sociological perspective definition essay

What is the Sociological Perspective – Understanding Sociology

The sociological perspective is a way of understanding society that emphasizes the interconnectedness of social structures, institutions, and cultural norms. At its core, sociology seeks to explain how society works and why it operates the way it does. By analyzing social phenomena through a sociological lens, we can gain new insights into issues such as power dynamics, inequality, and cultural values .

Table of Contents

In this article, we will explore what the sociological perspective is and why it’s important for understanding society. We will define key concepts such as social structure, culture, institutions, power, and inequality. Additionally, we will provide real-life examples to illustrate how the sociological perspective can be applied in practice. Finally, we will address common criticisms of sociology and conclude with a summary of the key takeaways from this discussion.

Defining the Sociological Perspective

Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social behavior. It seeks to understand how individuals interact with one another, as well as how groups and societies are structured and function.

The sociological perspective is a way of understanding society that emphasizes the interconnectedness of social structures, institutions, and cultural norms. Unlike other ways of understanding society, such as psychology or economics, sociology takes a holistic approach that considers multiple factors when analyzing social phenomena.

For example, while psychology might focus on individual behavior and motivations, sociology would examine how larger societal forces shape those behaviors and motivations. Similarly, while economics might focus on market dynamics and financial systems, sociology would examine how those systems affect different groups within society in terms of income inequality or access to resources.

Overall, the sociological perspective provides a unique lens through which we can analyze complex social issues and understand the interconnectedness of various societal factors.

Key Concepts of the Sociological Perspective

Social Structure, Power and Culture are the key concepts used by sociologists to analyze society through a variety of different lenses. For example, they might examine how social structures like race or gender impact individuals’ experiences within institutions like education or healthcare. Alternatively, they might study cultural norms and practices in order to understand how they shape behavior and attitudes.

By considering these concepts together, sociologists can gain a deeper understanding of how different aspects of society are interconnected and how they contribute to larger patterns of inequality or power dynamics. Through this analysis, sociologists can identify potential areas for change and work towards creating more equitable societies.

Social Structure

Social structure is a central concept in sociology that refers to the patterns of relationships and social arrangements that shape society. These structures can take many forms, including formal institutions like governments or schools, as well as informal social norms and expectations.

One important aspect of social structure is social hierarchy, which refers to the ranking of individuals or groups within society based on factors like wealth, status, or power. These hierarchies can be based on a variety of characteristics such as race, gender, age, or occupation. For example, in many societies men have traditionally held higher status and power than women.

Institutions are also very important. These are established systems or organizations within society that serve specific purposes such as education (schools), government (political institutions), healthcare (hospitals), or finance (banks). Institutions play a crucial role in shaping social structure by providing frameworks for behavior and expectations for individuals.

Another important aspect of social structure is roles. Roles are sets of expectations for how individuals should behave in different situations based on their position within society. For example, parents are expected to provide for and raise their children while teachers are expected to educate and mentor students.

Social norms also play a key role in shaping social structures. Norms refer to the unwritten rules and expectations for behavior that govern interactions between individuals and groups within society. They can vary widely across different cultures and communities.

Social structure provides a framework for understanding how different aspects of society work together to create larger patterns of behavior and inequality. By analyzing these patterns through a sociological lens, researchers can gain insights into how societies function.

Culture is a complex and multi-faceted concept that refers to the shared beliefs, values, practices, and symbols that define a particular group or society. It encompasses everything from language and social customs to art, music, and literature. Culture is not fixed or static but rather evolves over time as people interact with each other and their environment.

One important aspect of culture is its role in shaping individuals’ identities and worldviews. Cultural norms and traditions can influence how people perceive themselves and others, as well as how they approach various aspects of life like work, family, or religion.

Institutional structures often reflect cultural values and norms. For example, educational institutions may prioritize academic achievement as a reflection of cultural values around the importance of knowledge and learning.

Power is a fundamental concept in sociology that refers to the ability to influence or control others. It can be exerted through various means, including physical force, economic leverage, or social norms and expectations. It can also be exercised at different levels, from individual interactions to broader social structures and institutions.

Social structures and institutions often play a key role in determining power dynamics within society. For example, political institutions may hold significant power over citizens by regulating laws and policies.

Economic institutions like corporations and banks may have significant influence over individuals through their control of resources and wealth.

Inequality is another important concept related to power in sociology. Inequality refers to differences in access to resources, opportunities, and power among different groups within society. These differences can be based on a variety of factors such as race, gender, class, or age.

Inequalities are often reinforced through social structures and institutions that perpetuate disparities in power and privilege. For example, gender inequality may be reinforced through institutionalized norms that place greater value on traditionally masculine traits or roles.

Applying the Sociological Perspective to Real-Life Examples

Example 1: covid-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic is a current event that can be analyzed through a sociological perspective. This global crisis has had significant impacts on individuals, communities, and societies around the world.

By applying a sociological framework, we can gain insights into how social structures and institutions have shaped the spread of the virus and its impact on different groups within society. For example, research has shown that individuals from marginalized communities like low-income neighborhoods or racial minorities are more likely to be affected by the pandemic due to pre-existing inequalities in access to healthcare and other resources.

Additionally, analyzing the pandemic through a sociological lens can provide insights into how individuals and communities respond to crises. Sociologists have studied how social norms and expectations influence behaviors like mask-wearing or social distancing during pandemics.

Example 2: Black Lives Matter Movement

The Black Lives Matter movement is another example where the sociological perspective can be applied in practice. This social movement aims to address systemic racism and violence against Black individuals in America.

By analyzing this movement through a sociological framework, we can gain insights into how power dynamics shape social structures and institutions that perpetuate racial inequality. Sociologists have studied how institutionalized racism operates at various levels of society, including education, criminal justice systems, and political institutions.

Additionally, studying the Black Lives Matter movement through a sociological lens provides insights into how collective action can bring about change within society. Sociologists have studied how social movements develop over time and what factors contribute to their success or failure.

Criticisms of the Sociological Perspective

Sociology, like any other field of study, has faced criticism and challenges over time. Some common critiques of sociology include:

Lack of objectivity . Critics argue that sociology is not an objective science because it is influenced by the researcher’s own biases and values.

Limited scope . Some argue that sociology focuses too much on macro-level social structures and institutions, neglecting the experiences of individuals and their agency.

Inadequate methods . Others criticize sociology for relying too heavily on quantitative methods at the expense of qualitative research, which can provide more in-depth insights into social phenomena.

Political bias . Some have accused sociologists of having a political bias, either towards liberal or conservative ideologies.

However, it’s important to note that sociology has evolved over time and continues to adapt to new challenges. For example:

Objectivity . While complete objectivity may be impossible, sociologists strive to minimize bias through rigorous research methods and peer review processes.

Scope . Sociology has expanded its scope over time to include micro-level analyses of individual experiences and agency as well as macro-level analyses of social structures and institutions.

Methods . Sociologists now use a variety of both quantitative and qualitative research methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of social phenomena.

Political bias. Sociologists are trained to maintain objectivity in their research regardless of their personal beliefs or political affiliations.

While there are valid criticisms of sociology as a field, it continues to evolve and adapt in response to new challenges. By addressing these critiques head-on and continuing to refine its methods and theories, sociology can continue to provide valuable insights into how society operates.

