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Critical thinking vs problem solving: what’s the difference.
In our blog “Importance of Problem Solving Skills in Leadership ,” we highlighted problem solving skills as a distinct skill set. We outlined a 7-step approach in how the best leaders solve problems.
Critical thinking vs. problem solving
But are critical thinking and problem solving the same? Also, if there are differences, what are they? Although many educators and business leaders lump critical thinking and problem solving together, there are differences:
Problem solving uses many of the same skills required for critical thinking; e.g., observation, analysis, evaluation, interpretation, and reflection. Critical thinking is an important ingredient of problem solving.
Critical thinking vs. problem solving: Not all problems require critical thinking skills
Not every problem-solving skill is a critical thinking skill. That is because not every problem requires thinking. A problem like opening a stubborn pickle jar could simply require brute strength. On the other hand, it becomes a thinking skill when you remember to tap the edge of the pickle jar lid to loosen the seal.
Also, some problem-solving skills are the exact opposite of critical thinking. When you follow directions or use muscle memory or rote (memorization) thinking, there is no critical thinking required. Likewise, skills of persuasion or public oratory are thinking skills, but aren’t necessarily critical thinking skills.
Critical thinking vs. problem solving: The role of emotional intelligence
In our blog “ What is the role of communication in critical thinking ?” we highlighted one author’s argument that critical thinking and problem solving is not always a purely rational process. While critical thinkers are in great demand in the hiring marketplace, employees who are emotionally intelligent bring even greater value to an organization.
Writing for Business News Daily , editor Chad Brooks describes emotional intelligence as “the ability to understand your emotions and recognize the emotions and motivations of those around you.”
So, when looking for star performers, research shows “that emotional intelligence counts for twice as much as IQ and technical skills combined in determining who will be a star performer.”
Further, in today’s collaborative workplace environment, “hiring employees who can understand and control their emotions – while also identifying what makes those around them tick—is of the utmost importance.”
Finally, one expert notes that dealing with emotions is an important part of critical thinking. Emotions can be at the root of a problem. They are frequently symptomatic of problems below the surface. Problem solving when dealing with emotions requires openness to authentic emotional expressions. It requires the understanding that when someone is in pain, it is a problem that is real.
- The Ultimate Guide To Critical Thinking
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- 25 In-Demand Jobs That Require Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills
- Brainstorming: Techniques Used To Boost Critical Thinking and Creativity
Critical thinking and problem solving: A deeper dive
A recap of the distinct differences between critical thinking and problem solving.
Critical thinking, according to an article on Drexel University’s Graduate College webpage “utilizes analysis, reflection, evaluation, interpretation, and inference to synthesize information that is obtained through reading, observing, communicating, or experience.”
The goal of critical thinking is to evaluate the credibility of both the information and its source. It questions the central issue and how the information will inform intelligent decisions. Finally, it asks the question, “Where does this information lead me?”
Problem solving , as previously mentioned, uses many of those skills, but “it takes the process a step further to identify obstacles and then to strategically map out a set of solutions to solve the problem. That extra step in problem solving is identifying obstacles as well as mapping out a strategic set of solutions to resolve the problem.
How to develop critical thinking skills to become a better problem solver
1. develop your analytical skills..
Pay attention and be more observant. Ask the questions “who, what, where, and why” and learn as much as possible about the topic or problem. Map everything out to imprint or gain a visual understanding and focus on the differences between fact, opinion, and your own bias.
2. Learn the skill of evaluating
As a subset of analysis, you can become skilled in evaluation by:
- comparing similar and related topics, programs, and issues. How are they different, and where are the similarities?
- looking for trends that support (or refute) what you intuitively feel is the solution
- recognizing barriers or conflicts to successful problem resolution
- asking questions and gathering information—assuming nothing, ever.
3. Interpretation with the help of a mentor or someone more experienced
Interpreting a problem accurately employs both analytical and evaluating skills. With practice, you can develop this skill, but to hone your interpretation skills, it is advisable to seek the help of an experienced mentor.
You’ll need to do the following:
- know how your own biases or opinions can be a roadblock to the best decision making
- recognize that cultural differences can be a barrier to communication
- look at the problem from the point of view of others
- learn as much as you can about the problem, topic, or experience
- synthesize everything you have learned in order to make the connections and put the elements of a problem together to form its solution
4. Acquire the skill and habit of reflection.
Being reflective is applicable to almost every aspect of your personal and professional life. To open your mind to reflection, think back to your educational experience. Your instructor may have asked you to keep a reflective journal of your learning-related experiences. A reflective journal requires expressive writing, which, in turn, relieves stress.
Perhaps you have just had a disagreement with a coworker, who became abusive and personal. Not everyone can come up with those instant snappy comebacks on the spot, and it is usually best to disengage before the situation gets worse.
Here’s where reflective journaling helps. When you’re in a calmer state of mind, you can journal the incident to:
- gain deeper insights into your thought processes and actions—How do you feel about not defending yourself from the colleague’s accusations or personal abuse? What was the perfect response that eluded you in the stress of the moment?
- build a different approach to problems—It could be that your co-worker perceives you as unapproachable or unreceptive to suggestions and criticism. Maybe it’s time to have a frank discussion to help you see yourself through the eyes of the coworker.
- get closer to making significant changes in your life—Your journal entries may have displayed a pattern of your behavior on the job, which elicits consistent negative reactions from more than one co-worker.
Your takeaways:
- When evaluating critical thinking vs. problem solving, the elements of both appear to blend into a distinction without a difference.
- Good problem solvers employ the steps of critical thinking, but not all problem solving involves critical thinking.
- Emotional intelligence is an attribute that is a hybrid skill of problem solving and critical thinking.
- You can hone your critical thinking skills to become a better problem solver through application of analysis, evaluation, interpretation, and reflection.
- 10 Best Books On Critical Thinking And Problem Solving
12 Common Barriers To Critical Thinking (And How To Overcome Them)
- How To Promote Critical Thinking In The Workplace
Is Critical Thinking Overrated? Disadvantages Of Critical Thinking
- 11 Principles Of Critical Thinking
Jenny Palmer
Founder of Eggcellentwork.com. With over 20 years of experience in HR and various roles in corporate world, Jenny shares tips and advice to help professionals advance in their careers. Her blog is a go-to resource for anyone looking to improve their skills, land their dream job, or make a career change.
Further Reading...
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5 Creative and Critical Thinking Examples In Workplace
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Ultimate Guide to Setting SMART Career Objectives (with Examples)
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What Is The Role Of Communication In Critical Thinking?
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Critical thinking and problem-solving, jump to: , what is critical thinking, characteristics of critical thinking, why teach critical thinking.
- Teaching Strategies to Help Promote Critical Thinking Skills
References and Resources
When examining the vast literature on critical thinking, various definitions of critical thinking emerge. Here are some samples:
- "Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action" (Scriven, 1996).
- "Most formal definitions characterize critical thinking as the intentional application of rational, higher order thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, problem recognition and problem solving, inference, and evaluation" (Angelo, 1995, p. 6).
- "Critical thinking is thinking that assesses itself" (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996b).
- "Critical thinking is the ability to think about one's thinking in such a way as 1. To recognize its strengths and weaknesses and, as a result, 2. To recast the thinking in improved form" (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996c).
Perhaps the simplest definition is offered by Beyer (1995) : "Critical thinking... means making reasoned judgments" (p. 8). Basically, Beyer sees critical thinking as using criteria to judge the quality of something, from cooking to a conclusion of a research paper. In essence, critical thinking is a disciplined manner of thought that a person uses to assess the validity of something (statements, news stories, arguments, research, etc.).
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Wade (1995) identifies eight characteristics of critical thinking. Critical thinking involves asking questions, defining a problem, examining evidence, analyzing assumptions and biases, avoiding emotional reasoning, avoiding oversimplification, considering other interpretations, and tolerating ambiguity. Dealing with ambiguity is also seen by Strohm & Baukus (1995) as an essential part of critical thinking, "Ambiguity and doubt serve a critical-thinking function and are a necessary and even a productive part of the process" (p. 56).
Another characteristic of critical thinking identified by many sources is metacognition. Metacognition is thinking about one's own thinking. More specifically, "metacognition is being aware of one's thinking as one performs specific tasks and then using this awareness to control what one is doing" (Jones & Ratcliff, 1993, p. 10 ).
In the book, Critical Thinking, Beyer elaborately explains what he sees as essential aspects of critical thinking. These are:
- Dispositions: Critical thinkers are skeptical, open-minded, value fair-mindedness, respect evidence and reasoning, respect clarity and precision, look at different points of view, and will change positions when reason leads them to do so.
- Criteria: To think critically, must apply criteria. Need to have conditions that must be met for something to be judged as believable. Although the argument can be made that each subject area has different criteria, some standards apply to all subjects. "... an assertion must... be based on relevant, accurate facts; based on credible sources; precise; unbiased; free from logical fallacies; logically consistent; and strongly reasoned" (p. 12).
- Argument: Is a statement or proposition with supporting evidence. Critical thinking involves identifying, evaluating, and constructing arguments.
- Reasoning: The ability to infer a conclusion from one or multiple premises. To do so requires examining logical relationships among statements or data.
- Point of View: The way one views the world, which shapes one's construction of meaning. In a search for understanding, critical thinkers view phenomena from many different points of view.
- Procedures for Applying Criteria: Other types of thinking use a general procedure. Critical thinking makes use of many procedures. These procedures include asking questions, making judgments, and identifying assumptions.
Oliver & Utermohlen (1995) see students as too often being passive receptors of information. Through technology, the amount of information available today is massive. This information explosion is likely to continue in the future. Students need a guide to weed through the information and not just passively accept it. Students need to "develop and effectively apply critical thinking skills to their academic studies, to the complex problems that they will face, and to the critical choices they will be forced to make as a result of the information explosion and other rapid technological changes" (Oliver & Utermohlen, p. 1 ).
As mentioned in the section, Characteristics of Critical Thinking , critical thinking involves questioning. It is important to teach students how to ask good questions, to think critically, in order to continue the advancement of the very fields we are teaching. "Every field stays alive only to the extent that fresh questions are generated and taken seriously" (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996a ).
Beyer sees the teaching of critical thinking as important to the very state of our nation. He argues that to live successfully in a democracy, people must be able to think critically in order to make sound decisions about personal and civic affairs. If students learn to think critically, then they can use good thinking as the guide by which they live their lives.
Teaching Strategies to Help Promote Critical Thinking
The 1995, Volume 22, issue 1, of the journal, Teaching of Psychology , is devoted to the teaching critical thinking. Most of the strategies included in this section come from the various articles that compose this issue.
- CATS (Classroom Assessment Techniques): Angelo stresses the use of ongoing classroom assessment as a way to monitor and facilitate students' critical thinking. An example of a CAT is to ask students to write a "Minute Paper" responding to questions such as "What was the most important thing you learned in today's class? What question related to this session remains uppermost in your mind?" The teacher selects some of the papers and prepares responses for the next class meeting.
- Cooperative Learning Strategies: Cooper (1995) argues that putting students in group learning situations is the best way to foster critical thinking. "In properly structured cooperative learning environments, students perform more of the active, critical thinking with continuous support and feedback from other students and the teacher" (p. 8).
- Case Study /Discussion Method: McDade (1995) describes this method as the teacher presenting a case (or story) to the class without a conclusion. Using prepared questions, the teacher then leads students through a discussion, allowing students to construct a conclusion for the case.
- Using Questions: King (1995) identifies ways of using questions in the classroom:
- Reciprocal Peer Questioning: Following lecture, the teacher displays a list of question stems (such as, "What are the strengths and weaknesses of...). Students must write questions about the lecture material. In small groups, the students ask each other the questions. Then, the whole class discusses some of the questions from each small group.
- Reader's Questions: Require students to write questions on assigned reading and turn them in at the beginning of class. Select a few of the questions as the impetus for class discussion.
- Conference Style Learning: The teacher does not "teach" the class in the sense of lecturing. The teacher is a facilitator of a conference. Students must thoroughly read all required material before class. Assigned readings should be in the zone of proximal development. That is, readings should be able to be understood by students, but also challenging. The class consists of the students asking questions of each other and discussing these questions. The teacher does not remain passive, but rather, helps "direct and mold discussions by posing strategic questions and helping students build on each others' ideas" (Underwood & Wald, 1995, p. 18 ).
- Use Writing Assignments: Wade sees the use of writing as fundamental to developing critical thinking skills. "With written assignments, an instructor can encourage the development of dialectic reasoning by requiring students to argue both [or more] sides of an issue" (p. 24).
- Written dialogues: Give students written dialogues to analyze. In small groups, students must identify the different viewpoints of each participant in the dialogue. Must look for biases, presence or exclusion of important evidence, alternative interpretations, misstatement of facts, and errors in reasoning. Each group must decide which view is the most reasonable. After coming to a conclusion, each group acts out their dialogue and explains their analysis of it.
- Spontaneous Group Dialogue: One group of students are assigned roles to play in a discussion (such as leader, information giver, opinion seeker, and disagreer). Four observer groups are formed with the functions of determining what roles are being played by whom, identifying biases and errors in thinking, evaluating reasoning skills, and examining ethical implications of the content.
- Ambiguity: Strohm & Baukus advocate producing much ambiguity in the classroom. Don't give students clear cut material. Give them conflicting information that they must think their way through.
- Angelo, T. A. (1995). Beginning the dialogue: Thoughts on promoting critical thinking: Classroom assessment for critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 6-7.
- Beyer, B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
- Center for Critical Thinking (1996a). The role of questions in thinking, teaching, and learning. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk
- Center for Critical Thinking (1996b). Structures for student self-assessment. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univclass/trc.nclk
- Center for Critical Thinking (1996c). Three definitions of critical thinking [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk
- Cooper, J. L. (1995). Cooperative learning and critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 7-8.
- Jones, E. A. & Ratcliff, G. (1993). Critical thinking skills for college students. National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, University Park, PA. (Eric Document Reproduction Services No. ED 358 772)
- King, A. (1995). Designing the instructional process to enhance critical thinking across the curriculum: Inquiring minds really do want to know: Using questioning to teach critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22 (1) , 13-17.
- McDade, S. A. (1995). Case study pedagogy to advance critical thinking. Teaching Psychology, 22(1), 9-10.
- Oliver, H. & Utermohlen, R. (1995). An innovative teaching strategy: Using critical thinking to give students a guide to the future.(Eric Document Reproduction Services No. 389 702)
- Robertson, J. F. & Rane-Szostak, D. (1996). Using dialogues to develop critical thinking skills: A practical approach. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 39(7), 552-556.
- Scriven, M. & Paul, R. (1996). Defining critical thinking: A draft statement for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk
- Strohm, S. M., & Baukus, R. A. (1995). Strategies for fostering critical thinking skills. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 50 (1), 55-62.
- Underwood, M. K., & Wald, R. L. (1995). Conference-style learning: A method for fostering critical thinking with heart. Teaching Psychology, 22(1), 17-21.
- Wade, C. (1995). Using writing to develop and assess critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 24-28.
Other Reading
- Bean, J. C. (1996). Engaging ideas: The professor's guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, & active learning in the classroom. Jossey-Bass.
- Bernstein, D. A. (1995). A negotiation model for teaching critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 22-24.
- Carlson, E. R. (1995). Evaluating the credibility of sources. A missing link in the teaching of critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 39-41.
- Facione, P. A., Sanchez, C. A., Facione, N. C., & Gainen, J. (1995). The disposition toward critical thinking. The Journal of General Education, 44(1), 1-25.
- Halpern, D. F., & Nummedal, S. G. (1995). Closing thoughts about helping students improve how they think. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 82-83.
- Isbell, D. (1995). Teaching writing and research as inseparable: A faculty-librarian teaching team. Reference Services Review, 23(4), 51-62.
- Jones, J. M. & Safrit, R. D. (1994). Developing critical thinking skills in adult learners through innovative distance learning. Paper presented at the International Conference on the practice of adult education and social development. Jinan, China. (Eric Document Reproduction Services No. ED 373 159)
- Sanchez, M. A. (1995). Using critical-thinking principles as a guide to college-level instruction. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 72-74.
- Spicer, K. L. & Hanks, W. E. (1995). Multiple measures of critical thinking skills and predisposition in assessment of critical thinking. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Antonio, TX. (Eric Document Reproduction Services No. ED 391 185)
- Terenzini, P. T., Springer, L., Pascarella, E. T., & Nora, A. (1995). Influences affecting the development of students' critical thinking skills. Research in Higher Education, 36(1), 23-39.
On the Internet
- Carr, K. S. (1990). How can we teach critical thinking. Eric Digest. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://ericps.ed.uiuc.edu/eece/pubs/digests/1990/carr90.html
- The Center for Critical Thinking (1996). Home Page. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/
- Ennis, Bob (No date). Critical thinking. [On-line], April 4, 1997. Available HTTP: http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/teach/for442/ct.htm
- Montclair State University (1995). Curriculum resource center. Critical thinking resources: An annotated bibliography. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.montclair.edu/Pages/CRC/Bibliographies/CriticalThinking.html
- No author, No date. Critical Thinking is ... [On-line], April 4, 1997. Available HTTP: http://library.usask.ca/ustudy/critical/
- Sheridan, Marcia (No date). Internet education topics hotlink page. [On-line], April 4, 1997. Available HTTP: http://sun1.iusb.edu/~msherida/topics/critical.html
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Critical Thinking vs Problem Solving: Navigating Cognitive Approaches
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Critical thinking and problem solving are closely related skills that often go hand in hand. Critical thinking is a prerequisite for effective problem-solving. While they are distinct concepts, they are interdependent and complement each other in various ways. Here's a breakdown of the relationship between critical thinking and problem solving, and strategies to strengthen both skill sets.
Critical Thinking vs. Problem Solving
Critical thinking involves the ability to analyze, evaluate, and assess information, ideas, or arguments in a logical and systematic manner. It includes skills such as reasoning, analyzing evidence, identifying biases, and making informed judgments. Problem solving is the process of finding solutions to specific challenges or issues. It typically involves defining a problem, generating potential solutions, evaluating those solutions, and implementing the best one.
Critical thinking is often considered the foundation of effective problem solving. To solve a problem effectively, you first need to critically assess and understand the problem itself. Critical thinking helps you define the problem, identify its root causes, and gather relevant information.
Both critical thinking and problem solving contribute to informed decision-making. Critical thinking helps individuals evaluate the pros and cons of different solutions, while problem-solving skills help in selecting the most suitable solution. Critical thinking and problem-solving skills promote continuous improvement within an organization in response to changing needs and conditions. Individuals who engage in critical thinking continuously refine their problem-solving abilities, leading to more effective solutions over time.
In summary, critical thinking and problem solving are interconnected skills that support each other. Critical thinking provides the analytical and evaluative tools needed to approach problems effectively, while problem solving puts critical thinking into action by applying these skills to real-world challenges. Together, they enable individuals and teams to make well-informed decisions and find innovative solutions to complex issues.
Understanding Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is a cognitive skill and a mental process that involves the objective, deliberate, and systematic evaluation of information, ideas, situations, or problems in order to form well-reasoned judgments, make informed decisions, and solve complex issues. It is a fundamental human capability that goes beyond mere acceptance of information at face value and instead encourages individuals to approach information critically, examining its validity, relevance, and potential biases.
At its core, critical thinking involves these key components:
- Analysis: Critical thinkers carefully examine information or situations by breaking them down into their constituent parts. They dissect complex ideas or problems into manageable components, making it easier to understand and address.
- Evaluation: Critical thinking requires individuals to assess the quality and credibility of information or arguments. It involves considering the source, evidence, and reasoning behind a statement or claim, and determining whether it is well-founded.
- Inference: Critical thinkers draw logical and reasonable conclusions based on available evidence and information. They avoid making assumptions or jumping to unwarranted conclusions.
- Problem-Solving : Critical thinking is a valuable problem-solving tool. It involves identifying problems, exploring potential solutions, and evaluating those solutions to determine the most effective course of action.
- Decision-Making: Informed decision-making is a crucial aspect of critical thinking. It helps individuals choose the most appropriate course of action among several options, taking into account the potential consequences and ethical considerations.
- Reflection: Critical thinkers engage in self-reflection, questioning their own beliefs and assumptions. This self-awareness allows for personal growth and intellectual development.
The Power of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking skills are essential for analyzing complex problems within your organization. When faced with a problem, individuals and teams must critically examine the various components, potential causes, and consequences of the issue. Critical thinking helps break down complex problems into manageable parts. Critical thinking skills also play a crucial role in identifying problems accurately. Without the ability to critically assess situations, individuals may misinterpret problems or focus on symptoms rather than root causes.
Informed Decision-Making
Critical thinking enables leaders and employees to make informed decisions. It involves evaluating information, considering alternatives, and weighing the pros and cons before choosing the best course of action. In a business context, this can lead to better strategic decisions, efficient resource allocation, and effective problem-solving.
Problem Solving
Businesses face a wide range of complex challenges. Critical thinking equips individuals with the skills to analyze problems, identify root causes, and develop innovative solutions. This is crucial for addressing issues promptly and effectively, whether they involve market competition, operational inefficiencies, or customer satisfaction.
Innovation
Critical thinking fosters creativity and innovation. It encourages employees to think outside the box, challenge conventional wisdom, and explore unconventional solutions. This is essential for staying competitive and developing new products, services, or processes.
Conflict Resolution
Conflicts are inevitable in any organization. Critical thinking skills enable individuals to approach conflicts objectively, understand the underlying issues, and propose constructive solutions. This promotes a healthier work environment and fosters collaboration.
Customer Satisfaction
Understanding and meeting customer needs and expectations are crucial in business. Critical thinking helps organizations analyze customer feedback, identify areas for improvement, and innovate to provide better products or services.
Ethical Decision-Making
In an age where ethics and corporate responsibility are paramount, critical thinking plays a role in ethical decision-making. It helps individuals and organizations assess the ethical implications of their actions and make choices that align with their values and societal expectations.
Competitive Advantage
Businesses that encourage and develop critical thinking skills in their employees can gain a competitive advantage. A workforce that can analyze data, adapt to changes, and innovate is more likely to thrive in a rapidly evolving market.
Enhancing Critical Thinking Abilities
Enhancing critical thinking abilities is a valuable skill that can improve decision-making, problem solving, and overall cognitive function. Here are some strategies to help you develop and enhance your critical thinking abilities:
Ask Questions: Encourage curiosity by asking open-ended questions about the information or situation at hand. Questions like "Why?" and "How?" can prompt deeper thinking and analysis.
Gather Information: Seek out diverse sources of information and perspectives. Be open to exploring various viewpoints, even if they challenge your existing beliefs or assumptions.
Evaluate Sources: Assess the credibility and reliability of information sources. Consider the author's qualifications, the publication's reputation, and potential biases.
Analyze Arguments: Break down arguments into their components. Identify premises, conclusions, and any logical fallacies. Evaluate the strength of the evidence and the soundness of the reasoning.
Practice Reflective Thinking: Regularly take time to reflect on your thoughts, experiences, and decisions. Consider what you've learned and how you can apply it to future situations.
Consider Alternative Perspectives: Put yourself in someone else's shoes and try to understand their viewpoint, even if you disagree. This helps you develop empathy and a more comprehensive understanding of issues.
Socratic Questioning: Employ Socratic questioning techniques, which involve asking a series of probing questions to explore ideas and uncover deeper insights.
Problem-Solving Exercises: Regularly tackle problems or puzzles that require analytical thinking. This can be anything from brain teasers to real-world challenges.
Debate and Discussion: Engage in debates and discussions with others, particularly those with different viewpoints. Constructive debates can sharpen your critical thinking skills as you defend your position and respond to counter-arguments.
Continual Learning: Embrace a growth mindset and a commitment to lifelong learning. New information and experiences can challenge and expand your thinking.
Seek Feedback: Encourage others to provide constructive feedback on your thoughts and ideas. Constructive criticism can help you refine your thinking.
Use Critical Thinking Tools: Familiarize yourself with critical thinking tools like the SWOT analysis, the 5 Whys technique, and decision matrices. These tools can help structure your thinking and decision-making process.
Take Courses: Consider enrolling in courses or workshops focused on critical thinking and problem solving. Many educational institutions and online platforms offer such courses.
Collaborate: Collaborate with others on projects or problem-solving tasks. Different perspectives and skills can enhance your critical thinking abilities.
Remember that developing critical thinking is an ongoing process, and improvement takes time. Be patient with yourself and continuously practice these strategies to enhance your critical thinking abilities over time.
Problem Solving: A Key Skillset
Developing critical thinking skills will help you and your team become better problem-solvers. A strong problem-solving skillset is of paramount importance in a professional or business context for several compelling reasons. In the complex and ever-evolving landscape of modern work environments, individuals and organizations alike face a myriad of challenges that demand effective problem-solving abilities.
