. Qualitative content analysis is usually the main approach to data analysis in qualitative descriptive studies. 4 This has led to criticism of descriptive research being less sophisticated because less interpretation is required than with other qualitative study designs in which interpretation and explanation are key characteristics (e.g. phenomenology, grounded theory, case studies). Diverse approaches to data collection can be utilised in qualitative description studies. However, most qualitative descriptive studies use semi-structured interviews (see Chapter 13) because they provide a reliable way to collect data. 3 The technique applied to data analysis is generally categorical and less conceptual when compared to other qualitative research designs (see Section 4). 2,3 Hence, this study design is well suited to research by practitioners, student researchers and policymakers. Its straightforward approach enables these studies to be conducted in shorter timeframes than other study designs. 3 Descriptive studies are common as the qualitative component in mixed-methods research ( see Chapter 11 ) and evaluations ( see Chapter 12 ), 1 because qualitative descriptive studies can provide information to help develop and refine questionnaires or interventions. For example, in our research to develop a patient-reported outcome measure for people who had undergone a percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), which is a common cardiac procedure to treat heart disease, we started by conducting a qualitative descriptive study. 5 This project was a large, mixed-methods study funded by a private health insurer. The entire research process needed to be straightforward and achievable within a year, as we had engaged an undergraduate student to undertake the research tasks. The aim of the qualitative component of the mixed-methods study was to identify and explore patients’ perceptions following PCI. We used inductive approaches to collect and analyse the data. The study was guided by the following domains for the development of patient-reported outcomes, according to US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines, which included:
We conducted focus groups and interviews, and asked participants three questions related to the FDA outcome domains:
Probing questions: Did the procedure meet your expectations? How do you define whether the procedure was successful?
Probing question: How did you feel one week after and how does that compare with how you feel now?
Prompt for activities including gardening, housework, personal care, work-related and family-related tasks. Probing questions: Did you attend cardiac rehabilitation? Can you tell us about your experience of cardiac rehabilitation? What impact has medication had on your recovery?
Data collection was conducted with 32 participants. The themes were mapped to the FDA patient-reported outcome domains, with the results confirming previous research and also highlighting new areas for exploration in the development of a new patient-reported outcome measure. For example, participants reported a lack of confidence following PCI and the importance of patient and doctor communication. Women, in particular, reported that they wanted doctors to recognise how their experiences of cardiac symptoms were different to those of men. The study described phenomena and resulted in the development of a patient-reported outcome measure that was tested and refined using a discrete-choice experiment survey, 6 a pilot of the measure in the Victorian Cardiac Outcomes Registry and a Rasch analysis to validate the measurement’s properties. 7 Advantages and disadvantages of qualitative descriptive studiesA qualitative descriptive study is an effective design for research by practitioners, policymakers and students, due to their relatively short timeframes and low costs. The researchers can remain close to the data and the events described, and this can enable the process of analysis to be relatively simple. Qualitative descriptive studies are also useful in mixed-methods research studies. Some of the advantages of qualitative descriptive studies have led to criticism of the design approach, due to a lack of engagement with theory and the lack of interpretation and explanation of the data. 2 Table 5.1. Examples of qualitative descriptive studies
Qualitative descriptive studies are gaining popularity in health and social care due to their utility, from a resource and time perspective, for research by practitioners, policymakers and researchers. Descriptive studies can be conducted as stand-alone studies or as part of larger, mixed-methods studies.
Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted. Share This Book
Perspectives of midwives on the use of Kaligutim (local oxytocin) for induction of labour among pregnant women in the government hospitals in Tamale
BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth volume 24 , Article number: 561 ( 2024 ) Cite this article Metrics details The use of herbal medicine and/or its products is common throughout the world. In Tamale Metropolis, pregnant women frequently use local oxytocin to induce labour, as shown by the fact that 90% of midwives reported managing patients who used kaligutim (local oxytocin) to speed up labour. Early career midwives are also aware of this and have personally observed it being used by their clients. The purpose of the study was to assess midwives’ opinions on pregnant women’s use of the well-known kaligutim (local oxytocin) for labour induction in the Tamale Metropolis. A facility-based, quantitative, cross-sectional research design was used for the study. A total of 214 working midwives from Tamale’s three main public hospitals participated. Data for the study were gathered through a standardized questionnaire. For the analysis and presentation of the data, descriptive and analytical statistics, such as basic frequencies, percentages, Fisher’s exact test, chi square test and multivariate analysis, were employed. According to the findings of this study, the safety, dosages, and contraindications of kaligutim during pregnancy and labour are unknown. The cessation of contractions was reported by 44 (22.4%) of the respondents whose clients used local oxytocin. The study also revealed that women in Tamale metropolis use “walgu”, a spiritual form of oxytocin, to induce and augment labour. Respondents who responded, “yes” to baby admission to the new-born care unit were 25% more likely to use kaligutim (local oxytocin) than were those who responded, “no” to baby admission to the new-born care unit (AOR = 0.25 95% CI (0.01, 0.53), P = 0.021). ConclusionsIt can be concluded that using kaligutim to start labour has negative effects on both the mother and the foetus. Additional research is required to evaluate the efficacy, effectiveness, biochemical makeup, and safety of these herbal medicines, particularly during pregnancy and delivery, as well as the spiritual significance of kaligutim (Walgu) and its forms. Peer Review reports IntroductionHerbal medicines, traditional treatments, and traditional practitioners are the main source of health care for many millions of people, and sometimes the only source of care [ 1 ]. Herbal medicines include herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations and finished herbal products, that contain as active ingredients parts of plants, or other plant materials, or combinations [ 1 , 2 ]. Women in both developed and developing countries use herbal medicine before pregnancy and during pregnancy and delivery, which has several consequences [ 3 ]. The use of herbal medicine has a long history, tracing its roots back to ancient and biblical days when there was no Orthodox medicine. Currently, both developed and developing countries use herbal medicine due to the presence of many traditional medicine practitioners [ 4 ]. Many cultures worldwide use herbal medicine to induce or accelerate labour, and the incidence of labour induction to