Final Thoughts the Sociological Perspective

In this article, we explored the sociological perspective and its application in practice. We used examples from current events like the COVID-19 pandemic and the Black Lives Matter movement to illustrate how analyzing social phenomena through a sociological framework can provide new insights and perspectives.

We also acknowledged some common critiques of sociology, including lack of objectivity, limited scope, inadequate methods, and political bias. However, we explained how sociology has evolved over time to address these critiques and continues to adapt to new challenges.

Understanding society through a sociological perspective is valuable for individuals and society as a whole because it allows us to see beyond individual experiences and recognize the larger social structures and institutions that shape our lives. By understanding these forces at work within society, we can identify areas where change may be needed to promote greater equity and justice for all individuals.

In conclusion, the sociological perspective provides a unique lens through which we can analyze social phenomena and gain a deeper understanding of society. By continuing to refine our methods and theories, sociology can continue to provide valuable insights into how society operates and how we can work towards building a more just and equitable world.

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What this handout is about

This handout introduces you to the wonderful world of writing sociology. Before you can write a clear and coherent sociology paper, you need a firm understanding of the assumptions and expectations of the discipline. You need to know your audience, the way they view the world and how they order and evaluate information. So, without further ado, let’s figure out just what sociology is, and how one goes about writing it.

What is sociology, and what do sociologists write about?

Unlike many of the other subjects here at UNC, such as history or English, sociology is a new subject for many students. Therefore, it may be helpful to give a quick introduction to what sociologists do. Sociologists are interested in all sorts of topics. For example, some sociologists focus on the family, addressing issues such as marriage, divorce, child-rearing, and domestic abuse, the ways these things are defined in different cultures and times, and their effect on both individuals and institutions. Others examine larger social organizations such as businesses and governments, looking at their structure and hierarchies. Still others focus on social movements and political protest, such as the American civil rights movement. Finally, sociologists may look at divisions and inequality within society, examining phenomena such as race, gender, and class, and their effect on people’s choices and opportunities. As you can see, sociologists study just about everything. Thus, it is not the subject matter that makes a paper sociological, but rather the perspective used in writing it.

So, just what is a sociological perspective? At its most basic, sociology is an attempt to understand and explain the way that individuals and groups interact within a society. How exactly does one approach this goal? C. Wright Mills, in his book The Sociological Imagination (1959), writes that “neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both.” Why? Well, as Karl Marx observes at the beginning of The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852), humans “make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please; they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under circumstances directly encountered, given and transmitted from the past.” Thus, a good sociological argument needs to balance both individual agency and structural constraints. That is certainly a tall order, but it is the basis of all effective sociological writing. Keep it in mind as you think about your own writing.

Key assumptions and characteristics of sociological writing

What are the most important things to keep in mind as you write in sociology? Pay special attention to the following issues.

The first thing to remember in writing a sociological argument is to be as clear as possible in stating your thesis. Of course, that is true in all papers, but there are a couple of pitfalls common to sociology that you should be aware of and avoid at all cost. As previously defined, sociology is the study of the interaction between individuals and larger social forces. Different traditions within sociology tend to favor one side of the equation over the other, with some focusing on the agency of individual actors and others on structural factors. The danger is that you may go too far in either of these directions and thus lose the complexity of sociological thinking. Although this mistake can manifest itself in any number of ways, three types of flawed arguments are particularly common: 

• The “ individual argument ” generally takes this form: “The individual is free to make choices, and any outcomes can be explained exclusively through the study of their ideas and decisions.” While it is of course true that we all make our own choices, we must also keep in mind that, to paraphrase Marx, we make these choices under circumstances given to us by the structures of society. Therefore, it is important to investigate what conditions made these choices possible in the first place, as well as what allows some individuals to successfully act on their choices while others cannot.
• The “ human nature argument ” seeks to explain social behavior through a quasi-biological argument about humans, and often takes a form such as: “Humans are by nature X, therefore it is not surprising that Y.” While sociologists disagree over whether a universal human nature even exists, they all agree that it is not an acceptable basis of explanation. Instead, sociology demands that you question why we call some behavior natural, and to look into the social factors which have constructed this “natural” state.
• The “ society argument ” often arises in response to critiques of the above styles of argumentation, and tends to appear in a form such as: “Society made me do it.” Students often think that this is a good sociological argument, since it uses society as the basis for explanation. However, the problem is that the use of the broad concept “society” masks the real workings of the situation, making it next to impossible to build a strong case. This is an example of reification, which is when we turn processes into things. Society is really a process, made up of ongoing interactions at multiple levels of size and complexity, and to turn it into a monolithic thing is to lose all that complexity. People make decisions and choices. Some groups and individuals benefit, while others do not. Identifying these intermediate levels is the basis of sociological analysis.

Although each of these three arguments seems quite different, they all share one common feature: they assume exactly what they need to be explaining. They are excellent starting points, but lousy conclusions.

Once you have developed a working argument, you will next need to find evidence to support your claim. What counts as evidence in a sociology paper? First and foremost, sociology is an empirical discipline. Empiricism in sociology means basing your conclusions on evidence that is documented and collected with as much rigor as possible. This evidence usually draws upon observed patterns and information from collected cases and experiences, not just from isolated, anecdotal reports. Just because your second cousin was able to climb the ladder from poverty to the executive boardroom does not prove that the American class system is open. You will need more systematic evidence to make your claim convincing. Above all else, remember that your opinion alone is not sufficient support for a sociological argument. Even if you are making a theoretical argument, you must be able to point to documented instances of social phenomena that fit your argument. Logic is necessary for making the argument, but is not sufficient support by itself.

Sociological evidence falls into two main groups: 

• Quantitative data are based on surveys, censuses, and statistics. These provide large numbers of data points, which is particularly useful for studying large-scale social processes, such as income inequality, population changes, changes in social attitudes, etc.
• Qualitative data, on the other hand, comes from participant observation, in-depth interviews, data and texts, as well as from the researcher’s own impressions and reactions. Qualitative research gives insight into the way people actively construct and find meaning in their world.

Quantitative data produces a measurement of subjects’ characteristics and behavior, while qualitative research generates information on their meanings and practices. Thus, the methods you choose will reflect the type of evidence most appropriate to the questions you ask. If you wanted to look at the importance of race in an organization, a quantitative study might use information on the percentage of different races in the organization, what positions they hold, as well as survey results on people’s attitudes on race. This would measure the distribution of race and racial beliefs in the organization. A qualitative study would go about this differently, perhaps hanging around the office studying people’s interactions, or doing in-depth interviews with some of the subjects. The qualitative researcher would see how people act out their beliefs, and how these beliefs interact with the beliefs of others as well as the constraints of the organization.

Some sociologists favor qualitative over quantitative data, or vice versa, and it is perfectly reasonable to rely on only one method in your own work. However, since each method has its own strengths and weaknesses, combining methods can be a particularly effective way to bolster your argument. But these distinctions are not just important if you have to collect your own data for your paper. You also need to be aware of them even when you are relying on secondary sources for your research. In order to critically evaluate the research and data you are reading, you should have a good understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the different methods.

Units of analysis

Given that social life is so complex, you need to have a point of entry into studying this world. In sociological jargon, you need a unit of analysis. The unit of analysis is exactly that: it is the unit that you have chosen to analyze in your study. Again, this is only a question of emphasis and focus, and not of precedence and importance. You will find a variety of units of analysis in sociological writing, ranging from the individual up to groups or organizations. You should choose yours based on the interests and theoretical assumptions driving your research. The unit of analysis will determine much of what will qualify as relevant evidence in your work. Thus you must not only clearly identify that unit, but also consistently use it throughout your paper.