First and foremost, problem-solving skills empower individuals to tackle obstacles and setbacks with confidence and efficiency. In a professional context, this means overcoming workplace challenges, meeting project deadlines, and addressing unexpected issues head-on. Whether it's resolving technical glitches, navigating interpersonal conflicts, or devising strategies to meet changing market demands, problem-solving is the linchpin that ensures operations run smoothly.
Moreover, in business, problem-solving is intricately linked to innovation and growth. Companies that foster a culture of problem-solving encourage their employees to think creatively and proactively identify opportunities for improvement. These organizations not only respond effectively to market disruptions but also stay ahead of the competition by consistently delivering innovative products, services, and solutions. Problem-solving skillsets, therefore, serve as a catalyst for driving innovation and maintaining a competitive edge in today's fast-paced business world.
Additionally, problem-solving skills facilitate effective decision-making. Professionals who can critically analyze information, weigh alternatives, and assess potential risks are better equipped to make sound decisions that align with their organizations' strategic objectives. From financial choices to resource allocation and market entry strategies, well-honed problem-solving skills are instrumental in choosing the most suitable and advantageous courses of action.
In conclusion, the importance of a problem-solving skillset in a professional or business context cannot be overstated. It empowers individuals to navigate challenges, fosters innovation, supports effective decision-making, and ultimately contributes to the success and growth of both individuals and organizations. In today's dynamic and competitive work environments, honing problem-solving abilities is an investment with dividends that extend far beyond immediate problem resolution.
Unleashing Problem-Solving Abilities
Developing and honing problem-solving abilities at work is a valuable skill that can enhance your effectiveness and contribute to your career growth. Here are some practical strategies to help you cultivate and improve your problem-solving skills in the workplace:
Recognize the Importance: Acknowledge the significance of problem-solving skills in your job and career. Understand that the ability to solve problems efficiently is a valuable asset that can set you apart.
Understand the Problem: Take the time to fully understand the problem at hand. Define the problem clearly and identify its root causes. This step is crucial for finding effective solutions.
Gather Information: Collect relevant data and information related to the problem. This may involve research, data analysis, or consulting with colleagues who have expertise in the area.
Break It Down: Divide complex problems into smaller, more manageable components. This can make the problem-solving process less daunting and help you focus on solving one aspect at a time.
Brainstorm Solutions: Encourage brainstorming sessions with colleagues or team members. Diverse perspectives can lead to innovative solutions. Be open to ideas and avoid judgment during this phase.
Evaluate Solutions: Assess each potential solution objectively. Consider the pros and cons, feasibility, and potential risks associated with each option. Critical thinking is essential at this stage.
Select the Best Solution: Based on your evaluation, choose the solution that seems most effective and suitable for the situation. Consider both short-term and long-term implications.
Create an Action Plan: Develop a clear and actionable plan to implement the chosen solution. Define roles and responsibilities, set deadlines, and allocate resources as needed.
Implement and Monitor: Put the plan into action, and closely monitor its progress. Be prepared to make adjustments if necessary as you encounter new information or challenges.
Learn from Failure: Understand that not all solutions will be successful. When problems persist or new ones arise, view them as opportunities for growth and learning. Analyze what went wrong and use that knowledge to improve.
Seek Feedback: Don't hesitate to seek feedback from colleagues, mentors, or supervisors. Constructive criticism can provide valuable insights and help you refine your problem-solving skills.
Continuous Learning: Stay updated on industry trends, best practices, and emerging technologies. Expanding your knowledge base can provide you with new tools and perspectives for problem-solving.
Practice Patience: Complex problems may not have immediate solutions. Exercise patience and persistence, and don't get discouraged if a solution doesn't come quickly.
Embrace Challenges: Seek out challenging projects or assignments that require problem-solving skills. The more you practice, the more confident and skilled you'll become.
Mentorship: If possible, find a mentor or coach who excels in problem-solving. Learning from someone with experience can accelerate your growth.
Use Problem-Solving Tools: Familiarize yourself with problem-solving methodologies and tools like the 5 Whys technique, root cause analysis, SWOT analysis, and decision matrices. These frameworks can guide your problem-solving process.
Develop Soft Skills: Effective problem-solving often involves strong communication, teamwork, and interpersonal skills. Work on improving these soft skills to collaborate effectively with others in solving problems.
Problem Solving in Action
Here are some real-life examples of problem-solving in action in various organizational or business contexts:
- Customer Complaint Resolution: A customer service team at an e-commerce company receives numerous complaints about delayed deliveries. The team investigates the root causes, which may include inefficient order processing or problems with third-party couriers. They implement process improvements, streamline communication with courier services, and provide proactive delivery updates to customers to address the issue and enhance customer satisfaction.
- Cost Reduction Initiative: A manufacturing company realizes that its production costs are escalating, affecting its profit margins. To solve this problem, the company engages in a cost reduction initiative. They scrutinize every aspect of their operations, identify inefficiencies, negotiate better deals with suppliers, optimize production processes, and implement energy-saving measures, ultimately reducing production costs without compromising quality.
- Employee Engagement Improvement: An organization observes declining employee engagement levels, leading to increased turnover. HR and management collaborate to identify the underlying issues, which may include inadequate training, lack of career growth opportunities, or poor work-life balance. They develop and implement employee engagement strategies, such as training programs, mentorship initiatives, and flexible work arrangements, to boost morale and retain talent.
- Product Quality Enhancement: A technology company receives customer complaints about a particular product's reliability and performance. The engineering team conducts root cause analysis, identifies design flaws, and works on product improvements. They also set up a system for gathering feedback from customers to continuously refine the product's quality.
These real-life examples demonstrate that problem-solving is an essential skill in organizations and businesses across various sectors. Effective problem-solving often involves collaboration among teams, data analysis, creative thinking, and the implementation of well-thought-out solutions to overcome challenges and achieve strategic objectives.
Unraveling the Critical Thinking Puzzle
In a professional or organizational context, the relationship between critical thinking and problem-solving is symbiotic and indispensable. Critical thinking serves as the foundational framework that underpins effective problem-solving, while problem-solving is the practical application of critical thinking skills to address real-world challenges. Together, they form a dynamic duo that drives success and innovation.
Critical thinking equips individuals and teams with the capacity to analyze information, evaluate alternatives, and make informed decisions. It encourages open-mindedness, skepticism, and the ability to see beyond the surface, fostering a culture of intellectual rigor. In the context of problem-solving, critical thinking helps define the problem accurately, assess potential solutions objectively, and identify the most appropriate course of action.
Problem-solving, on the other hand, puts critical thinking into action. It involves taking the insights gained through critical analysis and applying them to real-world scenarios. Effective problem-solving hinges on the ability to break down complex challenges, generate creative solutions, and adapt strategies as circumstances evolve—all skills deeply rooted in critical thinking.
In sum, critical thinking without effective problem-solving remains theoretical, and problem-solving without critical thinking lacks depth and efficacy. In the professional and organizational realm, these two capabilities complement and strengthen each other, fostering innovation, informed decision-making, and the ability to navigate the complexities of today's dynamic business environments. Together, they empower individuals and organizations to thrive, adapt, and excel in a world where challenges and opportunities abound.
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Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking carefully, and the thinking components on which they focus. Its adoption as an educational goal has been recommended on the basis of respect for students’ autonomy and preparing students for success in life and for democratic citizenship. “Critical thinkers” have the dispositions and abilities that lead them to think critically when appropriate. The abilities can be identified directly; the dispositions indirectly, by considering what factors contribute to or impede exercise of the abilities. Standardized tests have been developed to assess the degree to which a person possesses such dispositions and abilities. Educational intervention has been shown experimentally to improve them, particularly when it includes dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring. Controversies have arisen over the generalizability of critical thinking across domains, over alleged bias in critical thinking theories and instruction, and over the relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking.
2.1 Dewey’s Three Main Examples
2.2 dewey’s other examples, 2.3 further examples, 2.4 non-examples, 3. the definition of critical thinking, 4. its value, 5. the process of thinking critically, 6. components of the process, 7. contributory dispositions and abilities, 8.1 initiating dispositions, 8.2 internal dispositions, 9. critical thinking abilities, 10. required knowledge, 11. educational methods, 12.1 the generalizability of critical thinking, 12.2 bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, 12.3 relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking, other internet resources, related entries.
Use of the term ‘critical thinking’ to describe an educational goal goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey (1910), who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as
active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey 1910: 6; 1933: 9)
and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind. His lengthy quotations of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.
In the 1930s, many of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association (Aikin 1942) adopted critical thinking as an educational goal, for whose achievement the study’s Evaluation Staff developed tests (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942). Glaser (1941) showed experimentally that it was possible to improve the critical thinking of high school students. Bloom’s influential taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956) incorporated critical thinking abilities. Ennis (1962) proposed 12 aspects of critical thinking as a basis for research on the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability.
Since 1980, an annual international conference in California on critical thinking and educational reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators from all levels of education and from many parts of the world. Also since 1980, the state university system in California has required all undergraduate students to take a critical thinking course. Since 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions in conjunction with the divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association (APA). In 1987, the APA’s Committee on Pre-College Philosophy commissioned a consensus statement on critical thinking for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (Facione 1990a). Researchers have developed standardized tests of critical thinking abilities and dispositions; for details, see the Supplement on Assessment . Educational jurisdictions around the world now include critical thinking in guidelines for curriculum and assessment.
For details on this history, see the Supplement on History .
2. Examples and Non-Examples
Before considering the definition of critical thinking, it will be helpful to have in mind some examples of critical thinking, as well as some examples of kinds of thinking that would apparently not count as critical thinking.
Dewey (1910: 68–71; 1933: 91–94) takes as paradigms of reflective thinking three class papers of students in which they describe their thinking. The examples range from the everyday to the scientific.
Transit : “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o’clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68–69; 1933: 91–92)
Ferryboat : “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying.
“I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving.
“In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot’s position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Moreover, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69–70; 1933: 92–93)
Bubbles : “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).
Dewey (1910, 1933) sprinkles his book with other examples of critical thinking. We will refer to the following.
Weather : A man on a walk notices that it has suddenly become cool, thinks that it is probably going to rain, looks up and sees a dark cloud obscuring the sun, and quickens his steps (1910: 6–10; 1933: 9–13).
Disorder : A man finds his rooms on his return to them in disorder with his belongings thrown about, thinks at first of burglary as an explanation, then thinks of mischievous children as being an alternative explanation, then looks to see whether valuables are missing, and discovers that they are (1910: 82–83; 1933: 166–168).
Typhoid : A physician diagnosing a patient whose conspicuous symptoms suggest typhoid avoids drawing a conclusion until more data are gathered by questioning the patient and by making tests (1910: 85–86; 1933: 170).
Blur : A moving blur catches our eye in the distance, we ask ourselves whether it is a cloud of whirling dust or a tree moving its branches or a man signaling to us, we think of other traits that should be found on each of those possibilities, and we look and see if those traits are found (1910: 102, 108; 1933: 121, 133).
Suction pump : In thinking about the suction pump, the scientist first notes that it will draw water only to a maximum height of 33 feet at sea level and to a lesser maximum height at higher elevations, selects for attention the differing atmospheric pressure at these elevations, sets up experiments in which the air is removed from a vessel containing water (when suction no longer works) and in which the weight of air at various levels is calculated, compares the results of reasoning about the height to which a given weight of air will allow a suction pump to raise water with the observed maximum height at different elevations, and finally assimilates the suction pump to such apparently different phenomena as the siphon and the rising of a balloon (1910: 150–153; 1933: 195–198).
Diamond : A passenger in a car driving in a diamond lane reserved for vehicles with at least one passenger notices that the diamond marks on the pavement are far apart in some places and close together in others. Why? The driver suggests that the reason may be that the diamond marks are not needed where there is a solid double line separating the diamond lane from the adjoining lane, but are needed when there is a dotted single line permitting crossing into the diamond lane. Further observation confirms that the diamonds are close together when a dotted line separates the diamond lane from its neighbour, but otherwise far apart.
Rash : A woman suddenly develops a very itchy red rash on her throat and upper chest. She recently noticed a mark on the back of her right hand, but was not sure whether the mark was a rash or a scrape. She lies down in bed and thinks about what might be causing the rash and what to do about it. About two weeks before, she began taking blood pressure medication that contained a sulfa drug, and the pharmacist had warned her, in view of a previous allergic reaction to a medication containing a sulfa drug, to be on the alert for an allergic reaction; however, she had been taking the medication for two weeks with no such effect. The day before, she began using a new cream on her neck and upper chest; against the new cream as the cause was mark on the back of her hand, which had not been exposed to the cream. She began taking probiotics about a month before. She also recently started new eye drops, but she supposed that manufacturers of eye drops would be careful not to include allergy-causing components in the medication. The rash might be a heat rash, since she recently was sweating profusely from her upper body. Since she is about to go away on a short vacation, where she would not have access to her usual physician, she decides to keep taking the probiotics and using the new eye drops but to discontinue the blood pressure medication and to switch back to the old cream for her neck and upper chest. She forms a plan to consult her regular physician on her return about the blood pressure medication.
Candidate : Although Dewey included no examples of thinking directed at appraising the arguments of others, such thinking has come to be considered a kind of critical thinking. We find an example of such thinking in the performance task on the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), which its sponsoring organization describes as
a performance-based assessment that provides a measure of an institution’s contribution to the development of critical-thinking and written communication skills of its students. (Council for Aid to Education 2017)
A sample task posted on its website requires the test-taker to write a report for public distribution evaluating a fictional candidate’s policy proposals and their supporting arguments, using supplied background documents, with a recommendation on whether to endorse the candidate.
Immediate acceptance of an idea that suggests itself as a solution to a problem (e.g., a possible explanation of an event or phenomenon, an action that seems likely to produce a desired result) is “uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection” (Dewey 1910: 13). On-going suspension of judgment in the light of doubt about a possible solution is not critical thinking (Dewey 1910: 108). Critique driven by a dogmatically held political or religious ideology is not critical thinking; thus Paulo Freire (1968 [1970]) is using the term (e.g., at 1970: 71, 81, 100, 146) in a more politically freighted sense that includes not only reflection but also revolutionary action against oppression. Derivation of a conclusion from given data using an algorithm is not critical thinking.
What is critical thinking? There are many definitions. Ennis (2016) lists 14 philosophically oriented scholarly definitions and three dictionary definitions. Following Rawls (1971), who distinguished his conception of justice from a utilitarian conception but regarded them as rival conceptions of the same concept, Ennis maintains that the 17 definitions are different conceptions of the same concept. Rawls articulated the shared concept of justice as
a characteristic set of principles for assigning basic rights and duties and for determining… the proper distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. (Rawls 1971: 5)
Bailin et al. (1999b) claim that, if one considers what sorts of thinking an educator would take not to be critical thinking and what sorts to be critical thinking, one can conclude that educators typically understand critical thinking to have at least three features.
- It is done for the purpose of making up one’s mind about what to believe or do.
- The person engaging in the thinking is trying to fulfill standards of adequacy and accuracy appropriate to the thinking.
- The thinking fulfills the relevant standards to some threshold level.
One could sum up the core concept that involves these three features by saying that critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking. This core concept seems to apply to all the examples of critical thinking described in the previous section. As for the non-examples, their exclusion depends on construing careful thinking as excluding jumping immediately to conclusions, suspending judgment no matter how strong the evidence, reasoning from an unquestioned ideological or religious perspective, and routinely using an algorithm to answer a question.
If the core of critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its presumed scope, its presumed goal, one’s criteria and threshold for being careful, and the thinking component on which one focuses. As to its scope, some conceptions (e.g., Dewey 1910, 1933) restrict it to constructive thinking on the basis of one’s own observations and experiments, others (e.g., Ennis 1962; Fisher & Scriven 1997; Johnson 1992) to appraisal of the products of such thinking. Ennis (1991) and Bailin et al. (1999b) take it to cover both construction and appraisal. As to its goal, some conceptions restrict it to forming a judgment (Dewey 1910, 1933; Lipman 1987; Facione 1990a). Others allow for actions as well as beliefs as the end point of a process of critical thinking (Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b). As to the criteria and threshold for being careful, definitions vary in the term used to indicate that critical thinking satisfies certain norms: “intellectually disciplined” (Scriven & Paul 1987), “reasonable” (Ennis 1991), “skillful” (Lipman 1987), “skilled” (Fisher & Scriven 1997), “careful” (Bailin & Battersby 2009). Some definitions specify these norms, referring variously to “consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey 1910, 1933); “the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning” (Glaser 1941); “conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul 1987); the requirement that “it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting” (Lipman 1987); “evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations” (Facione 1990a); and “plus-minus considerations of the product in terms of appropriate standards (or criteria)” (Johnson 1992). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to ground the concept of critical thinking in the concept of rationality, which they understand as combining epistemic rationality (fitting one’s beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing goal fulfillment); a critical thinker, in their view, is someone with “a propensity to override suboptimal responses from the autonomous mind” (2010: 227). These variant specifications of norms for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with one another, and in any case presuppose the core notion of thinking carefully. As to the thinking component singled out, some definitions focus on suspension of judgment during the thinking (Dewey 1910; McPeck 1981), others on inquiry while judgment is suspended (Bailin & Battersby 2009, 2021), others on the resulting judgment (Facione 1990a), and still others on responsiveness to reasons (Siegel 1988). Kuhn (2019) takes critical thinking to be more a dialogic practice of advancing and responding to arguments than an individual ability.
In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking is a “programmatic definition” (Scheffler 1960: 19). It expresses a practical program for achieving an educational goal. For this purpose, a one-sentence formulaic definition is much less useful than articulation of a critical thinking process, with criteria and standards for the kinds of thinking that the process may involve. The real educational goal is recognition, adoption and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. That adoption and implementation in turn consists in acquiring the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker.
Conceptions of critical thinking generally do not include moral integrity as part of the concept. Dewey, for example, took critical thinking to be the ultimate intellectual goal of education, but distinguished it from the development of social cooperation among school children, which he took to be the central moral goal. Ennis (1996, 2011) added to his previous list of critical thinking dispositions a group of dispositions to care about the dignity and worth of every person, which he described as a “correlative” (1996) disposition without which critical thinking would be less valuable and perhaps harmful. An educational program that aimed at developing critical thinking but not the correlative disposition to care about the dignity and worth of every person, he asserted, “would be deficient and perhaps dangerous” (Ennis 1996: 172).
Dewey thought that education for reflective thinking would be of value to both the individual and society; recognition in educational practice of the kinship to the scientific attitude of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (Dewey 1910: iii). Schools participating in the Eight-Year Study took development of the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems as a means to leading young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18, 81). Harvey Siegel (1988: 55–61) has offered four considerations in support of adopting critical thinking as an educational ideal. (1) Respect for persons requires that schools and teachers honour students’ demands for reasons and explanations, deal with students honestly, and recognize the need to confront students’ independent judgment; these requirements concern the manner in which teachers treat students. (2) Education has the task of preparing children to be successful adults, a task that requires development of their self-sufficiency. (3) Education should initiate children into the rational traditions in such fields as history, science and mathematics. (4) Education should prepare children to become democratic citizens, which requires reasoned procedures and critical talents and attitudes. To supplement these considerations, Siegel (1988: 62–90) responds to two objections: the ideology objection that adoption of any educational ideal requires a prior ideological commitment and the indoctrination objection that cultivation of critical thinking cannot escape being a form of indoctrination.
Despite the diversity of our 11 examples, one can recognize a common pattern. Dewey analyzed it as consisting of five phases:
- suggestions , in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution;
- an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought;
- the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis , to initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material;
- the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition ( reasoning , in the sense on which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and
- testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action. (Dewey 1933: 106–107; italics in original)
The process of reflective thinking consisting of these phases would be preceded by a perplexed, troubled or confused situation and followed by a cleared-up, unified, resolved situation (Dewey 1933: 106). The term ‘phases’ replaced the term ‘steps’ (Dewey 1910: 72), thus removing the earlier suggestion of an invariant sequence. Variants of the above analysis appeared in (Dewey 1916: 177) and (Dewey 1938: 101–119).
The variant formulations indicate the difficulty of giving a single logical analysis of such a varied process. The process of critical thinking may have a spiral pattern, with the problem being redefined in the light of obstacles to solving it as originally formulated. For example, the person in Transit might have concluded that getting to the appointment at the scheduled time was impossible and have reformulated the problem as that of rescheduling the appointment for a mutually convenient time. Further, defining a problem does not always follow after or lead immediately to an idea of a suggested solution. Nor should it do so, as Dewey himself recognized in describing the physician in Typhoid as avoiding any strong preference for this or that conclusion before getting further information (Dewey 1910: 85; 1933: 170). People with a hypothesis in mind, even one to which they have a very weak commitment, have a so-called “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998): they are likely to pay attention to evidence that confirms the hypothesis and to ignore evidence that counts against it or for some competing hypothesis. Detectives, intelligence agencies, and investigators of airplane accidents are well advised to gather relevant evidence systematically and to postpone even tentative adoption of an explanatory hypothesis until the collected evidence rules out with the appropriate degree of certainty all but one explanation. Dewey’s analysis of the critical thinking process can be faulted as well for requiring acceptance or rejection of a possible solution to a defined problem, with no allowance for deciding in the light of the available evidence to suspend judgment. Further, given the great variety of kinds of problems for which reflection is appropriate, there is likely to be variation in its component events. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the critical thinking process is as a checklist whose component events can occur in a variety of orders, selectively, and more than once. These component events might include (1) noticing a difficulty, (2) defining the problem, (3) dividing the problem into manageable sub-problems, (4) formulating a variety of possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (5) determining what evidence is relevant to deciding among possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (6) devising a plan of systematic observation or experiment that will uncover the relevant evidence, (7) carrying out the plan of systematic observation or experimentation, (8) noting the results of the systematic observation or experiment, (9) gathering relevant testimony and information from others, (10) judging the credibility of testimony and information gathered from others, (11) drawing conclusions from gathered evidence and accepted testimony, and (12) accepting a solution that the evidence adequately supports (cf. Hitchcock 2017: 485).
Checklist conceptions of the process of critical thinking are open to the objection that they are too mechanical and procedural to fit the multi-dimensional and emotionally charged issues for which critical thinking is urgently needed (Paul 1984). For such issues, a more dialectical process is advocated, in which competing relevant world views are identified, their implications explored, and some sort of creative synthesis attempted.
If one considers the critical thinking process illustrated by the 11 examples, one can identify distinct kinds of mental acts and mental states that form part of it. To distinguish, label and briefly characterize these components is a useful preliminary to identifying abilities, skills, dispositions, attitudes, habits and the like that contribute causally to thinking critically. Identifying such abilities and habits is in turn a useful preliminary to setting educational goals. Setting the goals is in its turn a useful preliminary to designing strategies for helping learners to achieve the goals and to designing ways of measuring the extent to which learners have done so. Such measures provide both feedback to learners on their achievement and a basis for experimental research on the effectiveness of various strategies for educating people to think critically. Let us begin, then, by distinguishing the kinds of mental acts and mental events that can occur in a critical thinking process.
- Observing : One notices something in one’s immediate environment (sudden cooling of temperature in Weather , bubbles forming outside a glass and then going inside in Bubbles , a moving blur in the distance in Blur , a rash in Rash ). Or one notes the results of an experiment or systematic observation (valuables missing in Disorder , no suction without air pressure in Suction pump )
- Feeling : One feels puzzled or uncertain about something (how to get to an appointment on time in Transit , why the diamonds vary in spacing in Diamond ). One wants to resolve this perplexity. One feels satisfaction once one has worked out an answer (to take the subway express in Transit , diamonds closer when needed as a warning in Diamond ).
- Wondering : One formulates a question to be addressed (why bubbles form outside a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , how suction pumps work in Suction pump , what caused the rash in Rash ).
- Imagining : One thinks of possible answers (bus or subway or elevated in Transit , flagpole or ornament or wireless communication aid or direction indicator in Ferryboat , allergic reaction or heat rash in Rash ).
- Inferring : One works out what would be the case if a possible answer were assumed (valuables missing if there has been a burglary in Disorder , earlier start to the rash if it is an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug in Rash ). Or one draws a conclusion once sufficient relevant evidence is gathered (take the subway in Transit , burglary in Disorder , discontinue blood pressure medication and new cream in Rash ).
- Knowledge : One uses stored knowledge of the subject-matter to generate possible answers or to infer what would be expected on the assumption of a particular answer (knowledge of a city’s public transit system in Transit , of the requirements for a flagpole in Ferryboat , of Boyle’s law in Bubbles , of allergic reactions in Rash ).
- Experimenting : One designs and carries out an experiment or a systematic observation to find out whether the results deduced from a possible answer will occur (looking at the location of the flagpole in relation to the pilot’s position in Ferryboat , putting an ice cube on top of a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , measuring the height to which a suction pump will draw water at different elevations in Suction pump , noticing the spacing of diamonds when movement to or from a diamond lane is allowed in Diamond ).