shorten the duration of labour is on the rise. Most herbal medicine users are pregnant women who have no formal education, who have a low level of income and who mostly stay far from health facilities [ 5 ]. The majority of pregnant women use herbal medicine through the oral route and have confidence in its efficacy, safety and effectiveness [ 6 ]. Herbal medicine is used by women for maternal health-related issues, such as to induce abortion and labour, to correct infertility, for the treatment of pregnancy-related issues, for breast milk secretion and for general wellbeing during pregnancy [ 5 ]. Women who use herbal medicine during pregnancy and/or labour usually have a high risk of postpartum complications [ 7 ]. The use of herbal uterotonics can lead to hyperstimulation of the uterus, foetal asphyxia and several other adverse effects of labour [ 8 ]. Moreover, traditional medicine used by pregnant women is associated with several complications, including a ruptured uterus, a fresh still birth, a macerated still birth, a caesarean section and even death [ 9 ]. These herbal medicines have both uterotonic and nonuterotonic effects on labour and delivery and are mostly used to induce or augment labour in prolonged labour or postdate or to relax or widen the pelvis for delivery [ 8 ]. Maternal and neonatal deaths are still major challenges for most developing countries, with obstetric complications, especially postpartum haemorrhage (P.P.H.) being the major cause of maternal mortality [ 10 ]. The delivery of healthcare services is still poor quality in developing nations [ 11 ]. Maternal and foetal mortality and morbidity have remained high due to inadequate health services and inadequate emergency obstetric treatment. Childbirth is accompanied by numerous customs that are subject to ethnological research and are often rooted in traditional medicine or religion. Cultural influences and sociodemographic characteristics play an important role in a woman’s decision to seek maternal and child health services. The induction of labour is the process of artificially starting labour by stimulating the uterus with oxytocin or manually through the rupture of amniotic membranes. This process is usually not risk free, and most women find it to be uncomfortable [ 12 ]. The induction of labour is an obstetric procedure recommended when the benefits to the baby and mother outweigh the benefits of continuing the pregnancy. The procedure usually involves complications and failures and must be performed under close monitoring, proper selection of clients and good preparation [ 13 ]. Labour induction also changes the normal physiological processes that accompany childbirth and increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes such as postpartum haemorrhage, neonatal mortality, foetal distress, uterine rapture and premature birth [ 14 ]. Oxytocin is a natural hormone produced by the hypothalamus and is responsible for the activation of sensory nerves during labour and breastfeeding [ 15 ]. Clinically, commercially manufactured synthetic oxytocin is administered to commence or increase uterine activity to reduce the duration of labour [ 16 ]. The induction of labour is not free from risk and must be performed with caution because the procedure involves hyperstimulation of the uterus and foetal distress. Herbal medicine used by pregnant women has long-term effects on both mothers and babies [ 17 ]. Many pregnant women in the Tamale Metropolis use prepackaged herbal medicine before and during pregnancy [ 18 ]. Health-related factors such as cost, distance, access and unavailability of medications influence the utilization of herbal medicine by pregnant women [ 17 ]. All women should be given a prophylactic dose of oxytocin as soon as they give birth. If they start to haemorrhage, they should also be given a treatment dose of oxytocin, which is greater than the prophylactic dose [ 19 ]. There is also a traditional manufactured form of oxytocin (kaligutim) that pregnant women use to start labour. Kaligutim is the local name for the mixture of some special plant parts or a combination of plants prepared and given to pregnant women to start or accelerate the process of labour in the northern part of Ghana [ 17 ]. Ideally, women should take medical drugs during pregnancy (folic acid and fersolate) to help prevent birth defects and congenital malformations such as neural tube defects of the foetus and spinal bifida during pregnancy [ 20 ]. However, in recent decades, women worldwide have used herbal medications during pregnancy and labour, with some taking both herbal medicine and orthodox medicine at the same time [ 21 ]. However, little is known about the use and safety of these medicines, especially during pregnancy, and their dosages, indications and contraindications are not known [ 22 ]. There are studies on herbal medicine use by women during pregnancy and labour, but there is currently no literature on the use of Kaligutim (local oxytocin) for labour induction among pregnant women in Ghana, but similar studies have been conducted in Uganda, Malawi, Tanzania, and Nigeria. Despite the efforts of the government and other nongovernmental organizations to ensure maximum coverage of skilled delivery to help reduce maternal and neonatal mortalities, women still use locally prepared oxytocin to induce labour. Although herbal medicine is commonly used by pregnant women, healthcare providers, especially midwives, are often unprepared to communicate effectively with patients or make proper decisions concerning complementary and alternative medicine use, especially during pregnancy and labour [ 23 ]. It is well known that herbs have played a vital role since the precolonial era during pregnancy, delivery and postpartum care in many parts of the country, but there are still few data on the use of herbs among pregnant women in Ghana [ 24 ]. Towards the end of pregnancy, many women are tired and eager to welcome their babies into the world. Moreover, as the expected date of delivery approaches, these women are given local oxytocin by their mothers’ in-laws, grandmothers, mothers, or TBAs or even by the women themselves to start labour at home before going to the health facility [ 25 ]. Medicinal plants that are used to hasten or speed up labour are mostly taken towards the end of pregnancy or the beginning of labour [ 26 ]. Even after delivery, these herbs may be found in small amounts in the mother’s breast, and some may cross the placental barrier and have harmful effects on the baby. The use of herbal medication by pregnant women is inevitable given that up to 80% of people who live in developing nations rely on traditional medicine for their healthcare needs [ 18 ]. The situation in Ghana, especially Northern Ghana, is not different, as pregnant women continue to use herbs despite the availability of health facilities [ 24 ]. The use of herbal medicine (kaligutim) among the Ghanaian population is alarming. Pregnant women in Tamale use herbal products at a rate of 42.5% prior to pregnancy and 52.7% during pregnancy [ 27 ]. Residents of Tamales who seek healthcare services in hospitals or herbal clinics are therefore at a greater risk of experiencing adverse consequences from drug-herb interactions [ 28 ]. Herbal product manufacturers should clearly state that pregnancy is a contraindication, and vendors should use caution when selling these items to pregnant women [ 27 ]. The use of Kaligutim (local oxytocin) by pregnant women is a maternal and child health problem. Herbal medicine used by pregnant women has long-term effects on both mothers and babies [ 17 ]. Unfortunately, maternal, and neonatal deaths may occur, and hence, there is a need to examine midwives’ perspectives on local oxytocin use during labour, its effects on the progress and outcome of labour, and the relationship between kaligutim use and birth outcomes among pregnant women in the three major government hospitals in Tamale Metropolis. Theoretical