mythology and folklore essay

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Acknowledgements

Original Creator: Claire K. Oldfather Editor, Updater, and Content Contributor: Ramona Crawford, Library Liaison to Folklore & Mythology

Consultants: Dr. Joseph F. Nagy

What is folklore?

Narrowly, the term “folklore” has been traditionally considered the oral tales of a society. More broadly, the term refers to all aspects of a culture – beliefs, traditions, norms, behaviors, language, literature, jokes, music, art, foodways, tools, objects, etc. Folklore is, in essence, anything and everything in life.

What is Folklore Studies?

Folklore Studies, also known as Folkloristics, is the study of all aspects of culture, particularly material culture or the products of a society. It developed as a discipline in the nineteenth-century in tandem with a number of other disciplines, including Literary Studies, History, Anthropology, Sociology, and Psychology; and has followed similar theoretical trends.

In the early 19th century, with the nostalgic wistfulness of the Romantic movement and burgeoning nationalism in Europe and North America, scholars grew increasingly interested in collecting and cataloging material culture, particularly folklore. This time period produced a large number of folklore and fairytale collections and preserved a portion of oral culture. The term “folklore” was first used in 1846 by William Thoms. Originally, it was limited solely to oral peasant tales. It was not until the 20th century that Folklore Studies was recognized as both cultural studies and as a discipline.

Why study folklore?

Folklore helps us understand society, cultures, communities, groups, and individuals. Studying folklore develops analytical skills and cultural sensitivity. Most importantly, it engenders understanding of and respect for others, as well as better understanding of ourselves.

Folklorists are rarely ever just folklorists. A degree in Folklore Studies teaches a range of transferable skills which can be used in any career. Some folklorists continue in academia as teachers and researchers, often in literature, history, or anthropology departments. Most folklorists apply their cultural knowledge and analytical skills to the public field and work as mediators between institutions and society. Many folklorists work directly with communities in a variety of ways, such as:

Ethnographers
Researchers
Anthropologists
Conservators
Social Workers
Social Activists
Entrepreneurs
Film Producers
Journalists
Non-Profit Organizers

Image: American School. Fraktur art: Ephrata Cloister tunebook, 1745. Watercolor and ink on paper, with cloth and leather binding. Harvard Fine Arts Library, Digital Images & Slides Collection.

Founded in 1967, the degree concentration in Folklore and Mythology at Harvard University is the oldest undergraduate Folklore degree program in the United States. At Harvard, students can study both past and present society through their cultural documents and artifacts, using a range of methodologies drawn from the humanities and social sciences.

The program at Harvard

The concentration in Folklore and Mythology at Harvard provides students with a general knowledge of the materials of folklore and mythology, its genres and divisions, and the various kinds of intellectual approaches to the materials that have been, and still are, used to understand and interpret them. Additionally, students apply the various anthropological methods and analytical theories taught through field and ethnography work. Students in the concentration develop and practice folkloristic methods -- deep listening, observant participation, cross-cultural comparison, historical contextualization, collaborative interpretation, cultural documentation, empathetic engagement, and good storytelling. Moreover, each student chooses a special field to research in order to acquire an in-depth knowledge of folklore and mythology in one given area.

Beck-Warren House

Since 1997, the Committee on Degrees in Folklore & Mythology has resided in the Beck-Warren House (also known as just the Warren House), a historic building near Harvard Yard, built in 1833 for Harvard Latin professor Charles Beck and owned from 1891 to 1899 by Sanskrit scholar Henry Clarke Warren. Offices for the Department of Celtic Languages and Literatures and the Humanities Center are also located in the building.

Harvard and Folklore Studies research

Students at Harvard who pursue a concentration in Folklore and Mythology conduct independent research on a particular aspect or field of folklore. These areas of study can be generic, cultural, or disciplinary. Some students research a genre of folklore, for example epics, music, folktales, legends, dramas, dance, rituals, beliefs, proverbs, customs, law codes, festival celebrations, wisdom literature, or one of the many other forms of expressive culture. Others research the various elements of folklore of a specific culture or language, including Yoruba, Celtic, African, Greek, Scandinavian, English, American, Japanese, Slavic, German, Brazilian, Near Eastern, Chinese, Indian, Maori. Still others examine folklore through the lens of specific disciplines or theories, such as Anthropology; Women and Gender Studies; Linguistics; Sociology; Ethnicity, Migration, and Rights; Ethnomusicology; Performance Studies; Folk Narrative; Internet Culture; or International Law.

Click here to see records for a selection of folklore & mythology-related honors theses and dissertations authored at Harvard.

Image: Harvard University, Beck-Warren House, Cambridge, Middlesex County, Massachusetts. Image Source: The Committee on Degrees in Folklore and Mythology website

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Tragic Tales and Epic Adventures: Essay Topics in Greek Mythology

Table of contents

1 Tips on Writing an Informative Essay on a Greek Mythical Character
2.1 Titles for Hero Essays
2.2 Ancient Greece Research Topics
2.3 Common Myth Ideas for Essays
2.4 Topics about Greek Gods
2.5 Love Topics in the Essay about Greek Mythology

With its rich pantheon of gods, heroes, and timeless tales, Greek mythology has been a source of inspiration and fascination for centuries. From the mighty exploits of Hercules to the cunning of Odysseus, these myths offer a window into ancient Greek culture, values, and understanding of the world. This exploration delves into various aspects of Greek mythology topics, providing a wealth of ideas for a captivating essay. How do myths impact today’s society? Whether you’re drawn to the legendary heroes, the powerful gods, or the intricate relationships within these stories, there’s a trove of ideas to explore in Greek mythology research topics.

Tips on Writing an Informative Essay on a Greek Mythical Character

Crafting an informative essay on a Greek mythical character requires a blend of passionate storytelling, rigorous research, and insightful analysis. Yet, there are some tips you can follow to reach the best result. Read this student essay written about the Greek mythology guide.

Select a Fascinating Character. Choose a Greek mythical character that genuinely interests you. Your passion for the character will enhance your writing and engage your readers.
Conduct Thorough Research. Dive into the character’s background, roles in various myths, and their significance in Greek mythology. Use reliable sources such as academic papers, respected mythology books, and scholarly articles to gather comprehensive and accurate information.
Analyze Characteristics and Symbolism. Explore the deeper meanings behind your character’s actions and traits. Discuss what they symbolize in Greek culture and mythology.
Use a Clear Structure. Organize your essay logically. Ensure each paragraph flows smoothly to the next, maintaining a coherent and compelling narrative.
Incorporate Quotes and References. Use quotes from primary sources and reference key scholars to support your points. This adds credibility and depth to your essay.
Edit and Revise. Finally, thoroughly revise your essay for clarity, coherence, and grammatical accuracy. A well-edited essay ensures your ideas are conveyed effectively.

By following these tips, you can create a compelling essay that recounts famous myths and explores the rich symbolic and cultural significance of these timeless tales.

Greek Mythology Topics for an Essay

Explore the rich tapestry of Greek mythology ideas with these intriguing essay topics, encompassing legendary heroes, ancient gods, and the timeless themes that have captivated humanity for millennia. Dive into the stories of Hercules, the wisdom of Athena, the complexities of Olympian deities, and the profound lessons embedded in these ancient tales. Each topic offers a unique window into the world of Greek myths, inviting a deep exploration of its cultural and historical significance.

Titles for Hero Essays

Hercules: Heroism and Humanity
Achilles: The Warrior’s Tragedy
Odysseus: Cunning over Strength
Theseus and the Minotaur: Symbolism and Society
Perseus and Medusa: A Tale of Courage
Jason and the Argonauts: The Quest for the Golden Fleece
Atalanta: Challenging Gender Roles
Ajax: The Unsung Hero of the Trojan War
Bellerophon and Pegasus: Conquest of the Skies
Hector: The Trojan Hero
Diomedes: The Underrated Warrior of the Iliad
Heracles and the Twelve Labors: A Journey of Redemption
Orpheus: The Power of Music and Love
Castor and Pollux: The Gemini Twins
Philoctetes: The Isolated Warrior

Ancient Greece Research Topics

The Trojan War: Myth and History. Examining the blending of mythological and historical elements in the story of the Trojan War.
The Role of Oracles in Ancient Greek Society. Exploring how oracles influenced decision-making and everyday life in Ancient Greece.
Greek Mythology in Classical Art and Literature. Analyzing the representation and influence of Greek myths in classical art forms and literary works.
The Historical Impact of Greek Gods on Ancient Civilizations. Investigating how the worship of Greek gods shaped the societal, cultural, and political landscapes of ancient civilizations.
Mythology’s Influence on Ancient Greek Architecture. Studying the impact of mythological themes and figures on the architectural designs of Ancient Greece.
Athenian Democracy and Mythology. Exploring the connections between the development of democracy in Athens and the city’s rich mythological traditions.
Minoan Civilization and Greek Mythology. Delving into the influence of Greek mythology on the Minoan civilization, particularly in their art and religious practices.
The Mycenaean Origins of Greek Myths. Tracing the roots of Greek mythology back to the Mycenaean civilization and its culture.
Greek Mythology and the Development of Theater. Discuss how mythological stories and characters heavily influenced ancient Greek plays.
Olympic Games and Mythological Foundations. Examining the mythological origins of the ancient Olympic Games and their cultural significance.
Maritime Myths and Ancient Greek Navigation. Investigating how Greek myths reflected and influenced ancient Greek seafaring and exploration.
The Impact of Hellenistic Culture on Mythology. Analyzing how Greek mythology evolved and spread during the Hellenistic period.
Alexander the Great and Mythological Imagery. Studying the use of mythological symbolism and imagery in portraying Alexander the Great.
Greek Gods in Roman Culture. Exploring how Greek mythology was adopted and adapted by the Romans.
Spartan Society and Mythological Ideals. Examining Greek myths’ role in shaping ancient Sparta’s values and lifestyle.

Common Myth Ideas for Essays

The Concept of Fate and Free Will in Greek Myths. Exploring how Greek mythology addresses the tension between destiny and personal choice.
Mythological Creatures and Their Meanings. Analyzing the symbolism and cultural significance of creatures like the Minotaur, Centaurs, and the Hydra.
The Underworld in Greek Mythology: A Journey Beyond. Delving into the Greek concept of the afterlife and the role of Hades.
The Role of Women in Greek Myths. Examining the portrayal of female characters, goddesses, and heroines in Greek mythology.
The Transformation Myths in Greek Lore. Investigating stories of metamorphosis and their symbolic meanings, such as Daphne and Narcissus.
The Power of Prophecies in Greek Myths. Discussing the role and impact of prophetic declarations in Greek mythological narratives.
Heroism and Hubris in Greek Mythology. Analyzing how pride and arrogance are depicted and punished in various myths.
The Influence of Greek Gods in Human Affairs. Exploring stories where gods intervene in the lives of mortals, shaping their destinies.
Nature and the Gods: Depictions of the Natural World. Examining how natural elements and phenomena are personified through gods and myths.
The Significance of Sacrifice in Greek Myths. Investigating the theme of voluntary and forced sacrifice in mythological tales.
Greek Mythology as a Reflection of Ancient Society. Analyzing how Greek myths mirror ancient Greek society’s social, political, and moral values.
Mythical Quests and Adventures. Exploring the journeys and challenges heroes like Jason, Perseus, and Theseus face.
The Origins of the Gods in Greek Mythology. Tracing the creation stories and familial relationships among the Olympian gods.
Lessons in Morality from Greek Myths. Discussing the moral lessons and ethical dilemmas presented in Greek mythology.
The Influence of Greek Myths on Modern Culture. Examining how elements of Greek mythology continue to influence contemporary literature, film, and art.