- Consulting : One finds a source of information, gets the information from the source, and makes a judgment on whether to accept it. None of our 11 examples include searching for sources of information. In this respect they are unrepresentative, since most people nowadays have almost instant access to information relevant to answering any question, including many of those illustrated by the examples. However, Candidate includes the activities of extracting information from sources and evaluating its credibility.
- Identifying and analyzing arguments : One notices an argument and works out its structure and content as a preliminary to evaluating its strength. This activity is central to Candidate . It is an important part of a critical thinking process in which one surveys arguments for various positions on an issue.
- Judging : One makes a judgment on the basis of accumulated evidence and reasoning, such as the judgment in Ferryboat that the purpose of the pole is to provide direction to the pilot.
- Deciding : One makes a decision on what to do or on what policy to adopt, as in the decision in Transit to take the subway.
By definition, a person who does something voluntarily is both willing and able to do that thing at that time. Both the willingness and the ability contribute causally to the person’s action, in the sense that the voluntary action would not occur if either (or both) of these were lacking. For example, suppose that one is standing with one’s arms at one’s sides and one voluntarily lifts one’s right arm to an extended horizontal position. One would not do so if one were unable to lift one’s arm, if for example one’s right side was paralyzed as the result of a stroke. Nor would one do so if one were unwilling to lift one’s arm, if for example one were participating in a street demonstration at which a white supremacist was urging the crowd to lift their right arm in a Nazi salute and one were unwilling to express support in this way for the racist Nazi ideology. The same analysis applies to a voluntary mental process of thinking critically. It requires both willingness and ability to think critically, including willingness and ability to perform each of the mental acts that compose the process and to coordinate those acts in a sequence that is directed at resolving the initiating perplexity.
Consider willingness first. We can identify causal contributors to willingness to think critically by considering factors that would cause a person who was able to think critically about an issue nevertheless not to do so (Hamby 2014). For each factor, the opposite condition thus contributes causally to willingness to think critically on a particular occasion. For example, people who habitually jump to conclusions without considering alternatives will not think critically about issues that arise, even if they have the required abilities. The contrary condition of willingness to suspend judgment is thus a causal contributor to thinking critically.
Now consider ability. In contrast to the ability to move one’s arm, which can be completely absent because a stroke has left the arm paralyzed, the ability to think critically is a developed ability, whose absence is not a complete absence of ability to think but absence of ability to think well. We can identify the ability to think well directly, in terms of the norms and standards for good thinking. In general, to be able do well the thinking activities that can be components of a critical thinking process, one needs to know the concepts and principles that characterize their good performance, to recognize in particular cases that the concepts and principles apply, and to apply them. The knowledge, recognition and application may be procedural rather than declarative. It may be domain-specific rather than widely applicable, and in either case may need subject-matter knowledge, sometimes of a deep kind.
Reflections of the sort illustrated by the previous two paragraphs have led scholars to identify the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a “critical thinker”, i.e., someone who thinks critically whenever it is appropriate to do so. We turn now to these three types of causal contributors to thinking critically. We start with dispositions, since arguably these are the most powerful contributors to being a critical thinker, can be fostered at an early stage of a child’s development, and are susceptible to general improvement (Glaser 1941: 175)
8. Critical Thinking Dispositions
Educational researchers use the term ‘dispositions’ broadly for the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to being a critical thinker. Some writers (e.g., Paul & Elder 2006; Hamby 2014; Bailin & Battersby 2016a) propose to use the term ‘virtues’ for this dimension of a critical thinker. The virtues in question, although they are virtues of character, concern the person’s ways of thinking rather than the person’s ways of behaving towards others. They are not moral virtues but intellectual virtues, of the sort articulated by Zagzebski (1996) and discussed by Turri, Alfano, and Greco (2017).
On a realistic conception, thinking dispositions or intellectual virtues are real properties of thinkers. They are general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances, and can be genuinely explanatory (Siegel 1999). Sceptics argue that there is no evidence for a specific mental basis for the habits of mind that contribute to thinking critically, and that it is pedagogically misleading to posit such a basis (Bailin et al. 1999a). Whatever their status, critical thinking dispositions need motivation for their initial formation in a child—motivation that may be external or internal. As children develop, the force of habit will gradually become important in sustaining the disposition (Nieto & Valenzuela 2012). Mere force of habit, however, is unlikely to sustain critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must value and enjoy using their knowledge and abilities to think things through for themselves. They must be committed to, and lovers of, inquiry.
A person may have a critical thinking disposition with respect to only some kinds of issues. For example, one could be open-minded about scientific issues but not about religious issues. Similarly, one could be confident in one’s ability to reason about the theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not in one’s ability to reason about the best design for a guided ballistic missile.
Facione (1990a: 25) divides “affective dispositions” of critical thinking into approaches to life and living in general and approaches to specific issues, questions or problems. Adapting this distinction, one can usefully divide critical thinking dispositions into initiating dispositions (those that contribute causally to starting to think critically about an issue) and internal dispositions (those that contribute causally to doing a good job of thinking critically once one has started). The two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, open-mindedness, in the sense of willingness to consider alternative points of view to one’s own, is both an initiating and an internal disposition.
Using the strategy of considering factors that would block people with the ability to think critically from doing so, we can identify as initiating dispositions for thinking critically attentiveness, a habit of inquiry, self-confidence, courage, open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgment, trust in reason, wanting evidence for one’s beliefs, and seeking the truth. We consider briefly what each of these dispositions amounts to, in each case citing sources that acknowledge them.
- Attentiveness : One will not think critically if one fails to recognize an issue that needs to be thought through. For example, the pedestrian in Weather would not have looked up if he had not noticed that the air was suddenly cooler. To be a critical thinker, then, one needs to be habitually attentive to one’s surroundings, noticing not only what one senses but also sources of perplexity in messages received and in one’s own beliefs and attitudes (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
- Habit of inquiry : Inquiry is effortful, and one needs an internal push to engage in it. For example, the student in Bubbles could easily have stopped at idle wondering about the cause of the bubbles rather than reasoning to a hypothesis, then designing and executing an experiment to test it. Thus willingness to think critically needs mental energy and initiative. What can supply that energy? Love of inquiry, or perhaps just a habit of inquiry. Hamby (2015) has argued that willingness to inquire is the central critical thinking virtue, one that encompasses all the others. It is recognized as a critical thinking disposition by Dewey (1910: 29; 1933: 35), Glaser (1941: 5), Ennis (1987: 12; 1991: 8), Facione (1990a: 25), Bailin et al. (1999b: 294), Halpern (1998: 452), and Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo (2001).
- Self-confidence : Lack of confidence in one’s abilities can block critical thinking. For example, if the woman in Rash lacked confidence in her ability to figure things out for herself, she might just have assumed that the rash on her chest was the allergic reaction to her medication against which the pharmacist had warned her. Thus willingness to think critically requires confidence in one’s ability to inquire (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
- Courage : Fear of thinking for oneself can stop one from doing it. Thus willingness to think critically requires intellectual courage (Paul & Elder 2006: 16).
- Open-mindedness : A dogmatic attitude will impede thinking critically. For example, a person who adheres rigidly to a “pro-choice” position on the issue of the legal status of induced abortion is likely to be unwilling to consider seriously the issue of when in its development an unborn child acquires a moral right to life. Thus willingness to think critically requires open-mindedness, in the sense of a willingness to examine questions to which one already accepts an answer but which further evidence or reasoning might cause one to answer differently (Dewey 1933; Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b; Halpern 1998, Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). Paul (1981) emphasizes open-mindedness about alternative world-views, and recommends a dialectical approach to integrating such views as central to what he calls “strong sense” critical thinking. In three studies, Haran, Ritov, & Mellers (2013) found that actively open-minded thinking, including “the tendency to weigh new evidence against a favored belief, to spend sufficient time on a problem before giving up, and to consider carefully the opinions of others in forming one’s own”, led study participants to acquire information and thus to make accurate estimations.
- Willingness to suspend judgment : Premature closure on an initial solution will block critical thinking. Thus willingness to think critically requires a willingness to suspend judgment while alternatives are explored (Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Halpern 1998).
- Trust in reason : Since distrust in the processes of reasoned inquiry will dissuade one from engaging in it, trust in them is an initiating critical thinking disposition (Facione 1990a, 25; Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001; Paul & Elder 2006). In reaction to an allegedly exclusive emphasis on reason in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, Thayer-Bacon (2000) argues that intuition, imagination, and emotion have important roles to play in an adequate conception of critical thinking that she calls “constructive thinking”. From her point of view, critical thinking requires trust not only in reason but also in intuition, imagination, and emotion.
- Seeking the truth : If one does not care about the truth but is content to stick with one’s initial bias on an issue, then one will not think critically about it. Seeking the truth is thus an initiating critical thinking disposition (Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). A disposition to seek the truth is implicit in more specific critical thinking dispositions, such as trying to be well-informed, considering seriously points of view other than one’s own, looking for alternatives, suspending judgment when the evidence is insufficient, and adopting a position when the evidence supporting it is sufficient.
Some of the initiating dispositions, such as open-mindedness and willingness to suspend judgment, are also internal critical thinking dispositions, in the sense of mental habits or attitudes that contribute causally to doing a good job of critical thinking once one starts the process. But there are many other internal critical thinking dispositions. Some of them are parasitic on one’s conception of good thinking. For example, it is constitutive of good thinking about an issue to formulate the issue clearly and to maintain focus on it. For this purpose, one needs not only the corresponding ability but also the corresponding disposition. Ennis (1991: 8) describes it as the disposition “to determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question”, Facione (1990a: 25) as “clarity in stating the question or concern”. Other internal dispositions are motivators to continue or adjust the critical thinking process, such as willingness to persist in a complex task and willingness to abandon nonproductive strategies in an attempt to self-correct (Halpern 1998: 452). For a list of identified internal critical thinking dispositions, see the Supplement on Internal Critical Thinking Dispositions .
Some theorists postulate skills, i.e., acquired abilities, as operative in critical thinking. It is not obvious, however, that a good mental act is the exercise of a generic acquired skill. Inferring an expected time of arrival, as in Transit , has some generic components but also uses non-generic subject-matter knowledge. Bailin et al. (1999a) argue against viewing critical thinking skills as generic and discrete, on the ground that skilled performance at a critical thinking task cannot be separated from knowledge of concepts and from domain-specific principles of good thinking. Talk of skills, they concede, is unproblematic if it means merely that a person with critical thinking skills is capable of intelligent performance.
Despite such scepticism, theorists of critical thinking have listed as general contributors to critical thinking what they variously call abilities (Glaser 1941; Ennis 1962, 1991), skills (Facione 1990a; Halpern 1998) or competencies (Fisher & Scriven 1997). Amalgamating these lists would produce a confusing and chaotic cornucopia of more than 50 possible educational objectives, with only partial overlap among them. It makes sense instead to try to understand the reasons for the multiplicity and diversity, and to make a selection according to one’s own reasons for singling out abilities to be developed in a critical thinking curriculum. Two reasons for diversity among lists of critical thinking abilities are the underlying conception of critical thinking and the envisaged educational level. Appraisal-only conceptions, for example, involve a different suite of abilities than constructive-only conceptions. Some lists, such as those in (Glaser 1941), are put forward as educational objectives for secondary school students, whereas others are proposed as objectives for college students (e.g., Facione 1990a).
The abilities described in the remaining paragraphs of this section emerge from reflection on the general abilities needed to do well the thinking activities identified in section 6 as components of the critical thinking process described in section 5 . The derivation of each collection of abilities is accompanied by citation of sources that list such abilities and of standardized tests that claim to test them.
Observational abilities : Careful and accurate observation sometimes requires specialist expertise and practice, as in the case of observing birds and observing accident scenes. However, there are general abilities of noticing what one’s senses are picking up from one’s environment and of being able to articulate clearly and accurately to oneself and others what one has observed. It helps in exercising them to be able to recognize and take into account factors that make one’s observation less trustworthy, such as prior framing of the situation, inadequate time, deficient senses, poor observation conditions, and the like. It helps as well to be skilled at taking steps to make one’s observation more trustworthy, such as moving closer to get a better look, measuring something three times and taking the average, and checking what one thinks one is observing with someone else who is in a good position to observe it. It also helps to be skilled at recognizing respects in which one’s report of one’s observation involves inference rather than direct observation, so that one can then consider whether the inference is justified. These abilities come into play as well when one thinks about whether and with what degree of confidence to accept an observation report, for example in the study of history or in a criminal investigation or in assessing news reports. Observational abilities show up in some lists of critical thinking abilities (Ennis 1962: 90; Facione 1990a: 16; Ennis 1991: 9). There are items testing a person’s ability to judge the credibility of observation reports in the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Levels X and Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). Norris and King (1983, 1985, 1990a, 1990b) is a test of ability to appraise observation reports.
Emotional abilities : The emotions that drive a critical thinking process are perplexity or puzzlement, a wish to resolve it, and satisfaction at achieving the desired resolution. Children experience these emotions at an early age, without being trained to do so. Education that takes critical thinking as a goal needs only to channel these emotions and to make sure not to stifle them. Collaborative critical thinking benefits from ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotional commitments and reactions.
Questioning abilities : A critical thinking process needs transformation of an inchoate sense of perplexity into a clear question. Formulating a question well requires not building in questionable assumptions, not prejudging the issue, and using language that in context is unambiguous and precise enough (Ennis 1962: 97; 1991: 9).
Imaginative abilities : Thinking directed at finding the correct causal explanation of a general phenomenon or particular event requires an ability to imagine possible explanations. Thinking about what policy or plan of action to adopt requires generation of options and consideration of possible consequences of each option. Domain knowledge is required for such creative activity, but a general ability to imagine alternatives is helpful and can be nurtured so as to become easier, quicker, more extensive, and deeper (Dewey 1910: 34–39; 1933: 40–47). Facione (1990a) and Halpern (1998) include the ability to imagine alternatives as a critical thinking ability.
Inferential abilities : The ability to draw conclusions from given information, and to recognize with what degree of certainty one’s own or others’ conclusions follow, is universally recognized as a general critical thinking ability. All 11 examples in section 2 of this article include inferences, some from hypotheses or options (as in Transit , Ferryboat and Disorder ), others from something observed (as in Weather and Rash ). None of these inferences is formally valid. Rather, they are licensed by general, sometimes qualified substantive rules of inference (Toulmin 1958) that rest on domain knowledge—that a bus trip takes about the same time in each direction, that the terminal of a wireless telegraph would be located on the highest possible place, that sudden cooling is often followed by rain, that an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug generally shows up soon after one starts taking it. It is a matter of controversy to what extent the specialized ability to deduce conclusions from premisses using formal rules of inference is needed for critical thinking. Dewey (1933) locates logical forms in setting out the products of reflection rather than in the process of reflection. Ennis (1981a), on the other hand, maintains that a liberally-educated person should have the following abilities: to translate natural-language statements into statements using the standard logical operators, to use appropriately the language of necessary and sufficient conditions, to deal with argument forms and arguments containing symbols, to determine whether in virtue of an argument’s form its conclusion follows necessarily from its premisses, to reason with logically complex propositions, and to apply the rules and procedures of deductive logic. Inferential abilities are recognized as critical thinking abilities by Glaser (1941: 6), Facione (1990a: 9), Ennis (1991: 9), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 99, 111), and Halpern (1998: 452). Items testing inferential abilities constitute two of the five subtests of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser 1980a, 1980b, 1994), two of the four sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), three of the seven sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), 11 of the 34 items on Forms A and B of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992), and a high but variable proportion of the 25 selected-response questions in the Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017).
Experimenting abilities : Knowing how to design and execute an experiment is important not just in scientific research but also in everyday life, as in Rash . Dewey devoted a whole chapter of his How We Think (1910: 145–156; 1933: 190–202) to the superiority of experimentation over observation in advancing knowledge. Experimenting abilities come into play at one remove in appraising reports of scientific studies. Skill in designing and executing experiments includes the acknowledged abilities to appraise evidence (Glaser 1941: 6), to carry out experiments and to apply appropriate statistical inference techniques (Facione 1990a: 9), to judge inductions to an explanatory hypothesis (Ennis 1991: 9), and to recognize the need for an adequately large sample size (Halpern 1998). The Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) includes four items (out of 52) on experimental design. The Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) makes room for appraisal of study design in both its performance task and its selected-response questions.
Consulting abilities : Skill at consulting sources of information comes into play when one seeks information to help resolve a problem, as in Candidate . Ability to find and appraise information includes ability to gather and marshal pertinent information (Glaser 1941: 6), to judge whether a statement made by an alleged authority is acceptable (Ennis 1962: 84), to plan a search for desired information (Facione 1990a: 9), and to judge the credibility of a source (Ennis 1991: 9). Ability to judge the credibility of statements is tested by 24 items (out of 76) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) and by four items (out of 52) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). The College Learning Assessment’s performance task requires evaluation of whether information in documents is credible or unreliable (Council for Aid to Education 2017).
Argument analysis abilities : The ability to identify and analyze arguments contributes to the process of surveying arguments on an issue in order to form one’s own reasoned judgment, as in Candidate . The ability to detect and analyze arguments is recognized as a critical thinking skill by Facione (1990a: 7–8), Ennis (1991: 9) and Halpern (1998). Five items (out of 34) on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992) test skill at argument analysis. The College Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) incorporates argument analysis in its selected-response tests of critical reading and evaluation and of critiquing an argument.
Judging skills and deciding skills : Skill at judging and deciding is skill at recognizing what judgment or decision the available evidence and argument supports, and with what degree of confidence. It is thus a component of the inferential skills already discussed.
Lists and tests of critical thinking abilities often include two more abilities: identifying assumptions and constructing and evaluating definitions.
In addition to dispositions and abilities, critical thinking needs knowledge: of critical thinking concepts, of critical thinking principles, and of the subject-matter of the thinking.
We can derive a short list of concepts whose understanding contributes to critical thinking from the critical thinking abilities described in the preceding section. Observational abilities require an understanding of the difference between observation and inference. Questioning abilities require an understanding of the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness. Inferential abilities require an understanding of the difference between conclusive and defeasible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction), as well as of the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions. Experimenting abilities require an understanding of the concepts of hypothesis, null hypothesis, assumption and prediction, as well as of the concept of statistical significance and of its difference from importance. They also require an understanding of the difference between an experiment and an observational study, and in particular of the difference between a randomized controlled trial, a prospective correlational study and a retrospective (case-control) study. Argument analysis abilities require an understanding of the concepts of argument, premiss, assumption, conclusion and counter-consideration. Additional critical thinking concepts are proposed by Bailin et al. (1999b: 293), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 105–106), Black (2012), and Blair (2021).
According to Glaser (1941: 25), ability to think critically requires knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. If we review the list of abilities in the preceding section, however, we can see that some of them can be acquired and exercised merely through practice, possibly guided in an educational setting, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of some phenomenon or event requires that one consider a full range of possible causal contributors, but it seems more important that one implements this principle in one’s practice than that one is able to articulate it. What is important is “operational knowledge” of the standards and principles of good thinking (Bailin et al. 1999b: 291–293). But the development of such critical thinking abilities as designing an experiment or constructing an operational definition can benefit from learning their underlying theory. Further, explicit knowledge of quirks of human thinking seems useful as a cautionary guide. Human memory is not just fallible about details, as people learn from their own experiences of misremembering, but is so malleable that a detailed, clear and vivid recollection of an event can be a total fabrication (Loftus 2017). People seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to their existing beliefs and expectations, often unconscious of their “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998). Not only are people subject to this and other cognitive biases (Kahneman 2011), of which they are typically unaware, but it may be counter-productive for one to make oneself aware of them and try consciously to counteract them or to counteract social biases such as racial or sexual stereotypes (Kenyon & Beaulac 2014). It is helpful to be aware of these facts and of the superior effectiveness of blocking the operation of biases—for example, by making an immediate record of one’s observations, refraining from forming a preliminary explanatory hypothesis, blind refereeing, double-blind randomized trials, and blind grading of students’ work. It is also helpful to be aware of the prevalence of “noise” (unwanted unsystematic variability of judgments), of how to detect noise (through a noise audit), and of how to reduce noise: make accuracy the goal, think statistically, break a process of arriving at a judgment into independent tasks, resist premature intuitions, in a group get independent judgments first, favour comparative judgments and scales (Kahneman, Sibony, & Sunstein 2021). It is helpful as well to be aware of the concept of “bounded rationality” in decision-making and of the related distinction between “satisficing” and optimizing (Simon 1956; Gigerenzer 2001).
Critical thinking about an issue requires substantive knowledge of the domain to which the issue belongs. Critical thinking abilities are not a magic elixir that can be applied to any issue whatever by somebody who has no knowledge of the facts relevant to exploring that issue. For example, the student in Bubbles needed to know that gases do not penetrate solid objects like a glass, that air expands when heated, that the volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with its temperature and inversely with its pressure, and that hot objects will spontaneously cool down to the ambient temperature of their surroundings unless kept hot by insulation or a source of heat. Critical thinkers thus need a rich fund of subject-matter knowledge relevant to the variety of situations they encounter. This fact is recognized in the inclusion among critical thinking dispositions of a concern to become and remain generally well informed.
Experimental educational interventions, with control groups, have shown that education can improve critical thinking skills and dispositions, as measured by standardized tests. For information about these tests, see the Supplement on Assessment .
What educational methods are most effective at developing the dispositions, abilities and knowledge of a critical thinker? In a comprehensive meta-analysis of experimental and quasi-experimental studies of strategies for teaching students to think critically, Abrami et al. (2015) found that dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring each increased the effectiveness of the educational intervention, and that they were most effective when combined. They also found that in these studies a combination of separate instruction in critical thinking with subject-matter instruction in which students are encouraged to think critically was more effective than either by itself. However, the difference was not statistically significant; that is, it might have arisen by chance.
Most of these studies lack the longitudinal follow-up required to determine whether the observed differential improvements in critical thinking abilities or dispositions continue over time, for example until high school or college graduation. For details on studies of methods of developing critical thinking skills and dispositions, see the Supplement on Educational Methods .
12. Controversies
Scholars have denied the generalizability of critical thinking abilities across subject domains, have alleged bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, and have investigated the relationship of critical thinking to other kinds of thinking.
McPeck (1981) attacked the thinking skills movement of the 1970s, including the critical thinking movement. He argued that there are no general thinking skills, since thinking is always thinking about some subject-matter. It is futile, he claimed, for schools and colleges to teach thinking as if it were a separate subject. Rather, teachers should lead their pupils to become autonomous thinkers by teaching school subjects in a way that brings out their cognitive structure and that encourages and rewards discussion and argument. As some of his critics (e.g., Paul 1985; Siegel 1985) pointed out, McPeck’s central argument needs elaboration, since it has obvious counter-examples in writing and speaking, for which (up to a certain level of complexity) there are teachable general abilities even though they are always about some subject-matter. To make his argument convincing, McPeck needs to explain how thinking differs from writing and speaking in a way that does not permit useful abstraction of its components from the subject-matters with which it deals. He has not done so. Nevertheless, his position that the dispositions and abilities of a critical thinker are best developed in the context of subject-matter instruction is shared by many theorists of critical thinking, including Dewey (1910, 1933), Glaser (1941), Passmore (1980), Weinstein (1990), Bailin et al. (1999b), and Willingham (2019).
McPeck’s challenge prompted reflection on the extent to which critical thinking is subject-specific. McPeck argued for a strong subject-specificity thesis, according to which it is a conceptual truth that all critical thinking abilities are specific to a subject. (He did not however extend his subject-specificity thesis to critical thinking dispositions. In particular, he took the disposition to suspend judgment in situations of cognitive dissonance to be a general disposition.) Conceptual subject-specificity is subject to obvious counter-examples, such as the general ability to recognize confusion of necessary and sufficient conditions. A more modest thesis, also endorsed by McPeck, is epistemological subject-specificity, according to which the norms of good thinking vary from one field to another. Epistemological subject-specificity clearly holds to a certain extent; for example, the principles in accordance with which one solves a differential equation are quite different from the principles in accordance with which one determines whether a painting is a genuine Picasso. But the thesis suffers, as Ennis (1989) points out, from vagueness of the concept of a field or subject and from the obvious existence of inter-field principles, however broadly the concept of a field is construed. For example, the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning hold for all the varied fields in which such reasoning occurs. A third kind of subject-specificity is empirical subject-specificity, according to which as a matter of empirically observable fact a person with the abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker in one area of investigation will not necessarily have them in another area of investigation.
The thesis of empirical subject-specificity raises the general problem of transfer. If critical thinking abilities and dispositions have to be developed independently in each school subject, how are they of any use in dealing with the problems of everyday life and the political and social issues of contemporary society, most of which do not fit into the framework of a traditional school subject? Proponents of empirical subject-specificity tend to argue that transfer is more likely to occur if there is critical thinking instruction in a variety of domains, with explicit attention to dispositions and abilities that cut across domains. But evidence for this claim is scanty. There is a need for well-designed empirical studies that investigate the conditions that make transfer more likely.