foundationThis study adopted and adapted Andersen’s (1968) behavioural model of healthcare service utilization (use and nonuse of health services [ 29 ]. Andersen’s healthcare utilization model is a conceptual model aimed at demonstrating the factors that lead to the use/nonuse of health services [ 29 ]. This study was guided by Andersen’s behavioural model of health service use as a theoretical framework to identify the effects of Kaligutim on the progress and outcome of labour and to establish the relationship between the use of Kaligutim and nonuse of kaligutim and birth outcomes. The behavioural model is a multilevel model that incorporates both individual and contextual determinants of health service use. Conceptual frameworkMany people rely on products made from medicinal plants to maintain their health or treat illness, and current general development trends in developing and developed countries suggest that the consumption of medicinal plants is unlikely to decline in the short to medium term because of the benefits to consumers, producers, and society as a whole [ 29 ]. Therefore, there is a need to increase our understanding of what motivates the consumption of medicinal plants, despite the barriers to the establishment of solid evidence on the safety and efficacy of herbal medicines and related products [ 29 ]. This unified conceptual framework offers a step towards establishing a comprehensive approach to understanding the experiences midwives encounter when their clients use herbal medicine to induce their labour. The exposure variable in this study refers to kaligutim (local oxytocin) used by pregnant women in the three major government hospitals to induce labour through several routes, including oral, rectal, and vaginal routes, among others. When oxytocin is used by pregnant women, it can produce several results that can be immediate or late. The results elicited on labour are termed the outcome variables, which can be immediate outcomes (the progress of labour) or outcomes after delivery (the outcome of labour). The progression of labour includes three stages: progressive dilatation of the cervix from 1 cm to 10 cm, delivery of the baby and expulsion of the placenta. Several factors can be used to determine the progress of labour (obstructed labour, prolonged labour, nature of uterine contractions, precipitated labour, foetal distress, and poor progress of labour). The outcome of labour on the hand refers to what happens during the delivery of the baby, how the baby was delivered, foetal conditions and maternal conditions. The following factors were used for the purpose of this study to determine the outcome of labour (mode of delivery, postpartum haemorrhage, ruptured uterus, cervical tear, birth asphyxia, uterine atony, maternal mortality, and neonatal mortality). This study focused on the immediate effects of Kaligutim (on labour progress) and the effects of Kaligutim after delivery (on labour outcomes) and the relationship between the use of Kaligutim and birth outcomes. The study was carried out in Tamale, which is the capital city of the northern region of Ghana. According to the 2021 World Urbanization Review, Tamales has an estimated population of 671,812 people. Tamale still has a blend of typical rural and urban communities, although it has attained the status of a metropolitan area. There are three major government hospitals in Tamale: Tamale Central Hospital, Tamale West Hospital and Tamale Teaching Hospital. The Tamale Teaching Hospital is the only tertiary facility in the northern region and serves as the main reference centre for the five regions of the north. Study populationThe main study population was midwives working in Tamale Metropolis. The sampling frame was all midwives practicing in the three major hospitals in Tamale Metropolis who were willing to participate in the study. Study designA facility-based cross-sectional research design was used for this study. A cross-sectional study is a type of observational study design carried out at one point in time or over a short period of time to estimate the prevalence of the outcome of interest for a given population for the purpose of public health planning [ 30 ]. This study adopted a quantitative research approach to obtain information. Sampling techniqueA purposive sampling technique was used for this study. Purposive sampling is a nonprobability sampling method in which participants are selected for inclusion in the sample based on their characteristics, knowledge, or experiences. This is because of the midwives’ knowledge, experiences, and objective of the study. Sample size calculationTotal number of midwives = 458 Yamane formula (1967) was used with a confidence interval of 95% and a margin of error of 5%. N = population size (458). n = the sample size (?) e = margin of error (5%). n \(\:=\frac{N}{1\:+N\left(e\right)2}\) n= \(\:\frac{458}{1\:+458\left(0.05\right)2}\) n = 214.01 = 214. Sample size = 214 midwives. Inclusion criteriaAll midwives practicing in the three major government hospitals in Tamale Metropolis who were willing to participate in the study were included. All midwives in the three-government hospital with experience with kaligutim use during labour were also included in the study. Exclusion criteriaAll midwives who were not practising at the three major government hospitals in Tamale Metropolis were excluded from the study. Midwives who were practicing at the three major government hospitals in Tamale and who were not willing to participate in the study were also excluded from the study. All midwives who did not have experience with kaligutim use for the induction of labour were excluded from the study. Data collection instrumentThe data collection tool that was used for the study was a standardized questionnaire. The questionnaire was constructed by reviewing various documents, including existing questionnaires that have been used in previous research. Close-ended questions with few open-ended questions were used as the question format. It was designed in line with the objectives of the study to help obtain the necessary information needed for the study. The questionnaire was pretested with midwives before the actual data collection took place. Data management and analysisData collected from the field were coded, cleaned, and entered into the Statistical Package for Social Services (SPSS) version 21.0. Descriptive and analytical statistics, including simple frequencies and percentages, were used for the analysis and presentation of the data. The relationships between predictor and outcome variables were assessed by means of bivariate (chi-square test) analysis to determine potential predictors of kaligutim (local oxytocin) at p values less than 0.05. Adjusted odds ratios were reported, and p values less than 0.05 were deemed to indicate statistical significance at the 95% confidence level after multivariate analysis. Ethical considerationThe following ethical principles guided this study: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice for all. These principles are based on the human rights that must be protected during any research project, including the right to self-determination, privacy, anonymity, confidentiality, fair treatment and protection from discomfort and harm. First, an introductory letter was obtained from the University for Development Studies authorities. This letter was then presented to the authorities of the three major government hospitals in Tamale, namely, Tamale West Hospital (T.W.H.), Tamale Central Hospital (T.C.H.) and Tamale Teaching Hospital (TTH.), to seek permission to undertake the study. Ethical clearance was also obtained from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) (CHRPE/AP/332/22). Permission was once sought through a consent form to which participants were asked to consent if they were willing to participate in the study. The participants were assured of the confidentiality of all the information they were going to provide. They