Topics about Greek Gods

Zeus: King of Gods. Exploring Zeus’s leadership in Olympus, his divine relationships, and mortal interactions.
Athena: Goddess of Wisdom and War. Analyzing Athena’s embodiment of intellect and battle strategy in myths.
Apollo vs. Dionysus: Contrast of Sun and Ecstasy. Comparing Apollo’s rationality with Dionysus’s chaotic joy.
Hera: Marriage and Jealousy. Examining Hera’s multifaceted nature, focusing on her matrimonial role and jealous tendencies.
Poseidon: Ruler of Seas and Quakes. Investigating Poseidon’s dominion over the oceans and seismic events.
Hades: Lord of the Underworld. Delving into Hades’s reign in the afterlife and associated myths.
Aphrodite: Essence of Love and Charm. Exploring Aphrodite’s origins, romantic tales, and divine allure.
Artemis: Protector of Wilderness. Discussing Artemis’s guardianship over nature and young maidens.
Hephaestus: Craftsmanship and Fire. Analyzing Hephaestus’s skills in metallurgy and his divine role.
Demeter: Goddess of Harvest and Seasons. Investigating Demeter’s influence on agriculture and seasonal cycles.
Ares: Embodiment of Warfare. Delving into Ares’s aggressive aspects and divine relations.
Hermes: Divine Messenger and Trickster. Exploring Hermes’s multifaceted roles in Olympian affairs.
Dionysus: Deity of Revelry and Wine. Analyzing Dionysus’s cultural impact and festive nature.
Persephone: Underworld’s Queen. Discussing Persephone’s underworld journey and dual existence.
Hercules: From Hero to God. Examining Hercules’s legendary labors and deification.

Love Topics in the Essay about Greek Mythology

Orpheus and Eurydice’s Tragedy. Analyzing their poignant tale of love, loss, and music.
Aphrodite’s Influence. Exploring her role as the embodiment of love and beauty.
Zeus’s Love Affairs. Investigating Zeus’s romantic escapades and their effects.
Eros and Psyche’s Journey. Delving into their story of trust, betrayal, and love’s victory.
Love and Desire in Myths. Discussing the portrayal and impact of love in Greek myths.
Hades and Persephone’s Love. Analyzing their complex underworld relationship.
Paris and Helen’s Romance. Examining their affair’s role in sparking the Trojan War.
Pygmalion and Galatea’s Tale. Exploring the theme of transcendent artistic love.
Alcestis and Admetus’s Sacrifice. Investigating the implications of Alcestis’s self-sacrifice.
Apollo’s Unrequited Love for Daphne. Discussing unreciprocated love and transformation.
Hercules and Deianira’s Tragic Love. Exploring their love story and its tragic conclusion.
Jason and Medea’s Turmoil. Analyzing their intense, betrayal-marred relationship.
Cupid and Psyche’s Resilience. Delving into the strength of their love.
Baucis and Philemon’s Reward. Exploring their love’s reward by the gods.
Achilles and Patroclus’s Bond. Discussing their deep connection and its wartime impact.

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Essay on Myths And Legends

Students are often asked to write an essay on Myths And Legends in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Myths And Legends

Understanding myths and legends.

Myths and legends are stories from long ago. They are full of adventure and often teach lessons. Myths usually explain how something in nature or human behavior began. Legends are tales about heroes and their brave deeds. Both are passed down through generations and are important in every culture.

Differences Between Myths and Legends

Myths are often about gods and magic, and they explain mysteries of life. Legends are usually about people who might have lived. They tell about their courage and strength. While myths are more about belief, legends can be partly true.

Why Myths and Legends Matter

These stories are more than just tales. They give us morals and show us how to act. They connect us to our past and to people everywhere. Myths and legends help us understand different cultures and their values. They are a bridge to the world’s history.

250 Words Essay on Myths And Legends

What are myths and legends.

Myths and legends are stories that have been told for a very long time. They are like a bridge that connects us to the past. Myths are often about gods, goddesses, and supernatural beings. They try to explain how the world was made and why things happen. Legends are a bit different. They are usually about heroes and famous people. Both myths and legends teach us lessons and share the values of the culture they come from.

The Purpose of Myths and Legends

These stories are not just for fun. They have a special job to do. Myths and legends teach us right from wrong and show us how to behave. They give us examples of bravery and tell us what happens when people make bad choices. Often, they are used to explain things that people in the past did not understand, like thunder or why the seasons change.

It’s important to know that myths and legends are not the same as fairy tales or fables. Myths are mostly about gods and are sacred to the people who believe in them. Legends are often based on real events or people but are exaggerated over time. Unlike fairy tales, legends can sometimes be true.

Why We Still Love These Stories

Even today, we love these old stories. They are exciting and full of adventure. They help us dream and imagine. Plus, they bring people together because they are stories everyone can share. Myths and legends are like treasures from long ago that still sparkle and shine for us to enjoy.

500 Words Essay on Myths And Legends

Long ago, before science could explain the mysteries of the world, people used stories to make sense of things. These stories are what we call myths and legends. Myths are tales that were told to explain natural events, like thunder and lightning, or the changing of the seasons. Legends are a bit different; they are stories that are told about people and their actions or great events, and sometimes they are based on real historical figures, but they are often exaggerated.

You might wonder why we should care about these old stories today. Myths and legends are important because they were the way our ancestors shared their values and beliefs. They helped to teach younger generations about the culture and traditions of their people. Even in today’s world, these stories can teach us a lot about how people in the past saw the world and can help us understand different cultures better.

The Heroes and Creatures

One exciting part of myths and legends is the heroes and magical creatures. Heroes like Hercules from Greek mythology or King Arthur from British legends were admired for their strength and bravery. Then there are the creatures like dragons, unicorns, and the Loch Ness Monster, which add a touch of magic and mystery to these stories. These characters often face challenges or go on quests that test their courage and wisdom.

Lessons from Myths and Legends

Myths and legends are not just for entertainment; they also teach lessons. Many of these stories have morals or messages that are still relevant today. For example, the story of Icarus, who flew too close to the sun, teaches us about the dangers of overconfidence. By reading these tales, children can learn about the consequences of good and bad behavior.

Myths and Legends Around the World

Every culture has its own set of myths and legends. From the Norse tales of Odin and Thor to the Native American stories of the trickster coyote, these stories vary widely. By sharing myths and legends from around the world, we can learn to appreciate the diversity of human storytelling and the shared themes that connect us all.

Keeping Myths and Legends Alive

Even though myths and legends are old, they are still very much alive today. They can be found in books, movies, and even video games. Many modern stories are inspired by these ancient tales, and by keeping them alive, we ensure that the wisdom and creativity of our ancestors continue to inspire us.

In conclusion, myths and legends are a window into the past and a bridge to other cultures. They are a collection of stories that have been passed down for generations, teaching us about bravery, caution, and the human spirit. These tales may have been told long ago, but their power to captivate and educate us remains undiminished. So next time you hear a story about a hero from long ago or a creature from a far-off land, remember that you are part of a long tradition of storytelling that has been going on for thousands of years.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Happy studying!

5 (page 79) p. 79 Myth and literature

Published: July 2004
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The relationship between myth and literature has taken varying forms. The most obvious form has been the use of myth in works of literature. ‘Myth and literature’ explores the mythic origin of literature. It discusses the scholars who have theorized about the patterns that they have delineated in hero myths. Myths collectively are too varied to share a plot, but common plots have been proposed for specific kinds of myths, most often for hero myths. Other categories of myths, such as creation myths, flood myths, myths of paradise, and myths of the future, have proved too disparate for all but the broadest commonalities.

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Mythology and Folklore: Study Guide

Annie a. parmis.

Department of Liberal Arts and Behavioral Sciences (DLABS) Philippines

Rizalina V. Truya

Riza l. maningo.

https://doi.org/10.14738/eb.203.2021
Radiating Faith, Festive Discernment, Mythology, Mythical Stories
Myth in itself is very much associated with religious belief. In one way or another, it relates to some actual events and is partly traditional. When we talk of a thing or an event which is traditional in nature, more often than not, we cannot be sure of its origin. This is the reason why in the study of myths, “suspension of disbelief” serves as key to a substantial understanding. If you are a wide reader of mythology and folklore topics, you would discover that myth stories have similarities in themes and characterizations. You may even get to know more about the folk’s own version of creation story or values and beliefs handed down through oral tradition and by generation. It seems that we cannot call a certain province or town “cultured” if it does not have its own collection of mythical stories.

August 28, 2021
Digital Humanities
Literature, Language and Culture
Textbooks and Learning Guides
Copyright (c) 2021 Annie A. Parmis
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

Literatures in English: Folklore and Mythology

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Databases and Indices

Motif Index of Folk Literature This link opens in a new window Identifies motifs, such as characters, actions, or events, in folk literature. Based on the work of Stith Thompson, this Motif Index classifies and indexes motifs (such as characters, actions, or events) in folk literature. Use the Motif Index to identify published books of folk literature in which the motifs appear. Topf find scholarly articles and books about folk literature, use the MLA International Bibliography.
MLA International Bibliography This link opens in a new window An index to scholarly articles, books and book chapters, and dissertations published internationally on modern literatures, folklore, and linguistics (including composition and rhetoric) starting with 1926.
SocINDEX with Full Text This link opens in a new window Main database of scholarly literature in Sociology and related fields. more... less... This index contains more than 1,900,000 records with subject headings from a 19,300 term sociology-specific thesaurus. This database also contains abstracts for more than 815 core coverage journals dating back to 1895. In addition, the database provides data mined from more than 630 priority coverage journals as well as 2,840 selective coverage journals. This index replaces Sociological Abstracts.