It is common ground in debates about the generality or subject-specificity of critical thinking dispositions and abilities that critical thinking about any topic requires background knowledge about the topic. For example, the most sophisticated understanding of the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is of no help unless accompanied by some knowledge of what might be plausible explanations of some phenomenon under investigation.
Critics have objected to bias in the theory, pedagogy and practice of critical thinking. Commentators (e.g., Alston 1995; Ennis 1998) have noted that anyone who takes a position has a bias in the neutral sense of being inclined in one direction rather than others. The critics, however, are objecting to bias in the pejorative sense of an unjustified favoring of certain ways of knowing over others, frequently alleging that the unjustly favoured ways are those of a dominant sex or culture (Bailin 1995). These ways favour:
- reinforcement of egocentric and sociocentric biases over dialectical engagement with opposing world-views (Paul 1981, 1984; Warren 1998)
- distancing from the object of inquiry over closeness to it (Martin 1992; Thayer-Bacon 1992)
- indifference to the situation of others over care for them (Martin 1992)
- orientation to thought over orientation to action (Martin 1992)
- being reasonable over caring to understand people’s ideas (Thayer-Bacon 1993)
- being neutral and objective over being embodied and situated (Thayer-Bacon 1995a)
- doubting over believing (Thayer-Bacon 1995b)
- reason over emotion, imagination and intuition (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
- solitary thinking over collaborative thinking (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
- written and spoken assignments over other forms of expression (Alston 2001)
- attention to written and spoken communications over attention to human problems (Alston 2001)
- winning debates in the public sphere over making and understanding meaning (Alston 2001)
A common thread in this smorgasbord of accusations is dissatisfaction with focusing on the logical analysis and evaluation of reasoning and arguments. While these authors acknowledge that such analysis and evaluation is part of critical thinking and should be part of its conceptualization and pedagogy, they insist that it is only a part. Paul (1981), for example, bemoans the tendency of atomistic teaching of methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments to turn students into more able sophists, adept at finding fault with positions and arguments with which they disagree but even more entrenched in the egocentric and sociocentric biases with which they began. Martin (1992) and Thayer-Bacon (1992) cite with approval the self-reported intimacy with their subject-matter of leading researchers in biology and medicine, an intimacy that conflicts with the distancing allegedly recommended in standard conceptions and pedagogy of critical thinking. Thayer-Bacon (2000) contrasts the embodied and socially embedded learning of her elementary school students in a Montessori school, who used their imagination, intuition and emotions as well as their reason, with conceptions of critical thinking as
thinking that is used to critique arguments, offer justifications, and make judgments about what are the good reasons, or the right answers. (Thayer-Bacon 2000: 127–128)
Alston (2001) reports that her students in a women’s studies class were able to see the flaws in the Cinderella myth that pervades much romantic fiction but in their own romantic relationships still acted as if all failures were the woman’s fault and still accepted the notions of love at first sight and living happily ever after. Students, she writes, should
be able to connect their intellectual critique to a more affective, somatic, and ethical account of making risky choices that have sexist, racist, classist, familial, sexual, or other consequences for themselves and those both near and far… critical thinking that reads arguments, texts, or practices merely on the surface without connections to feeling/desiring/doing or action lacks an ethical depth that should infuse the difference between mere cognitive activity and something we want to call critical thinking. (Alston 2001: 34)
Some critics portray such biases as unfair to women. Thayer-Bacon (1992), for example, has charged modern critical thinking theory with being sexist, on the ground that it separates the self from the object and causes one to lose touch with one’s inner voice, and thus stigmatizes women, who (she asserts) link self to object and listen to their inner voice. Her charge does not imply that women as a group are on average less able than men to analyze and evaluate arguments. Facione (1990c) found no difference by sex in performance on his California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Kuhn (1991: 280–281) found no difference by sex in either the disposition or the competence to engage in argumentative thinking.
The critics propose a variety of remedies for the biases that they allege. In general, they do not propose to eliminate or downplay critical thinking as an educational goal. Rather, they propose to conceptualize critical thinking differently and to change its pedagogy accordingly. Their pedagogical proposals arise logically from their objections. They can be summarized as follows:
- Focus on argument networks with dialectical exchanges reflecting contesting points of view rather than on atomic arguments, so as to develop “strong sense” critical thinking that transcends egocentric and sociocentric biases (Paul 1981, 1984).
- Foster closeness to the subject-matter and feeling connected to others in order to inform a humane democracy (Martin 1992).
- Develop “constructive thinking” as a social activity in a community of physically embodied and socially embedded inquirers with personal voices who value not only reason but also imagination, intuition and emotion (Thayer-Bacon 2000).
- In developing critical thinking in school subjects, treat as important neither skills nor dispositions but opening worlds of meaning (Alston 2001).
- Attend to the development of critical thinking dispositions as well as skills, and adopt the “critical pedagogy” practised and advocated by Freire (1968 [1970]) and hooks (1994) (Dalgleish, Girard, & Davies 2017).
A common thread in these proposals is treatment of critical thinking as a social, interactive, personally engaged activity like that of a quilting bee or a barn-raising (Thayer-Bacon 2000) rather than as an individual, solitary, distanced activity symbolized by Rodin’s The Thinker . One can get a vivid description of education with the former type of goal from the writings of bell hooks (1994, 2010). Critical thinking for her is open-minded dialectical exchange across opposing standpoints and from multiple perspectives, a conception similar to Paul’s “strong sense” critical thinking (Paul 1981). She abandons the structure of domination in the traditional classroom. In an introductory course on black women writers, for example, she assigns students to write an autobiographical paragraph about an early racial memory, then to read it aloud as the others listen, thus affirming the uniqueness and value of each voice and creating a communal awareness of the diversity of the group’s experiences (hooks 1994: 84). Her “engaged pedagogy” is thus similar to the “freedom under guidance” implemented in John Dewey’s Laboratory School of Chicago in the late 1890s and early 1900s. It incorporates the dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring that Abrami (2015) found to be most effective in improving critical thinking skills and dispositions.
What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision-making, higher-order thinking, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking? One’s answer to this question obviously depends on how one defines the terms used in the question. If critical thinking is conceived broadly to cover any careful thinking about any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be kinds of critical thinking, if they are done carefully. Historically, ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’ were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of appraisal of intellectual products, then it will be disjoint with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives used the phrase “intellectual abilities and skills” for what had been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others (Bloom et al. 1956: 38). Thus, the so-called “higher-order thinking skills” at the taxonomy’s top levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are just critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their assessment (Ennis 1981b). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) likewise treats critical thinking as cutting across those types of cognitive process that involve more than remembering (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270). For details, see the Supplement on History .
As to creative thinking, it overlaps with critical thinking (Bailin 1987, 1988). Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat , requires creative imagination in constructing plausible explanatory hypotheses. Likewise, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate , requires creativity in coming up with options. Conversely, creativity in any field needs to be balanced by critical appraisal of the draft painting or novel or mathematical theory.
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- The Nature of Critical Thinking: An Outline of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Abilities , by Robert H. Ennis
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Critical thinking vs. problem solving: the definitions
I was recently chatting with a colleague about the kinds of skills kids need to develop to be successful on the job, and in life. I started running down a list, and she said something along the lines of, “Well, critical thinking and problem solving… they’re the same thing right?” That’s a really interesting question! For my colleague, “critical thinking” and “problem solving” are just phrases that are out there, somehow related to learning. And just like with anything else in life, when you haven’t had a reason to investigate them deeply, they might just be ideas that seem to mean something vaguely similar… but what do these ideas really mean?
First, let’s start with some basic definitions. Critical thinking, according to dictionary.com, is “disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded and informed by evidence.” Well, that certainly sounds like something I want my kids to be proficient in! According to Merriam-Webster, problem solving is “the process or act of finding a solution to a problem”, and there’s another no-brainer, definitely something I want to instill in my children. Can we move from these definitions to a real understanding of the differences between these two skill sets?
Looking deeper: what skills are involved in critical thinking?
We’ve looked up definitions for critical thinking and problem solving, but these definitions don’t tell us anything about the skills that are involved in each. For instance, what exactly do my kids need to be able to do in order to think critically? Critical thinking skills are habits of mind that help us be more thoughtful, rational, creative, and curious. Critical thinking can involve collecting information, organizing what we collect, analyzing and evaluating the information we have, making connections between different ideas, understanding what’s relevant and what isn’t, and so much more. All of this gives us a basis on which an informed decision can be made.
But when do we make decisions? When we’re confronted with a task, challenge, or problem . Indeed, we apply critical thinking when we are faced with a problem that demands we apply some of those skills. Critical thinking skills are general plans of attack, applicable to a wide array of problems!
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Looking deeper: what skills are involved in problem solving?
So now we’ve discovered something interesting: critical thinking skills are problem solving skills! And if you think about it, any critical thinking skill could conceivably be applied to finding the solution to some kind of problem. (In fact, it's hard to define critical thinking skills and not make them about problem solving in some way!) So, every critical thinking skill is a problem-solving skill.
Does that mean that every problem-solving skill is also a critical thinking skill? Actually, no. For starters, there are lots of skills that help us solve problems, but are not thinking skills! For example, brute strength is a body skill that is also a problem-solving skill. (But probably much of the time, you need to figure out how to use that strength, say, so you don't unnecessarily break your best friend’s TV when helping her move to a new home; critical thinking skills to the rescue!)
There are also problem-solving skills that are thinking skills, but just not critical thinking skills. For example, people with “emotional intelligence” can soothe tempers, read other people, and help move ideas forward in contexts that have nothing to do with problem solving. Skills of persuasion and oration are thinking skills, but they don't necessarily have to be critical thinking skills.
There are even problem-solving skills that are the complete opposite of critical thinking, like following directions, and mechanical and rote thinking. For example, learning the steps for solving a linear equation allows you to solve linear equations like a machine, no critical thinking required. However, rote thinking without critical thinking can be dangerous; you don't necessarily want to follow rules without checking that those rules make sense!
Critical thinking and problem solving: sometimes different, sometimes the same
We know that critical thinking skills are fundamental to problem-solving. And we know that there are other skills that help us solve problems, skills that aren’t critical thinking skills. Problem solving involves a wide array of techniques and attacks, some of which fall under critical thinking, and some which don’t. Aspects of critical thinking and problem solving can be different, or the same, but both sets of skills are incredibly important for all kids to have. There isn’t a skill we’ve talked about here where I think “Well, my kiddo could probably live without being able to do that….” Critical thinking is the foundation that allows us to tackle challenges of all kinds, supplemented by other problem-solving skills as needed. We want our kids to have all of these skills at their fingertips, so they can solve problems effectively, using strong evidence, logical thinking, and clear reasoning. All are vital ingredients to a successful and happy grown-up life!
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What is Critical Thinking and How is it Different from Problem Solving?
- Updated March 17, 2024
- Posted in Critical Thinking
- Tagged as Critical Thinking
- 8 mins read
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Critical thinking and problem solving are two intellectual skills that are often talked about together.
Both involve using logic, analysis, and judgment to address a matter at hand. But some key differences in how these thought processes work are important to understand.
In this post, I’ll break down a simple definition of each, talk about their key elements, and most importantly highlight the differences between critical thinking vs. problem solving.
Understanding these distinctions can help sharpen your ability to carry out both processes more effectively.
What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking refers to the objective analysis and evaluation of information or an issue to reach a logical judgment about what to believe or how to act. It implies using logic, reasoning, and evidence rather than assumptions, biases, or flawed arguments.
The goal of critical thinking is to determine the authenticity, accuracy, merit, feasibility, or worthiness of something. It enables drawing sound conclusions rooted in a careful, impartial examination of facts rather than emotions or opinions.
Key Aspects of Critical Thinking
Some key skills and mindsets required for effective critical thinking include:
- Open-mindedness : Being willing to examine new ideas or opposing perspectives without prejudgment
- Objectivity : Examining an issue fairly based solely on facts and evidence rather than emotions or prejudices
- Attention to detail : Noticing and analyzing the subtle intricacies and nuances of an argument or set of facts
- Logical reasoning : Making judgments based on clear, valid linking of facts that show why one should accept the judgment as true or justified
- Rational skepticism : Questioning and validating the accuracy or merit of claims, data, or beliefs using sound methods
Critical thinking enables breaking down complex issues to focus attention on each element, understanding causal relationships between elements, uncovering assumptions or flaws in reasoning, and ultimately reaching credible, justifiable conclusions.
What is Problem Solving?
Problem solving refers to the process of working through the details of a challenge or hindrance to reach a solution or determine the best course of action. It usually implies applying specialized knowledge or expertise to address a specific matter.
The goal is to methodically think through how to transform the current problematic state into a desired fixed state by identifying potential solutions, evaluating their feasibility, and ultimately selecting the best course of action.
Key Aspects of Problem Solving
Major aspects of competent problem solving include:
- Defining the problem : Clearly articulating the challenge, obstacles, components, expectations, and goals
- Researching and analyzing : Gathering all relevant data, context, and constraints that impact the matter
- Identifying alternatives : Brainstorming possible options, routes, or strategies to address the issue
- Evaluating options : Using criteria like efficiency, likelihood of success, required resources, impacts, and so on to determine the merit of each option
- Selecting approach : Choosing what appears to be the best course of action based on facts, analysis, resources, and context
- Executing solution : Applying the chosen approach fully to resolve the defined problem
Problem solving relies on critical thinking applied to a well-defined situation using domain expertise and strategic decision making to drive resolution.
Overlaps Between Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
There are certainly overlaps between using critical thinking skills and carrying out a problem solving process, including:
- Both require gathering thorough, accurate information relevant to the matter
- Each relies on objective analysis of the issue rather than assumptions or opinions
- They involve breaking down complex matters into components to study interrelationships
- Strong foundational logic, reasoning, questioning, and decision making capabilities strengthen both
- Credibility, practicality, and precision are important to conclusions and chosen actions
So critical thinking and problem solving complement each other in many regards. Employing sound critical thinking strengthens one’s ability to work through problem solving steps. Diligently applying problem solving methodology relies heavily on consistently utilizing critical thinking abilities.
Key Differences Between Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
However, there are some notable ways critical thinking and problem solving differ:
1. Goals and outcomes
Critical thinking aims to form a credible judgment regarding the authenticity or value of information, whereas problem solving focuses on finding practical solutions and definitive plans of action around a specific challenge.
So critical thinking helps determine what to believe while problem solving drives what to do .
2. Scope and constraints
Critical thinking involves open-ended examination and critique that can be applied to virtually any topic or situational elements. Problem solving tends to have defined constraints and criteria tied to domain-specific expertise to yield viable solutions.
Critical thinking deals with abstract ideals; problem solving must align to concrete realities.
3. Approach
While both processes are systematic, critical thinking follows the evidence to uncover truth or faults wherever they lead, while problem solving requires more linear strategies that target resolution within certain limitations.
Critical thinking navigates concepts; problem solving maps to procedures.
Critical thinking demands absolute impartiality regardless of personal feelings or individual perspectives. Problem solving requires combining analytics with intuition and insight to imagine innovative solutions.
Critical thinking avoids biases; problem solving blends logic and creativity.
In summary, critical thinking is about understanding in an open-ended way while problem solving drives action within constraints. Both require careful, skillful analysis but differ in their ultimate aims.
Category | Critical Thinking | Problem Solving |
---|---|---|
Goal | Form credible judgments about information/beliefs | Identify practical solutions to specific challenges |
Scope | Open-ended; can critique any topic or issue | Defined constraints tied to domain expertise |
Approach | Follow evidence wherever it leads | More linear strategies targeting resolution |
Mindset | Impartial perspective, avoid biases | Blend analytics with intuition and insight |
Outcomes | Increased understanding and discernment | Action plans and next steps |
Tools | Reasoning, questioning assumptions, identifying flaws | Analyzing data, evaluating alternatives, selecting optimal choice |
Applications | Assessing arguments, challenging assumptions | Improving processes, overcoming obstacles |
Developing Strong Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Abilities
Sharpening one’s critical thinking and problem solving capabilities requires effort but allows tackling all kinds of intellectual and practical challenges much more effectively.
Some improvement tips include:
For critical thinking:
- Read extensively to gather more evidence and perspectives
- Question interpretations, conclusions, and beliefs rather than accepting them at face value
- Analyze arguments carefully to identify flawed reasoning as well as strengths
- Debate issues without ego interfering, being willing to change positions based on facts
- Break down complex topics to focus deep examination on each facet
For problem solving:
- Methodically move through defining, researching, ideating, and selecting solution elements
- Learn processes or analytical approaches common to the domain of the problem
- Unpack where intuition complements analytics rather than contradicts when evaluating options
- Consider constraints realistically throughout but avoid limiting ideation prematurely
- Outline clear action plans once a solution is selected
Building skills in both areas takes patience but enables tackling all kinds of intellectual and practical challenges with greater confidence and competence.
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Critical Thinking and Decision-Making - What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking and decision-making -, what is critical thinking, critical thinking and decision-making what is critical thinking.
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Critical Thinking and Decision-Making: What is Critical Thinking?
Lesson 1: what is critical thinking, what is critical thinking.
Critical thinking is a term that gets thrown around a lot. You've probably heard it used often throughout the years whether it was in school, at work, or in everyday conversation. But when you stop to think about it, what exactly is critical thinking and how do you do it ?
Watch the video below to learn more about critical thinking.
Simply put, critical thinking is the act of deliberately analyzing information so that you can make better judgements and decisions . It involves using things like logic, reasoning, and creativity, to draw conclusions and generally understand things better.
![illustration of the terms logic, reasoning, and creativity illustration of the terms logic, reasoning, and creativity](https://media.gcflearnfree.org/content/5cd9b29530f8800670812d96_05_13_2019/CT_logic_reasoning_creativity.jpg)
This may sound like a pretty broad definition, and that's because critical thinking is a broad skill that can be applied to so many different situations. You can use it to prepare for a job interview, manage your time better, make decisions about purchasing things, and so much more.
The process
![illustration of "thoughts" inside a human brain, with several being connected and "analyzed" illustration of "thoughts" inside a human brain, with several being connected and "analyzed"](https://media.gcflearnfree.org/content/5cd9b29530f8800670812d96_05_13_2019/CT_intentional_process.jpg)
As humans, we are constantly thinking . It's something we can't turn off. But not all of it is critical thinking. No one thinks critically 100% of the time... that would be pretty exhausting! Instead, it's an intentional process , something that we consciously use when we're presented with difficult problems or important decisions.
Improving your critical thinking
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In order to become a better critical thinker, it's important to ask questions when you're presented with a problem or decision, before jumping to any conclusions. You can start with simple ones like What do I currently know? and How do I know this? These can help to give you a better idea of what you're working with and, in some cases, simplify more complex issues.
Real-world applications
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Let's take a look at how we can use critical thinking to evaluate online information . Say a friend of yours posts a news article on social media and you're drawn to its headline. If you were to use your everyday automatic thinking, you might accept it as fact and move on. But if you were thinking critically, you would first analyze the available information and ask some questions :
- What's the source of this article?
- Is the headline potentially misleading?
- What are my friend's general beliefs?
- Do their beliefs inform why they might have shared this?
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After analyzing all of this information, you can draw a conclusion about whether or not you think the article is trustworthy.
Critical thinking has a wide range of real-world applications . It can help you to make better decisions, become more hireable, and generally better understand the world around you.
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Critical Thinking vs Problem Solving: Which is the Key to Success?
Annie Walls
In today's fast-paced and complex world, success often hinges on our ability to think critically and solve problems effectively. Both critical thinking and problem solving are valuable skills that can help us navigate challenges and make informed decisions. However, understanding the differences between the two and knowing when to utilize each approach is key. In this article, we will explore the definitions, importance, and characteristics of critical thinking and problem solving. We will also discuss strategies for developing critical thinking skills and problem-solving techniques. By the end, you will have a clear understanding of the distinctions between critical thinking and problem solving and how to leverage them for success.
Key Takeaways
- Critical thinking and problem solving are both essential skills for success.
- Critical thinking involves analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting information to form well-reasoned judgments.
- Problem solving is the process of identifying and resolving a problem using logical and creative thinking.
- Critical thinking is more focused on understanding and evaluating information, while problem solving is more focused on finding solutions.
- Knowing when to apply critical thinking and problem solving can lead to better decision-making and problem-solving outcomes.
Understanding Critical Thinking
Definition of critical thinking.
Critical thinking is the ability to analyze and evaluate information objectively and independently. It involves questioning assumptions, considering multiple perspectives, and using logic and reasoning to make informed decisions. Critical thinking is an essential skill in today's complex and rapidly changing world, as it allows individuals to navigate through challenges, solve problems, and make sound judgments. It is not simply accepting information at face value, but rather actively engaging with it to determine its validity and reliability.
Importance of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is an essential skill in today's rapidly changing world. With exponential technologies like artificial intelligence and robotics creating new disruptive business models almost overnight, the ability to think critically allows individuals and teams to navigate through uncertainty and find innovative solutions. In fact, a survey conducted by IBM found that 60% of Global CEOs consider 'creativity' as the most important leadership quality in business today. Additionally, the World Economic Forum predicts that 'creativity' will be one of the top skills required in the future job market.
Characteristics of a Critical Thinker
A critical thinker possesses several key characteristics that set them apart from others. One important characteristic is the ability to analyze information thoroughly. Critical thinkers are skilled at breaking down complex problems or situations into smaller, more manageable parts. They are able to examine each part individually and understand how they relate to the whole.
Another characteristic of a critical thinker is curiosity . Critical thinkers have a natural curiosity and a desire to learn. They are constantly asking questions and seeking out new information. This curiosity drives them to explore different perspectives and consider alternative solutions.
In addition, critical thinkers are open-minded . They are willing to consider different viewpoints and are not afraid to challenge their own beliefs. They understand that there may be multiple valid perspectives on a given issue and are willing to listen and learn from others.
Lastly, critical thinkers are reflective . They take the time to reflect on their own thinking processes and evaluate their own biases and assumptions. They are aware of the limitations of their own knowledge and actively seek to improve their thinking skills.
Developing Critical Thinking Skills
Critical thinking strategies.
Critical thinking strategies are essential for developing strong problem-solving skills. These strategies involve analyzing information, evaluating arguments, and making logical decisions. One important strategy is questioning assumptions . By challenging assumptions, critical thinkers can uncover hidden biases and explore alternative perspectives. Another strategy is seeking evidence . Critical thinkers rely on evidence to support their claims and make informed judgments. They also use creative thinking techniques to generate innovative solutions. By combining these strategies, individuals can enhance their critical thinking abilities and approach problems with a more analytical mindset.
Critical Thinking Exercises
Critical thinking exercises are a valuable tool for developing and honing your critical thinking skills. These exercises provide opportunities to practice analyzing information, evaluating arguments, and making logical connections. They help you become more aware of your own thought processes and biases, and they challenge you to think critically about complex issues.
One effective critical thinking exercise is the Socratic Method, which involves asking probing questions to stimulate critical thinking and encourage deeper analysis. This method helps you examine assumptions, consider alternative perspectives, and evaluate the validity of arguments.
Another useful exercise is the Red Team Exercise, where you take on the role of a critical thinker and analyze a problem or decision from a different perspective. This exercise helps you identify potential flaws or weaknesses in your own thinking and develop more robust solutions.
Remember, the key to improving your critical thinking skills is consistent practice and a willingness to challenge your own beliefs and assumptions.
Critical Thinking in Education
Critical thinking plays a crucial role in education. It helps students develop analytical and problem-solving skills, enabling them to think critically about the information they encounter. By teaching students how to think critically, educators empower them to evaluate and analyze different perspectives, make informed decisions, and solve complex problems. Critical thinking in education goes beyond memorization and regurgitation of facts; it encourages students to question assumptions, challenge conventional wisdom, and explore alternative solutions. This approach fosters creativity, innovation, and a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
Problem Solving Techniques
Definition of problem solving.
Problem solving is the process of finding solutions to difficult or complex issues. It involves identifying the problem, analyzing it, and coming up with effective strategies to overcome it. Creativity and critical thinking are important skills in problem solving, as they allow individuals to think outside the box and come up with innovative solutions. Problem solving can be applied to various aspects of life, including personal, professional, and academic settings.
Importance of Problem Solving
Problem solving is a crucial skill that is highly valued in various industries, from retail and healthcare to engineering, construction, and logistics. As automation continues to advance, many roles that do not require creativity are at risk. According to the World Economic Forum, creativity will be the third most important job skill by 2020. However, only 39% of people in today's workforce consider themselves to be creative. This highlights the need for individuals and organizations to develop problem-solving skills.
To succeed in a rapidly changing world, it is essential to foster a culture of creativity and innovation. Keynote speaker James Taylor, an internationally recognized leader in business and creativity, emphasizes the importance of unlocking the creative potential in people and teams. By developing problem-solving skills, individuals can adapt to technological change and find unique solutions to complex challenges.