were also encouraged to participate in the study as much as they could but were also made aware that the study was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any point in time during the process if needed. There was no compensation for the study participants. The study revealed that 45% of the respondents were between the ages of 20 and 30. Most of the respondents were in their twenties or thirties. Those who were in the first half of their work life constituted 73% of the respondents, while 17% were in the second half of their working life. The majority of the respondents were diploma midwives, representing 48% of the respondents; post basic midwives, constituting 32%; and degree and master’s holders, representing 19% and 1%, respectively. Staff midwives composed the largest group of respondents, while Principal Midwifery officers composed the group with the lowest participation in the study. The lowest rank in midwifery practice in the study was staff midwives, and the highest was principal midwifery officers. This is presented in Table 1 . The experience of using local oxytocin to induce labourApproximately 90% of the respondents have prior knowledge or heard that some of their clients take local oxytocin at home to start labour, and only 10% of respondents have no prior knowledge of that. Approximately 63.4% of the respondents encountered local oxytocin cases more than three times every week. This is presented in Fig. 1 . ![]() Average number of local oxytocin cases per week Approximately 72.9% of the respondents said that their clients had ever induced labour during the previous C/S, and 59.6% of the respondents said that they met clients who also induced their labour during twin pregnancy. Another 64.5% of the respondents said that they also met clients with large babies who also induced labour using local oxytocin, while 86.2% of the respondents said that they also met clients who induced labour with local oxytocin even when they had grand multiparity. Another 11.3% of the respondents said that they met clients who used local oxytocin to induce labour during transverse lies, and 15.3% of the respondents said that they had experienced when clients with mal presentations used local oxytocin to induce labour. This is presented in Fig. 2 . ![]() Induction of labour by clients through local oxytocin under certain conditions The study additionally asked midwives to report on how pregnant women who had taken local oxytocin to induce labour coped during their care. Midwives were expected to respond whether the women they cared for experienced good, difficult, bad, painful, life-threatening, terrible, or normal labour. As shown in Fig. 3 , generally, the experience that pregnant women experience when they use local oxytocin to induce labour is not good. A total of 93.5% of the respondents said that the women who used local oxytocin had very bad experiences. ![]() Experience of using local oxytocin to induce labour The study further revealed that 15.2% of the respondents had experienced situations where some pregnant women died because of the use of local oxytocin. Effects of local oxytocin on the progress of labourThe effects of local oxytocin (Kaligutim) on the progress of labour were diverse. The study revealed that the effects of Kaligutim on the progress of labour are negative, as it causes prolonged labour for some, obstructed labour for others, precipitated labour, and poor progress of labour for others. With obstructed labour being the leading effect of kaligutim on the progress of labour, most of the respondents chose caesarean section as the preferred delivery for most clients who used kaligutim at birth. The use of local oxytocin also has some effect on the amniotic fluid of pregnant women, as 99% of the midwives who responded to the study said that there were some levels of stain of the amniotic fluid, and only 1% said it was clear. It is evident from the study that for most pregnant women who use local oxytocin, there is hyperstimulation of the uterus, as most of the midwives confirmed this for the study. Most pregnant women who use kaligutim suffer excessive contractions, which could have an effect on both mothers and babies. Again, more than half (53.75) of the respondents also said that their foetal heart rate was above 160 bpm. The majority (77.65) of the respondents said that there was no cessation of the contractions for those who took the local oxytocin. The results are presented in Table 2 . Impact of local oxytocin on the outcome of labourTo understand how local oxytocin impacts labour, the study went further to ask participants what the mode of delivery was for those who used Kaligutim. According to the data, caesarean section is the mode of delivery for most women (56.5%) who use local oxytocin, and most are unable to achieve spontaneous delivery. This has contributed to the increasing number of caesarean sections recorded daily. Most of the babies had an Apgar score of 4/10 to 6/10. Many babies born to mothers who used herbal oxytocin were born with moderate birth asphyxia (69.6%) and severe birth asphyxia (24%). The study also reported that 20.8% of midwives reported that hysterectomy was carried out on their clients who had used herbal preparations to induce or hasten labour. This is alarming because many women have their uterus removed as a result of herbal oxytocin (kaligutm) usage. Most clients who used Kaligutim experienced postpartum haemorrhage after delivery. It was also evident that some pregnant women (34.5%) had uterine atony, although it cannot be said that Kaligutim was the cause of uterine atony. Several pregnant women (65.3 years old) who used Kaligutim also developed a ruptured uterus. See Table 3 . Relationship between kaligutim (local oxytocin) use and birth outcomeTable 4 shows the associations between kaligutim (local oxytocin) use and birth outcomes among the respondents. Fisher’s exact test and the chi-square test showed that several birth outcome variables were significantly associated with kaligutim (local oxytocin). Do women who go through the normal process of labour and those who use kaligutim to induce their labour have the same birth outcome? (P value = 0.021), what was the foetal wellbeing? (P value = 0.041), When do most neonates whose mothers have taken Kaligutim die? (P value = 0.038), was baby admitted at the Newborn Care Unit? (P value = 0.001), were significantly associated with kaligutim. Additionally, having recorded a maternal death because of the use of Kaligutim (p value = 0.002) was also significantly associated with kaligutim, as presented in Table 4 . Multivariate analysis of birth outcome predictors of Kaligutim (local oxytocin) among pregnant women in three major government hospitals in Tamale metropolisIn Table 5 , three birth outcome variables strongly depicted kaligutim use among the respondents: foetal wellbeing, admission to the new-born care unit, and death of most neonates because of the use of Kaligutim by their mothers. Respondents who responded, “yes” to baby admission to the Newborn Care Unit were 25% more likely to use kaligutim (local oxytocin) than were those who responded “no” to baby admission to the Newborn Care Unit [(AOR = 0.25 95% CI (0.01, 0.53), P = 0.021)]. DiscussionsAlthough the respondents cut across with regard to the number of years of experience, most of the respondents were early career midwives. The fact that these early career midwives are familiar with and have experienced the use of local oxytocin by their clients shows that it is widely used by pregnant women in the Tamale metropolis. Approximately 90% of respondents were aware of the usage of kaligutim (local oxytocin) for inducing labour at home before going to the hospital for delivery. However, a study conducted in the Ashanti region of Ghana revealed that midwives and other healthcare professionals lack proper knowledge about herbal medicine usage among pregnant women, even though this information is urgently needed so