Online Reference Books

Black Short Fiction and Folklore A full-text collection of short stories, fables, and folklore from African, African-American, and Caribbean authors. more... less... Alexander Street Press
Creation Myths of Primitive America 2002, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Dictionary of African Mythology King Library (2nd floor) | BL2400 .S24 2000 Collection of synopses of tales from African mythology, covering the entire continent. more... less... 2000, Oxford Reference Online
Dictionary of Asian Mythology King Library (2nd floor) | BL1005 .L46 2001 Entries address the key mythologies of India, China, Tibet, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and Japan, with broad overviews of specific cultures and their mythic traditions. more... less... 2001, Oxford Reference Online
Dictionary of Celtic Mythology Survey of Celtic mythology, legend, saga, and folklore, covering people, themes, concepts, places, and creatures, from both ancient and modern traditions. more... less... 1998
Dictionary of Chicano Folklore 2000, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Dictionary of English Folklore King Reference (Ground Floor) | GR141 .S573 2000 Entries on ancient folk customs, such as well dressing and harvest festivals, but also on photocopylore, the Tooth Fairy and the folklore of sex. more... less... 2000, Oxford Reference Online
Dictionary of Native American Mythology 1992, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Dictionary of Superstitions King Library (2nd floor) | BF1775 .D53 1989 Dictionary covering the wide range of folk beliefs that have survived into our own age. more... less... 1996
Dictionary of World Mythology Presents information on the gods of Greece, Rome, and Scandinavia, the more mystical deities of Buddhist and Hindu India, and the spirits of the African and American continents.
Encyclopedia of Creation Myths 1994, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Cente
Encyclopedia of Folk Heroes 2001, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Encyclopedia of Folk Medicine: Old World and New World Traditions 2004, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Encyclopedia of Folklore and Literature 1998, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman Mythology 1998, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Encyclopedia of Russian & Slavic Myth and Legend 1998, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Encyclopedia of Urban Legends 2001, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
English Fairy Tales and More English Fairy Tales 2002, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Cente
Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art 1997, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Folktales from Northern India 2002, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Giants, Monsters, and Dragons: An Encyclopedia of Folklore, Legend, and Myth 2000, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Goddesses in World Mythology 1993, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Guide to the Gods 1992, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Handbook of Egyptian Mythology 2002, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Handbook of Hindu Mythology 2003, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Handbook of Inca Mythology 2004, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Handbook of Japanese Mythology 2003, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Cente
Handbook of Mesoamerican Mythology 2000, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Handbook of Norse Mythology 2001, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Italian Popular Tales 2001, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Medieval Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Myths, Legends, Tales, Beliefs, and Customs 2000, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Mysterious Creatures: A Guide to Cryptozoology 2002, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Mythical West: An Encyclopedia of Legend, Lore, and Popular Culture 2001, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Mythical Zoo: An Encyclopedia of Animals in World Myth, Legend, & Literature 2001, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Myths gods & fantasy 1991, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Nectar & Ambrosia: An Encyclopedia of Food in World Mythology 2000, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Old Deccan Days or Hindoo Fairy Legends 2002, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Oxford Companion to World Mythology King Reference (Ground Floor) | BL312 .L44 2005 Essays on the world's major mythological traditions, retellings of some better-known myths, and entries on mythological types, motifs, and figures.
Popular Stories of Ancient Egypt 2002, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Popular Tales and Fictions: Their Migrations and Transformations 2002, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
UFOs and Popular Culture: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Myth 2000, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Cente
Voyages in Classical Mythology 1994, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
Women of Classical Mythology: A Biographical Dictionary 1991, ABC-CLIO, OhioLINK Electronic Book Center
American Folklife Center The collections in the Center's Archive of Folk Culture include folk cultural material from all fifty states, as well as United States trusts, territories, and the District of Columbia. Most of these areas have been served by the American Folklife Center's cultural surveys, equipment loan program, publications, and other projects.
American Folklore Society The American Folklore Society is an association of people who study and communicate knowledge about folklore throughout the world. Our more than 2,200 members and subscribers are scholars, teachers, and libraries at colleges and universities; professionals in arts and cultural organizations; and community members involved in folklore work. Many of our members live and work in the US, but their interests in folklore stretch around the world, and today about one in every eight AFS members is from
Encyclopedia Mythica
Open Folklore Open Folklore is a collaboration of the American Folklore Society, the Indiana University Libraries, and the IU Digital Library Program. It builds on the new developments in digital circulation of folklore materials to respond to these troubling access and preservation problems. We will work with rights holders to make books and journals, including those that have already been digitized, fully and openly available online. We will support the publication of existing and new journals in folklore with an open-access publishing platform. We will digitize older grey literature, and educational materials produced by public folklore programs, and will provide digital preservation for such resources and publications that are “born digital.” We will select and digitally archive websites of public and academic folklore programs (with their permission). We will provide an online tool that will offer searching of all of the above classes of material while filtering out unreliable sources.
Snopes: Urban Legends Reference Pages
SurLaLune Fairy Tales SurLaLune Fairy Tales features 49 annotated fairy tales, including their histories, similar tales across cultures, modern interpretations and over 1,500 illustrations.
Theoi Greek Mythology
World Oral Literature Project Affiliated with the University of Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, the World Oral Literature Project is a new repository and clearinghouse for oral literature projects and collections worldwide. Oral literature is defined as performances of "ritual texts, curative chants, epic poems, musical genres, folk tales, creation tales, songs, myths, spells, legends, proverbs, riddles, tongue-twisters, word games, recitations, life histories or historical narratives." Since 2009, the proj

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Introduction to Folklore and Mythology

Prerequisite / Concurrent

WR 121 or WR 121Z

Course Description

Develops a cross-cultural perspective on myths, mythologies and folklore from around the world. Explores different theories of the cultural meanings and functions of myth, past and present. Introduces various ways of interpreting and experiencing myth and folklore as texts with oral origins. Prerequisite/concurrent: WR 121 or WR 121Z. Audit available.

Course Outcomes

Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to:

Identify major concepts, theories, genres and methodology within the academic field of folklore.
Interpret examples of major narrative folk genres such as myth, legend and folktales.
Evaluate the ways in which collection, transcription and scholarship constantly reinterpret an oral tradition.
Appreciate the role of myth and folklore within the cultures that produce them with an understanding of how oral performance shapes the meaning of a story.
Identify recurring mythological themes and motifs in traditional world myths and modern culture.
Write clear, focused, coherent essays about literature for an academic audience using standard English conventions of grammar and style.

Alignment with Institutional Learning Outcomes

To establish an intentional learning environment, Institutional Learning Outcomes (ILOs) require a clear definition of instructional strategies, evidence of recurrent instruction, and employment of several assessment modes.

Major Designation

The outcome is addressed recurrently in the curriculum, regularly enough to establish a thorough understanding.
The course includes at least one assignment that can be assessed by applying the appropriate CLO rubric.

Minor Designation

The outcome is addressed adequately in the curriculum, establishing fundamental understanding.

Suggested Outcome Assessment Strategies

Assessment tools may include informal responses to study questions; evaluation of small-and full-group discussion; in-class and out-of-class writing; formal essays, as well as informal responses to study questions and other types of informal writing; close reading exercises using support/evidence; writing exercises which include evaluation of various interpretations of a text and their relative validity. Both instructor and peer evaluation may be incorporated into the assessment process.

Course Activities and Design

The determination of teaching strategies used in the delivery of outcomes is generally left to the discretion of the instructor. Here are some strategies that you might consider when designing your course: lecture, small group/forum discussion, flipped classroom, dyads, oral presentation, role play, simulation scenarios, group projects, service learning projects, hands-on lab, peer review/workshops, cooperative learning (jigsaw, fishbowl), inquiry based instruction, differentiated instruction (learning centers), graphic organizers, etc.

Course Content

The course will introduce and foster understanding of:

Topics and themes of mythology and folklore.
Nature and function of mythology and folklore.
Relationship of myth to art, religion, history, and society.
Various definitions of myth, legend, saga, folklore.
Interplay between myth and society.
Concept of the epic hero.
Comparative mythology and folklore.

Suggested Texts and Materials

POSSIBLE TEXTS

Annotated Classic Fairy Tales. Tatar. Norton.
Cinderella: A Casebook. Dundes. U Wisconsin P.
Classical Mythology. Morford and Lenardon.
Coyote Was Going There. Ramsey. U Washington P.
Favorite Folktales from Around the World. Yolen. Pantheon.
Illiad and Odyssey. McCarty. Kingfisher Epics.
Miriam's Tambourine: Jewish Folktales from around the World. Schwartz. Oxford UP.
Mythmakers. Barnard. Breitenbush.
Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes. Hamilton. Little, Brown and Co.
Old Tales and New Truths: Charting the Bright-Shadow World. King. State U of NY.
Odyssey. Trans. Fagels. Penguin.
Orality and Literacy. Ong.
Parallel Myths. Bierlen. Ballatine.
Perrault's Fairy Tales. Dover.
Trickster Makes This World. Hyde. Farrar, Strauss, Giroux.
World Mythology. Rosenberg.

Department Notes

Instructors may choose an anthology with excerpts, complete works, or a combination of both. The assigned readings will cover a range and diversity of mythology and folklore.

by Edith Hamilton

Mythology essay questions.

What role does pride play in Greek mythology?

Answer: Specific characters illustrate the difference between confidence and egotism. A hero is confident in his strength, but pride goes too far when a human challenges the gods. Pride cometh before a fall.

How do the myths differentiate between human and divine power?

Answer: Many of the myths point out these distinctions. The gods intervene when humans need help or when the gods want to accomplish goals on earth, but humans are often unable to solve their own problems and cannot really intervene among the gods; mortals even have limited abilities in the Underworld. When a human asserts divine power, the gods often put the person back in his or her place.

What do the Greek myths suggest about tragedy?

Answer: Tragedy serves both as a narrative device and as a reminder of everyday human reality. In tale after tale, tragedy unfolds. Even some stories that begin happily have unexpected, sad endings for their characters. Human failings, prophecies, and unexpected coincidences all can lead to tragedy.

How is the value of family loyalty portrayed by the myths?

Answer: Many of the Greek myths center around the importance of family relationships. Although some family members kill one another, the famly members who show loyalty tend to be set up for admiration. Antigone, for instance, challenges the law of Creon in order to bury her brother, facing death rather than be disloyal to her brother. Yet, loyalty is not so uncomplicated; her two brothers had fought on opposite sides in the conflict. Loyalty to one's family is complicated by conflicts even within one's family.

How does the conflict between free will and the predestination of fate play out in Greek mythology?

Answer: Free will appears to be circumscribed by fate. Despite our best efforts, fate controls our destiny. On the level of individual decisions, however, humans make their own choices and face the consequences. Human nature is implicated here: it seems that we all are fated to die, yet we have much we may choose to do while we are alive.

What have the myths to tell us about love?

Answer: Many different human relationships can be characterized by love: family love, the love of friends, and romantic love all lead people to do things with and for their beloveds that they would not otherwise do--to the point of great feats of skill and strength, on the one hand, or murder on the other hand. The gods sometimes love one another in similar ways. When gods and humans love one another, complications often ensue. When love is one-sided, moreover, other complications ensue. Cupid can make people fall in love, or people can fall instantly in love with one another.

How do myths account for natural events?

Answer: To account for something in nature that people do not yet understand, they tell a story about a being whose actions or life has resulted in what can be observed. Sometimes the story seems to have nothing in common with the reality that scientists later construct as explanation, but sometimes elements of the story are good metaphors for details of the natural event.

What is Greek virtue in the Greek myths?

Answer: We most often see virtue displayed by the Greek heroes, although we need not see all of their choices and actions as virtuous. Male virtue and female virtue seem to be different, but all virtue seems to have in common something about greatness, whether it is about wisdom, mental cunning, physical strength or speed, loyalty, or love. The characters who are honored by the gods appear to be the ones with virtue or who made virtuous choices, such as those who engaged in hospitality, while those who are punished by the gods appear to have either abused their virtue or contaminated it with pride. But the gods also test those whom they admire for their virtue, or even punish sometimes out of jealousy.

How do the Greek myths fit together?

Answer: Sometimes they do, and often they do not. Sometimes a myth picks up where another left off. Sometimes a myth expands upon a neglected but interesting part of another myth. The myths are told and retold with different emphases at different points in history and from the perspectives of different tellers. But they all tell a story of a hierarchy of gods, humans, and nature in which problems arise and choices must be made.

Why do so many beings transform in the myths?

Answer: In the myths about nature, we see something human in nature when we imagine that a transformation has taken place, such as when a hyacinth can be traced to Hyacinthus. Indeed, in a world where scientific explanations are difficult, it is not uncommon to imagine that one being simply turns into another. In a world before science and evolution, transformations occur quickly, and the boundaries between stone, plants, animals, people, and gods seem easy to cross with the power of the gods. From a narrative point of view, the plot can move faster if one being simply becomes another being able to accomplish what is needed for the tale. An interesting question to consider in each transformation is how much of the original nature, if any, is preserved after the change.

GradeSaver will pay $15 for your literature essays

Mythology Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for Mythology is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

How does Perseus respond to people and events in the story? How does this response move the story forward?

Which specific myth are you referring to? Title, please?

What drink is given to Polyphemus ? What is the Effect?

The give Polyphemus wine. He falls asleep.

3 gods of goddness

Whatbparticular myth are you referring to?

Study Guide for Mythology

The Mythology study guide contains a biography of Edith Hamilton, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis of the major Greek myths and Western mythology.