In order to cultivate problem-solving abilities, organizations can implement strategies such as brainstorming sessions, design thinking workshops, and cross-functional collaboration. These approaches encourage diverse perspectives and enable individuals to think critically and creatively. Additionally, problem-solving exercises and case studies can provide practical opportunities for individuals to apply their problem-solving skills in real-world scenarios.
As James Taylor suggests, the future of leadership lies in the ability to foster creative collaboration between humans and machines. By embracing problem-solving techniques, individuals can harness the power of technology while leveraging their own critical thinking skills. This combination allows for innovative problem-solving approaches that can drive success in a rapidly evolving landscape.
Steps in Problem Solving
Problem solving is a systematic process that involves identifying, analyzing, and finding solutions to problems. It is an essential skill in both personal and professional settings. Here are the steps involved in problem solving:
- Identify the problem: The first step in problem solving is to clearly define and understand the problem at hand. This involves gathering information, identifying any underlying issues, and determining the root cause of the problem.
- Analyze the problem: Once the problem is identified, it is important to analyze it thoroughly. This includes examining the different aspects of the problem, considering various perspectives, and identifying any patterns or trends.
- Generate possible solutions: After analyzing the problem, it is time to brainstorm and generate possible solutions. This involves thinking creatively, considering different alternatives, and evaluating the potential outcomes of each solution.
- Evaluate and select a solution: Once a list of possible solutions is generated, it is important to evaluate each solution based on its feasibility, effectiveness, and potential impact. The best solution should be selected based on these criteria.
- Implement the solution: After selecting a solution, it is time to implement it. This involves putting the chosen solution into action and monitoring its progress.
- Evaluate the results: The final step in problem solving is to evaluate the results of the implemented solution. This includes assessing whether the problem has been solved, identifying any unforeseen consequences, and making any necessary adjustments.
Problem solving is a critical skill that can be developed and improved with practice. By following these steps, individuals can become more effective problem solvers and achieve success in various aspects of their lives.
Critical Thinking vs Problem Solving
Differences between critical thinking and problem solving.
Critical thinking and problem solving are two distinct but interconnected cognitive processes. While critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information to make informed decisions, problem solving focuses on finding solutions to specific challenges or issues. Critical thinking emphasizes the ability to think critically and objectively, considering multiple perspectives and evidence before drawing conclusions. On the other hand, problem solving is more action-oriented, involving identifying problems, generating alternatives, and implementing effective solutions.
In terms of approach, critical thinking is more focused on understanding and evaluating complex situations, while problem solving is about finding practical solutions to specific problems. Critical thinking often involves asking probing questions, challenging assumptions, and considering different viewpoints, while problem solving requires creativity, resourcefulness, and the ability to think outside the box.
Here is a comparison between critical thinking and problem solving:
Critical Thinking | Problem Solving |
---|---|
Analyzing and evaluating information | Identifying and defining problems |
Considering multiple perspectives | Generating alternative solutions |
Challenging assumptions | Implementing effective solutions |
It is important to note that critical thinking and problem solving are not mutually exclusive. In fact, they complement each other and are both essential for success in various aspects of life, including education, work, and personal relationships.
When to Use Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is a valuable skill that can be applied in various situations. Here are some scenarios where critical thinking can be particularly useful:
- Making important decisions: Critical thinking allows you to analyze information, evaluate options, and make informed decisions.
- Problem-solving: Critical thinking helps you identify and solve complex problems by breaking them down into manageable parts.
- Evaluating arguments: Critical thinking enables you to assess the validity and strength of arguments, helping you make more informed judgments.
In these situations, critical thinking can help you navigate challenges, make better choices, and achieve success.
When to Use Problem Solving
Problem solving is a valuable skill that can be applied in various situations. It is particularly useful when faced with complex challenges that require logical thinking and analytical skills. Identifying the root cause of a problem and developing effective solutions are key aspects of problem solving. Whether it's in the workplace, personal life, or academic setting, problem solving can help individuals overcome obstacles and achieve their goals.
Critical thinking and problem solving are two essential skills that are often used interchangeably, but they are actually distinct processes. Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information to make informed decisions and solve complex problems. It requires the ability to think logically, consider multiple perspectives, and question assumptions. On the other hand, problem solving is the process of finding solutions to specific challenges or obstacles. It involves identifying the problem, brainstorming possible solutions, and implementing the best course of action. Both critical thinking and problem solving are crucial in today's fast-paced and ever-changing world. To enhance your critical thinking and problem-solving skills, visit Keynote Speaker James Taylor's website. James Taylor is an inspiring keynote speaker and internationally recognized leader in business creativity and innovation. Explore his website to gain valuable insights and strategies that will help you navigate challenges and make better decisions. Don't miss out on this opportunity to unlock your full potential!
In conclusion, both critical thinking and problem solving are essential skills for success in the real world. While critical thinking allows individuals to analyze and evaluate information, problem solving enables them to find effective solutions to complex problems. However , it is important to note that these skills are not mutually exclusive and often go hand in hand. By developing both critical thinking and problem solving abilities , individuals can enhance their decision-making skills and become more adaptable in today's rapidly changing world. Therefore, it is crucial for individuals to cultivate these skills through education, practice, and continuous learning.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between critical thinking and problem solving.
Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information to make informed decisions, while problem solving is the process of finding solutions to specific issues or challenges.
Which is more important, critical thinking or problem solving?
Both critical thinking and problem solving are important skills for success. They complement each other and are often used together to solve complex problems.
How can I develop my critical thinking skills?
You can develop your critical thinking skills by practicing active listening, asking questions, evaluating evidence, and considering different perspectives.
What are some critical thinking strategies?
Some critical thinking strategies include analyzing arguments, identifying biases, evaluating sources, and considering alternative solutions.
What are the steps in problem solving?
The steps in problem solving typically include identifying the problem, gathering information, generating possible solutions, evaluating options, implementing a solution, and reflecting on the results.
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When should I use critical thinking?
Critical thinking is useful in situations that require careful analysis, evaluation, and decision-making. It can be applied in various areas such as problem solving, decision making, and evaluating information.
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Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
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Updated July 29, 2023
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Table of Contents
- Critical Thinking Meaning (with Example)
- Problem Solving Definition (with Example)
- How to Improve?
- Comparison Table
What is Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?
Critical thinking and problem-solving skills are crucial to survive and succeed in today’s increasingly complex life. Rather than just collecting information, we need to be able to think fast and make effective decisions quickly. Moreover, we need to think about ourselves as well as everyone else involved and come up with a quick, effective, and practical solution. Here is where critical thinking and problem solving come in. Employing your critical thinking and problem-solving skills will not only help you personally but will also benefit society.
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Critical thinking and problem-solving have similarities and differences in advantages, improvement methods, and more. This article will cover everything that is similar as well as that differs for both skills.
Critical Thinking Meaning
Critical thinking is when you think about ideas carefully and ask questions to understand information in a better way. It means processing information in multiple ways, thinking about the topic from different angles. It helps cover all aspects of an issue or idea before taking action, which helps make sensible and thoughtful life decisions.
Imagine Agatha, a passionate and ambitious entrepreneur, running a successful tech startup. However, the demand for her main product is falling because her competitors are rising with the use of new cutting-edge technology.
Rather than giving up, Agatha arranges a brainstorming session with her team. They use the SCAMPER ( Substitute, Combine, Adapt, Modify, Put, Eliminate, Reverse ) technique to analyze their product and determine how to increase its demand. Using this critical thinking technique, Agatha and her team realize that they need to upgrade their product. After evaluating all aspects of the issue, they conclude that rather than improving their product, they must steer their business towards providing consultancy services to the new companies entering the technology world. Their valuable expertise and resources help them revive their business.
Problem Solving Definition
Problem solving is the step-by-step process where you first identify the main problem as well as other small relative issues, collect information and use this data to find a practical solution. Being proficient in this skill will help you solve any issue easily and quickly in all areas of your life.
Ben, a product manager at a top firm in Los Angeles, is currently working on launching a new product. After completing the product design & manufacturing, the team prepares for the launch. However, as the company faces financial challenges, Ben is told to keep the expenses for the launch minimum.
Rather than just accepting the situation, Ben uses his problem-solving skills to find a way to get the necessary funds. First, he works to find the cause of the financial constraint. He finds that due to simultaneous advertising of other products, there is excessive spending. So, he creates a presentation to ask the higher management to stop advertising the company’s other products except for the best-selling products. This way, they can move the funds to this launch, and the customer’s sole focus will be on the launch, making it a hit.
Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills
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Apart from a few common skills, several skills are specifically fit for each individual. In this section, we first see the skills common between both and then the differing skills.
Common Skills
Along with each skill, we added a technique to help you practice and improve your skill.
1. Analysis
It is the ability to understand the information by breaking it into smaller pieces of data and then analyzing each aspect individually to find an effective solution.
Six Thinking Hats Technique: Developed by Edward de Bono, this technique suggests that you use six different thinking styles or perspectives (hats) while analyzing an issue.
2. Creativity
When you have to think about one single topic in several different ways, you need a creative approach where you find the connection between seemingly unrelated subjects.
Fishbone/Ishikawa Diagram Technique: This diagram contains all possible causes for the presented problem, which can help us identify the leading causes quickly.
3. Decision-Making
A necessary step in critical thinking and problem solving is the decision-making process. Here, you need to collect all the initial information, weigh the pros and cons, give your input, and arrive at a final decision.
Decision Matrix Technique: It is a matrix that checks how effective various solutions can be to solve specific criteria.
Differing Skills
Before accepting or rejecting a solution, it is necessary to evaluate if the source is valid and if the information is relevant and of high quality. | Collecting relevant, correct, and valid information is vital for solving an issue. |
It is the skill of interpreting, i.e., understanding the purpose, motive, and meaning of the presented data accurately. | Take inputs from several people regarding the issue to get diverse perspectives and expertise, which can help you arrive at comprehensive solutions. |
To share your knowledge, you need effective . That way, you can present and explain your ideas to others clearly. | Encountering challenges while trying to solve a problem is common. Thus, you must be able to adapt to changes and continue through setbacks. |
It is the most crucial aspect of critical thinking, where you must find or create proper reasons/evidence behind your actions before using them. | Most of the time, problem solving is time-sensitive and urgent. Thus, allocate your time efficiently so that you can prevent any delays. |
Why is Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Important?
Common advantages.
- Adapting to Change: Once you master the skill of critical thinking and problem solving, you can quickly adapt to any change in your life. It is because both skills require you to keep going through any unexpected or unfamiliar situations and challenges.
- Better Decision Making: Once you learn to analyze and evaluate information comprehensively, you see every decision as a problem and use critical thinking or problem solving to make the best decision for you and everyone else.
- Enhanced Creativity: When you practice critical thinking and problem solving often, your mind becomes used to viewing every detail in a creative manner. It then encourages you to think differently in every situation.
Differing Advantages
By thinking critically, you learn to organize and express your ideas clearly and logically, making it easier for others to understand. | As the main idea of problem-solving skills is to resolve an issue, it makes you goal-oriented and teaches you to achieve your goals no matter what. |
Once you start understanding everything rather than just memorizing, your learning experience enhances. | Being able to solve critical problems allows you to navigate through conflicts and find mutually agreeable resolutions easily. |
Thinking about every aspect of a subject leads you to see ideas and opportunities that others may not see. | Each time you tackle a challenge successfully, you become more confident in your skills and abilities. |
How to Improve Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills?
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Common Techniques
1. be inquisitive.
The best thing one can do to improve their critical thinking and problem-solving skills is to ask questions. Asking questions whenever you encounter a new or unknown situation will help you gain knowledge and a deeper understanding of the subject.
2. Solve Puzzles
Working on brain teasers, puzzles, sudoku, etc., will help you think logically, creatively, and sometimes within time constraints. All this improves your ability to think critically and solve problems easily.
3. Encourage Feedback
Ask your trusted colleagues, friends, family, and social network for feedback on your presentation skills, communication skills, ideas, written blogs, etc. It will help you improve several necessary skills, improving your critical thinking and problem solving skills.
4. Keep a Journal to Practice Self-Reflection
After every problem or conflict you resolve, write it down in a journal. It will help you go back to your past experiences and either improve our methods or help your decision-making process.
5. Collaborate with Others
Engaging in debates, group discussions, book clubs, etc., helps you learn how others think and analyze situations. This broadens your perspective and enhances your skills.
Differing Techniques
Expanding your knowledge is a crucial habit to improve your critical thinking skills. Thus, read books, and scientific journals, keep up with the news, etc. | : When you face any complex problem, always break the issue into smaller tasks and enforce creative thinking to find solutions. |
Before accepting any suggestions and decisions, always ensure the information comes from a valid source, and you completely understand every detail of it. | : If you are solving an issue similar to a problem you solved in the past, think about it and learn to avoid any similar mistakes. |
Learn to pay attention to someone who’s speaking and listen actively. It lets you understand the speaker’s perspective and reasoning on the topic. | : When solving one problem, it is evident that there will be smaller issues arising. Thus, you need to stay positive as well as determined. This way, you can solve the main problem despite all the challenges. |
Critical Thinking vs. Problem Solving – Comparison Table
It is the process of breaking information down to analyze and evaluate it to make informed decisions. | It is the process of finding the cause of a problem and determining the best way to resolve it. | |
Analyzing and evaluating information, arguments, or situations. | Identifying the problem and generating the best solution. | |
Academic settings for research, debates, evaluating arguments, etc. | Business, engineering, project management, etc. | |
Easily understand complex issues, make sound judgments, and make reasonable arguments. | Efficiently overcome challenges, achieve goals, and provide excellent solutions for any issue. | |
The main aim of using critical thinking is to provide a reasonable solution to any personal or professional problem, whether small or big. | While solving a problem, a person requires critical thinking to check if the solutions are valid and the best course of action. |
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1. what are the 6 stages of critical thinking.
Answer: Proposed by Richard Paul and Linda Elder, the six stages of critical thinking are as follows:
- Unreflective Thinker: It is when you just go with your instinct, guts, and emotions.
- Challenged Thinker: When you face a situation that goes against your belief, you start questioning your beliefs and biases.
- Beginning Thinker: At this stage, you start critical thinking by questioning everything and believing facts based on evidence and reasoning only.
- Practicing Thinker: Now, you start applying your critical thinking skill to every situation.
- Advanced Thinker: Once you practice the skill enough, you can easily and quickly resolve any issues by making accurate judgments.
- Master Thinker: This is when you become an expert critical thinker and make well-thought decisions exceptionally quickly.
Q2. What is the AAA approach to critical thinking?
Answer: The AAA approach in critical thinking consists of three steps: Ask, Assess, and Assert. It involves asking relevant questions, assessing the information critically, and then making a well-structured assertion (claim) based on the evidence.
Q3. Courses to learn problem-solving skills.
Answer: Courses to learn problem-solving skills:
- Data Analysis and Data Science
- Project Management
- Computer Science and Programming
- Mathematics and Logic
- Problem-Solving and Decision-Making
- Critical Thinking
Recommended Articles
This article guides you through the various similarities and differences between critical thinking and problem solving. We explore its meanings with examples, skills, and their importance. We have also mentioned methods that you can use to improve these skills. To learn more about similar topics, visit the recommended articles below.
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Critical Thinking vs Problem Solving: Understanding the Key Differences
Critical thinking and problem solving are two related but distinct skills that are crucial for success in work and life. While they both involve analytical thinking to evaluate situations, there are some key differences between the two. In this article, I’ll explain what critical thinking and problem solving are, break down the major differences between them, and provide examples of how to use each skill effectively.
What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is the disciplined process of actively analyzing, synthesizing, interpreting, and evaluating information gathered from observation, reasoning, communication, or experience. It requires meticulously scrutinizing assumptions, discerning hidden values, assessing evidence, and interpreting facts to come to an objective, reasoned judgment.
The key characteristics of critical thinking include
- Asking pertinent questions
- Examining relevant evidence
- Discerning between facts and opinions
- Considering multiple perspectives
- Acknowledging biases and assumptions
- Identifying trends and patterns
- Drawing well-reasoned conclusions
- Testing hypotheses and inferences
Critical thinking isn’t about criticizing or finding fault Its purpose is to methodically analyze information to reach an impartial, logical determination of validity and value
What is Problem Solving?
Problem solving is the process of identifying a problem, discovering the underlying issue, developing potential solutions, evaluating the best option, implementing it, and reviewing the results to prevent the problem from recurring. It is a purposeful, structured approach to identifying obstacles and devising ways to surmount them.
The key aspects of effective problem solving include
- Defining the problem clearly
- Analyzing root causes
- Brainstorming creative solutions
- Evaluating pros and cons of options
- Selecting optimal responses
- Executing a solution successfully
- Following up to assess resolution
Problem solving involves both analytics to understand causes and creativity to generate solutions. It seeks to find practical remedies to concrete issues that stand in the way of desired goals.
Key Differences Between Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
While critical thinking and problem solving certainly overlap, there are several key ways in which they differ:
- Goal – Critical thinking aims to form a reasoned judgment or conclusion. Problem solving seeks to develop solutions.
- Scope – Critical thinking deals with intangible concepts and ideas. Problem solving tackles tangible obstacles.
- Approach – Critical thinking analyzes rationality and logic. Problem solving uses creative ideation and analysis.
- Output – Critical thinking results in a hypothesis or inference. Problem solving results in an action plan and implementation.
- Bias – Critical thinking requires removing bias. Problem solving includes personal/cultural context.
- Application – Critical thinking applies to any scenario. Problem solving targets defined issues.
In short, critical thinking goes as far as understanding and evaluating a situation while problem solving goes beyond to identify, select, and carry out solutions.
Examples of Critical Thinking vs Problem Solving
Here are some examples that illustrate the key distinctions between critical thinking skills and problem solving skills in practice:
A manager critically analyzing the root causes of steadily declining sales would be demonstrating critical thinking. Developing and rolling out a promotion to turn sales around would demonstrate problem solving.
A student carefully evaluating the arguments on both sides of a controversial issue would be applying critical thinking. Coming up with an informed position or plan to address the controversy would be problem solving.
A scientist interpreting complex data to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of a new medical treatment would be utilizing critical thinking. Figuring out how to apply the findings to improve future treatments would be problem solving.
An engineer weighing the pros and cons of different building materials for a construction project would be critical thinking. Determining the right materials to meet durability, cost, and sustainability needs would be problem solving.
As you can see, critical thinking focuses on understanding the what and why of a situation, while problem solving focuses on how to address the situation pragmatically.
How to Improve Your Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills
Here are some tips to help develop stronger critical thinking and problem solving abilities:
For critical thinking:
- Ask probing questions
- Thoroughly research topics from multiple sources
- Recognize biases and faulty logic
- Consider context, cultural influences, and implicit values
- Practice analyzing perspectives that differ from your own
- Question assumptions and test inferences
For problem solving:
- Take time to clearly define the problem – don’t make assumptions
- Break large problems into smaller, manageable pieces
- Research solutions that have worked for similar issues
- Brainstorm creative solutions without judging initial ideas
- Use logic and analysis to evaluate options thoroughly
- Commit to a solution, implement, review, and recalibrate as needed
Getting in the habit of using critical thinking and problem solving in your daily life will help build proficiency. Seek out opportunities to flex these mental muscles and you’ll become a sharper, more nimble thinker.
Why Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Matter
In today’s fast-paced, complex world, being able to think critically and solve problems efficiently is more important than ever. These skills are invaluable for:
Making sound decisions – Critical analysis leads to more informed choices while problem solving enables executing the best option.
Achieving goals – Problem solving clears away obstacles standing in the way of accomplishments.
Innovation – New inventions, processes, and methods are born from keen critical thinking combined with creative problem solving.
Learning and growth – Strong analytic and problem solving skills allow for continuously expanding understanding and improvement.
Career advancement – Employers highly value and reward workers who demonstrate strong critical thinking and problem solving capabilities.
Personal success – Sharper thinking yields greater achievement, flexibility, self-sufficiency, and resilience in life.
In work and in life, being able to understand complex dynamics, evaluate information, and devise effective solutions provides a tremendous advantage.
While critical thinking and problem solving certainly intersect, they are distinct skills that serve different primary purposes. Critical thinking aims to assess rationality and form impartial evaluations while problem solving focuses on overcoming barriers to achieve goals.
By sharpening your skills in analysis, inference, creative ideation, logic, and objective reasoning, you can become an exceptional critical thinker and problem solver. These capabilities will supercharge your decision making, productivity, and ability to navigate challenges.
Make a point to practice critical thinking and problem solving regularly. Never stop questioning, examining, and striving to understand the deeper why and how of the world around you and your own mind. Keep these muscles strong and you’ll perform at your peak mentally.
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Looking deeper: what skills are involved in critical thinking?
Weâve looked up definitions for critical thinking and problem solving, but these definitions donât tell us anything about the skills that are involved in each. For instance, what exactly do my kids need to be able to do in order to think critically? Critical thinking skills are habits of mind that help us be more thoughtful, rational, creative, and curious. Critical thinking can involve collecting information, organizing what we collect, analyzing and evaluating the information we have, making connections between different ideas, understanding whatâs relevant and what isnât, and so much more. All of this gives us a basis on which an informed decision can be made.
But when do we make decisions? When weâre confronted with a task, challenge, or problem. Indeed, we apply critical thinking when we are faced with a problem that demands we apply some of those skills. Critical thinking skills are general plans of attack, applicable to a wide array of problems!
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Critical thinking vs. problem solving: the definitions
I was recently chatting with a colleague about the kinds of skills kids need to develop to be successful on the job, and in life. I started running down a list, and she said something along the lines of, âWell, critical thinking and problem solving⦠theyâre the same thing right?â Thatâs a really interesting question! For my colleague, âcritical thinkingâ and âproblem solvingâ are just phrases that are out there, somehow related to learning. And just like with anything else in life, when you havenât had a reason to investigate them deeply, they might just be ideas that seem to mean something vaguely similar⦠but what do these ideas really mean?
First, letâs start with some basic definitions. Critical thinking, according to dictionary.com, is âdisciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded and informed by evidence.â Well, that certainly sounds like something I want my kids to be proficient in! According to Merriam-Webster, problem solving is âthe process or act of finding a solution to a problemâ, and thereâs another no-brainer, definitely something I want to instill in my children. Can we move from these definitions to a real understanding of the differences between these two skill sets?
What is the difference between critical thinking and problem-solving?
Critical thinking and problem-solving can both help you resolve challenges, but the two practices have distinct purposes and strategies. Here are some differences between the two skills: This is a mode of thinking, compared to problem-solving, which is a set of solution-oriented strategies.
Is problem solving a critical thinking skill?
Problem solving uses many of the same skills required for critical thinking; e.g., observation, analysis, evaluation, interpretation, and reflection. Critical thinking is an important ingredient of problem solving. Not every problem-solving skill is a critical thinking skill. That is because not every problem requires thinking.
Why is critical thinking important?
Since critical thinking strengthens your reasoning, it makes it easier to learn new skills, including problem-solving. Working on your critical thinking can also help you understand yourself better, including your value system, learning style and strongest skills. Critical thinking comprises five steps, which are :
How can I improve my critical thinking and problem solving skills?
The first step to enhancing your critical thinking and problem solving skills is to think about them, become aware of them, then you can actively practice to improve them. Critical thinking and problem-solving are two important “soft” or essential skills hiring managers are looking for.
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Critical Thinking Is About Asking Better Questions
- John Coleman
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Six practices to sharpen your inquiry.
Critical thinking is the ability to analyze and effectively break down an issue in order to make a decision or find a solution. At the heart of critical thinking is the ability to formulate deep, different, and effective questions. For effective questioning, start by holding your hypotheses loosely. Be willing to fundamentally reconsider your initial conclusions — and do so without defensiveness. Second, listen more than you talk through active listening. Third, leave your queries open-ended, and avoid yes-or-no questions. Fourth, consider the counterintuitive to avoid falling into groupthink. Fifth, take the time to stew in a problem, rather than making decisions unnecessarily quickly. Last, ask thoughtful, even difficult, follow-ups.
Are you tackling a new and difficult problem at work? Recently promoted and trying to both understand your new role and bring a fresh perspective? Or are you new to the workforce and seeking ways to meaningfully contribute alongside your more experienced colleagues? If so, critical thinking — the ability to analyze and effectively break down an issue in order to make a decision or find a solution — will be core to your success. And at the heart of critical thinking is the ability to formulate deep, different, and effective questions.
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- JC John Coleman is the author of the HBR Guide to Crafting Your Purpose . Subscribe to his free newsletter, On Purpose , or contact him at johnwilliamcoleman.com . johnwcoleman
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7 Module 7: Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem-Solving
This module is about how a solid working knowledge of psychological principles can help you to think more effectively, so you can succeed in school and life. You might be inclined to believe that—because you have been thinking for as long as you can remember, because you are able to figure out the solution to many problems, because you feel capable of using logic to argue a point, because you can evaluate whether the things you read and hear make sense—you do not need any special training in thinking. But this, of course, is one of the key barriers to helping people think better. If you do not believe that there is anything wrong, why try to fix it?