Let’s look at an example to see just how changing the units of analysis will change the face of research. What if you wanted to study globalization? That’s a big topic, so you will need to focus your attention. Where would you start?

You might focus on individual human actors, studying the way that people are affected by the globalizing world. This approach could possibly include a study of Asian sweatshop workers’ experiences, or perhaps how consumers’ decisions shape the overall system.

Or you might choose to focus on social structures or organizations. This approach might involve looking at the decisions being made at the national or international level, such as the free-trade agreements that change the relationships between governments and corporations. Or you might look into the organizational structures of corporations and measure how they are changing under globalization. Another structural approach would be to focus on the social networks linking subjects together. That could lead you to look at how migrants rely on social contacts to make their way to other countries, as well as to help them find work upon their arrival.

Finally, you might want to focus on cultural objects or social artifacts as your unit of analysis. One fine example would be to look at the production of those tennis shoes the kids seem to like so much. You could look at either the material production of the shoe (tracing it from its sweatshop origins to its arrival on the showroom floor of malls across America) or its cultural production (attempting to understand how advertising and celebrities have turned such shoes into necessities and cultural icons).

Whichever unit of analysis you choose, be careful not to commit the dreaded ecological fallacy. An ecological fallacy is when you assume that something that you learned about the group level of analysis also applies to the individuals that make up that group. So, to continue the globalization example, if you were to compare its effects on the poorest 20% and the richest 20% of countries, you would need to be careful not to apply your results to the poorest and richest individuals.

These are just general examples of how sociological study of a single topic can vary. Because you can approach a subject from several different perspectives, it is important to decide early how you plan to focus your analysis and then stick with that perspective throughout your paper. Avoid mixing units of analysis without strong justification. Different units of analysis generally demand different kinds of evidence for building your argument. You can reconcile the varying levels of analysis, but doing so may require a complex, sophisticated theory, no small feat within the confines of a short paper. Check with your instructor if you are concerned about this happening in your paper.

Typical writing assignments in sociology

So how does all of this apply to an actual writing assignment? Undergraduate writing assignments in sociology may take a number of forms, but they typically involve reviewing sociological literature on a subject; applying or testing a particular concept, theory, or perspective; or producing a small-scale research report, which usually involves a synthesis of both the literature review and application.

The critical review

The review involves investigating the research that has been done on a particular topic and then summarizing and evaluating what you have found. The important task in this kind of assignment is to organize your material clearly and synthesize it for your reader. A good review does not just summarize the literature, but looks for patterns and connections in the literature and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of what others have written on your topic. You want to help your reader see how the information you have gathered fits together, what information can be most trusted (and why), what implications you can derive from it, and what further research may need to be done to fill in gaps. Doing so requires considerable thought and organization on your part, as well as thinking of yourself as an expert on the topic. You need to assume that, even though you are new to the material, you can judge the merits of the arguments you have read and offer an informed opinion of which evidence is strongest and why.

Application or testing of a theory or concept

The application assignment asks you to apply a concept or theoretical perspective to a specific example. In other words, it tests your practical understanding of theories and ideas by asking you to explain how well they apply to actual social phenomena. In order to successfully apply a theory to a new case, you must include the following steps:

• First you need to have a very clear understanding of the theory itself: not only what the theorist argues, but also why they argue that point, and how they justify it. That is, you have to understand how the world works according to this theory and how one thing leads to another.
• Next you should choose an appropriate case study. This is a crucial step, one that can make or break your paper. If you choose a case that is too similar to the one used in constructing the theory in the first place, then your paper will be uninteresting as an application, since it will not give you the opportunity to show off your theoretical brilliance. On the other hand, do not choose a case that is so far out in left field that the applicability is only superficial and trivial. In some ways theory application is like making an analogy. The last thing you want is a weak analogy, or one that is so obvious that it does not give any added insight. Instead, you will want to choose a happy medium, one that is not obvious but that allows you to give a developed analysis of the case using the theory you chose.
• This leads to the last point, which is the analysis. A strong analysis will go beyond the surface and explore the processes at work, both in the theory and in the case you have chosen. Just like making an analogy, you are arguing that these two things (the theory and the example) are similar. Be specific and detailed in telling the reader how they are similar. In the course of looking for similarities, however, you are likely to find points at which the theory does not seem to be a good fit. Do not sweep this discovery under the rug, since the differences can be just as important as the similarities, supplying insight into both the applicability of the theory and the uniqueness of the case you are using.

You may also be asked to test a theory. Whereas the application paper assumes that the theory you are using is true, the testing paper does not makes this assumption, but rather asks you to try out the theory to determine whether it works. Here you need to think about what initial conditions inform the theory and what sort of hypothesis or prediction the theory would make based on those conditions. This is another way of saying that you need to determine which cases the theory could be applied to (see above) and what sort of evidence would be needed to either confirm or disconfirm the theory’s hypothesis. In many ways, this is similar to the application paper, with added emphasis on the veracity of the theory being used.

The research paper

Finally, we reach the mighty research paper. Although the thought of doing a research paper can be intimidating, it is actually little more than the combination of many of the parts of the papers we have already discussed. You will begin with a critical review of the literature and use this review as a basis for forming your research question. The question will often take the form of an application (“These ideas will help us to explain Z.”) or of hypothesis testing (“If these ideas are correct, we should find X when we investigate Y.”). The skills you have already used in writing the other types of papers will help you immensely as you write your research papers.

And so we reach the end of this all-too-brief glimpse into the world of sociological writing. Sociologists can be an idiosyncratic bunch, so paper guidelines and expectations will no doubt vary from class to class, from instructor to instructor. However, these basic guidelines will help you get started.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Cuba, Lee. 2002. A Short Guide to Writing About Social Science , 4th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Rosen, Leonard J., and Laurence Behrens. 2003. The Allyn & Bacon Handbook , 5th ed. New York: Longman.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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The Sociological Perspective

Learning objectives.

• Define the sociological perspective.
• Provide examples of how Americans may not be as “free” as they think.
• Explain what is meant by considering individuals as “social beings.”

Most Americans probably agree that we enjoy a great amount of freedom. And yet perhaps we have less freedom than we think, because many of our choices are influenced by our society in ways we do not even realize. Perhaps we are not as distinctively individualistic as we believe we are.

For example, consider the right to vote. The secret ballot is one of the most cherished principles of American democracy. We vote in secret so that our choice of a candidate is made freely and without fear of punishment. That is all true, but it is also possible to guess the candidate for whom any one individual will vote if enough is known about the individual. This is because our choice of a candidate is affected by many aspects of our social backgrounds and, in this sense, is not made as freely as we might think.

To illustrate this point, consider the 2016 presidential election between Democrat Hillary Clinton and Republican Donald Trump. Suppose a room is filled with 100 randomly selected voters from that election. Nothing is known about them except that they were between 18 and 24 years of age when they voted. Because exit poll data found that Clinton won 56% of the vote from people in this age group ( http://cnn.com/election/2016/results/exit-polls ), a prediction that each of these 100 individuals voted for Clinton would be correct about 56 times and incorrect only 34 times. Someone betting $1 on each prediction would come out $22 ahead ($56 – $34 = $22), even though the only thing known about the people in the room is their age.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY 3.0.