About Mythology
Mythology Summary
Character List

Lesson Plan for Mythology

About the Author
Study Objectives
Common Core Standards
Introduction to Mythology
Relationship to Other Books
Bringing in Technology
Notes to the Teacher
Related Links
Mythology Bibliography

Wikipedia Entries for Mythology

Introduction

Myth mythology and folklore

This presentation serves as introductory course for Mythology and Folklore. Read less

1. Axis mundi: [Navel of the World] An Introduction to Mythology and Folklore Developed by: Richard M. Bañez Batangas State University, JPLPC Campus
2. Module 1: Introduction to Mythology and Folklore
3. Topic 1: The Nature of Mythology and Folklore
4. The Nature of Mythology and Folklore Philippine Lower Mythology. A painting in oil that shows creatures of the night and deities of the underworld. (Joel Magpayo Snr.)
5. The Nature of Mythology and Folklore Anituo. a Pilipino Reconstructionist religion based on the Pre-Hispanic beliefs of the people of what is now known as the Philippines prior to the arrival of Christianity and colonialism.
6. The Nature of Mythology and Folklore Mythology It is the study of myths and the myths themselves, which are stories told as symbols of fundamental truths within societies having a strong oral traditions. Folklore This includes the traditional elements of the way of life of a group of people and creative expressions developing naturally as part of this culture.
7. Review and analyze the given definitions of mythology and folklore. Briefly answer the following questions. The Nature of Mythology and Folklore • How does mythology relate to folklore? • Knowing such relationship between the two disciplines, what preparation would you make in dealing with the course Mythology and Folklore?
8. The Nature of Mythology Mythology is the study of myths. Collecting Stories  literary evidence  archaeological evidence Examining their Functions  teller or audience  society Comparing Myths  motifs  traditions Assessing Myths  significance  truth
9. The Nature of Mythology Definitions of Myth Webster  A story that is usually of unknown origin and at least partially traditional that ostensibly relates historical events usually of such description as to serve to explain some particular event, institution, or natural phenomenon. M. Reinhold, Past and Present  A myth is a story about gods, other supernatural beings, or heroes of a long past time.
10. The Nature of Mythology J. Peradotto, Classical Mythology  Myth is a cognitive structure analogous to language through which primitive people organize their experiences. H.J. Rose, A Handbook of Greek Mythology  Myths are certain products of the imagination of a people which take the form of stories.
11. The Nature of Mythology R.J. Schork, Classical Mythology, The Classic Journal  Myth is the symbolic form which is generated, shaped, and transmitted by the creative imagination of pre- and extra-logical people as they respond to and encapsulate the wealth of experience.
12. Which among the following can be considered as a myth? The Nature of Mythology Riordan’s Percy Jackson The Legend of Atlantis The Rape of Persephone Zeus The Twelve Olympians
13. The Nature of Mythology Characteristics of Myth • Mythos - authoritative speech – a traditional story • A story is a narrative with plot – It has beginning, middle, and end. – It contains characters having certain mental imprints. – It describes conflict, resolution and within a setting. – with collective importance – Myths are “traditional” tales from Lat. trado, “hand over.” – Handed over orally and transmit a culture’s sense of itself: past wisdom, memories, and models – Oral transmission will create constant changes in the myth. – Various ways of emphasizing motives and meaning for the group.
14. The Nature of Mythology Characteristics of Myth • A myth has no identifiable author. • A myth that is written down in a literary form uses a story that preceded it. • Sometimes the myths are even different in detail. • One version is not more true than another.
15. The Nature of Mythology • Types of Myths by Morford and Lenardon – Pure Myth or True Myth or Myth Proper or Divine Myth • Primitive Science or Religion – natural phenomena or the origin of things – how individuals should behave toward the gods – Saga or Legend • Primitive History – historical fact – Folk-tale or Fairy-tale • Primitive Fiction – for pleasure and amusement Morford and Lenardon’s Classical Mythology categorized myth into three types.
16. The Nature of Mythology • TYPES OF MYTHS Stars descend before Sun. The stars, represented as boys, leap into the sea before the approach of Helius in his horse- drawn chariot (the nimbus around his head is one origin of the medieval halo around the heads of saints), on an Attic wine bowl, c. 435 BC. As the goddess Nikê personifies an event, the stars and Helius personify natural forces. (© Trustees of the British Museum / Art Resource, New York)
17. The Nature of Mythology • TYPES OF MYTHS (Left) Persephone and Demeter Reunite (1891) by Frederic Leighton, (Right) Demeter Mourning Persephone (1906) by Evelyn de Morgan.(© Trustees of the British Museum / Art Resource, New York)
18. The Nature of Mythology • TYPES OF MYTHS (Top) The Trojan horse is shown in a painting by Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo, an artist of the 1700s. (Bottom) The walls of Troy. The earliest settlement at Troy can be dated to about 3000 BC, but the citadel walls shown here belong to the sixth level of occupation (Troy VI), built around 1400 BC and destroyed around 1230 BC. Constructed of neatly cut blocks of limestone that slope inward, the citadel wall had at least four gateways, two of them protected by towers. Either Troy VI or its much poorer successor Troy VIIa, destroyed about 1180 BC, could have inspired Greek legends of the Trojan War.
19. The Nature of Mythology • TYPES OF MYTHS
20. The Nature of Mythology • Types of Myths by Eliot – Primitive myths • stories about nature as told by shamans – Pagan myths • Greek and Roman’s tales of the interplay between deities and humans – Sacred myths • stories from current eastern and western religions such as Christianity and Hinduism – Scientific myths • considered as the most solemn and revered creeds of science Alexander Eliot's The Global Myths defined four types of myth.
21. The Nature of Mythology Categorize the following myths as to Eliot’s classification.
22. The Nature of Mythology • Types of Myths by Leeming – Cosmic myths • including narratives of the creation and end of the world – Theistic myths • portray the deities – Hero myths • with accounts of individuals – Place and object myths • describe places and objects David Adams Leeming's The World of Myth listed four other types.
23. The Nature of Mythology Categorize the following myths as to Leeming’s classification.
24. The Nature of Mythology • Types of Myths in The New Encyclopedia Britannica – Cosmological myths (concerned with the creation of cosmos). – Life-crisis myths (deal with the crucial events in human life; birth, puberty, marriage and death). – Hunting and agricultural myths (revolve around animals and hunt). – Myths about extra ordinary individuals (focus on extra ordinary individuals such as culture hero, trickster, god-king, and savior).
25. The Nature of Mythology • Mythology serves many purposes. – Myths grant continuity and stability to a culture. – Myths present guidelines for living. – Myths justify a culture's activities. – Myths give meaning to life. – Myths explain the unexplainable. – Myths offer role models.
26. • BIBLIOGRAPHY Leeming, David. Mythology: World of Culture. New York, USA: Newsweek Books, 1977. Morford, Mark P. and Lenardon, Robert J. Classical Mythology. New York, USA: Oxford University Press, 2003 The Nature of Mythology
27. Supplementary Topic 1: Theories Related to the Study of Mythology
28. The Nature of Mythology THEORIES RELATED TO THE STUDY OF MYTHOLOGY ANCIENT THEORIES Rationalism Etymological Theory Allegorical Theory Euhemerism MODERN THEORIES Naturalism Ritualism Diffusionism Evolutionism Freudianism Jungian archetypes Structuralism Historical-critical theory
29. The Nature of Mythology Rationalism – According to this theory, myths represent an early form of logical thinking: they all, have a logical base.
30. The Nature of Mythology Etymological Theory – This theory states that all myths derive from and can be traced back to certain words in the language.
31. The Nature of Mythology Allegorical theory – In the allegorical explanation, all myths contain hidden meanings which the narrative deliberately conceals or encodes.
32. The Nature of Mythology Euhemerism – Euhemerus, a Greek who lived from 325-275 BC, maintained that all myths arise from historical events which were merely exaggerated.
33. The Nature of Mythology Naturalism – In this hypothesis, all myths are thought to arise from an attempt to explain natural phenomena. • People who believe in this theory narrow the source of myths by tracing their origins from the worship of the sun or the moon. Hindu deity Rahu is known for causing eclipses. In Hindu mythology, Rahu is known for swallowing the sun and causing eclipses. ©bigstockphoto.com/wuttichok
34. The Nature of Mythology Ritualism – According to this theory, all myths are invented to accompany and explain religious ritual; they describe the significant events which have resulted in a particular ceremony.
35. The Nature of Mythology Diffusionism – The diffusionists maintain that all myths arose from a few major cultural centers and spread throughout the world.
36. The Nature of Mythology Evolutionism – Myth making occurs at a certain stage in the evolution of the human mind. • Myths, are therefore, an essential part of all developing societies and the similarities from one culture to the next can be explained by the relatively limited number of experiences open to such communities when myths arise.
37. The Nature of Mythology Freudianism – When Sigmund Freud, the founder of modern psychology, interpreted the dreams of his patients, he found great similarities between them and the ancient myths. – Freud believes that certain infantile are repressed. • i.e. they are eliminated from the conscious mind but continues to exist within the individual in some other form. • Sometimes these feelings emerge into consciousness under various disguises, one of which is the myth.
38. The Nature of Mythology Jungian archetypes – Carl Jung was a prominent psychologist who, while he accepted Freud’s theory about the origin of myths, did not believe that it went far in explaining the striking similarities between the motifs found in ancient stories and those of his patients. • He postulated that each of us possesses a “collective unconscious” which we inherit genetically. • It contains very general ideas, themes, or motifs which are passed along from one generation to another and are retained as part of our human inheritance.
39. The Nature of Mythology Structuralism – This theory is a fairly recent development and is closely allied with the research of linguists. – According to this theory, all human behavior, the way we eat, dress, speak, is patterned into codes which have the characteristics of language. • To understand the real meaning of myth, therefore, we must analyze it linguistically. Historical-critical theory – This theory maintains that there are a multitude of factors which influence the origin and development of myths and that no single explanation will suffice. • We must examine each story individually to see how it began and evolved.
40. Topic 2: Myth and other Allied Sciences
41. The Nature of Mythology Myth and Truth – Myth is a many-faceted personal and cultural phenomenon created to provide a reality and a unity to what is transitory and fragmented in the world. – Myth provides us with absolutes in the place of ephemeral values and with a comforting perception of the world that is necessary to make the insecurity and terror of existence bearable. – Myth in a sense is the highest reality; and the thoughtless dismissal of myth as untruth, fiction, or a lie is the most barren and misleading definition of all.
42. The Nature of Mythology Myth and Religion • Religious ceremonies and cults are based on mythology. Mircea Eliade – He defines myth as a tale satisfying the yearning of human beings for a fundamental orientation rooted in a sacred timelessness – Myth provides in the imagination a spiritual release from historical time
43. The Nature of Mythology Myth and Etiology – Myth should be interpreted narrowly as an explication of the origin of some fact or custom. This theory is called etiological, from the Greek word for cause (aitia). – The mythmaker is a kind of primitive scientist, using myths to explain facts that cannot otherwise be explained within the limits of society's knowledge at the time.
44. The Nature of Mythology Rationalism versus Metaphor, Allegory and Symbolism Max Muller – In Allegorical Nature Myths, he tells that myths are nature myths, all referring to meteorological and cosmological phenomena.
45. The Nature of Mythology Myth and Psychology Sigmund Freud – His discovery of the significance of dream- symbols led him and his followers to analyze the similarity between dreams and myths. – Myths reflect people's waking efforts to systematize the incoherent visions and impulses of their sleep world. The patterns in the imaginative world of children, savages, and neurotics are similar, and these patterns are revealed in the motifs and symbols of myth.
46. The Nature of Mythology Myth and Psychology Carl Jung – Myths contain images or archetypes, traditional expressions of collective dreams, developed over thousands of years, of symbols upon which the society as a whole has come to depend. – An archetype is a kind of dramatic abbreviation of the patterns involved in a whole story or situation, including the way it develops and how it ends; it is a behavior pattern, an inherited scheme of functioning.
47. The Nature of Mythology Myth and Society Sir J. G. Frazer – His The Golden Bough remains a pioneering monument in its attempts to link myth with ritual. It is full of comparative data on kingship and ritual, but its value is lessened by the limitations of his ritualist interpretations and by his eagerness to establish dubious analogies between myths of primitive tribes and classical myths.
48. The Nature of Mythology Jane Harrison – Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion and Themis, are of seminal importance. Harrison falls in the same tradition as Frazer, and many of her conclusions about comparative mythology, religion, and ritual are subject to the same critical reservations. Bronislav Malinowski – In Myth as Social Charters, he discovered close connection between myths and social institutions, which led him to explain myths not in cosmic or mysterious terms, but as charters of social customs and beliefs. Myth and Society
49. The Nature of Mythology The Structuralist Claude Lévi-Strauss – Myths are derived ultimately from the structure of the mind. And the basic structure of the mind, as of the myths it creates, is binary; that is, the mind is constantly dealing with pairs of contradictions or opposites.
50. The Nature of Mythology The Structuralist Vladimir Propp – He divided his basic structure into thirty-one functions or units of action which have been defined by others as motifemes, on the analogy of morphemes and phonemes in linguistic analysis. – These functions are constants in traditional tales: the characters may change, but the functions do not.