The human brain is indeed a remarkable thinking machine, capable of amazing, complex, creative, logical thoughts. Why, then, are we telling you that you need to learn how to think? Mainly because one major lesson from cognitive psychology is that these capabilities of the human brain are relatively infrequently realized. Many psychologists believe that people are essentially “cognitive misers.” It is not that we are lazy, but that we have a tendency to expend the least amount of mental effort necessary. Although you may not realize it, it actually takes a great deal of energy to think. Careful, deliberative reasoning and critical thinking are very difficult. Because we seem to be successful without going to the trouble of using these skills well, it feels unnecessary to develop them. As you shall see, however, there are many pitfalls in the cognitive processes described in this module. When people do not devote extra effort to learning and improving reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking skills, they make many errors.
As is true for memory, if you develop the cognitive skills presented in this module, you will be more successful in school. It is important that you realize, however, that these skills will help you far beyond school, even more so than a good memory will. Although it is somewhat useful to have a good memory, ten years from now no potential employer will care how many questions you got right on multiple choice exams during college. All of them will, however, recognize whether you are a logical, analytical, critical thinker. With these thinking skills, you will be an effective, persuasive communicator and an excellent problem solver.
The module begins by describing different kinds of thought and knowledge, especially conceptual knowledge and critical thinking. An understanding of these differences will be valuable as you progress through school and encounter different assignments that require you to tap into different kinds of knowledge. The second section covers deductive and inductive reasoning, which are processes we use to construct and evaluate strong arguments. They are essential skills to have whenever you are trying to persuade someone (including yourself) of some point, or to respond to someone’s efforts to persuade you. The module ends with a section about problem solving. A solid understanding of the key processes involved in problem solving will help you to handle many daily challenges.
7.1. Different kinds of thought
7.2. Reasoning and Judgment
7.3. Problem Solving
READING WITH PURPOSE
Remember and understand.
By reading and studying Module 7, you should be able to remember and describe:
- Concepts and inferences (7.1)
- Procedural knowledge (7.1)
- Metacognition (7.1)
- Characteristics of critical thinking: skepticism; identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; reasoning and problem solving skills (7.1)
- Reasoning: deductive reasoning, deductively valid argument, inductive reasoning, inductively strong argument, availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic (7.2)
- Fixation: functional fixedness, mental set (7.3)
- Algorithms, heuristics, and the role of confirmation bias (7.3)
- Effective problem solving sequence (7.3)
By reading and thinking about how the concepts in Module 6 apply to real life, you should be able to:
- Identify which type of knowledge a piece of information is (7.1)
- Recognize examples of deductive and inductive reasoning (7.2)
- Recognize judgments that have probably been influenced by the availability heuristic (7.2)
- Recognize examples of problem solving heuristics and algorithms (7.3)
Analyze, Evaluate, and Create
By reading and thinking about Module 6, participating in classroom activities, and completing out-of-class assignments, you should be able to:
- Use the principles of critical thinking to evaluate information (7.1)
- Explain whether examples of reasoning arguments are deductively valid or inductively strong (7.2)
- Outline how you could try to solve a problem from your life using the effective problem solving sequence (7.3)
7.1. Different kinds of thought and knowledge
- Take a few minutes to write down everything that you know about dogs.
- Do you believe that:
- Psychic ability exists?
- Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness?
- Magnet therapy is effective for relieving pain?
- Aerobic exercise is an effective treatment for depression?
- UFO’s from outer space have visited earth?
On what do you base your belief or disbelief for the questions above?
Of course, we all know what is meant by the words think and knowledge . You probably also realize that they are not unitary concepts; there are different kinds of thought and knowledge. In this section, let us look at some of these differences. If you are familiar with these different kinds of thought and pay attention to them in your classes, it will help you to focus on the right goals, learn more effectively, and succeed in school. Different assignments and requirements in school call on you to use different kinds of knowledge or thought, so it will be very helpful for you to learn to recognize them (Anderson, et al. 2001).
Factual and conceptual knowledge
Module 5 introduced the idea of declarative memory, which is composed of facts and episodes. If you have ever played a trivia game or watched Jeopardy on TV, you realize that the human brain is able to hold an extraordinary number of facts. Likewise, you realize that each of us has an enormous store of episodes, essentially facts about events that happened in our own lives. It may be difficult to keep that in mind when we are struggling to retrieve one of those facts while taking an exam, however. Part of the problem is that, in contradiction to the advice from Module 5, many students continue to try to memorize course material as a series of unrelated facts (picture a history student simply trying to memorize history as a set of unrelated dates without any coherent story tying them together). Facts in the real world are not random and unorganized, however. It is the way that they are organized that constitutes a second key kind of knowledge, conceptual.
Concepts are nothing more than our mental representations of categories of things in the world. For example, think about dogs. When you do this, you might remember specific facts about dogs, such as they have fur and they bark. You may also recall dogs that you have encountered and picture them in your mind. All of this information (and more) makes up your concept of dog. You can have concepts of simple categories (e.g., triangle), complex categories (e.g., small dogs that sleep all day, eat out of the garbage, and bark at leaves), kinds of people (e.g., psychology professors), events (e.g., birthday parties), and abstract ideas (e.g., justice). Gregory Murphy (2002) refers to concepts as the “glue that holds our mental life together” (p. 1). Very simply, summarizing the world by using concepts is one of the most important cognitive tasks that we do. Our conceptual knowledge is our knowledge about the world. Individual concepts are related to each other to form a rich interconnected network of knowledge. For example, think about how the following concepts might be related to each other: dog, pet, play, Frisbee, chew toy, shoe. Or, of more obvious use to you now, how these concepts are related: working memory, long-term memory, declarative memory, procedural memory, and rehearsal? Because our minds have a natural tendency to organize information conceptually, when students try to remember course material as isolated facts, they are working against their strengths.
One last important point about concepts is that they allow you to instantly know a great deal of information about something. For example, if someone hands you a small red object and says, “here is an apple,” they do not have to tell you, “it is something you can eat.” You already know that you can eat it because it is true by virtue of the fact that the object is an apple; this is called drawing an inference , assuming that something is true on the basis of your previous knowledge (for example, of category membership or of how the world works) or logical reasoning.
Procedural knowledge
Physical skills, such as tying your shoes, doing a cartwheel, and driving a car (or doing all three at the same time, but don’t try this at home) are certainly a kind of knowledge. They are procedural knowledge, the same idea as procedural memory that you saw in Module 5. Mental skills, such as reading, debating, and planning a psychology experiment, are procedural knowledge, as well. In short, procedural knowledge is the knowledge how to do something (Cohen & Eichenbaum, 1993).
Metacognitive knowledge
Floyd used to think that he had a great memory. Now, he has a better memory. Why? Because he finally realized that his memory was not as great as he once thought it was. Because Floyd eventually learned that he often forgets where he put things, he finally developed the habit of putting things in the same place. (Unfortunately, he did not learn this lesson before losing at least 5 watches and a wedding ring.) Because he finally realized that he often forgets to do things, he finally started using the To Do list app on his phone. And so on. Floyd’s insights about the real limitations of his memory have allowed him to remember things that he used to forget.
All of us have knowledge about the way our own minds work. You may know that you have a good memory for people’s names and a poor memory for math formulas. Someone else might realize that they have difficulty remembering to do things, like stopping at the store on the way home. Others still know that they tend to overlook details. This knowledge about our own thinking is actually quite important; it is called metacognitive knowledge, or metacognition . Like other kinds of thinking skills, it is subject to error. For example, in unpublished research, one of the authors surveyed about 120 General Psychology students on the first day of the term. Among other questions, the students were asked them to predict their grade in the class and report their current Grade Point Average. Two-thirds of the students predicted that their grade in the course would be higher than their GPA. (The reality is that at our college, students tend to earn lower grades in psychology than their overall GPA.) Another example: Students routinely report that they thought they had done well on an exam, only to discover, to their dismay, that they were wrong (more on that important problem in a moment). Both errors reveal a breakdown in metacognition.
The Dunning-Kruger Effect
In general, most college students probably do not study enough. For example, using data from the National Survey of Student Engagement, Fosnacht, McCormack, and Lerma (2018) reported that first-year students at 4-year colleges in the U.S. averaged less than 14 hours per week preparing for classes. The typical suggestion is that you should spend two hours outside of class for every hour in class, or 24 – 30 hours per week for a full-time student. Clearly, students in general are nowhere near that recommended mark. Many observers, including some faculty, believe that this shortfall is a result of students being too busy or lazy. Now, it may be true that many students are too busy, with work and family obligations, for example. Others, are not particularly motivated in school, and therefore might correctly be labeled lazy. A third possible explanation, however, is that some students might not think they need to spend this much time. And this is a matter of metacognition. Consider the scenario that we mentioned above, students thinking they had done well on an exam only to discover that they did not. Justin Kruger and David Dunning examined scenarios very much like this in 1999. Kruger and Dunning gave research participants tests measuring humor, logic, and grammar. Then, they asked the participants to assess their own abilities and test performance in these areas. They found that participants in general tended to overestimate their abilities, already a problem with metacognition. Importantly, the participants who scored the lowest overestimated their abilities the most. Specifically, students who scored in the bottom quarter (averaging in the 12th percentile) thought they had scored in the 62nd percentile. This has become known as the Dunning-Kruger effect . Many individual faculty members have replicated these results with their own student on their course exams, including the authors of this book. Think about it. Some students who just took an exam and performed poorly believe that they did well before seeing their score. It seems very likely that these are the very same students who stopped studying the night before because they thought they were “done.” Quite simply, it is not just that they did not know the material. They did not know that they did not know the material. That is poor metacognition.
In order to develop good metacognitive skills, you should continually monitor your thinking and seek frequent feedback on the accuracy of your thinking (Medina, Castleberry, & Persky 2017). For example, in classes get in the habit of predicting your exam grades. As soon as possible after taking an exam, try to find out which questions you missed and try to figure out why. If you do this soon enough, you may be able to recall the way it felt when you originally answered the question. Did you feel confident that you had answered the question correctly? Then you have just discovered an opportunity to improve your metacognition. Be on the lookout for that feeling and respond with caution.
concept : a mental representation of a category of things in the world
Dunning-Kruger effect : individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do
inference : an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning
metacognition : knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking
Critical thinking
One particular kind of knowledge or thinking skill that is related to metacognition is critical thinking (Chew, 2020). You may have noticed that critical thinking is an objective in many college courses, and thus it could be a legitimate topic to cover in nearly any college course. It is particularly appropriate in psychology, however. As the science of (behavior and) mental processes, psychology is obviously well suited to be the discipline through which you should be introduced to this important way of thinking.
More importantly, there is a particular need to use critical thinking in psychology. We are all, in a way, experts in human behavior and mental processes, having engaged in them literally since birth. Thus, perhaps more than in any other class, students typically approach psychology with very clear ideas and opinions about its subject matter. That is, students already “know” a lot about psychology. The problem is, “it ain’t so much the things we don’t know that get us into trouble. It’s the things we know that just ain’t so” (Ward, quoted in Gilovich 1991). Indeed, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain wrong. Randolph Smith (2002) wrote a book about critical thinking in psychology called Challenging Your Preconceptions, highlighting this fact. On the other hand, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain right! But wait, how do you know which of your preconceptions are right and which are wrong? And when you come across a research finding or theory in this class that contradicts your preconceptions, what will you do? Will you stick to your original idea, discounting the information from the class? Will you immediately change your mind? Critical thinking can help us sort through this confusing mess.
But what is critical thinking? The goal of critical thinking is simple to state (but extraordinarily difficult to achieve): it is to be right, to draw the correct conclusions, to believe in things that are true and to disbelieve things that are false. We will provide two definitions of critical thinking (or, if you like, one large definition with two distinct parts). First, a more conceptual one: Critical thinking is thinking like a scientist in your everyday life (Schmaltz, Jansen, & Wenckowski, 2017). Our second definition is more operational; it is simply a list of skills that are essential to be a critical thinker. Critical thinking entails solid reasoning and problem solving skills; skepticism; and an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. Excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills contribute to critical thinking. So, you can consider the subject matter of sections 7.2 and 7.3 to be part of critical thinking. Because we will be devoting considerable time to these concepts in the rest of the module, let us begin with a discussion about the other aspects of critical thinking.
Let’s address that first part of the definition. Scientists form hypotheses, or predictions about some possible future observations. Then, they collect data, or information (think of this as making those future observations). They do their best to make unbiased observations using reliable techniques that have been verified by others. Then, and only then, they draw a conclusion about what those observations mean. Oh, and do not forget the most important part. “Conclusion” is probably not the most appropriate word because this conclusion is only tentative. A scientist is always prepared that someone else might come along and produce new observations that would require a new conclusion be drawn. Wow! If you like to be right, you could do a lot worse than using a process like this.
A Critical Thinker’s Toolkit
Now for the second part of the definition. Good critical thinkers (and scientists) rely on a variety of tools to evaluate information. Perhaps the most recognizable tool for critical thinking is skepticism (and this term provides the clearest link to the thinking like a scientist definition, as you are about to see). Some people intend it as an insult when they call someone a skeptic. But if someone calls you a skeptic, if they are using the term correctly, you should consider it a great compliment. Simply put, skepticism is a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided. People from Missouri should recognize this principle, as Missouri is known as the Show-Me State. As a skeptic, you are not inclined to believe something just because someone said so, because someone else believes it, or because it sounds reasonable. You must be persuaded by high quality evidence.
Of course, if that evidence is produced, you have a responsibility as a skeptic to change your belief. Failure to change a belief in the face of good evidence is not skepticism; skepticism has open mindedness at its core. M. Neil Browne and Stuart Keeley (2018) use the term weak sense critical thinking to describe critical thinking behaviors that are used only to strengthen a prior belief. Strong sense critical thinking, on the other hand, has as its goal reaching the best conclusion. Sometimes that means strengthening your prior belief, but sometimes it means changing your belief to accommodate the better evidence.
Many times, a failure to think critically or weak sense critical thinking is related to a bias , an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice. Everybody has biases, but many people are unaware of them. Awareness of your own biases gives you the opportunity to control or counteract them. Unfortunately, however, many people are happy to let their biases creep into their attempts to persuade others; indeed, it is a key part of their persuasive strategy. To see how these biases influence messages, just look at the different descriptions and explanations of the same events given by people of different ages or income brackets, or conservative versus liberal commentators, or by commentators from different parts of the world. Of course, to be successful, these people who are consciously using their biases must disguise them. Even undisguised biases can be difficult to identify, so disguised ones can be nearly impossible.
Here are some common sources of biases:
- Personal values and beliefs. Some people believe that human beings are basically driven to seek power and that they are typically in competition with one another over scarce resources. These beliefs are similar to the world-view that political scientists call “realism.” Other people believe that human beings prefer to cooperate and that, given the chance, they will do so. These beliefs are similar to the world-view known as “idealism.” For many people, these deeply held beliefs can influence, or bias, their interpretations of such wide ranging situations as the behavior of nations and their leaders or the behavior of the driver in the car ahead of you. For example, if your worldview is that people are typically in competition and someone cuts you off on the highway, you may assume that the driver did it purposely to get ahead of you. Other types of beliefs about the way the world is or the way the world should be, for example, political beliefs, can similarly become a significant source of bias.
- Racism, sexism, ageism and other forms of prejudice and bigotry. These are, sadly, a common source of bias in many people. They are essentially a special kind of “belief about the way the world is.” These beliefs—for example, that women do not make effective leaders—lead people to ignore contradictory evidence (examples of effective women leaders, or research that disputes the belief) and to interpret ambiguous evidence in a way consistent with the belief.
- Self-interest. When particular people benefit from things turning out a certain way, they can sometimes be very susceptible to letting that interest bias them. For example, a company that will earn a profit if they sell their product may have a bias in the way that they give information about their product. A union that will benefit if its members get a generous contract might have a bias in the way it presents information about salaries at competing organizations. (Note that our inclusion of examples describing both companies and unions is an explicit attempt to control for our own personal biases). Home buyers are often dismayed to discover that they purchased their dream house from someone whose self-interest led them to lie about flooding problems in the basement or back yard. This principle, the biasing power of self-interest, is likely what led to the famous phrase Caveat Emptor (let the buyer beware) .
Knowing that these types of biases exist will help you evaluate evidence more critically. Do not forget, though, that people are not always keen to let you discover the sources of biases in their arguments. For example, companies or political organizations can sometimes disguise their support of a research study by contracting with a university professor, who comes complete with a seemingly unbiased institutional affiliation, to conduct the study.
People’s biases, conscious or unconscious, can lead them to make omissions, distortions, and assumptions that undermine our ability to correctly evaluate evidence. It is essential that you look for these elements. Always ask, what is missing, what is not as it appears, and what is being assumed here? For example, consider this (fictional) chart from an ad reporting customer satisfaction at 4 local health clubs.
![critical thinking vs problem solver](https://cod.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/11/2020/01/6.1-1.png)
Clearly, from the results of the chart, one would be tempted to give Club C a try, as customer satisfaction is much higher than for the other 3 clubs.
There are so many distortions and omissions in this chart, however, that it is actually quite meaningless. First, how was satisfaction measured? Do the bars represent responses to a survey? If so, how were the questions asked? Most importantly, where is the missing scale for the chart? Although the differences look quite large, are they really?
Well, here is the same chart, with a different scale, this time labeled:
![critical thinking vs problem solver](https://cod.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/11/2020/01/6.2.png)
Club C is not so impressive any more, is it? In fact, all of the health clubs have customer satisfaction ratings (whatever that means) between 85% and 88%. In the first chart, the entire scale of the graph included only the percentages between 83 and 89. This “judicious” choice of scale—some would call it a distortion—and omission of that scale from the chart make the tiny differences among the clubs seem important, however.
Also, in order to be a critical thinker, you need to learn to pay attention to the assumptions that underlie a message. Let us briefly illustrate the role of assumptions by touching on some people’s beliefs about the criminal justice system in the US. Some believe that a major problem with our judicial system is that many criminals go free because of legal technicalities. Others believe that a major problem is that many innocent people are convicted of crimes. The simple fact is, both types of errors occur. A person’s conclusion about which flaw in our judicial system is the greater tragedy is based on an assumption about which of these is the more serious error (letting the guilty go free or convicting the innocent). This type of assumption is called a value assumption (Browne and Keeley, 2018). It reflects the differences in values that people develop, differences that may lead us to disregard valid evidence that does not fit in with our particular values.
Oh, by the way, some students probably noticed this, but the seven tips for evaluating information that we shared in Module 1 are related to this. Actually, they are part of this section. The tips are, to a very large degree, set of ideas you can use to help you identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. If you do not remember this section, we strongly recommend you take a few minutes to review it.
skepticism : a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided
bias : an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice
- Which of your beliefs (or disbeliefs) from the Activate exercise for this section were derived from a process of critical thinking? If some of your beliefs were not based on critical thinking, are you willing to reassess these beliefs? If the answer is no, why do you think that is? If the answer is yes, what concrete steps will you take?
7.2 Reasoning and Judgment
- What percentage of kidnappings are committed by strangers?
- Which area of the house is riskiest: kitchen, bathroom, or stairs?
- What is the most common cancer in the US?
- What percentage of workplace homicides are committed by co-workers?
An essential set of procedural thinking skills is reasoning , the ability to generate and evaluate solid conclusions from a set of statements or evidence. You should note that these conclusions (when they are generated instead of being evaluated) are one key type of inference that we described in Section 7.1. There are two main types of reasoning, deductive and inductive.
Deductive reasoning
Suppose your teacher tells you that if you get an A on the final exam in a course, you will get an A for the whole course. Then, you get an A on the final exam. What will your final course grade be? Most people can see instantly that you can conclude with certainty that you will get an A for the course. This is a type of reasoning called deductive reasoning , which is defined as reasoning in which a conclusion is guaranteed to be true as long as the statements leading to it are true. The three statements can be listed as an argument , with two beginning statements and a conclusion:
Statement 1: If you get an A on the final exam, you will get an A for the course
Statement 2: You get an A on the final exam
Conclusion: You will get an A for the course
This particular arrangement, in which true beginning statements lead to a guaranteed true conclusion, is known as a deductively valid argument . Although deductive reasoning is often the subject of abstract, brain-teasing, puzzle-like word problems, it is actually an extremely important type of everyday reasoning. It is just hard to recognize sometimes. For example, imagine that you are looking for your car keys and you realize that they are either in the kitchen drawer or in your book bag. After looking in the kitchen drawer, you instantly know that they must be in your book bag. That conclusion results from a simple deductive reasoning argument. In addition, solid deductive reasoning skills are necessary for you to succeed in the sciences, philosophy, math, computer programming, and any endeavor involving the use of logic to persuade others to your point of view or to evaluate others’ arguments.
Cognitive psychologists, and before them philosophers, have been quite interested in deductive reasoning, not so much for its practical applications, but for the insights it can offer them about the ways that human beings think. One of the early ideas to emerge from the examination of deductive reasoning is that people learn (or develop) mental versions of rules that allow them to solve these types of reasoning problems (Braine, 1978; Braine, Reiser, & Rumain, 1984). The best way to see this point of view is to realize that there are different possible rules, and some of them are very simple. For example, consider this rule of logic:
therefore q
Logical rules are often presented abstractly, as letters, in order to imply that they can be used in very many specific situations. Here is a concrete version of the of the same rule:
I’ll either have pizza or a hamburger for dinner tonight (p or q)
I won’t have pizza (not p)
Therefore, I’ll have a hamburger (therefore q)
This kind of reasoning seems so natural, so easy, that it is quite plausible that we would use a version of this rule in our daily lives. At least, it seems more plausible than some of the alternative possibilities—for example, that we need to have experience with the specific situation (pizza or hamburger, in this case) in order to solve this type of problem easily. So perhaps there is a form of natural logic (Rips, 1990) that contains very simple versions of logical rules. When we are faced with a reasoning problem that maps onto one of these rules, we use the rule.
But be very careful; things are not always as easy as they seem. Even these simple rules are not so simple. For example, consider the following rule. Many people fail to realize that this rule is just as valid as the pizza or hamburger rule above.
if p, then q
therefore, not p
Concrete version:
If I eat dinner, then I will have dessert
I did not have dessert
Therefore, I did not eat dinner
The simple fact is, it can be very difficult for people to apply rules of deductive logic correctly; as a result, they make many errors when trying to do so. Is this a deductively valid argument or not?
Students who like school study a lot
Students who study a lot get good grades
Jane does not like school
Therefore, Jane does not get good grades
Many people are surprised to discover that this is not a logically valid argument; the conclusion is not guaranteed to be true from the beginning statements. Although the first statement says that students who like school study a lot, it does NOT say that students who do not like school do not study a lot. In other words, it may very well be possible to study a lot without liking school. Even people who sometimes get problems like this right might not be using the rules of deductive reasoning. Instead, they might just be making judgments for examples they know, in this case, remembering instances of people who get good grades despite not liking school.
Making deductive reasoning even more difficult is the fact that there are two important properties that an argument may have. One, it can be valid or invalid (meaning that the conclusion does or does not follow logically from the statements leading up to it). Two, an argument (or more correctly, its conclusion) can be true or false. Here is an example of an argument that is logically valid, but has a false conclusion (at least we think it is false).
Either you are eleven feet tall or the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth.
You are not eleven feet tall
Therefore the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth
This argument has the exact same form as the pizza or hamburger argument above, making it is deductively valid. The conclusion is so false, however, that it is absurd (of course, the reason the conclusion is false is that the first statement is false). When people are judging arguments, they tend to not observe the difference between deductive validity and the empirical truth of statements or conclusions. If the elements of an argument happen to be true, people are likely to judge the argument logically valid; if the elements are false, they will very likely judge it invalid (Markovits & Bouffard-Bouchard, 1992; Moshman & Franks, 1986). Thus, it seems a stretch to say that people are using these logical rules to judge the validity of arguments. Many psychologists believe that most people actually have very limited deductive reasoning skills (Johnson-Laird, 1999). They argue that when faced with a problem for which deductive logic is required, people resort to some simpler technique, such as matching terms that appear in the statements and the conclusion (Evans, 1982). This might not seem like a problem, but what if reasoners believe that the elements are true and they happen to be wrong; they will would believe that they are using a form of reasoning that guarantees they are correct and yet be wrong.
deductive reasoning : a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true
argument : a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion
deductively valid argument : an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true
Inductive reasoning and judgment
Every day, you make many judgments about the likelihood of one thing or another. Whether you realize it or not, you are practicing inductive reasoning on a daily basis. In inductive reasoning arguments, a conclusion is likely whenever the statements preceding it are true. The first thing to notice about inductive reasoning is that, by definition, you can never be sure about your conclusion; you can only estimate how likely the conclusion is. Inductive reasoning may lead you to focus on Memory Encoding and Recoding when you study for the exam, but it is possible the instructor will ask more questions about Memory Retrieval instead. Unlike deductive reasoning, the conclusions you reach through inductive reasoning are only probable, not certain. That is why scientists consider inductive reasoning weaker than deductive reasoning. But imagine how hard it would be for us to function if we could not act unless we were certain about the outcome.