Young people were especially likely to vote for Hillary Clinton in 2016, while white men tended, especially in Wyoming and several other states, to vote for Donald Trump. These patterns illustrate the influence of our social backgrounds on many aspects of our lives. Now let’s suppose we have a room filled with 100 randomly selected white men from Pennsylvania who voted in 2016. We know only three things about them: their race, gender, and state of residence. Because exit poll data found that 64% of white men in Pennsylvania voted for Trump, a prediction can be made with fairly good accuracy that these 100 men tended to have voted for Trump. Someone betting $1 that each man in the room voted for Trump would be right about 64 times and wrong only 36 times and would come out $28 ahead ($64– $36 = $28). Even though young people in the United States and white men from Pennsylvania had every right and freedom under our democracy to vote for whomever they wanted in 2016, they still tended to vote for a particular candidate because of the influence of their age (in the case of the young people) or of their gender, race, and state of residence (white men from Pennsylvania).

Think back to the last time you rode in an elevator. Why did you not face the back? Why did you not sit on the floor? Why did you not start singing? Children can do these things and “get away with it,” because they look cute doing so, but adults risk looking odd. Because of that, even though we are “allowed” to act strangely in an elevator, we do not.

The basic point is that society shapes our attitudes and behavior even if it does not determine them altogether. We still have freedom, but that freedom is limited by society’s expectations. Moreover, our views and behavior depend to some degree on our social location in society—our gender, race, social class, religion, and so forth. Thus society as a whole and our own social backgrounds affect our attitudes and behaviors. Our social backgrounds also affect one other important part of our lives, and that is our life chances —our chances (whether we have a good chance or little chance) of being healthy, wealthy, and well educated and, more generally, of living a good, happy life.

The influence of our social environment in all of these respects is the fundamental understanding that sociology —the scientific study of social behavior and social institutions—aims to present. At the heart of sociology is the sociological perspective , the view that our social backgrounds influence our attitudes, behavior, and life chances. In this regard, we are not just individuals but rather social beings deeply enmeshed in society. Although we all differ from one another in many respects, we share with many other people basic aspects of our social backgrounds, perhaps especially gender, race and ethnicity, and social class. These shared qualities make us more similar to each other than we would otherwise be.

Does society — comprised of a group of people who interact through a shared culture and who reside in a similar area–totally determine our beliefs, behavior, and life chances? No. Individual differences still matter, and disciplines such as psychology are certainly needed for the most complete understanding of human action and beliefs. But if individual differences matter, so do society and the social backgrounds from which we come. Even the most individual attitudes and behaviors, such as the voting decisions discussed earlier, are influenced to some degree by our social backgrounds and, more generally, by the society to which we belong.

In this regard, consider what is perhaps the most personal decision one could make: the decision to take one’s own life. What could be more personal and individualistic than this fatal decision? When individuals commit suicide, we usually assume that they were very unhappy, even depressed. They may have been troubled by a crumbling romantic relationship, bleak job prospects, incurable illness, or chronic pain. But not all people in these circumstances commit suicide; in fact, few do. Perhaps one’s chances of committing suicide depend at least in part on various aspects of the person’s social background.

In this regard, consider suicide rates —the percentage of a particular group of people who commit suicide, usually taken as, say, eight suicides for every 100,000 people in that group. Different groups have different suicide rates. As just one example, men are more likely than women to commit suicide ( Figure 1.1 “Gender and Suicide Rate, 2006” ). Why is this? Are men more depressed than women? No, the best evidence indicates that women are more depressed than men (Klein, Corwin, & Ceballos, 2006) and that women try to commit suicide more often than men (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2008). If so, there must be something about being a man that makes it more likely that males’ suicide attempts will result in death. One of these “somethings” is that males are more likely than females to try to commit suicide with a firearm, a far more lethal method than, say, taking an overdose of sleeping pills (Miller & Hemenway, 2008). If this is true, then it is fair to say that gender influences our chances of committing suicide, even if suicide is perhaps the most personal of all acts.

Figure 1.1 Gender and Suicide Rate, 2006

Source: Data from U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab .

In the United States, suicide rates are generally higher west of the Mississippi River than east of it ( Figure 1.2 “U.S. Suicide Rates, 2000–2006 (Number of Suicides per 100,000 Population)” ). Is that because people out west are more depressed than those back east? No, there is no evidence of this. Perhaps there is something else about the western states that helps lead to higher suicide rates. For example, many of these states are sparsely populated compared to their eastern counterparts, with people in the western states living relatively far from one another. Because we know that social support networks help people deal with personal problems and deter possible suicides (Stack, 2000), perhaps these networks are weaker in the western states, helping lead to higher suicide rates. Then too, membership in organized religion is lower out west than back east (Finke & Stark, 2005). Because religious beliefs help us deal with personal problems, perhaps suicide rates are higher out west in part because religious belief is weaker. Thus a depressed person out west is, all other things being equal, at least a little more likely than a depressed person back east to commit suicide.

Although suicide is popularly considered to be a very individualistic act, it is also true that individuals’ likelihood of committing suicide depends at least partly on various aspects of their social backgrounds.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Figure 1.2 U.S. Suicide Rates, 2000–2006 (Number of Suicides per 100,000 Population)

Source: Adapted from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Violence Prevention. (2009). National suicide statistics at a glance. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/suicide/statistics/suicide_map.html .

Key Take Aways

• According to the sociological perspective, social backgrounds influence attitudes, behavior, and life chances.
• Social backgrounds influence but do not totally determine attitudes and behavior.
• Americans may be less “free” in their thoughts and behavior than they normally think they are.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008). Suicide: Facts at a glance. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/Suicide-DataSheet-a.pdf .

Finke, R., & Stark, S. (2005). The churching of America: Winners and losers in our religious economy (2nd ed.). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Klein, L. C., Corwin, E. J., & Ceballos, R. M. (2006). The social costs of stress: How sex differences in stress responses can lead to social stress vulnerability and depression in women. In C. L. M. Keyes & S. H. Goodman (Eds.), Women and depression: A handbook for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences (pp. 199–218). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Miller, M., & Hemenway. D. (2008). Guns and suicide in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine, 359, 989–991.

Stack, S. (2000). Sociological research into suicide. In D. Lester (Ed.), Suicide prevention: Resources for the millennium (pp. 17–30). New York, NY: Routledge.

Introduction to Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Understanding the Sociological Perspective

How Sociologists See the World

• Key Concepts
• Major Sociologists
• News & Issues
• Research, Samples, and Statistics
• Recommended Reading
• Archaeology
• Ph.D., Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara
• M.A., Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara
• B.A., Sociology, Pomona College

Sociology can be defined as the study of society, but in practice, it is much more. It is a way of seeing the world through the evaluation of social structures and forces. This field of study uses historical context to examine the present day and a society that is constantly in flux. At its core, sociology fosters critical thinking, poses analytical questions, and pursues solutions. To truly grasp sociology and the research sociologists conduct, an understanding of social theory is necessary.

Examining Social Relationships

When sociologists examine the world in a bid to better understand it, they look for relationships between individuals and the social groups they belong to based on race , class, and gender , among others. They also consider people's ties to communities and institutions, be they religious, educational, or municipal, such as a church, school, or police department. In sociology, the individual aspects of social life are known as the "micro," and the large-scale groups, relationships, and trends that make up society are known as the "macro" .