51. The Nature of Mythology The Structuralist Walter Burkert – He believes that the structure of traditional tales cannot be discovered without taking into account cultural and historical dimensions. – The structure of a tale is ineradicably anthropomorphic and fits the needs and expectations of both the teller and the audience.
52. • BIBLIOGRAPHY Morford, Mark P. and Lenardon, Robert J. Classical Mythology. New York, USA: Oxford University Press, 2003 The Nature of Mythology
53. Topic 3: The Emerging Approaches in Studying Myths
54. The Nature of Mythology • Trace the developing definitions of myth and mythology through identifying the contributions of various mythologists throughout time. Complete the given matrix below to showcase the various periods and contributions that led to the development of mythology. Periods Mythologists Contributions Priorities or Concerns
55. The Nature of Mythology 1. Describe the shifts in priorities that had happened in the study of myths. 2. Which concern should be prioritized? Why? 3. Which method would you adapt in analyzing myths? Why?
56. Module 2: The Nature of Myths
57. Topic 1: TRACING THE ORIGIN OF MYTHS
58. Mythic story • Expresses the relationship of man to cosmos. • is a combination of superstition and religious truth, of primitive fears and universal understanding. • Mythic story must be explored from divergent perspectives. – Cultural perspective – Historical perspective – Psychological perspective – Creative perspective – Modern perspective
59. Evolution of Myths • The story of mythology begins sometime in the distant reaches of prehistory, when man awaken to his consciousness of existence. – The nature of mythologies that produced this art is largely a matter of conjecture.
60. The Good Old Days. This may appear to be overkill (on the part of the illustrator), but recent finds indicate caveman life was no picnic. Courtesy Mark Ryan
61. Partial Solar Eclipse. Partial Solar Eclipse captured on Tuesday 4th January 2011
62. Girth. A woman’s changing girth of belly during pregnancy Deities of Mauna Kea. Poliahu is one of the Goddess of Mauna Kea, of snow, ice, and cold. She is the eldest daughter of Haumeu and Kane. She is highly revered for when the snow melts, it brings life-giving fresh water to the islands.
63. Evolution of Myths • The next step in the development of mythology occurred sometime between 7th and 4th millennium B.C. – Stationary village life resulting to urban culture • Moon earth mother religion is firmly connected with the art of soil cultivation • Hunting was supplemented by animal husbandry Triple Goddess. These three forms are: fertility goddess, aka the Maiden; the Earth Mother, aka the Mother; and the old lady, aka the Crone. These forms are believed to be based on the phases of the moon, which is why we get concepts such as the “moon” goddess.
64. Evolution of Myths – Cuneiform was invented as a form of writing. • Sumerians occupied Mesopotamia. • They invented a form of writing. – Scholars say history begins at Sumer. – Semitic people who spoke Akkadian colonized the northern part of the Tigris-Euphrates. • Founded the great city-state, Akkad. • Akkadian developed into Arabic. • King Sargon I became subject of one of the oldest transmitted hero myths.
65. Evolution of Myths – Amorites invaded Mesopotamia. • They established the first dynasty in the city of Babylon. • Amorites also known as Babylonians took over the ancient cuneiform script and Sumerian religion. – Assyrians invaded Babylon at about 1700 B.C. • Established a capital at Nineveh and an important city in Assur. • Ancient Sumerian mythology had been altered. – Myths had been found on tablets in all parts of the region. – Most complete versions are on copies commissioned in the 7th century B.C. by King Ashurbanipal at the library at Nineveh. – Epic of Gilgamesh became one of the primary vehicles for Mesopotamian Mythology. – A dominant theme in mythology was fertility.
66. Evolution of Myths – Egyptian mythology shared with Mesopotamia a special emphasis on fertility. • The dying maize-god Osiris, his sister wife Isis, and his evil bother Set were the central figures in the fertility cult. – Greek religion was incorporated with Roman’s becoming Greco-Roman mythology. • Sacrificial, ritual element can be seen in almost all Greek tragedy especially in Oedipus Rex. – Mythologies of India and Northern Europe were also considered possessing importance in the development of World Mythology.
67. MYTHO-GENETIC ZONES CONTRIBUTION TO CIVILIZATION INFLUENCE TO MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE PANTHEON • MESOPOTAMIA a. Sumerians b. Akkadians c. Amorites d. Assyrians Cuneiform Dynasty Hero myths Epic of Gilgamesh • EGYPT Mummification Ra, Anubis • GREECE The Cult of Dionysus as ritual Gods and goddesses endowed with human traits Zeus • INDIA Rig Veda, Ramayana Indra • NORTHERN EUROPE Prose Eddas Odin, “All Father”  DIRECTIONS: Trace the development of myths and folklores between 7th and 4th millennium B.C. by completing the details of the given matrix below.
68. The time of destruction of the world will be foreshadowed by a loss of respect for kings and moral standards, and by an epidemic war, incest, and murder. - Prose Edda
69. • BIBLIOGRAPHY Leeming, David. Mythology: World of Culture. New York, USA: Newsweek Books, 1977.
70. Topic 2: MYTH AS THE CORE OF MAN’S SOCIETY AND HISTORY
71. Man, Myth, and History Overview • Myths are riddles which, if solved, can lead to discoveries in other fields – in history, in anthropology, in archeology. • In 1890, James Frazer’s The Golden Bough demonstrated the etiological or causal function of mythology. – Connections between; • Myth and ritual • Myth and shamanism • Myth and ancient institution • Myth and pervading religious belief • Myth in relation to natural phenomena, place names, historical incidence and human nature.
72. Man, Myth, and History Myth and ritual are intricately related. Phrygian’s Myth of Agdistis and Attis Celebration of Attis’ death and resurrection • Pine tree with effigy of Attis was brought to sanctuary. • Priests of the cult slashed their bodies while novices castrated themselves. Celebration of fertility • Symbolized by both pomegranate tree and the violets. Presence of sacred trees in rituals • Babylonian Adonis, born of a tree • Egyptian Osiris, buried in one • Norse Odin, hanged from one • Christians, Christmas Tree Causal Analysis
73. Man, Myth, and History Relationship between myth and shamanism is evident. The Bear-man Myth of Cherokee Indian Explains a tribe’s totem or sacred animal. • Bear provides food and protection. • Transforms the hunter into shaman, or medicine man of the cult through apprenticeship. Resurrection theme emerges from the human psyche. Depicts the story of a culture hero who died and came back to life. Causal Analysis
74. Man, Myth, and History Myth is used to justify existing institutions. Bodhisattva under the Boo Tree Myth of India Overcoming the temptation of the flesh through discipline, contemplation and meditation • Is same with the story of Jesus in the wilderness or Mohammed in the cave. Expresses the spirit of what cloistered orders of various faiths have always attempted to achieve in spiritual terms. • Union with the higher reality that transcends the material world. Explains monasticism and mysticism. Causal Analysis
75. Man, Myth, and History Myth is used to explain natural phenomena. The Rape of Persephone Myth of the Greeks Persephone’s fate is a symbol of lost virginity Existence of spring and summer • Demeter greets the annual return of her daughter with a replenishing of earth. Existence of fall and winter • Persephone’s annual descent to Hades marks a repetition of destruction of agriculture. Causal Analysis
76. Man, Myth, and History Myth is also used to explain the names of places. Greek Myth of Io Bosporus which means cow’s ford and the Ionian Sea were both crossed by the fleeing Io and both are named for her. Causal Analysis
77. Man, Myth, and History Myth has been used to explain aspects of human nature, or simplify entertainment. Classical Mythology (Greece) Gods and goddesses personified human types, tendencies, and activities. • Ares, the god of war, and Aphrodite, the goddess of love, become involved in a love affair. • “All is fair in love and war.” Explains common human occurrence. • Icarus disobeys the instruction of his father Daedalus which leads the former into a great danger. • Phaeton’s insubordination also leads to same fate with that of Icarus. Causal Analysis
78. Man, Myth, and History Myth is a reflection of various historical events. Historical and semi historical myths Trojan War reflects the clashes between thee people of Greece and Asia Minor for the control of Dardanelles. Noah’s Flood corresponds to the great flood that occurred in the valley of the Tigris-Euphrates – a deluge described similarly to those of the Old Testament Book of Genesis. Historical Myths • Atlantis and Tara, Theseus and the Minotaur, King Arthur and his knights of the Roundtable, Moses and his promised Land. Causal Analysis
79. Man, Myth, and History Myth can intrude upon documented history. Toltec-Aztec god- man Quetzalcoatl Quetzalcoatl himself had said he would return during a year whose symbol was “One Reed” (Ce Acatl). It was of course only coincide that Herman Cortes who was fair-skinned and came from the sea, should arrive in a One Reed year. Causal Analysis
80. Man, Myth, and History  DIRECTIONS: Design an IPO paradigm to illustrate relationship among man, myth, and history as gleaned from Filipino myths INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
81. Man, Myth, and History • Four Functions of Myths • Comparative mythologist Joseph Campbell compartmentalized the basic functions of mythology into four classifications: – the Metaphysical – the Cosmological – the Sociological, and – the Pedagogical
82. Man, Myth, and History • The Mystical/Metaphysical Prospect – This is the religious/spiritual function: a myth is meant to make people experience the powerful feeling of the divine in their lives. – As Campbell puts it, a living mythology will waken and maintain in the individual an experience of awe, humility, and respect, in recognition of that ultimate mystery, transcending names and forms, from which, as we read in the Upanishads, words turn back.
83. Man, Myth, and History • The Cosmological Prospect – is to render a cosmology, an image of the universe. – This might include how things like time, space, and biology work and are organized • for example, how the world and its creatures came to be (and how long that took, or how they changed over time), where heaven and hell and the Garden of Eden are, and what the universe is made of.
84. Man, Myth, and History • The Social Prospect – this function of myth-telling deals with the validation and maintenance of an established order. – it can be seen as wisdom-rich models for social behavior. – Parables embedded with morals attempt to teach us how we should behave, what is model behavior, and what is unacceptable.
85. Man, Myth, and History • The Psychological Sphere – this is the aspect of mythology where stories symbolize important points in an individual's life, with the purpose of the centering and harmonization of the individual. – Freud, with his Oedipal and Electra complexes, was one who explicitly connected myths with life paths. – most stories speaks to us as individuals exactly to the extent that we see ourselves in them.
86. Man, Myth, and History TITLE ORIGIN SYNOPSIS FUNCTION  DIRECTIONS: Complete the table below by examining various local and regional myths and identifying their functions.
87. Man, Myth, and History • BIBLIOGRAPHY Campbell, Joseph. The Mythic Dimension: Selected Essays (1959–1987). Novato, California: New World Library, 2007. Leeming, David. Mythology: World of Culture. New York, USA: Newsweek Books, 1977.
88. Topic 3: INTERPRETING MYTHS
89. The Psychological Perspective Grimm’s Water of Life. A king is dying. His three sons learn from an old man that the only way to save their father is to bring him the water of life. The dying king reluctantly gives one son after the other permission to seek the water.
90. The Psychological Perspective Overview • Much disagreement exists as to how and why similar mythic motifs are found in widely separated parts of the world. – The virgin birth – The descent into the underworld – The great flood • Scholars favored two theories to explain this situation. – Theory of diffusion – emphasizes the rational or scientific aspects of mythology. – Theory of parallel development – associated with the Swiss psychiatrist C. G. Jung.
91. The Psychological Perspective Theory of Diffusion • Man’s first myths were invented in several culturally ripe mythogenetic zones and were then spread to the various parts of the world. • Myths, like artifacts and alphabets, spread by migration, trade, and conquest. • Myths are superstitions passed along from one group to other.
92. The Psychological Perspective Theory of Diffusion
93. The Psychological Perspective Theory of Parallel Development • Myths can be spontaneous psychic expression of human aims, apprehensions, and values. • Done by studying dreams over a period of time to look for patterns, for recurring images, ideas, or symbols that shed some light in the personality of the dreamer. – Much of the dream materials can be traced to recent events. • people, places, and incidents experienced in daily life naturally comprise the most common elements of dreams. – Analyst confront patterns unique to the patient in question, patterns that can be traced to heredity and environment, personal unconscious – Freudian level.
94. The Psychological Perspective Theory of Parallel Development • The analyst with an anthropological bent will proceed next to a cultural or societal layer. – Reflects the traditions and concerns of the dreamers' class or group. • Analyst will look further to find motifs or symbols that seem to have no particular source in the dreamer’s conscious experience but recur with frequency in his dreams. – These symbols or the impulses expressed by them, are inherited from the human past and reserved in the deepest reaches of the mind – collective unconscious or racial memory.
95. The Psychological Perspective Theory of Parallel Development • The first level attempts to discern concerns peculiar to the time the myths was told in its present form. • Mythologist finds patterns that express the culture of the society as a whole. • He discovers archetypes that transcend the particular culture. • Mythologist compare myths to expose the inner nature of the human race.
96. The Psychological Perspective Theory of Parallel Development
97. The Psychological Perspective From J.R.R. Tolkien, On Fairy Stories “The incarnate mind, the tongue, and the tale are in our world coeval.” • Independent invention – made by a story maker • Diffusion – borrowing in space • Inheritance – borrowing in time
98. The Psychological Perspective
99. The Psychological Perspective Case Study: Dream Interpretation Dream account of an American youth to the author of a syndicated newspaper feature
100. The Psychological Perspective Freud and Jung theorized four-fold hierarchy model in interpreting dreams. 1. The conscious mind – governed by ego, the rational self- aware aspect of the mind. 2. The preconscious contains materials accessible to the conscious mind upon demand, such as facts, memories, ideas and motives. 3. The personal unconscious stores half-forgotten memories, represses traumas and emotions, and unacknowledged motives and urges. 4. The collective unconscious is a genetically inherited level of the mind containing what Jung called the Vast historical storehouse of the human race, • a mental reservoir of ideas, symbols, themes and archetypes that form the raw material of many of the world’s myths, legends and religious systems.