Inductive reasoning can be represented as logical arguments consisting of statements and a conclusion, just as deductive reasoning can be. In an inductive argument, you are given some statements and a conclusion (or you are given some statements and must draw a conclusion). An argument is inductively strong if the conclusion would be very probable whenever the statements are true. So, for example, here is an inductively strong argument:
- Statement #1: The forecaster on Channel 2 said it is going to rain today.
- Statement #2: The forecaster on Channel 5 said it is going to rain today.
- Statement #3: It is very cloudy and humid.
- Statement #4: You just heard thunder.
- Conclusion (or judgment): It is going to rain today.
Think of the statements as evidence, on the basis of which you will draw a conclusion. So, based on the evidence presented in the four statements, it is very likely that it will rain today. Will it definitely rain today? Certainly not. We can all think of times that the weather forecaster was wrong.
A true story: Some years ago psychology student was watching a baseball playoff game between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Los Angeles Dodgers. A graphic on the screen had just informed the audience that the Cardinal at bat, (Hall of Fame shortstop) Ozzie Smith, a switch hitter batting left-handed for this plate appearance, had never, in nearly 3000 career at-bats, hit a home run left-handed. The student, who had just learned about inductive reasoning in his psychology class, turned to his companion (a Cardinals fan) and smugly said, “It is an inductively strong argument that Ozzie Smith will not hit a home run.” He turned back to face the television just in time to watch the ball sail over the right field fence for a home run. Although the student felt foolish at the time, he was not wrong. It was an inductively strong argument; 3000 at-bats is an awful lot of evidence suggesting that the Wizard of Ozz (as he was known) would not be hitting one out of the park (think of each at-bat without a home run as a statement in an inductive argument). Sadly (for the die-hard Cubs fan and Cardinals-hating student), despite the strength of the argument, the conclusion was wrong.
Given the possibility that we might draw an incorrect conclusion even with an inductively strong argument, we really want to be sure that we do, in fact, make inductively strong arguments. If we judge something probable, it had better be probable. If we judge something nearly impossible, it had better not happen. Think of inductive reasoning, then, as making reasonably accurate judgments of the probability of some conclusion given a set of evidence.
We base many decisions in our lives on inductive reasoning. For example:
Statement #1: Psychology is not my best subject
Statement #2: My psychology instructor has a reputation for giving difficult exams
Statement #3: My first psychology exam was much harder than I expected
Judgment: The next exam will probably be very difficult.
Decision: I will study tonight instead of watching Netflix.
Some other examples of judgments that people commonly make in a school context include judgments of the likelihood that:
- A particular class will be interesting/useful/difficult
- You will be able to finish writing a paper by next week if you go out tonight
- Your laptop’s battery will last through the next trip to the library
- You will not miss anything important if you skip class tomorrow
- Your instructor will not notice if you skip class tomorrow
- You will be able to find a book that you will need for a paper
- There will be an essay question about Memory Encoding on the next exam
Tversky and Kahneman (1983) recognized that there are two general ways that we might make these judgments; they termed them extensional (i.e., following the laws of probability) and intuitive (i.e., using shortcuts or heuristics, see below). We will use a similar distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 thinking, as described by Keith Stanovich and his colleagues (Evans and Stanovich, 2013; Stanovich and West, 2000). Type 1 thinking is fast, automatic, effortful, and emotional. In fact, it is hardly fair to call it reasoning at all, as judgments just seem to pop into one’s head. Type 2 thinking , on the other hand, is slow, effortful, and logical. So obviously, it is more likely to lead to a correct judgment, or an optimal decision. The problem is, we tend to over-rely on Type 1. Now, we are not saying that Type 2 is the right way to go for every decision or judgment we make. It seems a bit much, for example, to engage in a step-by-step logical reasoning procedure to decide whether we will have chicken or fish for dinner tonight.
Many bad decisions in some very important contexts, however, can be traced back to poor judgments of the likelihood of certain risks or outcomes that result from the use of Type 1 when a more logical reasoning process would have been more appropriate. For example:
Statement #1: It is late at night.
Statement #2: Albert has been drinking beer for the past five hours at a party.
Statement #3: Albert is not exactly sure where he is or how far away home is.
Judgment: Albert will have no difficulty walking home.
Decision: He walks home alone.
As you can see in this example, the three statements backing up the judgment do not really support it. In other words, this argument is not inductively strong because it is based on judgments that ignore the laws of probability. What are the chances that someone facing these conditions will be able to walk home alone easily? And one need not be drunk to make poor decisions based on judgments that just pop into our heads.
The truth is that many of our probability judgments do not come very close to what the laws of probability say they should be. Think about it. In order for us to reason in accordance with these laws, we would need to know the laws of probability, which would allow us to calculate the relationship between particular pieces of evidence and the probability of some outcome (i.e., how much likelihood should change given a piece of evidence), and we would have to do these heavy math calculations in our heads. After all, that is what Type 2 requires. Needless to say, even if we were motivated, we often do not even know how to apply Type 2 reasoning in many cases.
So what do we do when we don’t have the knowledge, skills, or time required to make the correct mathematical judgment? Do we hold off and wait until we can get better evidence? Do we read up on probability and fire up our calculator app so we can compute the correct probability? Of course not. We rely on Type 1 thinking. We “wing it.” That is, we come up with a likelihood estimate using some means at our disposal. Psychologists use the term heuristic to describe the type of “winging it” we are talking about. A heuristic is a shortcut strategy that we use to make some judgment or solve some problem (see Section 7.3). Heuristics are easy and quick, think of them as the basic procedures that are characteristic of Type 1. They can absolutely lead to reasonably good judgments and decisions in some situations (like choosing between chicken and fish for dinner). They are, however, far from foolproof. There are, in fact, quite a lot of situations in which heuristics can lead us to make incorrect judgments, and in many cases the decisions based on those judgments can have serious consequences.
Let us return to the activity that begins this section. You were asked to judge the likelihood (or frequency) of certain events and risks. You were free to come up with your own evidence (or statements) to make these judgments. This is where a heuristic crops up. As a judgment shortcut, we tend to generate specific examples of those very events to help us decide their likelihood or frequency. For example, if we are asked to judge how common, frequent, or likely a particular type of cancer is, many of our statements would be examples of specific cancer cases:
Statement #1: Andy Kaufman (comedian) had lung cancer.
Statement #2: Colin Powell (US Secretary of State) had prostate cancer.
Statement #3: Bob Marley (musician) had skin and brain cancer
Statement #4: Sandra Day O’Connor (Supreme Court Justice) had breast cancer.
Statement #5: Fred Rogers (children’s entertainer) had stomach cancer.
Statement #6: Robin Roberts (news anchor) had breast cancer.
Statement #7: Bette Davis (actress) had breast cancer.
Judgment: Breast cancer is the most common type.
Your own experience or memory may also tell you that breast cancer is the most common type. But it is not (although it is common). Actually, skin cancer is the most common type in the US. We make the same types of misjudgments all the time because we do not generate the examples or evidence according to their actual frequencies or probabilities. Instead, we have a tendency (or bias) to search for the examples in memory; if they are easy to retrieve, we assume that they are common. To rephrase this in the language of the heuristic, events seem more likely to the extent that they are available to memory. This bias has been termed the availability heuristic (Kahneman and Tversky, 1974).
The fact that we use the availability heuristic does not automatically mean that our judgment is wrong. The reason we use heuristics in the first place is that they work fairly well in many cases (and, of course that they are easy to use). So, the easiest examples to think of sometimes are the most common ones. Is it more likely that a member of the U.S. Senate is a man or a woman? Most people have a much easier time generating examples of male senators. And as it turns out, the U.S. Senate has many more men than women (74 to 26 in 2020). In this case, then, the availability heuristic would lead you to make the correct judgment; it is far more likely that a senator would be a man.
In many other cases, however, the availability heuristic will lead us astray. This is because events can be memorable for many reasons other than their frequency. Section 5.2, Encoding Meaning, suggested that one good way to encode the meaning of some information is to form a mental image of it. Thus, information that has been pictured mentally will be more available to memory. Indeed, an event that is vivid and easily pictured will trick many people into supposing that type of event is more common than it actually is. Repetition of information will also make it more memorable. So, if the same event is described to you in a magazine, on the evening news, on a podcast that you listen to, and in your Facebook feed; it will be very available to memory. Again, the availability heuristic will cause you to misperceive the frequency of these types of events.
Most interestingly, information that is unusual is more memorable. Suppose we give you the following list of words to remember: box, flower, letter, platypus, oven, boat, newspaper, purse, drum, car. Very likely, the easiest word to remember would be platypus, the unusual one. The same thing occurs with memories of events. An event may be available to memory because it is unusual, yet the availability heuristic leads us to judge that the event is common. Did you catch that? In these cases, the availability heuristic makes us think the exact opposite of the true frequency. We end up thinking something is common because it is unusual (and therefore memorable). Yikes.
The misapplication of the availability heuristic sometimes has unfortunate results. For example, if you went to K-12 school in the US over the past 10 years, it is extremely likely that you have participated in lockdown and active shooter drills. Of course, everyone is trying to prevent the tragedy of another school shooting. And believe us, we are not trying to minimize how terrible the tragedy is. But the truth of the matter is, school shootings are extremely rare. Because the federal government does not keep a database of school shootings, the Washington Post has maintained their own running tally. Between 1999 and January 2020 (the date of the most recent school shooting with a death in the US at of the time this paragraph was written), the Post reported a total of 254 people died in school shootings in the US. Not 254 per year, 254 total. That is an average of 12 per year. Of course, that is 254 people who should not have died (particularly because many were children), but in a country with approximately 60,000,000 students and teachers, this is a very small risk.
But many students and teachers are terrified that they will be victims of school shootings because of the availability heuristic. It is so easy to think of examples (they are very available to memory) that people believe the event is very common. It is not. And there is a downside to this. We happen to believe that there is an enormous gun violence problem in the United States. According the the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there were 39,773 firearm deaths in the US in 2017. Fifteen of those deaths were in school shootings, according to the Post. 60% of those deaths were suicides. When people pay attention to the school shooting risk (low), they often fail to notice the much larger risk.
And examples like this are by no means unique. The authors of this book have been teaching psychology since the 1990’s. We have been able to make the exact same arguments about the misapplication of the availability heuristics and keep them current by simply swapping out for the “fear of the day.” In the 1990’s it was children being kidnapped by strangers (it was known as “stranger danger”) despite the facts that kidnappings accounted for only 2% of the violent crimes committed against children, and only 24% of kidnappings are committed by strangers (US Department of Justice, 2007). This fear overlapped with the fear of terrorism that gripped the country after the 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and US Pentagon and still plagues the population of the US somewhat in 2020. After a well-publicized, sensational act of violence, people are extremely likely to increase their estimates of the chances that they, too, will be victims of terror. Think about the reality, however. In October of 2001, a terrorist mailed anthrax spores to members of the US government and a number of media companies. A total of five people died as a result of this attack. The nation was nearly paralyzed by the fear of dying from the attack; in reality the probability of an individual person dying was 0.00000002.
The availability heuristic can lead you to make incorrect judgments in a school setting as well. For example, suppose you are trying to decide if you should take a class from a particular math professor. You might try to make a judgment of how good a teacher she is by recalling instances of friends and acquaintances making comments about her teaching skill. You may have some examples that suggest that she is a poor teacher very available to memory, so on the basis of the availability heuristic you judge her a poor teacher and decide to take the class from someone else. What if, however, the instances you recalled were all from the same person, and this person happens to be a very colorful storyteller? The subsequent ease of remembering the instances might not indicate that the professor is a poor teacher after all.
Although the availability heuristic is obviously important, it is not the only judgment heuristic we use. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman examined the role of heuristics in inductive reasoning in a long series of studies. Kahneman received a Nobel Prize in Economics for this research in 2002, and Tversky would have certainly received one as well if he had not died of melanoma at age 59 in 1996 (Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously). Kahneman and Tversky demonstrated repeatedly that people do not reason in ways that are consistent with the laws of probability. They identified several heuristic strategies that people use instead to make judgments about likelihood. The importance of this work for economics (and the reason that Kahneman was awarded the Nobel Prize) is that earlier economic theories had assumed that people do make judgments rationally, that is, in agreement with the laws of probability.
Another common heuristic that people use for making judgments is the representativeness heuristic (Kahneman & Tversky 1973). Suppose we describe a person to you. He is quiet and shy, has an unassuming personality, and likes to work with numbers. Is this person more likely to be an accountant or an attorney? If you said accountant, you were probably using the representativeness heuristic. Our imaginary person is judged likely to be an accountant because he resembles, or is representative of the concept of, an accountant. When research participants are asked to make judgments such as these, the only thing that seems to matter is the representativeness of the description. For example, if told that the person described is in a room that contains 70 attorneys and 30 accountants, participants will still assume that he is an accountant.
inductive reasoning : a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence
inductively strong argument : an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true
heuristic : a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions
availability heuristic : judging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)
representativeness heuristic: judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)
Type 1 thinking : fast, automatic, and emotional thinking.
Type 2 thinking : slow, effortful, and logical thinking.
- What percentage of workplace homicides are co-worker violence?
Many people get these questions wrong. The answers are 10%; stairs; skin; 6%. How close were your answers? Explain how the availability heuristic might have led you to make the incorrect judgments.
- Can you think of some other judgments that you have made (or beliefs that you have) that might have been influenced by the availability heuristic?
7.3 Problem Solving
- Please take a few minutes to list a number of problems that you are facing right now.
- Now write about a problem that you recently solved.
- What is your definition of a problem?
Mary has a problem. Her daughter, ordinarily quite eager to please, appears to delight in being the last person to do anything. Whether getting ready for school, going to piano lessons or karate class, or even going out with her friends, she seems unwilling or unable to get ready on time. Other people have different kinds of problems. For example, many students work at jobs, have numerous family commitments, and are facing a course schedule full of difficult exams, assignments, papers, and speeches. How can they find enough time to devote to their studies and still fulfill their other obligations? Speaking of students and their problems: Show that a ball thrown vertically upward with initial velocity v0 takes twice as much time to return as to reach the highest point (from Spiegel, 1981).
These are three very different situations, but we have called them all problems. What makes them all the same, despite the differences? A psychologist might define a problem as a situation with an initial state, a goal state, and a set of possible intermediate states. Somewhat more meaningfully, we might consider a problem a situation in which you are in here one state (e.g., daughter is always late), you want to be there in another state (e.g., daughter is not always late), and with no obvious way to get from here to there. Defined this way, each of the three situations we outlined can now be seen as an example of the same general concept, a problem. At this point, you might begin to wonder what is not a problem, given such a general definition. It seems that nearly every non-routine task we engage in could qualify as a problem. As long as you realize that problems are not necessarily bad (it can be quite fun and satisfying to rise to the challenge and solve a problem), this may be a useful way to think about it.
Can we identify a set of problem-solving skills that would apply to these very different kinds of situations? That task, in a nutshell, is a major goal of this section. Let us try to begin to make sense of the wide variety of ways that problems can be solved with an important observation: the process of solving problems can be divided into two key parts. First, people have to notice, comprehend, and represent the problem properly in their minds (called problem representation ). Second, they have to apply some kind of solution strategy to the problem. Psychologists have studied both of these key parts of the process in detail.
When you first think about the problem-solving process, you might guess that most of our difficulties would occur because we are failing in the second step, the application of strategies. Although this can be a significant difficulty much of the time, the more important source of difficulty is probably problem representation. In short, we often fail to solve a problem because we are looking at it, or thinking about it, the wrong way.
problem : a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)
problem representation : noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem
Defining and Mentally Representing Problems in Order to Solve Them
So, the main obstacle to solving a problem is that we do not clearly understand exactly what the problem is. Recall the problem with Mary’s daughter always being late. One way to represent, or to think about, this problem is that she is being defiant. She refuses to get ready in time. This type of representation or definition suggests a particular type of solution. Another way to think about the problem, however, is to consider the possibility that she is simply being sidetracked by interesting diversions. This different conception of what the problem is (i.e., different representation) suggests a very different solution strategy. For example, if Mary defines the problem as defiance, she may be tempted to solve the problem using some kind of coercive tactics, that is, to assert her authority as her mother and force her to listen. On the other hand, if Mary defines the problem as distraction, she may try to solve it by simply removing the distracting objects.
As you might guess, when a problem is represented one way, the solution may seem very difficult, or even impossible. Seen another way, the solution might be very easy. For example, consider the following problem (from Nasar, 1998):
Two bicyclists start 20 miles apart and head toward each other, each going at a steady rate of 10 miles per hour. At the same time, a fly that travels at a steady 15 miles per hour starts from the front wheel of the southbound bicycle and flies to the front wheel of the northbound one, then turns around and flies to the front wheel of the southbound one again, and continues in this manner until he is crushed between the two front wheels. Question: what total distance did the fly cover?
Please take a few minutes to try to solve this problem.
Most people represent this problem as a question about a fly because, well, that is how the question is asked. The solution, using this representation, is to figure out how far the fly travels on the first leg of its journey, then add this total to how far it travels on the second leg of its journey (when it turns around and returns to the first bicycle), then continue to add the smaller distance from each leg of the journey until you converge on the correct answer. You would have to be quite skilled at math to solve this problem, and you would probably need some time and pencil and paper to do it.
If you consider a different representation, however, you can solve this problem in your head. Instead of thinking about it as a question about a fly, think about it as a question about the bicycles. They are 20 miles apart, and each is traveling 10 miles per hour. How long will it take for the bicycles to reach each other? Right, one hour. The fly is traveling 15 miles per hour; therefore, it will travel a total of 15 miles back and forth in the hour before the bicycles meet. Represented one way (as a problem about a fly), the problem is quite difficult. Represented another way (as a problem about two bicycles), it is easy. Changing your representation of a problem is sometimes the best—sometimes the only—way to solve it.
Unfortunately, however, changing a problem’s representation is not the easiest thing in the world to do. Often, problem solvers get stuck looking at a problem one way. This is called fixation . Most people who represent the preceding problem as a problem about a fly probably do not pause to reconsider, and consequently change, their representation. A parent who thinks her daughter is being defiant is unlikely to consider the possibility that her behavior is far less purposeful.
Problem-solving fixation was examined by a group of German psychologists called Gestalt psychologists during the 1930’s and 1940’s. Karl Dunker, for example, discovered an important type of failure to take a different perspective called functional fixedness . Imagine being a participant in one of his experiments. You are asked to figure out how to mount two candles on a door and are given an assortment of odds and ends, including a small empty cardboard box and some thumbtacks. Perhaps you have already figured out a solution: tack the box to the door so it forms a platform, then put the candles on top of the box. Most people are able to arrive at this solution. Imagine a slight variation of the procedure, however. What if, instead of being empty, the box had matches in it? Most people given this version of the problem do not arrive at the solution given above. Why? Because it seems to people that when the box contains matches, it already has a function; it is a matchbox. People are unlikely to consider a new function for an object that already has a function. This is functional fixedness.
Mental set is a type of fixation in which the problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past, even though the solution may no longer be useful. It is commonly seen when students do math problems for homework. Often, several problems in a row require the reapplication of the same solution strategy. Then, without warning, the next problem in the set requires a new strategy. Many students attempt to apply the formerly successful strategy on the new problem and therefore cannot come up with a correct answer.
The thing to remember is that you cannot solve a problem unless you correctly identify what it is to begin with (initial state) and what you want the end result to be (goal state). That may mean looking at the problem from a different angle and representing it in a new way. The correct representation does not guarantee a successful solution, but it certainly puts you on the right track.
A bit more optimistically, the Gestalt psychologists discovered what may be considered the opposite of fixation, namely insight . Sometimes the solution to a problem just seems to pop into your head. Wolfgang Kohler examined insight by posing many different problems to chimpanzees, principally problems pertaining to their acquisition of out-of-reach food. In one version, a banana was placed outside of a chimpanzee’s cage and a short stick inside the cage. The stick was too short to retrieve the banana, but was long enough to retrieve a longer stick also located outside of the cage. This second stick was long enough to retrieve the banana. After trying, and failing, to reach the banana with the shorter stick, the chimpanzee would try a couple of random-seeming attempts, react with some apparent frustration or anger, then suddenly rush to the longer stick, the correct solution fully realized at this point. This sudden appearance of the solution, observed many times with many different problems, was termed insight by Kohler.
Lest you think it pertains to chimpanzees only, Karl Dunker demonstrated that children also solve problems through insight in the 1930s. More importantly, you have probably experienced insight yourself. Think back to a time when you were trying to solve a difficult problem. After struggling for a while, you gave up. Hours later, the solution just popped into your head, perhaps when you were taking a walk, eating dinner, or lying in bed.
fixation : when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)
functional fixedness : a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function
mental set : a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past
insight : a sudden realization of a solution to a problem
Solving Problems by Trial and Error
Correctly identifying the problem and your goal for a solution is a good start, but recall the psychologist’s definition of a problem: it includes a set of possible intermediate states. Viewed this way, a problem can be solved satisfactorily only if one can find a path through some of these intermediate states to the goal. Imagine a fairly routine problem, finding a new route to school when your ordinary route is blocked (by road construction, for example). At each intersection, you may turn left, turn right, or go straight. A satisfactory solution to the problem (of getting to school) is a sequence of selections at each intersection that allows you to wind up at school.
If you had all the time in the world to get to school, you might try choosing intermediate states randomly. At one corner you turn left, the next you go straight, then you go left again, then right, then right, then straight. Unfortunately, trial and error will not necessarily get you where you want to go, and even if it does, it is not the fastest way to get there. For example, when a friend of ours was in college, he got lost on the way to a concert and attempted to find the venue by choosing streets to turn onto randomly (this was long before the use of GPS). Amazingly enough, the strategy worked, although he did end up missing two out of the three bands who played that night.
Trial and error is not all bad, however. B.F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist psychologist, suggested that people often behave randomly in order to see what effect the behavior has on the environment and what subsequent effect this environmental change has on them. This seems particularly true for the very young person. Picture a child filling a household’s fish tank with toilet paper, for example. To a child trying to develop a repertoire of creative problem-solving strategies, an odd and random behavior might be just the ticket. Eventually, the exasperated parent hopes, the child will discover that many of these random behaviors do not successfully solve problems; in fact, in many cases they create problems. Thus, one would expect a decrease in this random behavior as a child matures. You should realize, however, that the opposite extreme is equally counterproductive. If the children become too rigid, never trying something unexpected and new, their problem solving skills can become too limited.
Effective problem solving seems to call for a happy medium that strikes a balance between using well-founded old strategies and trying new ground and territory. The individual who recognizes a situation in which an old problem-solving strategy would work best, and who can also recognize a situation in which a new untested strategy is necessary is halfway to success.
Solving Problems with Algorithms and Heuristics
For many problems there is a possible strategy available that will guarantee a correct solution. For example, think about math problems. Math lessons often consist of step-by-step procedures that can be used to solve the problems. If you apply the strategy without error, you are guaranteed to arrive at the correct solution to the problem. This approach is called using an algorithm , a term that denotes the step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution. Because algorithms are sometimes available and come with a guarantee, you might think that most people use them frequently. Unfortunately, however, they do not. As the experience of many students who have struggled through math classes can attest, algorithms can be extremely difficult to use, even when the problem solver knows which algorithm is supposed to work in solving the problem. In problems outside of math class, we often do not even know if an algorithm is available. It is probably fair to say, then, that algorithms are rarely used when people try to solve problems.
Because algorithms are so difficult to use, people often pass up the opportunity to guarantee a correct solution in favor of a strategy that is much easier to use and yields a reasonable chance of coming up with a correct solution. These strategies are called problem solving heuristics . Similar to what you saw in section 6.2 with reasoning heuristics, a problem solving heuristic is a shortcut strategy that people use when trying to solve problems. It usually works pretty well, but does not guarantee a correct solution to the problem. For example, one problem solving heuristic might be “always move toward the goal” (so when trying to get to school when your regular route is blocked, you would always turn in the direction you think the school is). A heuristic that people might use when doing math homework is “use the same solution strategy that you just used for the previous problem.”
By the way, we hope these last two paragraphs feel familiar to you. They seem to parallel a distinction that you recently learned. Indeed, algorithms and problem-solving heuristics are another example of the distinction between Type 1 thinking and Type 2 thinking.
Although it is probably not worth describing a large number of specific heuristics, two observations about heuristics are worth mentioning. First, heuristics can be very general or they can be very specific, pertaining to a particular type of problem only. For example, “always move toward the goal” is a general strategy that you can apply to countless problem situations. On the other hand, “when you are lost without a functioning gps, pick the most expensive car you can see and follow it” is specific to the problem of being lost. Second, all heuristics are not equally useful. One heuristic that many students know is “when in doubt, choose c for a question on a multiple-choice exam.” This is a dreadful strategy because many instructors intentionally randomize the order of answer choices. Another test-taking heuristic, somewhat more useful, is “look for the answer to one question somewhere else on the exam.”