that appropriate action may be taken to address the issue [ 31 ]. The study findings also demonstrated that pregnant women frequently utilize local oxytocin and that many of them are unaware of the potential negative effects that these herbs may have on them in certain circumstances. Figure 2 shows that the use of local oxytocin was not limited to only one condition. These findings further show that the use of local oxytocin by pregnant women is widespread and that pregnant women do not know the effect that local oxytocin can have on them when they have certain conditions. Additionally, pregnant women are ignorant of the fact that local oxytocin can be contraindicated under certain conditions and must be avoided. Hence, it may put the life of the pregnant mother and her baby in danger. Although herbal medicines are natural, not all herbs are safe to use while pregnant. Thus, expectant mothers should consult their midwives for guidance before taking herbal remedies. The experience that pregnant women have when they use local oxytocin to induce labour is not a positive one. A total of 188 respondents, or 93.5% of the respondents, stated that the women who used local oxytocin had a very unpleasant experience. This is supported by additional research results showing that between 50 and 80% of pregnant women use traditional plant remedies, which could have adverse perinatal effects [ 32 ]. The statistics indicate that local oxytocin is frequently used by pregnant women in the Tamale Metropolis. Most of the midwives reported seeing these cases virtually daily. This finding supports a study conducted in Ghana’s Ashanti region (Kumasi), which revealed that knowledge of herbal medicine is widely shared and that there is evidence of an increase in the usage of herbs [ 33 ]. The study revealed that local oxytocin (Kaligutim) has a diverse range of effects on the progress of labour, including precipitating labour, prolonging labour, obstructing labour, and slowing labour. The partograph is a great tool for keeping track of labour progress and serving as a warning system for abnormalities in normal labour, which helps to prevent obstructed labour and improves maternal and foetal outcomes [ 34 ]. This is supported by the study’s findings, which indicate that using a partograph to monitor labour progress and identify any deviations is essential [ 34 ]. According to this study, most midwives, who make up 65.2% of the respondents, also claimed that pregnant women who use local oxytocin (Kaligutim) have excessive contractions, while only 71 of them, or 34.8% of the respondents, claimed that they do not notice excessive contractions in their clients. This is supported by research performed in Zambia, which revealed that these herbal medicines also elicit greater than normal uterine contractions [ 26 ]. Most pregnant women who use kaligutim experience excessive contractions, which may have an impact on both the mother and the unborn child. Similarly, other authors have also claimed that using herbal remedies during labour causes stronger and more frequent uterine contractions, which do not necessarily result in cervical dilatation [ 35 ]. This was confirmed in the study’s findings, which also noted that herbal oxytocin not only produces excessive uterine contractions but also may cause contractions to cease, as 44 (22.4%) of the respondents reported that those who took local oxytocin had a halt in contractions. Intravenous fluids such as normal saline and Ringer’s lactate are used to flush out the local oxytocin in the system and CS in the case of an emergency. Nifedipine is also given in certain circumstances to prevent contractions. According to the study, 121 midwives, or 59.6% of the respondents, stated that caesarean sections were the preferred method of delivery for women who used kaligutim to induce labour. Both [ 36 ] in South Africa and [ 34 ] in Western Uganda reported these findings. Moderate birth asphyxia (69.6%) and severe birth asphyxia (23%) are common in newborns whose mothers utilize herbal oxytocin. According to the survey, 20.8% of midwives said they had performed hysterectomy procedures on clients who had utilized herbal induction or hastening methods to induce labour. One of the main causes of maternal deaths worldwide, including in Ghana, is postpartum haemorrhage [ 10 ]. 91% of midwives said that when their patients use herbal oxytocin during labour, more of them suffer from postpartum haemorrhage. This is corroborated by research by Frank (2018), who found a connection between postpartum haemorrhage and the use of herbal medications during labour [ 37 ]. In contrast, other studies [ 38 ] have shown that using herbal medication during childbirth is linked to a lower risk of postpartum haemorrhage. Individuals who experienced postpartum haemorrhage were managed with uterine massage, intravenous fluids, Cytotec, repairs to tears, expulsion of retained products, blood transfusions, cervical repairs, and catheter use. This report supports the findings of a study conducted in the Ugandan village of Kiganda, where the researcher [ 37 ] reported that the use of herbal medicines has been linked to labour induction, which can cause significant birth canal tearing, postpartum haemorrhage, uterine atony, a raptured uterus, and, if untreated, maternal mortality. Medical experts who are aware of the dangers of herbal remedies and who are obliged to advise patients against using them do so themselves. The majority of women who use herbal preparations during pregnancy have a high school education or higher, according to evidence showing that more than 57.5% of pregnant women who use herbs have a high school diploma or higher, which is consistent with findings from Saudi Arabia by [ 39 ] that show that formal education cannot even prevent women from taking herbs during pregnancy and labour. Kaligutim also causes excessive uterine contractions, foetal discomfort, excessive uterine stimulation, uterine atony, PPH, birth hypoxia, and premature bearing down, claims this study. This is supported by the results of a study carried out in Europe, where researchers [ 40 ] found that the majority of herbal drugs taken by pregnant women have undesirable side effects. An Iranian study, however, revealed that utilizing herbal treatments during labour can lessen discomfort, speed up the process, and enhance both the quality of a woman’s delivery experience and her odds of having a healthy baby [ 41 ]. According to the study’s findings, three birth outcome variables strongly affected kaligutim (local oxytocin) use among the respondents: foetal wellbeing, admission to the newborn care unit, and death of most neonates as a result of the use of Kaligutim by their mothers. Respondents who responded, “yes to baby” and were admitted to the new-born care unit were 25% more likely to use kaligutim (local oxytocin) than were those who responded, “no to baby” and were admitted to the new-born care unit (AOR = 0.25 95% CI (0.01, 0.53), P = 0.021). This is probably one of the effects of taking local oxytocin. These infants were hospitalized for a variety of reasons, including asphyxia, respiratory distress, and low Apgar scores. Additionally, the study results indicated that respondents who responded that a still birth outcome affected foetal wellbeing were 1.9 times more likely to use kaligutim (local oxytocin) than those who responded no to having live births were (AOR = 1.9 95% CI (0.01, 1.21), P = 0.047)]. This finding is consistent with findings from a sub-Saharan African study that showed that herbal medications used to speed up and induce labour have uterotonic effects and increase the risk of neonatal asphyxia attributable to uterine hyperstimulation [ 42 ]. This could be ascribed to the fact that the respondents wanted fast and easy delivery, which subsequently caused this effect. Another interesting finding was that respondents who responded that having a birth asphyxia outcome to foetal wellbeing were 0.16 times more likely