101. The Psychological Perspective Three main classes of dreaming by Freud and Jung. 1. Level 1 is the most superficial class, drawing primarily upon material in the precious mind. • Dreams from this level tend to revolve around the events of the day, and opinion is divided as to whether or not they are particularly meaningful. 2. Level 2 deals with the material from the personal unconscious, using predominantly symbolic language, much of it specific to the dreamer. 3. Level 3 contains what Jung called grand dreams. These deal with material from the collective unconscious, operating only in symbols and archetypes. 4. Cosmic Dreams are characterized by extremely important and extra ordinary dreams that is truly awe- inspiring and occurs rarely, once in a lifetime. • They are ones in which the qualities of the universe itself are the major themes. • they are an attempt by the unconscious to make sense of the vastness of the universe and our place within it.
102. The Psychological Perspective I dreamed that I was reshingling our roof. Suddenly I heard my father's voice on the ground below, calling to me. I turned suddenly to hear him better, and, as I did so, the hammer slipped out of my hands, and slid down the sloping roof, and disappeared over the edge. I heard a heavy thud, as of a body falling. Terribly frightened, I climbed down the ladder to the ground. There was my father lying dead on the ground, with blood all over his head. I was brokenhearted, and began calling my mother, in the midst of my sobs. She came out of the house, and put her arms around me.
103. The Psychological Perspective “Never mind, son, it was all an accident,” she said. “I know you will take care of me, even if he is gone.” As she was kissing me, I woke up. I am the eldest child in our family and am twenty-three years old. I have been separated from my wife for a year; somehow, we could not get along together. I love both my parents dearly, and have never had any trouble with my father, except that he insisted that I go back and live with my wife, and I couldn't be happy with her. And I never will.
104. The Psychological Perspective • BIBLIOGRAPHY Fontana, David. The Secret Language of Dreams: A Visual Key to Dreams and Their Meaning. San Francisco, USA: Chronicle Books.1994. Leeming, David. Mythology: World of Culture. New York, USA: Newsweek Books, 1977. O'Connell, Mark. The Ultimate Illustrated Guide to Dreams, Signs & Symbols. China: JG Press, 2008. Van de Castle, Robert L. Our Dreaming Mind. Denton, Texas, United States of America: Random House Publishing Group, 1995.
105. Topic 4: THE STRUCTURE OF MYTHS
106. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Overview • There are several types of culture hero. – One who represents the shared values of an entire nation – national heroes. • Aeneas symbolized the Romans’ deviation from what they considered corrupt Greek traditions. – One who represents religion. • Jesus of Nazareth and Gautama Buddha – One who combines religious and national impulses. • Joan of Arc and Mao Tse-tung
107. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Overview • The true culture hero is a medium for language of myth. – The wonderful song of the soul’s high adventure, Joseph Campbell. • A hero repeatedly tests himself in a series of adventure that also serve to establish his identity. • These adventures may be national, religious, cultural, or ideological, but at their deepest level, they are also psychological.
108. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Types of Heroes
109. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Types of Heroes • Hero. In mythology a mighty warrior who is often the son of a god or king and goes on an epic quest • Hero. (2) Main character of a story who often displays admirable qualities • Anti-hero. Main character of a story who is flawed in some way and often does not display admirable qualities • Tragic hero. Main character of a tragedy whose tragic flaw leads to his or her destruction • Byronic hero. Rebellious main character who has a troubled past and indulges in self-destructive behaviors that threaten to doom him or her.
110. The Hero with a Thousand Faces • The Structure of a Monomyth by Joseph Campbell –Joseph Campbell defined a classic sequence of actions that are found in many stories. –It is also known as the Monomyth, a term Campbell coined from James Joyce's Finnigan's Wake.
111. The Hero with a Thousand Faces THE STRUCTURE OF A MONOMYTH
112. The Hero with a Thousand Faces • I. Separation / Departure – The first section of the story is about the separation of the hero from the normal world. Separation has symbolic echo of infant transition away from the mother and so has a scary feel to it. • I.1 The Call to Adventure • I.2 Refusal of the Call or Acceptance of the Call • I.3 Supernatural Aid • I.4 Crossing of the First Threshold • I.5 Entering the Belly of the Whale
113. The Hero with a Thousand Faces
114. The Hero with a Thousand Faces • II. Initiation – In the main part of the story the hero is initiated into true heroic stature by various trials and rites. Through daring and battle, the true character emerges. • II.1 Road of Trials • II.2 The Meeting with the Goddess • II.3 Woman as Temptress • II.4 Atonement with the Father • II.5 Apotheosis • II.6 The Ultimate Boon
115. The Hero with a Thousand Faces • III. Return – After initiation the hero can cleansed and return in triumph to deserved recognition, although this in itself may not be without its trials and tribulations. • III.1 Refusal of the Return • III.2 Magic Flight • III.3 Rescue From Without • III.4 Crossing of the Return Threshold • III.5 Master of the Two Worlds • III.6 Freedom to Live
117. The Hero with a Thousand Faces • Another eight-step formulation was given by David Adams Leeming in his book, Mythology: The Voyage of the Hero: 1. Miraculous conception and birth 2. Initiation of the hero-child 3. Withdrawal from family or community for meditation and preparation 4. Trial and Quest 5. Death 6. Descent into the underworld 7. Resurrection and rebirth 8. Ascension, apotheosis, and atonement
118. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Miraculous conception and birth The modern "great mother," appropriately oversized, points as madonnas of the past do to the child miraculously visible in a mandalic womb. By so doing she reminds us that the child hero—the Self within—can provide meaningful focus to the otherwise disparate activities of a distorted world. [Marc Chagall, Maternity (1913), Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, on loan from Netherlands Institute for Cultural Heritage. © 1998 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris.]
119. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Initiation of the hero-child The sense of wonder and of initiation into mysterious realities of form pervades this painting. The serpentlike arrow at the base speaks intrusively of the dangers implicit in the paradise of early awakening. [Paul Klee, A Young Lady's Adventure (1922), The Tate Gallery, London/Art Resource, NY. Reproduced with permission.]
120. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Withdrawal from family or community for meditation and preparation In this modern "Angelus" the contemplative in isolation, like the hero of old in his stage of withdrawal to cave or mountain, is faced with a vision of the essence of her own inner reality. [Salvador Dali, Portrait of Gala (L'Angelus de Gala). 1935. Oil on wood, 12 3/4 x 10 1/2 in. (32.4 x 26.7 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Abby Aldrich Rockefeller. Photograph © 1998 The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
121. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Trial and Quest Perhaps the best known of modern paintings, Picasso's Guernica conveys as forcefully as the stories of the labors of Hercules or the trials of the Buddha the heroic agon and adventure that is the search for wholeness in a world threatened by chaos. [Pablo Picasso, Guernica (1937), oil on canvas, 11 ft., 5 1/2 in. x 25 ft., 5 3/4 in. Reproduced with permission of Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid. © 1998 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.]
122. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Death Crucifix: The cross and the X here are symbolic, as they always have been, of the hero's crossing from one sphere of existence to another—of his confronting that which takes life but in so doing defines it. [Thomas Chimes, Crucifix (1961), oil on canvas, 36 x 36in (91.5 x 91.5 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Larry Aldrich Foundation Fund. Photograph © 1998 The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Reproduced with permission.]
123. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Descent into the underworld The Anxious Journey: A symbol of the energies of our society, the locomotive wanders among classical forms, perhaps searching like the hero of old for destiny and meaning among shades of the past. [Giorgio de Chirico, The Anxious Journey (1913), Oil on canvas, 29 1/4 x 42 in. (74.3 x 106.7 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest. Photograph © 1998 The Museum of Modern Art, New York.]
124. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Resurrection and rebirth Spiraling out of the crescent moon—usually a female symbol—is a seed of life. The painting is a joyful—even playful—celebration of the eternal cycle. [Joan Miro, Landscape; The Hare (1927), oil on canvas, 51 x 76 A in. Collection, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York. Photo: David Heald.]
125. The Hero with a Thousand Faces Ascension, apotheosis, and atonement Mandalas, general symmetry, a sense of strangely meaningful connections, and upward movement create a sense of apotheosis and wholeness that is the heroic life or human adventure. [Max Ernst, Men Shall Know Nothing of This (1923), The Tate Gallery, London/Art Resource, N.Y. Reproduced with permission.]
127. He who follows the hero gains a true self through the loss of the illusion of personal and local self. The beginning path to psychic wholeness, then, is the recognition that the hero’s voyage is potentially of Everyman. - David Adams Leeming
128. The Hero with a Thousand Faces • BIBLIOGRAPHY Campbell, Joseph with Moyers, Bill. The Power of Myth. Ed. Betty Sue Flowers. United States of America: Bantam Doubleday Publishing Group Inc., 1988. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Novato, California: New World Library, 2008. Johnson, Paul. Heroes: From Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar to Churchill and De Gaulle. Hammersmith, London: HarperCollins Publishers, 2007. Leeming, David. Mythology: World of Culture. New York, USA: Newsweek Books, 1977.
129. Topic 5: THE MYTHMAKER
130. The Mythmakers The Mythmaking Process • Source of idea – Who put the Word into words? – Psyche • Articulator – gives voice to the human soul through language – wild-eyed poet, singer of tales
131. The Mythmakers The Mythmaking Process in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s Kubla Khan Samuel Taylor Coleridge Mental State  an experience  reading passage in an old book Physical State  dose of opium SLEEP CONCEPTUALIZATION impression that he was composing some three hundred lines of poetry AWAKE PRODUCTION wrote lines of poetry ARRIVAL OF A VISITOR INTERRUPTION his vision was lost Kubla Khan
132. The Mythmakers The Mythmaking Process of Shaman SHAMAN Mental State  an experience  solitude Physical State  fasting  hunger  die a little CONCEPTUALIZATION A guardian spirit appeared and gave him the power to see vision PRODUCTION Uttered trance-induced song Most Potent Medicine WORD through a trance-induced song
133. The Mythmakers Shamanism in Tlingit Indian folktale • Shamanic elements – Two sets of paraphernalia – Voyage to the underworld – Ritual actions – Retrieval of a lost person – Instruction by guardian spirits – Miraculous return from apparent death
134. The Mythmakers “All true poetry is based on a mythic language that is made up of a few formulae .” (Robert Graves, The White Goddess) “The emergence of basic myth has not always been dependent on culture heroes, religion, epic poems, or what we usually think of as myths.” (David Adams Leeming, Mythology: A world of Culture)
135. The Mythmakers Motifs in Bother Grimm's Water of Life – three sons - first is evil – second son thinks of personal gain – instructions as allusions to famous folk-fairy tales – vulnerability of human – undergoing a period of ritual withdrawal
136. The Mythmakers “I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race.” (Stephen Dedalus in James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man)
137. The Mythmakers Shamanism • It is an ancient method of spiritual communication that is used for spiritual and physical healing as well as for personal growth. • Shamanic practices exist in many tribal cultures world-wide and are experiencing a renaissance in urban cultures. • In shamanism, one enters an altered mental state— typically by using drums or rattles to create a sound field that changes consciousness. • The altered state, called a shamanic journey, is used to gain help and wisdom. • In the journey the shaman encounters helping spirits which provide help and guidance when properly approached.
138. The Mythmakers Fundamental Elements of Shamanism • While shamanic practices vary widely, they also contain a unifying set of basic assumptions: – Everything that exists is alive. – Everything can be communicated with if approached properly. – There are other realities available to us in which we can journey. – The residents called spirits of these other realities are sympathetic, for the most part, to humanity and want to be helpful, if asked. – Every human being has helping spirits, even if they are not aware of it.
139. The Mythmakers Fundamental Elements of Shamanism • While shamanic practices vary widely, they also contain a unifying set of basic assumptions: – True power involves a proper relationship to these other realities. – Illness includes an element of power-loss or soul-loss. – Illness can also occur because of power-intrusion in which vagrant spirits come to reside uninvited in the body. – Shamanism deals with the spiritual aspects of health. – The realms that can be journeyed to have their own topography including a Lower, Middle, and Upper world.
140. The Mythmakers Some Shamanic Concepts Defined – Core Shamanism: the fundamental defining elements of shamanistic belief and practice as they occur almost universally across cultures. – Ecstasy: The experience of being outside one's self, often joyously. – Lower World: One of the shamanic realities. To enter it involves an experience of going down, often through a tunnel. It has many levels. In it reside Power Animals and other healing and instructive forces. It is not a negative place like Hell. – Middle World: Ordinary reality experienced shamanically and therefore perceived in the spiritual sense.