You really should pay attention to the application of heuristics to test taking. Imagine that while reviewing your answers for a multiple-choice exam before turning it in, you come across a question for which you originally thought the answer was c. Upon reflection, you now think that the answer might be b. Should you change the answer to b, or should you stick with your first impression? Most people will apply the heuristic strategy to “stick with your first impression.” What they do not realize, of course, is that this is a very poor strategy (Lilienfeld et al, 2009). Most of the errors on exams come on questions that were answered wrong originally and were not changed (so they remain wrong). There are many fewer errors where we change a correct answer to an incorrect answer. And, of course, sometimes we change an incorrect answer to a correct answer. In fact, research has shown that it is more common to change a wrong answer to a right answer than vice versa (Bruno, 2001).
The belief in this poor test-taking strategy (stick with your first impression) is based on the confirmation bias (Nickerson, 1998; Wason, 1960). You first saw the confirmation bias in Module 1, but because it is so important, we will repeat the information here. People have a bias, or tendency, to notice information that confirms what they already believe. Somebody at one time told you to stick with your first impression, so when you look at the results of an exam you have taken, you will tend to notice the cases that are consistent with that belief. That is, you will notice the cases in which you originally had an answer correct and changed it to the wrong answer. You tend not to notice the other two important (and more common) cases, changing an answer from wrong to right, and leaving a wrong answer unchanged.
Because heuristics by definition do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem, mistakes are bound to occur when we employ them. A poor choice of a specific heuristic will lead to an even higher likelihood of making an error.
algorithm : a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem
problem solving heuristic : a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions
confirmation bias : people’s tendency to notice information that confirms what they already believe
An Effective Problem-Solving Sequence
You may be left with a big question: If algorithms are hard to use and heuristics often don’t work, how am I supposed to solve problems? Robert Sternberg (1996), as part of his theory of what makes people successfully intelligent (Module 8) described a problem-solving sequence that has been shown to work rather well:
- Identify the existence of a problem. In school, problem identification is often easy; problems that you encounter in math classes, for example, are conveniently labeled as problems for you. Outside of school, however, realizing that you have a problem is a key difficulty that you must get past in order to begin solving it. You must be very sensitive to the symptoms that indicate a problem.
- Define the problem. Suppose you realize that you have been having many headaches recently. Very likely, you would identify this as a problem. If you define the problem as “headaches,” the solution would probably be to take aspirin or ibuprofen or some other anti-inflammatory medication. If the headaches keep returning, however, you have not really solved the problem—likely because you have mistaken a symptom for the problem itself. Instead, you must find the root cause of the headaches. Stress might be the real problem. For you to successfully solve many problems it may be necessary for you to overcome your fixations and represent the problems differently. One specific strategy that you might find useful is to try to define the problem from someone else’s perspective. How would your parents, spouse, significant other, doctor, etc. define the problem? Somewhere in these different perspectives may lurk the key definition that will allow you to find an easier and permanent solution.
- Formulate strategy. Now it is time to begin planning exactly how the problem will be solved. Is there an algorithm or heuristic available for you to use? Remember, heuristics by their very nature guarantee that occasionally you will not be able to solve the problem. One point to keep in mind is that you should look for long-range solutions, which are more likely to address the root cause of a problem than short-range solutions.
- Represent and organize information. Similar to the way that the problem itself can be defined, or represented in multiple ways, information within the problem is open to different interpretations. Suppose you are studying for a big exam. You have chapters from a textbook and from a supplemental reader, along with lecture notes that all need to be studied. How should you (represent and) organize these materials? Should you separate them by type of material (text versus reader versus lecture notes), or should you separate them by topic? To solve problems effectively, you must learn to find the most useful representation and organization of information.
- Allocate resources. This is perhaps the simplest principle of the problem solving sequence, but it is extremely difficult for many people. First, you must decide whether time, money, skills, effort, goodwill, or some other resource would help to solve the problem Then, you must make the hard choice of deciding which resources to use, realizing that you cannot devote maximum resources to every problem. Very often, the solution to problem is simply to change how resources are allocated (for example, spending more time studying in order to improve grades).
- Monitor and evaluate solutions. Pay attention to the solution strategy while you are applying it. If it is not working, you may be able to select another strategy. Another fact you should realize about problem solving is that it never does end. Solving one problem frequently brings up new ones. Good monitoring and evaluation of your problem solutions can help you to anticipate and get a jump on solving the inevitable new problems that will arise.
Please note that this as an effective problem-solving sequence, not the effective problem solving sequence. Just as you can become fixated and end up representing the problem incorrectly or trying an inefficient solution, you can become stuck applying the problem-solving sequence in an inflexible way. Clearly there are problem situations that can be solved without using these skills in this order.
Additionally, many real-world problems may require that you go back and redefine a problem several times as the situation changes (Sternberg et al. 2000). For example, consider the problem with Mary’s daughter one last time. At first, Mary did represent the problem as one of defiance. When her early strategy of pleading and threatening punishment was unsuccessful, Mary began to observe her daughter more carefully. She noticed that, indeed, her daughter’s attention would be drawn by an irresistible distraction or book. Fresh with a re-representation of the problem, she began a new solution strategy. She began to remind her daughter every few minutes to stay on task and remind her that if she is ready before it is time to leave, she may return to the book or other distracting object at that time. Fortunately, this strategy was successful, so Mary did not have to go back and redefine the problem again.
Pick one or two of the problems that you listed when you first started studying this section and try to work out the steps of Sternberg’s problem solving sequence for each one.
a mental representation of a category of things in the world
an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning
knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking
individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do
Thinking like a scientist in your everyday life for the purpose of drawing correct conclusions. It entails skepticism; an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; and excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills.
a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided
an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice
a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true
a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion
an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true
a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence
an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true
fast, automatic, and emotional thinking
slow, effortful, and logical thinking
a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions
udging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)
judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)
a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)
noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem
when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)
a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function
a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past
a sudden realization of a solution to a problem
a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem
The tendency to notice and pay attention to information that confirms your prior beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms them.
a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions
Introduction to Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Ken Gray; Elizabeth Arnott-Hill; and Or'Shaundra Benson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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Problem-solving Made Easy: Proven Strategies for Better Results
- Post author: Samir Saif
- Post published: March 20, 2023
- Post category: marketing skills
- Post comments: 4 Comments
- Post last modified: December 7, 2023
- Reading time: 11 mins read
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Problem-solving is an essential ability in both personal and professional life. It’s no secret that life is full with challenges and hurdles to overcome, and our capacity to do so decides whether we succeed or fail.
Today, we’ll discuss why solving problems is important, how to approach it, and how to become a better problem solver.
Table of Contents
The problem-solving process
There are other approaches to problem solving, however we will concentrate on a five-step process:
- Define the issue: Identify the problem at hand and define its parameters.
- Collect information: Gather as much information as possible to properly comprehend the problem.
- Create solutions: Create potential solutions and assess their viability.
- Put a solution in place: Choose the best solution and implement it.
- Examine the solution: Determine the effectiveness of the solution and make any necessary changes.
Proven Problem-Solving Strategies for Better Results
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When presented with an issue, having a variety of problem-solving skills at your disposal might be beneficial. Each method has advantages and disadvantages, and selecting the best one is dependent on the nature of the problem you are attempting to address.
For example, if you’re trying to come up with new ideas, brainstorming might be the best approach. A root cause analysis, on the other hand, may be more effective if you are attempting to understand the underlying causes of an issue.
Fishbone Diagram
A fishbone diagram is a visual tool used to identify and organize the origins of an issue or effect. It is widely used to identify the cause of an issue in quality management and process improvement.
The graphic is shaped like a fish skeleton, with the effect or problem as the ‘head’ and the potential causes branching off as the ‘bones’.
By identifying and categorizing potential reasons in this manner, the fishbone diagram supports an organized approach to issue solving. The diagram is often made on a whiteboard or a piece of paper, and it is frequently the product of a brainstorming session with a group of people who have knowledge and experience in the subject matter under consideration.
By identifying and arranging potential causes, the diagram supports a methodical approach to problem solving.
“Also read: What Are Soft Skills? (Definition, Examples and Resume Tips “
SWOT Analysis Made Easy
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A SWOT analysis can be effective for evaluating the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with a certain issue. This might assist you in identifying potential solutions or risk-mitigation strategies.
Whatever issue-solving style you employ, it is critical to approach the situation with an open mind and a readiness to consider alternative viewpoints. You can improve your chances of finding an effective solution to the situation at hand by employing these several tactics.
8D Problem-Solving Method
The 8D problem-solving method is a methodical and successful problem-solving methodology that follows an eight-step structured procedure to detect, correct, and prevent reoccurring problems.
The 8D process starts with step one, which is to form a team to handle the problem. Individuals with diverse talents and expertise, as well as representatives from all departments and levels of the company, should form the team.
The second phase is detailing the problem, including its impact on the organization, customers, and stakeholders. This assists the team in having a comprehensive picture of the situation and its implications.
The third phase is to contain the problem to keep it from worsening while the team works on a solution. This could include halting the production line, recalling defective products, or shutting down a malfunctioning machine.
In step four, the team uses approaches such as the fishbone diagram or the 5 Whys to determine the fundamental cause of the problem. This aids in determining the root cause of the problem rather than simply treating the symptoms.
Step five entails developing and implementing corrective actions to address the problem’s primary cause. The team may also put these solutions to the test to ensure their efficacy.
Step six entails putting in place a long-term remedy to prevent the problem from repeating. This may entail altering processes, procedures, or systems in order to address the underlying source of the problem.
Step seven is appreciating the team’s efforts and sharing the lessons learned with the company in order to avoid similar difficulties in the future.
Finally, in step eight, the entire process is reviewed to confirm that the problem has been thoroughly resolved and to identify any areas for improvement in the problem-solving process.
The benefits of the 8D problem-solving method include improved problem-solving skills, increased collaboration and teamwork, better communication , and a focus on continuous improvement.
“Also read: Unleashing Your Career Growth Potential: Strategies, Opportunities, and Goals “
A3 Problem-Solving Template
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The A3 problem-solving template is a lean management technique for breaking down complicated problems into manageable components. It is made up of a single sheet of paper, usually the size of an A3 sheet, that follows an organized approach to problem solving.
The A3 template includes the problem description, current state analysis, root cause analysis, countermeasures, implementation strategy, and follow-up plan.
Each section takes the team through a step-by-step process for comprehending the problem, identifying its root causes, and devising solutions.
A3 Problem-Solving Example
Assume, for example, that a manufacturing company has a high rate of product faults. To begin, the team would complete the problem description section, which would explicitly explain the problem, its impact on the business, and the desired conclusion.
Following that, the present state analysis portion would be finished in order to comprehend the existing process and identify the symptoms of the problem.
The root cause analysis section would then be utilized to determine the underlying reasons of the faults. This information would then be used by the team to design countermeasures under the countermeasures portion. The implementation plan would subsequently be established to carry out the countermeasures and assure their long-term viability.
Finally, the team would complete the follow-up plan section to monitor the results and make any required changes to ensure that the problem was completely resolved. Overall, the A3 problem-solving template is a useful tool for teams to employ when confronted with difficult challenges, and it can assist in ensuring that they are solved in a structured and efficient manner.
Problem-Solving Book Recommendations
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There are many excellent problem-solving books available, but here are a few suggestions:
- Daniel Kahneman’s “Thinking, Fast and Slow” presents a detailed explanation of the two modes of thought that affect our judgments and conclusions, as well as practical tips for improving our problem-solving abilities.
- “The Art of Possibility” by Rosamund Stone Zander and Benjamin Zander – This book delves into the notion of “possibility thinking” and provides inspiring anecdotes as well as practical techniques for fostering creativity and innovation.
- “ Growth Marketing Hack ” Tools, skills and the most important strategies. Samir Saif wrote this. The book is designed to be a great resource for anyone interested in learning about growth hacking ideas and how to apply them in their marketing efforts.
- “Cracking the Coding Interview” by Gayle Laakmann McDowell – A must-read for anybody preparing for technical interviews, this book provides step-by-step instructions on how to approach and solve coding tasks.
- “The 5 Elements of Effective Thinking” by Edward Burger and Michael Starbird This book provides practical ways for developing a more effective and innovative mindset, building on concepts from mathematics, physics, and the arts.
These books provide varied viewpoints on problem-solving and can be excellent tools for anyone wishing to improve their problem-solving skills.
Critical Thinking vs. Problem Solving
Critical thinking and problem solving are two cognitive processes that are applied in a variety of contexts, including personal, academic, and professional settings.
Critical thinking is the ability to assess and evaluate information, arguments, or ideas in a methodical and impartial manner. It entails examining evidence, identifying assumptions, analyzing different perspectives, and reaching reasoned judgments or conclusions.
Problem-solving, on the other hand, refers to the act of finding solutions to specific issues or obstacles. It entails recognizing the problem, obtaining pertinent information, developing potential solutions, assessing those solutions, and deciding on the best course of action.
Problem-solving necessitates imagination, adaptability, and the ability to adapt to changing conditions. Although critical thinking and problem solving are independent concepts, they are intertwined and frequently complement one another.
Critical thinking is critical for effective issue solving because it assists individuals in identifying and evaluating the information required to discover a solution. In turn, problem-solving allows for the application of critical thinking abilities to real-world circumstances and the testing of assumptions and conclusions.
Furthermore, critical thinking can assist people in approaching problem resolution in a more systematic and successful manner. Critical thinking can help individuals develop more accurate and creative solutions by breaking difficult problems down into smaller components, discovering pertinent information, and considering alternative views.
Overall, critical thinking and problem-solving are fundamental cognitive processes that are required for success in a variety of areas of life. While they are different concepts, they frequently collaborate to assist individuals in making informed decisions, solving complex challenges, and achieving their goals.
Tips for becoming an effective problem solver
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Let’s speak about ways to improve your problem-solving skills. Here are a few pointers to help you enhance your problem-solving abilities:
- Maintain your cool: Maintaining your cool allows you to think more clearly and handle challenges objectively.
- Active listening involves paying close attention to the ideas and perspectives of others in order to obtain a better grasp of the problem.
- Be inventive: Consider alternative ways and answers to the problem, even if they appear unusual.
- Don’t give up: Problem-solving can be difficult, so it’s critical to endure and keep trying until a solution is discovered.
- Learn from previous experiences: Reflect on previous experiences to determine what worked and what didn’t, and then apply that knowledge to future situations.
Understanding the importance of problem-solving
To begin, consider why problem-solving is so important. Life is unpredictable, and difficulties might arise at any time. Professionally, organizations require problem solvers to identify and resolve challenges that develop in their operations.
Being a good problem solver can lead to better decision-making, fewer stress, and a happier life in general. As a result, the capacity to solve issues efficiently is critical.
Conclusion:
Finally, problem-solving is an important talent that can have an impact on both our personal and professional lives.
We may handle obstacles with confidence and achieve our goals by understanding the importance of problem-solving, tackling it with an organized strategy, and implementing recommendations to become a more successful problem solver.
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Analytical Thinking vs Problem Solving: A Comprehensive Comparison
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Analytical thinking and problem solving are crucial skills in various aspects of life, including personal and professional situations. While they may seem interchangeable, there are distinct differences between the two. Analytical thinking focuses on breaking down complex information into smaller, manageable components to understand a situation and evaluate alternatives effectively. On the other hand, problem solving involves devising practical solutions to overcome challenges or resolve issues that arise in daily life or the workplace.
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Both analytical thinking and problem-solving skills contribute to making well-informed decisions, managing risks, and achieving success in various areas of life. By understanding these skills’ distinctions and applying them effectively, individuals can enhance their performance in the workplace, handle complex situations with ease, and make better choices in their personal lives.
Key Takeaways
Understanding analytical thinking.
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Nature of Analytical Thinking
Key components of analytical thinking include reasoning, fact-checking, and questioning assumptions. This skill set allows individuals to approach problems with an open mind, meticulously gather and analyze data, and make well-informed decisions. Ultimately, analytical thinking leads to more informed and strategic decision-making, increasing the likelihood of success in professional and personal endeavors.
How Analytical Thinking Works
It is important to note that analytical thinking is not solely reserved for mathematicians or scientists but is a valuable skill applicable to a wide range of disciplines and professions. From business analysts, who require analytical thinking and problem-solving skills to identify and implement changes, to daily decision-making in personal lives, analytical reasoning plays a vital role in successfully navigating through various complexities.
Significance of Problem Solving
Features of problem solving.
In the context of decision-making, problem solving requires individuals to evaluate multiple options and select the one with the highest probability of success. A well-developed thinking process is crucial to identifying and analyzing creative solutions, as it helps individuals see beyond the apparent issues and delve deeper into the underlying causes.
Process of Problem Solving
Comparing analytical thinking and problem solving, similarities.
Moreover, practicing both analytical thinking and problem-solving techniques can lead to improved decision-making abilities. This development, in turn, translates into greater efficiency and effectiveness in personal and professional contexts.
Differences
In conclusion, analytical thinking and problem-solving, while both essential skills, have distinct applications and methods, and their effective use can be instrumental in achieving success in various aspects of life.
Ways to Improve Both Techniques
Developing analytical thinking.
Collaborating with others can also help individuals enhance their analytical thinking skills. By working together, people can build on each other’s strengths and overcome challenges. Additionally, they can exchange ideas and learn from different viewpoints, which may lead to innovative solutions.
Enhancing Problem Solving Skills
Utilizing a methodical approach to problem-solving can also yield positive results. Techniques like breaking down complex issues into manageable steps or generating multiple possible solutions can enable a more comprehensive analysis, increasing the likelihood of success in overcoming challenges.
Importance in Workplace and Career Success
Relevance in the workplace.
Effective communication is an important aspect of analytical thinking and problem solving. In a professional setting, employees must often convey their findings and ideas to stakeholders, ensuring that solutions are implemented appropriately and any concerns are addressed. This communication can lead to improved collaboration, clearer goals, and faster resolution of issues 3 .
Implication for Career Success
Role in decision making and risk management, influence on decision making.
Analytical thinking plays a crucial role in decision making, as it involves breaking things down into their component parts and using deductive reasoning to draw conclusions from given evidence and assumptions source . This allows individuals and organizations to carefully consider the pros and cons of each option, determine the feasibility of implementing potential solutions, and weigh the costs and benefits associated with each decision.
Contribution to Risk Management
Similarly, problem-solving assists in risk management by addressing potential challenges that may arise during the implementation of solutions, such as examining potential obstacles, resource constraints, and other factors that may impact the success of an initiative source . By combining the strengths of both analytical thinking and problem-solving, decision-makers can enhance their risk management strategies and ensure a higher probability of success in their respective decisions.
Utilization in Business Analysis
Application in business analysis.
When approaching a problem, business analysts consider several key factors, such as people, processes, and technology. They employ systems thinking to understand the enterprise holistically and how all these elements interact. This mindset helps them to not only identify the root cause of a problem, but also to develop solutions that address the underlying issues effectively [2] .
Understanding Financial Data
Real life examples.
Analytical thinking and problem solving are essential skills in both personal and professional life. They allow individuals to tackle complex issues, identify the root causes, and develop effective solutions. Let’s examine some real-life examples that emphasize the differences between these two thought processes.
Another example can be found in the realm of personal finance. Analytical thinking would be employed to evaluate one’s financial situation and understand patterns in spending habits. This analysis could reveal areas where money may be saved or better utilized. For instance, it may uncover excessive spending on dining out or ineffective monthly budgeting practices.
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5 activities that will teach children about critical thinking, thinking in first principles: unlocking deep understandings, 7 ways to enhance your decision-making with critical thinking: proven strategies for better choices, when to use critical thinking – what you need to know, download this free ebook.
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Critical thinking vs. problem-solving Critical thinking and problem-solving can both help you resolve challenges, but the two practices have distinct purposes and strategies. Here are some differences between the two skills: Critical thinking This is a mode of thinking, compared to problem-solving, which is a set of solution-oriented strategies.
The first step to enhancing your critical thinking and problem solving skills is to think about them, become aware of them, then you can actively practice to improve them. Critical thinking and problem-solving are two important "soft" or essential skills hiring managers are looking for. According to a Linkedin survey, 57% of business ...
Critical thinking is a vital skill that involves the process of carefully and systematically analyzing, evaluating, and reflecting on information to make informed decisions, reasoned judgments, or solve problems. Key characteristics of critical thinking include logic, analysis, evaluation, synthesis, and assessment of evidence and arguments.
When evaluating critical thinking vs. problem solving, the elements of both appear to blend into a distinction without a difference. Good problem solvers employ the steps of critical thinking, but not all problem solving involves critical thinking. Emotional intelligence is an attribute that is a hybrid skill of problem solving and critical ...
Critical thinking involves asking questions, defining a problem, examining evidence, analyzing assumptions and biases, avoiding emotional reasoning, avoiding oversimplification, considering other interpretations, and tolerating ambiguity. Dealing with ambiguity is also seen by Strohm & Baukus (1995) as an essential part of critical thinking ...
Critical Thinking vs. Problem Solving. Critical thinking involves the ability to analyze, evaluate, and assess information, ideas, or arguments in a logical and systematic manner. It includes skills such as reasoning, analyzing evidence, identifying biases, and making informed judgments. Problem solving is the process of finding solutions to ...
Critical thinking entails asking insightful questions and evaluating solutions, whereas problem-solving typically focuses on the identification and solution of a problem. critical thinking vs problem solving Problem-solving uses many of the same skills, such as observing, analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting, but it takes the process a step.
Problem-solving and critical-thinking skills both help in identifying problems. Critical thinking starts with evaluating a situation, which usually involves an issue. Problem solving necessarily involves assessing problems associated with executing a task. In both cases, this involves identifying the problem, its cause, and its scope.
Critical Thinking. Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms ...
Critical thinking is the discipline of rigorously and skillfully using information, experience, observation, and reasoning to guide your decisions, actions, and beliefs. ... People who score highly in critical thinking assessments are also rated by their managers as having good problem-solving skills, creativity, strong decision-making skills ...
Critical thinking vs. problem solving: the definitions. I was recently chatting with a colleague about the kinds of skills kids need to develop to be successful on the job, and in life. I started running down a list, and she said something along the lines of, "Well, critical thinking and problem solving… they're the same thing right?"
Q&A on Critical Thinking vs Problem Solving. Q: When might someone use critical thinking more heavily than problem solving or vice versa? A: Critical thinking would feature more when critiquing a belief, argument, or ideology in an open-ended way rather than targeting a definite resolution. Problem solving has greater emphasis when addressing ...
Simply put, critical thinking is the act of deliberately analyzing information so that you can make better judgements and decisions. It involves using things like logic, reasoning, and creativity, to draw conclusions and generally understand things better. This may sound like a pretty broad definition, and that's because critical thinking is a ...
In today's fast-paced and complex world, success often hinges on our ability to think critically and solve problems effectively.
Critical Thinking. Problem Solving. Definition. It is the process of breaking information down to analyze and evaluate it to make informed decisions. It is the process of finding the cause of a problem and determining the best way to resolve it. Focus. Analyzing and evaluating information, arguments, or situations.
Examples of Critical Thinking vs Problem Solving. Here are some examples that illustrate the key distinctions between critical thinking skills and problem solving skills in practice: A manager critically analyzing the root causes of steadily declining sales would be demonstrating critical thinking. Developing and rolling out a promotion to turn ...
This rubric distills the common elements of most problem‐solving contexts and is designed to function across all disciplines. It is broad‐based enough to allow for individual differences among learners, yet is concise and descriptive in its scope to determine how well students have maximized their respective abilities to practice thinking ...
Critical thinking is the ability to analyze and effectively break down an issue in order to make a decision or find a solution. ... Read more on Decision making and problem solving or related ...
solving, according to a 2010 Critical Skills Survey by the American Management Association and others. Problem solving and critical thinking refers to the ability to use knowledge, facts, and data to effectively solve problems. This doesn't mean you need to have an immediate answer, it means you have to be able to think on your feet, assess ...
Module 7: Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem-Solving. This module is about how a solid working knowledge of psychological principles can help you to think more effectively, so you can succeed in school and life. You might be inclined to believe that—because you have been thinking for as long as you can remember, because you are able to figure ...
Critical Thinking vs. Problem Solving. Critical thinking and problem solving are two cognitive processes that are applied in a variety of contexts, including personal, academic, and professional settings. Critical thinking is the ability to assess and evaluate information, arguments, or ideas in a methodical and impartial manner. It entails ...
Key Takeaways. Analytical thinking is about understanding complex situations, while problem-solving focuses on finding practical solutions. Mastery of both skills leads to informed decision-making and improved risk management. These abilities are essential for workplace success and overall personal growth.
Critical thinking and problem-solving skills are two of the most sought-after skills. Hence, schools should emphasise the upskilling of students as a part of the academic curriculum.