to use kaligutim (local oxytocin) than were those who responded no to having live births (AOR = 0.16, 95% CI (0.08, 3.08), P = 0.047). This result is similar to that of [ 42 ], who conducted their study in sub-Saharan Africa. This could be a result of the effects of kaligutim on foetal well-being, which results in birth asphyxia. Furthermore, newborns whose mothers used kaligutim during labour and who died within the first hour of birth were 3.4 times more likely to use kaligutim (local oxytocin) than those whose mothers used kaligutim during labour [AOR = 3.4 95% CI (0.74, 1.5), P = 0.045]. In support of the findings from this study, a study on the consumption of herbal drugs among pregnant women in rural Malawi revealed that consumption was linked to pregnancy-related issues and that users had a greater risk of neonatal mortality/morbidity within the first hour of life than nonusers [ 14 ]. This could be attributed to the dangers this herb poses to the foetus during delivery. Newborns whose mothers used kaligutim during labor and who died within the first week of life were 2.23 times more likely to use kaligutim (local oxytocin) than those whose mothers used intrauterine kaligutim [(AOR = 2.23 95% CI (0.00, 0.02), P = 0.045)]. This is supported by findings from a Malawian study that revealed that the use of labour-inducing plants during pregnancy has negative effects on obstetric and labour outcomes, such as uterine rapture, which can cause neonatal mortality and morbidity [ 35 ]. This could be attributed to the fact that PPH, uterine rapture, cervical tear, DIC, and hypoxia were the main causes of death. Every life matter, which is why mothers’ lives and that of their newborn babies must be safeguarded at all costs. A sufficient level of knowledge is always vital since it exacerbates doubt. Therefore, it is crucial that people are informed of their rights, their health, and the services they can utilize to maintain and improve health to have a healthy increasing population. Although herbal medicine could be effective in treating certain ailments associated with pregnancy and delivery and is easily accessible to pregnant women, especially in rural communities, the possibility of overdose, drug-herb interactions, contraindications, and the unhygienic conditions under which they are prepared may influence both maternal and neonatal conditions. The results showed that the use of kaligutim by pregnant women in Tamale Metropolis is on the rise. This means that much needs to be done to do away with the use of kaligutim, and this must start with midwives. Pregnancies and births can be improved with a healthy and qualified midwifery care model in improving and protecting women’s and newborn health in Tamale. It can be concluded that the use of this herbal medicine (Kaligutim) poses a greater long-term health challenge for mothers and their babies. Midwives and other healthcare workers in the Tamale Metropolis must therefore intensify their public health campaigns against the use of Kaligutim for labour induction. RecommendationsThe findings of the study have important implications for maternal and child health. The nonuse of kaligutim (local oxytocin) for the induction of labour is the best option for pregnant women. Pregnant women should visit the hospital for all their health needs during the entire pregnancy. This will help prevent adverse pregnancy and labour outcomes as well as maternal and neonatal mortalities and morbidities. Future researchers should perform further studies on the spiritual aspects of kaligutim (Walgu) and its types. Like synthetic oxytocin, an Islamic form of oxytocin is prepared by Mallams and causes uterine contractions and dilates the cervix. However, studies should also be conducted on the efficiency, effectiveness and biochemical composition of these herbal preparations and their safety, especially during pregnancy and delivery. Samples of these herbal preparations should be taken for laboratory investigations. Data availabilityAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this article and its supplementary information files are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. World Health Organization. WHO traditional medicine strategy: 2014–2023. World Health Organization;2013. Accessed 20 Nov 2023. Fokunang CN, Ndikum V, Tabi OY, Jiofack RB, Ngameni B, Guedje NM et al. Traditional medicine: past, present and future research and development prospects and integration in the National Health System of Cameroon. Afr J Trad Complement Alt Med. 2011;8(3). John LJ, Shantakumari N. Herbal medicines use during pregnancy: a review from the Middle East. Oman Med J. 2015;30(4):229. Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Mekuria AB, Erku DA, Gebresillassie BM, Birru EM, Tizazu B, Ahmedin A. Prevalence and associated factors of herbal medicine use among pregnant women on antenatal care follow-up at University of Gondar referral and teaching hospital, Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Complement Alt Med. 2017;17:1–7. Google Scholar Shewamene Z, Dune T, Smith CA. The use of traditional medicine in maternity care among African women in Africa and the diaspora: a systematic review. BMC Complement Alt Med. 2017;17:1–6. Nyeko R, Tumwesigye NM, Halage AA. Prevalence and factors associated with use of herbal medicines during pregnancy among women attending postnatal clinics in Gulu district, Northern Uganda. BMC Preg Childbirth. 2016;1–12. Fukunaga R, Morof D, Blanton C, Ruiz A, Maro G, Serbanescu F. Factors associated with local herb use during pregnancy and labor among women in Kigoma region, Tanzania, 2014–2016. BMC Preg Childbirth. 2020;20:1–1. Article Google Scholar Tripathi V, Stanton C, Anderson FW. Traditional preparations used as uterotonics in Sub-saharan Africa and their pharmacologic effects. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2013;120(1):16–22. Maliwichi-Nyirenda CP, Maliwichi LL. Medicinal plants used to induce labour and traditional techniques used in determination of onset of labour in pregnant women in Malawi: a case study of Mulanje district. J Med Plants Res. 2010;4(24):2609. Amanuel T, Dache A, Dona A. Postpartum Hemorrhage and its Associated factors among women who gave birth at Yirgalem General Hospital, Sidama Regional State, Ethiopia. Health Res Serv Manag Epidemiol. 2021;8:1–7. James PB, Wardle J, Steel A, Adams J. Traditional, complementary and alternative medicine use in Sub-saharan Africa: a systematic review. BMJ Glob Health. 2018;3(5). Coates D, Homer C, Wilson A, Deady L, Mason E, Foureur M, et al. Induction of labour indications and timing: a systematic analysis of clinical guidelines. Women Birth. 2020;33(3):219–30. Article PubMed Google Scholar Lawani OL, Onyebuchi AK, Iyoke CA, Okafo CN, Ajah LO. Obstetric outcome and significance of labour induction in a health resource poor setting. Obstet Gynecol Int. 2014;2014(1):419621. PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Zamawe C, King C, Jennings HM, Fottrell E. Associations between the use of herbal medicines and adverse pregnancy outcomes in rural Malawi: a secondary analysis of randomised controlled trial data. BMC Complement Alt Med. 2018;18:1–8. Roopasree B, Joseph J, Mukkadan JK. Oxytocin-functions: an overview. MOJ Anat Physiol. 2019;6:128–33. Espada-Trespalacios X, Ojeda F, Perez-Botella M, Milà Villarroel R, Bach Martinez M, Figuls Soler H, et al. Oxytocin administration in low-risk women, a retrospective analysis of birth and neonatal outcomes. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(8):4375. Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar Ayelyini B, Yidana A, Ziblim SD. The Use of Indigenous Medicine among women during pregnancy and labour in rural Ghana. Cent Afr J Public Health. 2019;5(3):120–8. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.cajph.20190503.14 . Kwame Ameade EP, Zakaria AP, Abubakar L, Sandow R. Herbal medicine usage before and during pregnancy – a study in Northern Ghana. Int J Complement Alt Med. 2018;11(4). Jhpiego. Business Case: Investing in production of high-quality oxytocin for low-resource settings–Final report December 2014. 