Social Structures and Forces

Sociologists look for relationships between the micro and marco to recommend ways to address the trends and problems that arise in society. The recognition that social structures and forces shape a person’s beliefs, values, norms , and expectations lie at the heart of sociology. These forces influence our experiences, interactions with others , and ultimately, the outcomes of our lives .

While most people remain unaware of how social structures affect them, they are likely to recognize these forces while taking a critical look at society. Introducing students to the field, Peter Berger wrote, “It can be said that the first wisdom of sociology is this—things are not what they seem.” Hence, the sociological perspective urges students to ask the unasked questions about "normal" things to illuminate the underlying social structures and forces at work.

Asking Sociological Questions

Sociologists seek complex answers to what many would consider simple questions. Berger asserted that four key questions allow sociologists to see the connections between everyday life and the overarching social structure and forces that shape it. They are:

• What are people doing with each other here?
• What are their relationships to each other?
• How are these relationships organized in institutions?
• What are the collective ideas that move men and institutions?

Berger suggested that asking these questions transforms the familiar into something otherwise unseen, leading to “a transformation of consciousness.” C. Wright Mills called this transformation “ the sociological imagination .” When individuals examine the world this way, they see how their present-day experiences and personal biographies sit within the trajectory of history. Using the sociological imagination to examine our own lives, we might question how social structures, forces, and relationships have given us certain privileges , like access to wealth and prestigious schools. We might also consider how social forces like racism might disadvantage us in comparison to others.

The Importance of Historical Context

The sociological perspective always includes historical context, because if we want to understand why things are the way they are, we have to understand how they got there. So, sociologists often take the long view, looking at the shifting nature of the class structure over time, the evolution of the relationship between the economy and culture , and the limited access to rights and resources that continue to impact historically marginalized people today.

The Sociological Perspective

Mills believed that the sociological imagination could empower people to change their lives and society because it allows us to see perceived “personal troubles," like not making enough money to support ourselves , in context. Rather than personal problems, these troubles are “public issues,” as they stem from social structure flaws such as inadequate wages.

The sociological imagination points to the crux of the sociological perspective—that society is a social product, and, as such, its structures and institutions are changeable. Just as social structures and forces shape our lives, our choices and actions influence the nature of society. Throughout our daily lives, our behavior either validates society or challenges it to improve. The sociological perspective allows us to see how both outcomes are possible.

• Introduction to Sociology
• Units of Analysis as Related to Sociology
• Definition of the Sociological Imagination and Overview of the Book
• How Sociologists Define Human Agency
• The Major Theoretical Perspectives of Sociology
• Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic
• The Sociology of Consumption
• The Concept of Social Structure in Sociology
• The Sociology of Education
• Biography of Journalist C Wright Mills
• Four Things That Set Americans Apart and Why They Matter
• How Do I Know If a Sociology Major Is Right For Me?
• The Sociology of the Internet and Digital Sociology
• Why We Selfie
• The Sociology of the Family Unit
• Macro- and Microsociology

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Chapter 1: Sociology and the Sociological Perspective

• The Sociological Perspective
• Understanding Society
• History of Sociology
• Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
• End-of-Chapter Material

This chapter was adapted from Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World produced and distributed under a Creative Commons license (CC BY-NC-SA) in 2010 by a publisher who has requested that they and the original author not receive attribution, and Introduction to Sociology   © Jul 29, 2019 OpenStax . Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license.

Introduction to Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Sociology 101

Sociological Perspectives ¶

You are embarking on a fascinating journey as you learn to see, think, and analyze yourself and the world around you from a sociological perspective. This lesson invites you to see, think, and analyze from a sociological perspective. It provides a brief overview of the historical and intellectual development of sociology, along with describing how sociology is similar to and different from other social sciences. The lesson ends with a discussion of new theoretical approaches within the discipline. The tools presented here will help you build a foundation for new knowledge and insights into social life.

Learning Objectives ¶

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Define key terms related to the discipline of sociology.

Compare the major sociological theories.

Have experience conducting sociological research.

https://ncia.wwnorton.com/154862

Deadlines ¶

Be sure to hand these assignments in this week

Inquizitive Sociological Perspectives (Thursday at 9:30am)

Twenty Statements application submitted on Sakai (Sunday at 10:00pm)

Jonestown reflection (Sunday at 10:00pm)

‘ Sociology and the Real World ’, Chapter 1 in Real World

Class Lecture . Recorded 1/26. Slides

Major Sociological Paradigms

Émile Durkheim on Suicide & Society

Karl Marx & Conflict Theory

Max Weber & Modernity

Dubois & Race Conflict

Discuss: Jonestown ¶

award-winning filmmakers Stanley Nelson, Marcia Smith, and Noland Walker reveal the true, tragic story behind enigmatic preacher Jim Jones and his promise of a world of economic and racial equality that ultimately led to the largest mass murder-suicide in history. This documentary tells the story of the people who joined Peoples Temple, following Jones from Indiana to California and ultimately to their deaths in Guyana in November 1978. PBS

We will use the documentary film Jonestown: the life and death of Peoples Temple as an opportunity to identify and evaluate concepts related to the fundamentals of sociology. We will watch it together during class.

Be sure to have the movie ready to go at the start of class.

Login to the course Slack by 9:30am and say hi to your group!

Questions ¶

If you have any questions at all about what you are supposed to do on this assignment, please remember I am here to help. Reach out any time so I can support your success.

Post it in the Slack #lesson-sociological-perspectives channel!

Signup for virtual office hours !

Email me or your TA.

Lesson Keywords ¶

Social Darwinism

Structural Functionalism

Mechanical Solidarity

Organic Solidarity

Manifest Functions

Latent Functions

Conflict Theory

Social inequality

Critical theory

Critical race theory

Feminist theory

Queer theory

Bureaucracies

Symbolic Interactionism

Postmodernism

The least you need to know ¶

Extra Resources ¶

Social theories overview (part 1) (Khan Academy)

Social theories overview (part 2) (Khan Academy)

Functionalism (Khan Academy)

Conflict theory (Khan Academy)

Social constructionism (Khan Academy)

Symbolic interactionism (Khan Academy)

Macro and Micro (Khan Academy)

Introduction to Sociology (A Sociology Experiment)

Durkheim (A Sociology Experiment)

Marx (A Sociology Experiment)

Weber (A Sociology Experiment)

Intro to Soc Week 1: Sociological History (Professor Melendez)

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1.1: The Sociological Perspective

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• Page ID 7561
• 1.1A: Studying Sociology Sociological studies range from the analysis of conversations and behaviors to the development of theories in order to understand how the world works.
• 1.1B: The Sociological Imagination The sociological imagination is the ability to situate personal troubles within an informed framework of larger social processes.
• 1.1C: Sociology and Science Early sociological studies were thought to be similar to the natural sciences due to their use of empiricism and the scientific method.
• 1.1D: Sociology and the Social Sciences As a social science, sociology explores the application of scientific methods to the study of the human aspects of the world.
• 1.1E: The Sociological Approach The sociological approach goes beyond everyday common sense by using systematic methods of empirical observation and theorization.