141. The Mythmakers Some Shamanic Concepts Defined – Upper World: To enter the upper world one journeys up from the Middle World. It can be a positive place but is not synonymous with Heaven. – Non Ordinary Reality: the reality that the shaman journeys into. It does not follow the rules of Aristotelian logic. – Ordinary reality: Reality as we experience it in our usual state of awareness. It adheres to the rules of logic. – Power: Fullness of life and immunity against negative spiritual influences. It is gained by right relationship with the other realms.
142. The Mythmakers Some Shamanic Concepts Defined – Power Animal: A guardian spirit or familiar manifesting itself as an animal who has compassion for a person and agrees to act as a guide, advisor, and healer. – Shaman: A person who contacts other realities for healing and wisdom in the service of his or her community. – Shamanic Drum: The sound of the shamanic drum is the “horse” on which the shaman rides to the other realms. It is typically a one-headed hand drum, beaten in a monotonous rhythm with a soft mallet. The drum contains much power and symbolism.
143. The Mythmakers Some Shamanic Concepts Defined – Shamanic Rattle: Rattles are used for communicating with spirits and for healing work. – Shamanic State of Consciousness: An altered state of consciousness, not well understood neurologically, which provides the ecstatic experience of journeying to other realities which have a consistency and coherence of their own. It is attained most commonly through the use of a Sonic Driver or in some cultures through the use of mind-altering herbs.
144. The Mythmakers Some Shamanic Concepts Defined – Shamanism: The belief system and practices of those who use an altered state of consciousness in contacting other realities. It is a method of gaining knowledge and is not in itself a religion, though the two tend to merge in tribal cultures. – Sonic Driver: Use of repetitive sound to alter consciousness, most typically with drums and rattles, but also through other repetitious sounds. – World Tree: The axis mundi, the interconnection between the worlds, used by some as a route in journeying to gain access to the other worlds.
145. TheMythmakers • BIBLIOGRAPHY Campbell, Joseph with Moyers, Bill. The Power of Myth. Ed. Betty Sue Flowers. United States of America: Bantam Doubleday Publishing Group Inc., 1988. Leeming, David. Mythology: World of Culture. New York, USA: Newsweek Books, 1977. Shamanic Art Studio. Shamanism. Retrieved November 7, 2011 available at http://www.shamanicartsstudio.com/Shamanism.h tm
146. Module 8: Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales
147. Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales Overview • The myth critic is concerned to seek out those mysterious elements that inform certain literary works and that elicit dramatic and universal human reactions. • He examines how certain works of literature project an image of reality to which readers give perennial responses. • A critic may study in depth the archetypes or archetypal patterns that the writer has drawn from the structure of his masterpiece which influences the reader. • Mythology tends to be speculative and philosophical; its affinities are with religion, anthropology, and cultural history.
148. Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales Overview • Myths are the symbolic projections of a people's hopes, values, fears, and aspirations. • To analyze a myth is to analyze it from the viewpoint of some theory. • Theories need myths as much as myths need theories. If theories illuminate myths, myths confirm theories. • A theory is to show how well it works when its tenets are assumed – this on the grounds that the theory must be either false or limited if it turns out not to work.
149. Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales 1. Man and His Symbols by Carl Gustav Jung 2. The Structural Study of Myth by Claude Levi-Strauss 3. Morphology of The Folk Tale by Vladímir Propp
150. Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales Man and His Symbols by Carl Gustav Jung – According to Jung, heroism involves, in addition, relations with the unconscious. – Jungians at once analyze all kinds of myths, not just hero myths, and interpret other kinds heroically. » Creation myths, for example, symbolize the creation of consciousness out of the unconscious. – For Jung, the unconscious is inherited rather than created and includes far more than repressed instincts. – The goal of the uniquely Jungian second half of life is likewise consciousness, but now consciousness of the Jungian unconscious rather than of the external world.
151. Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales The Structural Study of Myth by Claude Levi-Strauss – Claude Lévi-Strauss’ contribution to the study of myth is the invention of a structuralist approach to myth. – Humans as argued by Lévi-Strauss, think in the form of classifications, specifically pairs of oppositions, and project them onto the world.
152. Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales The Structural Study of Myth by Claude Levi-Strauss – For Lévi-Strauss, the distinctiveness of myth among these phenomena is threefold. » First, to be able to organize even myths into sets of oppositions would be to prove irrefutably that order is inherent in all cultural phenomena and that the mind must therefore underlie it. » Second, myth, together with totemism, is the only exclusively primitive phenomenon among the ones that Lévi-Strauss considers. To prove that it is orderly would prove that its creator is orderly, hence logical and intellectual, as well. » Third and most important, myth alone not only expresses oppositions, which are equivalent to contradictions, but also resolves them for the purpose of myth is to provide a logical model capable of overcoming a contradiction.
153. Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales Morphology of The Folk Tale by Vladímir Propp – Notably, the Russian folklorist Vladimir Propp wrote on the common plot which described most myths as literature, – Propp deciphers in Russian fairy tales is his structure. – Propp’s structure remains on the narrative level and is therefore no different from the kind of ‘structure’ found by Otto Rank, Joseph Campbell, and Lord Raglan.
154. Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales Activity:  Spearhead a seminar/workshop on the methodologies in understanding myths. • The class will conceptualize a theme for the seminar/workshop and design a programme for event. • The class will be divided into three groups. Each group will deal with each of the following topics; a. Man and His Symbols by Carl Gustav Jung b. The Structural Study of Myth by Claude Levi-Strauss c. Morphology of The Folk Tale by Vladímir Propp.
155. Methodologies in Understanding Myths and Folktales Activity: • Each group shall prepare a presentation on assigned topic. a. The Presentation shall include the following.  An introduction which will serve as an overview of the chosen method dealing with the proponent, history, and the general concepts.  Methodology which will expound on the processes and procedures in understanding myths using the chosen method.  Praxis which will demonstrate how theories of the chosen method are put into application.  Pedagogical Implications which will give emphasis on the application of the theories being discussed in teaching English and Literature. • Each group shall also provide copy of their lecture to the audience as well as the supplementary readings used in the session. • Evaluation of the performance of each group will be based on the rubrics prepared by the instructor in the subject.
156. Mythological and Archetypal Approaches • BIBLIOGRAPHY Guerin, Wilfred L. Labor, Earle. Morgan, Lee. and Reesman, Ieanne C. A Handboook of Critical Approaches to Literature. 5th ed. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
157. Module 3: Myths of Creation
158. Creation Myths I. The Birth of Order • Creation myths offer a cosmogony, meaning “the birth of order.” • From the Greek words • cosmos means world • gignesthai means to be born • Cosmogony can be distinguished from cosmology, which studies the universe at large and throughout its existence, and which technically does not inquire directly into the source of its origins.
159. Creation Myths
160. Creation Myths II. Classifying Cosmogonies • Usually the most important myth in a culture because it becomes the exemplary model for all other myths • Cosmogonies relate how the entire world came into being • Some narratives relate the creation of the world from nothing (creation ex nihilo) – a. Hebrew – Book of Genesis – b. Egyptian, Ptah creates through speech – c. Australian, – d. Greek, Hesiod’s Theogony begins with great abyss, void – e. Mayan, Popul Vu
161. Creation Myths II. Classifying Cosmogonies • Another type of cosmogonic myth is known as the earth-diver creation story • A divinity typically sends a waterfowl or amphibious creature to dive to the bottom of the primordial waters and bring up mud from which the world grows • Other cosmogonic myths describe creation as emerging from the lower worlds • Navajo and Hope tell of a progression upwards from lower worlds resulting in the final progression into the world of humanity • A Polynesian myth tell of various layers within a coconut shell
162. Creation Myths II. Classifying Cosmogonies • Other cosmogonic myths describe creation emerging from a world or cosmic egg • Myths from Africa, China, India, South Pacific, Greece and Japan speak of creation symbolized as breaking forth from a fertile cosmic egg • The Dogon people of West Africa describe this egg as the “placenta of the world”
163. Creation Myths II. Classifying Cosmogonies • Yet another type of cosmogonic myth is the world- parent myth • The Enuma Elish is the creation story of the Babylonians; Apsu and Tiamat bear offspring who later oppose their parents; the result of this confrontation is the creation of the world (more on this story later) – This myth (as well as others like it) are also associated with creation from dismemberment • Other world-parent myths come from the Egyptians, Zuni, and Polynesians
164. Creation Myths II. Classifying Cosmogonies • Another approach from those listed above: Van Over’s Six Basic Themes 1. Idea of a primeval abyss 2. Originator(s) awakened or eternally existing in this abyss 3. Originator(s) brood over the water 4. Theme of the cosmic egg or embryo 5. Creation from sacred sound or spoken word 6. Theme of creation from the death of and body parts of the primeval god
165. Creation Myths II. Classifying Cosmogonies • Yet another approach: Maclagan’s 8 themes 1. Inner and outer 2. Something from nothing 3. Conjugation of opposites 4. World order and the order of the worlds 5. Descent and ascent 6. Earth body and sacrifice 7. Death, time, and the elements
166. Creation Myths II. Classifying Cosmogonies • Lastly, Weigle’s nine-part typology 1. Accretion or conjunction 2. Secretion 3. Sacrifice 4. Division or conjugation 5. Earth-diver 6. Emergence 7. Two creators 8. Deus faber 9. Ex nihilo
167. Creation Myths III. Types of Creation Myth • Accretion or Conjunction Stories – These stories depict the birth of order as resulting from the mingling or layering of the primal elements (e.g., earth, wind, fire, water). – accretion is a process in which the size of something gradually increases by steady addition of smaller parts • e.g., droplets of water vapor form clouds • e.g., an increase in land mass through accumulation of dirt, rock and sand
168. Creation Myths III. Types of Creation Myth • Secretion Stories – This pattern involves the cosmos resulting from divine emissions such as vomit, sweat, urination, defecation, masturbation, web-spinning and parthenogenesis (asexual reproduction). 1. Typically the secretions result in human forms but some stories include secretions resulting in non- human forms (seas, lands, animals, plants, etc.)
169. Creation Myths III. Types of Creation Myth • Secretion Stories 2. Example of non-human formations is found in the story of Ku’urkil, the Chuckchee’s “self-formed” Father Raven, defecates and urinates, thus creating the earth and various bodies of water 3. More common are the secretions resulting in the creation of conscious beings resembling the primeval creator intellectually and spiritually.
170. Creation Myths III. Types of Creation Myth • Sacrifice Stories – In some cosmogonies, the creator god sacrifices him or herself or someone else in order to complete the work of creation. • Division or Consummation Stories – Weigle says that these types of myths are “usually associated with discriminating primal matter or a cosmogonic egg with the consummated marriage of earth and sky.” – The consummation motif shares with cosmogonic egg myths the knowledge that tiny germs contain within them astonishing potential for organized growth.
171. Creation Myths III. Types of Creation Myth • Earth-Diver Stories – In Weigle’s fifth type of creation myth, a god or his agent dives to the bottom of the primordial deep, from which most cosmogonies begin, and returns with a few grains of sand or a bit of mud from which the earth and the rest of the cosmos eventually arise. Some stories already mentioned include this typology. • Emergence Stories – Emergence myths typically depict the first people or first person as journeying from an original, cramped world or womb into this world. Many Native American myths take this form.
172. Creation Myths III. Types of Creation Myth • Two Creators – This type of cosmogony, very common among African and Native American traditions, depicts two gods creating the world through cooperation or competition. – Frequently, one god is more active or more human than the other. • Deus Faber – This term means the Maker God, the quintessential architect, artisan, or craftsperson. – Deus faber stories celebrate the astonishing intricacy and cleverness of creation.
173. Creation Myths III. Types of Creation Myth • Ex Nihilo = “out of nothing” – A Latin term, literally means “from nothingness” or “from spirit” – Used to describe cosmogonies in which the creator brings the world into being through speech, breath, dream, thought, or laughter (Weigle)
174. Creation Myths IV. Reading Creation Myths • Keep in mind, the categories through which we have discussed creation myths need not be strictly distinct and unrelated. Many myths exhibit multiple characteristics. • Mythologist, once they understand a variety of types, often ask more probing questions: – Why do certain cultures depict the creation through one chosen type rather than another? – What is the culture ultimately trying to say about itself? – Do any categories emphasize some values over other values?
175. Creation Myths IV. Reading Creation Myths – Do their environments influence the moods or tones of their stories? – What kind of relationship is depicted between creators and humans and does this speak to a culture’s contemporary understanding of divine beings? – What symbols are used and what remains significant about these symbols in more contemporary descendents?
176. Creation Myths Hebrew Book of Genesis
177. Creation Myths Babylonian Enuma elish
178. Creation Myths Egyptian Book of Overthrowing Apopis
179. Creation Myths Hesiod's Theogony
180. Creation Myths Hindu’s Rig Veda
181. Creation Myths Japanese Kojiki, “Record of Ancient Things”
182. Creation Myths Norse Voluspa from the Poetic Edda
183. Creation Myths Finnish Kalevala
184. Creation Myths Quiche Maya’s Popol Vuh
185. Creation Myths • BIBLIOGRAPHY Leonard, Scott A. and McClure, Michael. Myth and Knowing: An Introduction to World Mythology. United States of America: McGraw-Hill, 2003.