2014. http://www.conceptfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/BusinessCase_Oxytocin_web.pdf . Accesed 25 Jan 2024. Barišić T, Pecirep A, Milićević R, Vasilj A, Tirić D. What do pregnant women know about harmful effects of medication and herbal remedies use during pregnancy? Psychiatr Danub. 2017;29(1):804–11. PubMed Google Scholar Ameade EPK, Ibrahim M, Ibrahim HS, Habib RH, Gbedema SY. Concurrent Use of Herbal and Orthodox Medicines among Residents of Tamale, Northern Ghana, Who Patronize Hospitals and Herbal Clinics. Evidence-based Complement Alt Med. 2018;2018(2002). Illamola SM, Amaeze OU, Krepkova LV, Birnbaum AK, Karanam A, Job KM, et al. Use of herbal medicine by pregnant women: what physicians need to know. Front Pharmacol. 2020;10:1483. Bahall M, Legall G. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices among health care providers regarding complementary and alternative medicine in Trinidad and Tobago. BMC Complement Alt Med. 2017;17:1–9. Peprah P, Agyemang-duah W, Arthur-holmes F, Budu HI, Abalo EM, Okwei R et al. ‘ we are nothing without herbs ’ : a story of herbal remedies use during pregnancy in rural Ghana. BMC Complement Altern Med.2019;1–12. Kamatenesi-Mugisha M, Oryem-Origa H. Medicinal plants used to induce labour during childbirth in western Uganda. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;109(1):1–9. Ngoma CM. Use of Herbal Medicines to induce labour by pregnant women: a systematic review of literature. JOJ Nurs Heal Care. 2017;2(3):7–12. Ameade EK, Zakaria AP, Abubakar L, Sandow R. Herbal medicine usage before and during pregnancy—a study in Northern Ghana. Int J Complement Alt Med. 2018;11(4):235–42. Ameade EP, Ibrahim M, Ibrahim HS, Habib RH, Gbedema SY. Concurrent use of herbal and orthodox medicines among residents of Tamale, Northern Ghana, who patronize hospitals and herbal clinics. Evidence-Based Complement Alt Med. 2018;2018(1):1289125. Andersen RM. Revisiting the behavioral Model and Access to Medical Care: does it Matter? J Health Soc Behav. 1995;1–10. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137284 . Smith-Hall C, Larsen HO, Pouliot M. People, plants and health: a conceptual framework for assessing changes in medicinal plant consumption. J Ethnobiolo Ethnomed. 2012;8:1–1. Levin KA. Study design III: cross-sectional studies. Evid-Based Dent. 2006;7(1):24–5. Beste J, Asanti D, Nsabimana D, Anastos K, Mutimura E, Merkatz I, et al. Use of Traditional Botanical Medicines during pregnancy in Rural Rwanda. J Glob Health Perspect. 2015;2015:1–10. Adusi-Poku Y, Vanotoo L, Detoh E, Oduro J, Nsiah R, Natogmah A. Type of herbal medicines utilized by pregnant women attending ante-natal clinic in Offinso North district: are orthodox prescribers aware? Ghana Med J. 2016;49(4):227. Agyei-Baffour P, Kudolo A, Quansah DY, Boateng D. Integrating herbal medicine into mainstream healthcare in Ghana: clients’ acceptability, perceptions and disclosure of use. BMC Complement Alt Med. 2017;17(1):1–9. Mukasa PK, Kabakyenga J, Senkungu JK, Ngonzi J, Kyalimpa M, Roosmalen VJ. Uterine rupture in a teaching hospital in Mbarara, western Uganda, unmatched case-control study. Reprod Health. 2013;10(1):1–6. Lampiao F, Maliwichi-Nyirenda C, Mponda J, Tembo L, Clements C. A preliminary investigation of the effects of labour inducing plant, cissampelos mucronata, on the outcomesof pregnancy using rat models. Malawi Med J. 2018;30(3):159–61. Kekana LS, Sebitloane MH. Ingestion of herbal medication during pregnancy and adverse perinatal outcomes. S Afr J Obstet Gynaecol. 2020;26(2):1–5. Buyondo BF. Use of Herbal Medicines in Preparation for Labour and its determinants among pregnant women at Kiganda Health Centre Iv-Mubende District. Angew Chemie Int Edu. 2018;6(11):951–2. Koh LM, Percival B, Pauley T, Pathak S. Complementary therapy and alternative medicine: effects on induction of labour and pregnancy outcome in low risk post-dates women. Heliyon. 2019;5(11). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02787 . Al-Ghamdi S, Aldossari K, Al-Zahrani J, Al-Shaalan F, Al-Sharif S, Al-Khurayji H, et al. Prevalence, knowledge and attitudes toward herbal medication use by Saudi women in the central region during pregnancy, during labor and after delivery. BMC Complement Alt Med. 2017;17(1):1–9. Gruber CW, O’Brien M. Uterotonic plants and their bioactive constituents. Planta Med. 2011;77(03):207–20. Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar Zahra A. Lavender aromatherapy massages in reducing labor pain and duration of labor: a randomized controlled trial. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2013;7(8):456–430. Download references AcknowledgementsWe thank the Management and Healthcare Staff of the Tamale West Hospital (T.W.H), Tamale Central Hospital (T.C.H) and Tamale Teaching Hospital (TTH) for their support throughout the data collection process. We acknowledge the contributions of all the midwives who shared their knowledge and experiences with us, your efforts are well appreciated. No funding was available for the study. Author informationAuthors and affiliations. Department of Population and Reproductive Health, School of Public Health, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box 1883, Tamale, Northern Region, Ghana Ahmad Sukerazu Alhassan & Joseph Lasong Nandom Nursing and Midwifery Training College, Upper West Region, Nandom, Ghana Shivera Dakurah You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar ContributionsASA and SD conceptualised and drafted the research proposal. ASA, SD, and JL performed the statistical analysis, assisted with interpretation of the results, and co-drafted the manuscript. All authors contributed to the discussion of the paper, read, and approved the final manuscript. Corresponding authorCorrespondence to Ahmad Sukerazu Alhassan . Ethics declarationsEthics approval and consent to participate. An introductory letter from the University for Development Studies was presented to the three government hospitals, Tamale West Hospital (T.W.H), Tamale Central Hospital (T.C.H) and Tamale Teaching Hospital (TTH) to seek for permission to undertake the study. Ethical clearance was also obtained from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) with reference number (CHRPE/AP/332/22). Permission was also sought through a consent form of which participants were asked to consent to if they were willing to participate in the study. They were assured of confidentiality of every information they were going to provide. All other methods were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations on subject selection and participation. Consent for publicationNot applicable. Competing interestsThe authors declare no competing interests. Additional informationPublisher’s note. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Rights and permissionsOpen Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . Reprints and permissions About this articleCite this article. Alhassan, A.S., Dakurah, S. & Lasong, J. Perspectives of midwives on the use of Kaligutim (local oxytocin) for induction of labour among pregnant women in the government hospitals in Tamale. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 24 , 561 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-024-06745-z Download citation Received : 15 April 2024 Accepted : 08 August 2024 Published : 28 August 2024 DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-024-06745-z Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative
BMC Pregnancy and ChildbirthISSN: 1471-2393
![]() |
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Descriptive research methods. Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research, though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable.. Surveys. Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages ...