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES- MEANING, TYPES & EXAMPLES

CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES: All disciplines study the subject through different perspectives. These help in providing unique or objective insights into the field that is studied. There are many sociological perspectives that have evolved over time across its sub-fields. However, the three classical theories remain popular and applicable to various societies and the interactions within them. These are- structural functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory

Introduction: Every discipline or study conducted by humans is done from a unique perspective. It offers meaningful insights into the subject of study. Similarly, sociology studies society, its participants, and their interactions through a sociological perspective that overarches the individual perspectives of social beings. The view through the lens of sociology always remains at the social or group level.

Read: An Introduction to the Discipline of Sociology Discipline – Overview

What is a sociological perspective?

“The perspective of sociology involves seeing through the outside appearances of people’s actions and organisations” (Berger, 1963). The sociological perspective is one that observes society through a lens without personal opinions. It generalizes the causes and actions of individuals into patterns and categories. However, it not only observes these patterns of society but also tries to explain such patterns or behaviours. Sociologists are not concerned with personal characteristics; instead, they aim to find common attitudes and features as well as hidden patterns in those characteristics and behaviours across millions of people. One of the main objectives of the sociological perspective is to find and understand patterns behind recurring features of social interaction, as well as to examine the social impacts of these. With this objective in mind, there have developed many sociological perspectives but there are three major perspectives that have gained popularity.

Types of sociological perspectives

Structural functionalist perspective:.

In sociology and other social sciences, structural functionalism serves as a thought school in which each institution, relation, position, and convention, that together make up a society, has a purpose and each is essential for the sustained functioning of other members and society in general. Social change has been seen in structural-functionalism to be an adaptive reaction to some of society’s difficulties. If one element of the interwoven social structure changes, friction is produced which is addressed by the change in the other areas between this and other aspects of the system. According to the sociologist Durkheim, social cohesion was brought about by the interrelationship between the various components present in society, which is a complex system that has its own dynamic traits, external to people, but that influences their actions. According to this perspective, different institutions, structures, and processes have a particular purpose, one that is beneficial to the members of society. This includes education contributing to the development of society, the legal systems check the deviations in society, the government governs people and protects citizens, families contribute to reproduction and many others. Even processes that others may regard through a negative lens have a purpose from the functionalist’s perspective. A criminal is someone who is normally thought to be harmful to society, but structural functionalists believe that criminals motivate people to behave morally and keep the justice system running.

The critiques of this perspective include its insufficiency to explain social and the continuance of non-functional aspects of society- that do not serve any purpose in society’s necessities. The idea that all the activities of society are useful to society is opposed by some.

 Symbolic Interactionism 

The symbolic interactionist perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, encourages researchers to explore symbols and nuances, their meanings, and their influence on the interactive relationships of daily life. As per this perspective, symbols are connected with their meanings, and these symbols are perceived in a subjective manner. Communication and the exchange of meaning through words and symbols are thought to be the method by which humans comprehend their social environments. Such subjective perception is particularly evident through verbal interactions that use uttered words as main symbols. Conversations are symbolic exchanges between people who evaluate the environment surrounding them continuously. The symbolic interactionist perspective stems from Max Weber’s idea that humans have an interpretation of their world and its meaning and their actions are influenced by such meanings.

Symbolic interactionism as a perspective helps people understand each other’s viewpoints and also helps with the smooth functioning of society. It promotes commonality and motivates the development of society. Symbols such as flags are used during international conflicts, by politicians and broadcasters, to encourage the concepts of unity, social cohesion among citizens and seek their support to the armed forces. Society has promoted the cultivation of symbols for various occasions. In western countries, the symbols of carved pumpkins and horror stories are associated with Halloween. A dove with an olive branch indicates peace worldwide. Movements create symbols to spread their causes and meanings. A rainbow flag, when seen, is directly interpreted to relate to the LGBTQ+ community. Therefore, symbols and signs play an important in society. Due to the limitations of being objective, the viewpoint of symbolic interactionism is frequently investigated and critiqued. Opponents further criticise symbolic interactionists for their relatively limited focus on symbols and communication in understanding society.

Conflict theory

Conflict theory argues that when assets, power and social reputations are divided unfairly across sections of society, then disputes develop and these conflicts form the source of social change. Power may be viewed in this sense as the control of productive capacity and acquired riches, the influence over political and social institutions, and the social position of everyone else. The theory of conflict emerges from Karl Marx’s writings, which concentrated on the determinants and consequences of the bourgeois-proletarian class conflict in a capitalist society. This system reinforced an uneven social order, producing a unanimity of values, objectives and standards by the intellectual compulsion of the bourgeoisie. When the proletariat’s social and economic situation deteriorates, Marx predicted that they will become aware of the class system, implying that the rich capitalist class exploits them, resulting in a revolution with a demand for social change. This perspective has evolved from Marx and includes a wide array of conflicts and disputes that contribute to social change in society. Even wars between nations are perceived to be caused by material or ideological differences and the settlement of these leads to structural change. Sociological perspectives like Marxism and Feminism are derived from conflict theory and they both focus on particular conflicts, differences, and their impacts on society.

The theory of conflict has been critiqued for its concentration on social stability change and neglect. Some opponents recognize that societies are continuously changing, but note that many changes are small or gradual, not dramatic.

Read: How to Apply Sociology in Everyday Life

Why is it important?

Sociological perspectives assist us in better understanding ourselves. People perceive society through their restricted experience of a tight circle of kin, acquaintances, and colleagues if they do not have a sociological perspective. The sociological perspective helps us to imagine and mentally separate ourselves from our limited experience, allowing us to understand the connection between personal worries and societal problems. It allows us to see how our own routines and activities relate to the trends and happenings of society. Sociology studies take us into aspects of society that we may normally overlook or misinterpret. Because our perspective is influenced by our own encounters, and individuals with various societal interactions have varying conceptions of social existence, sociological perspectives enable us to respect and comprehend the perspectives of others.

Sociological perspectives are important as they provide a lens to view society in a way that excludes personal biases and prejudices. It has its own applicability across societies and can be altered as times change. The three types of sociological perspectives discussed above are the classical perspectives of sociology. However, there are other perspectives like Marxism, feminism, and post-modernism among others that provide different insights into the happenings of societies. Sociological theory is constantly evolving and should never be considered complete. Classic sociological theories are still considered important and current, but new sociological theories build upon the work of their predecessors and add to them (Calhoun 2012). With the development of multiple branches of sociology, the perspectives and theories are bound to grow enormously, but, in the end, they aim towards understanding society.

REFERENCES:

Doing, S. (2001). Sociological perspectives.

Jones, H. (2011). On sociological perspectives. In  Handbook on sexual violence  (pp. 207-228). Routledge.

Kingsbury, N., & Scanzoni, J. (2009). Structural-functionalism. In Sourcebook of family theories and methods (pp. 195-221). Springer, Boston, MA. 

Manning, P., & Smith, G. (2010). Symbolic interactionism.  The Routledge companion to social theory , 37-55.

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2020, June 17).  Structural functionalism .  Encyclopedia Britannica .

Parsons, T. (1961).  Theories of society: Foundations of modern sociological theory . New York: Free Press.

Weber, Max. (1997). Definitions of sociology and social action. In Ian McIntosh (Ed.),  Classical sociological theory: A reader  (pp. 157–164). New York, NY: New York University Press. (Original work published 1922)

Calhoun, C., Gerteis, J., Moody, J., Pfaff, S., & Virk, I. (Eds.). (2012).  Contemporary sociological theory . John Wiley & Sons. 

Berger Peter, L. (1963). Invitation to sociology.  A Humanistic Perspective, New York . 

Ruthu is a student of Symbiosis School for Liberal Arts, pursuing interdisciplinary studies in international relations, political science and sociology. She is passionate about current affairs, public policies, sustainable development, human rights and quality education. She aspires to have a career in research and academia that allow observation of social reality by combining her subjects and passions in writing.

Sociological Perspective

The study of sociology plays an important role in how a society operates. Theoretical perspectives are the basic assumptions about society and the application of different theories in studying social life. In every topic or social discussion, people with different views will disagree and argue for an opinion based on their perspective. For example, in the Huffington Post, Dr. Robert Tornambe, a plastic surgeon, gave his opinion on plastic surgery. While his opinion might be critical towards plastic surgery, a supporter of the Functionalist, Conflict Theorist, Feminist, or Interactionalist perspectives might disagree.

Dr. Tornambe thought that the word beauty is the most misused and poorly defined word in the dictionary. Instead of saying “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder”, he added a word to make it the “Perception of beauty is in the eye of the beholder”. Since everyone has different preferences wouldn’t it be impossible for beauty to have one definition? Yes, there are common qualities in a person that most view as “beauty”, but there are people who disagree with those common qualities and in that case how can a woman discover her  beauty? If you look at a poll of the ideal woman for different countries you will see that these women can vary in many key attributes.

Additionally, society relies on Hollywood stars as a fashion and beauty standard, which is extremely unrealistic for the average person. Every day women cannot compete with those they are trying to emulate. Dr. Tornambe believes that society must change the perception of the word “beauty” as intellect and confidence in addition to appearances and looks.

Proficient in: Society

“ Very organized ,I enjoyed and Loved every bit of our professional interaction ”

Instead of changing one’s body to improve beauty with surgery, women should focus on changing their character traits, as so much of a woman’s beauty comes from within.

From a functionalist perspective, by getting plastic surgery a woman feels like she belongs and is a part of a community. If a woman believed that she wasn’t beautiful enough she could probably solve that issue to become approved in society. After fixing their looks, they will get positive feedback from the people in society. Furthermore, maybe by improving one’s look, the woman will gain self-confidence and be able to accomplish more. As a more inadvertent outcome to the overall purpose, one from a functionalist perspective would say that the need for plastic surgery causes more job opportunities for doctors. This is called a latent function of plastic surgery.

Furthermore, from the conflict perspective, performing surgery for a non-medical reason can cause several different disputes between people. For example, since plastic surgery can be so expensive a member of the upper class has the means to afford this while someone from the lower class doesn’t have this opportunity. This will cause jealousy and perhaps even hatred towards one another. For this reason, one who is wealthy has a better opportunity to become more beautiful and socially acceptable, which seems to be unfair. Additionally, since there are so many different views on beauty, this will cause tremendous conflict for post-plastic surgery. While some people might appreciate the perfect face, others might value natural beauty more knowing someone has been operated on.

Another view of plastic surgery is from the feministic perspective. Maybe the most reasonable claim against the craze of plastic surgery is the pressure placed on women. The standards for a woman’s appearance in today’s society are too high as they are influenced by celebrities to look like them. There will be a failure when the perfection of beauty is what everybody desires. Since failure is upsetting, this also may cause extra arguing and conflict within the family, especially with parents being against a daughter wanting plastic surgery. Also, older women might believe they need surgery to look younger just to look more appealing.

The last perspective to look at plastic surgery is through the interactionist perspective. Since plastic surgery is such a common thought in society, this may result in new friendships with similar interests. Looking at it differently, after getting plastic surgery, one might now be included or improve their social status. Lastly, interaction on social media  causes an effect on one’s decisions. Seeing celebrities or friends getting successful surgeries and looking great might cause others to get plastic surgery as well. Following the social trends creates bonds and gives people the ability to connect.

In conclusion, there are several different ways to look at a topic in society including the functionalist, conflict, feminist, and interactionalist perspectives. These different perspectives often disagree as they are a different way of looking at the issue. Those from the functionalist and interactionalist perspectives might say how positive it is for a woman’s look or for the friendships created, respectively. However, on the other hand, those from  conflict and feministic perspectives would be strongly opposed to plastic surgery. Dr. Tornambe is most likely to be one of these perspectives as he was extremely critical to the idea of the surgery. He thought it was unfair that some women were unable to afford the surgery supporting the conflict idea. Lastly, he thought that the idea of ideal beauty is unrealistic and is a setup for failure. When the utmost pressure is placed on women to look as attractive as  celebrities, the definition of “true beauty” becomes lost.  

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Sociological Imagination — Sociological Imagination: Definition, Importance, and Applications

Sociological Imagination: Definition, Importance, and Applications

• Categories: Sociological Imagination

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Published: Jan 31, 2024

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Table of contents

Definition and explanation of sociological imagination, the importance of sociological imagination, application of sociological imagination, criticisms and limitations of sociological imagination.

• C. Wright Mills. "The Sociological Imagination." Oxford University Press, 1959.
• Giddens, Anthony. "Sociology." Polity Press, 2006.
• Mills, Theodore. "The Sociological Imagination and Its Promise." Perspectives on Politics, vol. 8, no. 4, 2010, pp. 1007–1015.

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12.2 Sociological Perspectives on Work and the Economy

Learning objectives.

• List any two functions of work and the economy as emphasized by functionalism.
• Summarize conflict theory’s critique of work and the economy.
• Explain the overall approach of symbolic interactionism to understanding work and the economy.

The three sociological perspectives examined in earlier chapters continue to offer insights that help us understand the economy, including the nature of work on which any economy rests. Table 12.1 “Theory Snapshot” summarizes these insights.

Table 12.1 Theory Snapshot

Functionalism

Recall that the functionalist perspective highlights the many functions that social institutions serve for society. Accordingly, this perspective paints a positive picture of work and the economy by pointing to their many benefits.

The economy’s major function is also an absolutely essential function: the provision of goods and services. Because the economy provides the goods and services that any society needs, the economy makes a society possible. As we saw earlier, capitalist and socialist societies provide goods and services in different ways, and each type of economy has its advantages and disadvantages. Regardless of the relative merits of capitalism and socialism, however, both a capitalist economy and socialist economy make possible the societies in which they are found.

Many high school students have summer jobs or after-school jobs. Whether or not they go to college, most people work for pay once they reach adulthood. Some work full-time until they retire, some alternate full-time work and part-time work, and some may start out with a job but drop out of the labor force to raise their children. Regardless of these various work patterns, the most important function that most people derive from working is their paycheck. Simply put, work provides the income that most people need for food, clothing, shelter, and other essential needs in today’s society.

But work has important, nonmaterial functions beyond helping us pay the bills. Many people consider their job part of their overall identity, just as the college students reading this book consider being a student as part of their current identity. As we enter adulthood, we are not just a spouse, partner, parent, or child of our parents; we are also an accountant, banker, claims adjuster, day care worker, elementary school teacher, financial consultant, garage door installer, and so forth. The job we have helps provide us with a sense of who we are, or, to put it another way, a sense of our identity.