Descriptive research design is a type of research methodology that aims to describe or document the characteristics, behaviors, attitudes, opinions, or perceptions of a group or population being studied. ... Limitation of Descriptive Research Design. Descriptive research design also has some limitations that researchers should consider before ...
Descriptive research methods. Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research, though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable.. Surveys. Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analysed for frequencies, averages ...
Descriptive research design is employed across diverse fields, and its primary objective is to systematically observe and document all variables and conditions influencing the phenomenon. ... Cohort studies: Also known as longitudinal studies, these studies involve the collection of data over an extended period, allowing researchers to track ...
As the name suggests, descriptive research describes the characteristics of the group, situation, or phenomenon being studied without manipulating variables or testing hypotheses. This can be reported using surveys, observational studies, and case studies. You can use both quantitative and qualitative methods to compile the data.
INTRODUCTION. In our previous article in this series, [ 1] we introduced the concept of "study designs"- as "the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research question.". Study designs are primarily of two types - observational and interventional, with the former being ...
Descriptive research design. Descriptive research design uses a range of both qualitative research and quantitative data (although quantitative research is the primary research method) to gather information to make accurate predictions about a particular problem or hypothesis. As a survey method, descriptive research designs will help ...
Definition of descriptive research. Descriptive research is defined as a research method that observes and describes the characteristics of a particular group, situation, or phenomenon. The goal is not to establish cause and effect relationships but rather to provide a detailed account of the situation.
Some characteristics of descriptive research are: Quantitativeness. Descriptive research uses a quantitative research method by collecting quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. This is very common when dealing with research in the physical sciences. Qualitativeness.
Descriptive research is mainly done when a researcher wants to gain a better understanding of a topic. That is, analysis of the past as opposed to the future. Descriptive research is the exploration of the existing certain phenomena. The details of the facts won't be known. The existing phenomena's facts are not known to the person.
1. Purpose. The primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon. 2. Participants and Sampling. Descriptive research studies a particular population or sample that is representative of the larger population being studied.
Descriptive research may identify areas in need of additional research and relationships between variables that require future study. Descriptive research is often referred to as "hypothesis generating research." Depending on the data collection method used, descriptive studies can generate rich datasets on large and diverse samples. Limitations:
The research design used descriptive analysis and a relational screening model. The sample consisted of 334 students aged 9-12 studying in 3rd and 4th grades in schools in Bakırköy, Istanbul.
Descriptive research is a research method describing the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This descriptive methodology focuses more on the "what" of the research subject than the "why" of the research subject. The method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment without focusing on ...
Research Design. A descriptive study is one in which information is collected without changing the environment (i.e., nothing is manipulated). Sometimes these are referred to as " correlational " or " observational " studies. The Office of Human Research Protections (OHRP) defines a descriptive study as "Any study that is not truly ...
A research design is the overall plan for answering research questions and hypotheses. The design spells out strategies the researcher adopts to gather accurate, objective, and interpretable information (Polit & Beck, 2007). Tourigny et al. (2011) used a non-experimental, quantitative research design known as a descriptive, comparative design.
Understand the characteristics of descriptive research and what descriptive study design is used for. Learn about the data collection methods of descriptive research. Updated: 11/21/2023
Types of descriptive research. Observational method. Case studies. Surveys. Recap. Descriptive research methods are used to define the who, what, and where of human behavior and other ...
Video 1. Descriptive Research Design provides explanation and examples for quantitative descriptive research.A closed-captioned version of this video is available here.. Descriptive research is distinct from correlational research, in which psychologists formally test whether a relationship exists between two or more variables.Experimental research goes a step further beyond descriptive and ...
There are many different contexts in which the use of a descriptive research design is beneficial. Here are some important uses of descriptive research design: 1. To measure data trends The descriptive method of research can be used to measure changes in variables over a period of time, allowing trends to be identified and analyzed. 2.
Descriptive research is research designed to provide a snapshot of the current ... The research design can be visualized as shown in Figure 3.9, where the curved arrow represents the expected correlation between these two variables. ... the assurance that the independent variable (also known as the experimental manipulation) occurs prior to the ...
A descriptive study design is a research method that observes and describes the behaviour of subjects from a scientific viewpoint with regard to variables of a situation (Sharma, 2019). Here, the ...
However, most qualitative descriptive studies use semi-structured interviews (see Chapter 13) because they provide a reliable way to collect data. 3 The technique applied to data analysis is generally categorical and less conceptual when compared to other qualitative research designs (see Section 4). 2,3 Hence, this study design is well suited ...
The use of herbal medicine and/or its products is common throughout the world. In Tamale Metropolis, pregnant women frequently use local oxytocin to induce labour, as shown by the fact that 90% of midwives reported managing patients who used kaligutim (local oxytocin) to speed up labour. Early career midwives are also aware of this and have personally observed it being used by their clients.