Especially if we enjoy our jobs, work can also give us a sense of self-fulfillment, self-confidence, and self-esteem. These psychological effects combine to form yet another important function of work.

An important function of work is that it provides a context for coworker friendships. Many people have friends whom they met in their workplaces or through their work.

Wonderlane – Co-workers laughing at Fat Smitty’s – CC BY 2.0.

A third function is friendships. Many people have friends and acquaintances whom they met at their workplaces or at least through their work (McGuire, 2007). Coworkers discuss all kinds of topics with each other, including personal matters, sports, and political affairs, and they often will invite other coworkers over to their homes or go out with them to a movie or a restaurant. These friendships are yet another benefit that work often provides.

The nonmaterial benefits that work provides for many people are important and should not be discounted. Although this is speculative, many wealthy people no longer need to work but continue to work because of these nonmaterial benefits. National survey data support the importance of work’s nonmaterial benefits in this regard. In the 2010 General Social Survey (GSS), respondents in the labor force were asked, “If you were to get enough money to live as comfortably as you would like for the rest of your life, would you continue to work or would you stop working?” More than two-thirds (68.7 percent) of these respondents replied that they would indeed continue working.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory’s views of work and the economy largely derive from the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels during the nineteenth century. As Chapter 1 “Understanding Social Problems” discussed, Marx and Engels sharply criticized capitalism as an economic system that inherently oppresses workers. In their view, the bourgeoisie , or ruling class, owns the means of production, while the proletariat , or working class, does not own the means of production. The bourgeoisie uses its wealth, power, and influence to oppress and exploit the proletariat.

Although today’s conflict theorists are not necessarily Marxists, they nonetheless criticize many aspects of capitalism, and the earlier discussion of the disadvantages of capitalism reflects their views. They also criticize how large companies treat their workers. As just one example, they call attention to the fact that many companies maintain dangerous workplaces that result in injury, illness, and/or death for tens of thousands of workers annually. We return to this particular problem later in this chapter.

Conflict theorists also point out that the workplace is a setting for sexual harassment, which was discussed in Chapter 4 “Gender Inequality” . Although work can and does bring the many benefits assumed by functionalist theory, work can also be a source of great distress for the hundreds of thousands of women and men who are sexually harassed every year.

Marx also wrote that work in a capitalist society is inherently alienating. This is so, he said, because workers do not design the products they build, because factory work (which was the dominant mode of production in Marx’s time) involves boring and repetitive tasks, and because workers are treated by their employers as mere commodities to be hired and fired at will. Reflecting Marx’s views, conflict theory today also points to the alienating nature of work.

Following up on this concern, social scientists have tried to determine the extent of worker alienation and job satisfaction, as well as the correlates of these two attitudes (Mauno, Kinnunen, & Feldt, 2012). They generally find that American workers like their jobs much more than Marx anticipated but also that the extent to which they like their jobs depends on the income their jobs bring, the degree of autonomy they enjoy in their jobs, and other factors. In the 2010 GSS, 88 percent of respondents said they are “very” or “somewhat” satisfied with the work they do, and only 12 percent said they were dissatisfied. This latter figure is probably much lower than Marx would have predicted for a capitalist society like the United States. One possible reason for this low amount of job dissatisfaction, and one that Marx did not foresee, is the number of workplace friendships as described earlier. Such friendships can lead workers to like their jobs more than they otherwise would and help overcome the alienation they might feel without the friendships.

Symbolic Interactionism

Recall that symbolic interactionism focuses on the interaction of individuals and on how they interpret their interaction. In line with this “micro” focus, many scholars have generated rich descriptions of how certain workplaces’ behaviors and understandings are “negotiated” and of how certain kinds of workers view aspects of their work and interpret the meaning of their work. Numerous studies of this type exist of police officers, prostitutes, attorneys, nurses and physicians, teachers, and a variety of other occupations. Most of these studies are based on intensive interviews of people in these occupations. Taken together, they provide a sensitive portrait of why people enter these various jobs and careers, what they like and dislike about their jobs, how they interact with other people in their workplaces, and a host of other issues.

Studies of police officers’ behavior and perceptions provide an excellent example of the symbolic interactionist understanding of work. According to Jonathan Rubinstein, an important goal of officers is to maintain the respect of other officers.

West Midlands Police – Day 4 – PCSOs on Patrol in Birmingham – CC BY-SA 2.0.

A classic study of the workplace grounded in the symbolic interactionist tradition was sociologist Joan Emerson’s (1970) study of gynecological exams. At the time Emerson wrote her study, most gynecologists were men. Because they are necessarily viewing and touching their women patients’ genitals, they have to ensure their patients do not think their doctor is behaving in a sexual manner. For this to happen, Emerson wrote, (male) gynecologists take pains to appear as medical professionals rather than as men interested in having sex or aroused by what they were seeing and feeling. In this way, they “define the situation” as a professional encounter rather than as a sexual encounter.

Male gynecologists use several strategies to appear as professionals, according to Emerson. For example, they have a (female) nurse present during the exam to help the patient feel comfortable. They also certainly avoid saying anything that might suggest they are sexually aroused. More generally, gynecologists and nurses always act in a nonchalant, matter-of-fact manner, which sends the patient an implicit message: “In the medical world the pelvic area is like any other part of the body; its private and sexual connotations are left behind when you enter the hospital” (Emerson, 1970, p. 78). In all these ways, gynecological exams are defined only as medical encounters, and patients are helped to feel as comfortable as possible under rather uncomfortable circumstances.

In another classic study grounded in the symbolic interactionist tradition, Jonathan Rubinstein (1993) spent a year riding around and otherwise interacting with police officers in Philadelphia. He later wrote compellingly about police officers’ constant fear for their safety, about how they try to control suspects and other threatening people without drawing their guns, about how they interact with each other and with their superiors, and many other matters. In one passage, he wrote about how officers (he interviewed police men ) try to win and keep the respect of other officers: “A patrolman must learn to avoid any appearance or incompetency if he hopes to maintain the respect of his colleagues. Every man must go to considerable lengths to cover up any weakness or error that might reflect poorly on his competence” (Rubinstein, 1993, p. 105). Thus officers learn to record dispatchers’ information promptly and accurately, and they avoid remarks that question the competence of other officers.

Key Takeaways

• Functionalism emphasizes the importance of the economy for any society, and the income and self-fulfillment that work often provides.
• Conflict theory highlights the control of the economy by the economic elite, the alienation of work, and various problems in the workplace.
• Symbolic interactionism focuses on interaction in the workplace and how workers perceive many aspects of their work and workplace interaction.

For Your Review

• Which of the three major sociological approaches to understanding work and the economy do you most prefer? Why?
• Write a brief essay in which you use a symbolic interactionist approach to understand some aspect of a job you have held or hold now.

Emerson, J. P. (1970). Behavior in private places: Sustaining definitions of reality in gynecological examinations. In H. P. Dreitzel (Ed.), Recent sociology (Vol. 2, pp. 74–97). New York, NY: Collier.

Mauno, S., Kinnunen, U., & Feldt, T. (2012). Work-family culture and job satisfaction: Does gender and parenting status alter the relationship? Community, Work & Family, 15 (1), 101–129.

McGuire, G. M. (2007). Intimate work: A typology of the social support that workers provide to their network members. Work and Occupations, 34 , 125–147.

Rubinstein, J. (1993). City police . New York, NY: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

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