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The Use of Mythology and Folklore in "Gravity Falls"

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Introduction, incorporation of mythology and folklore, use in storytelling, enrichment of storytelling, background information: "gravity falls", native american, european, and asian myths, creation of new creatures, explanation of natural phenomena, exploration of themes.

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Glaucon’s Fate: History, Myth, and Character in Plato’s “Republic”

Glaucon’s story is part of a well-known political tragedy that swept up many of Plato’s friends and fellow citizens, including Socrates. The evidence for his personal tragedy, however, is deeply embedded in the text. Like a three-dimensional image hidden within a two-dimensional picture, it requires a special adjustment of the eyes to perceive.

The astronomer Nicholas Copernicus studied Plato’s writings in the original Greek, and found in him a kindred spirit. In his main work, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres , Copernicus draws on what the philologist František Novotný describes as Plato’s “metaphysical heliocentric argument from the Republic ”—his characterization of the sun as the god and ruler of the visible sphere and image of the Good, the unifying source and highest principle of reality. In defense of his most famous assertion, In medio vero omnium residet Sol (“But in the middle of everything sits the Sun”), Copernicus writes reverently of the architectural splendor of the cosmos:

For who in this most beautiful of temples would have placed this lamp in any other or better place than one, from which it might illuminate the whole at once? Some indeed have not improperly called the Sun the lantern of the world, its soul, or its ruler. Trismegistus calls it “the visible god” and Sophocles’ Electra terms it “all-seeing.” And thus the sun resting as upon a royal throne rules the circling family of stars.

A perfect counterpoint to Copernicus’s almost mystical awe before the grandeur of the universe can be found in Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck’s film The Lives of Others . Like Yevgeny Zamyatin’s dystopian novel We , which was denied publication by the censors of the Soviet Union, The Lives of Others repeatedly evokes the philosophic and scientific totalitarianism of Callipolis, the Beautiful City of the Republic , in telling the story of the repression of writers and artists in communist East Germany. The film includes a Platonic joke about Erich Honecker, East Germany’s head of state and Party General Secretary:

Honecker comes to his office early in the morning and opens the window. He sees the sun and says: “Good morning, dear sun.” The sun replies: “Good morning, dear Erich.” Honecker works and goes at noon to the window and says: “Good day, dear sun.” The sun replies: “Good day, dear Erich.” In the evening Erich closes up and goes once more to the window and says “Good evening, dear sun.” The sun does not respond. Honecker again says: “Good evening, dear sun. What’s the matter with you?” The sun answers: “Lick my ass, I’m in the West now.”

In his ideological conceit, the leader of the DDR supposes that the sun revolves around him and his political work. Copernicus delights in the heliocentric universe, whereas Honecker tries to lord it over the very source of light and life on earth, as though the constructions of dialectical materialism could subdue the Good itself. And in a way, he succeeds: the joke’s dark humor is that he intimidates even the most regal of celestial bodies.

While Henckel von Donnersmarck reflects the fundamental tension between the Republic ’s teaching on the Good and the tyranny of Callipolis, the logician Karl Popper is uncompromising in his criticism of Plato. Popper’s book The Open Society and its Enemies , conceived on the day in March of 1938 when he learned of Nazi Germany’s Anschluss with Austria, traces the origins of totalitarianism directly to the Republic . Students of Plato behind the Iron Curtain—where The Open Society was known, but banned—quickly reached a similar conclusion, and later totalitarian regimes have looked to the dialogue as a model. Cambodia’s Khmer Rouge, led by a Marxist who was radicalized while studying in Paris, appear to have followed almost to the letter Socrates’ advice to purify the old regime and initiate the new one by sending everyone over the age of ten to the country.[1] The medieval Shiite philosopher Al-Farabi argued for an Islamic version of Callipolis, ruled by a philosophical prophet and lawgiver; a millennium later, Ayatollah Khomeini looked to the Republic in founding his revolutionary theocracy, in which power is concentrated in a Supreme Leader and a Council of Guardians.

How has the Republic managed to inspire tyrannical hubris as well as reflective openness, thumotic pusillanimity as well as erotic expansiveness? (For Plato, the philosopher is distinguished by erōs or love of wisdom; thumos or “spirit” is the part of the soul that loves victory and flares with anger at insult and injustice.) Is the Republic primarily a work of philosophical inquiry, or ideological dogmatism? Are its political proposals serious, or ironic? Does it celebrate, or condemn, what Nietzsche’s Zarathustra teaches is “the coldest of all cold monsters”—the State that sees all with “a gaze,” as Yeats writes, “blank and pitiless as the sun”? It is unsurprising that these questions remain unresolved, for the intellectual energy and dramatic tension of Plato’s most famous dialogue spring from its fundamental ambiguity.

In the Myth of Er with which the Republic concludes, Socrates teaches that philosophy is the indispensable source of virtue and happiness, while injustice and misery are the predictable consequences of an unexamined life. Nor is moral luck—the good fortune to live in a well-ordered regime, where decency becomes second nature—an adequate substitute for thoughtfulness: Er observes a soul that had in its former life participated in virtue only “by habit, without philosophy,” pitifully lamenting its hasty choice to be reincarnated as a tyrant.[2] Er’s story supports an erotic reading of the Republic as a quest for individual salvation through philosophy. Why, then, does Socrates insist on the supreme excellence of Callipolis, whose rulers alone are allowed to pursue, not philosophy as such, but only a part of it—a formal and systematic metaphysics? Worse, doesn’t he do injustice to his companions in recommending a regime that exercises almost total control over the behavior of its citizens?

These questions are of more than theoretical interest to Plato, and not just because they concern the moral and intellectual character of the teacher he immortalizes in his dialogues. The Republic is historically as well as philosophically significant. It tells the story of Socrates’ attempt to keep Plato’s brother Glaucon from the path of tyranny—a path on which Plato himself began to embark when, in the immediate aftermath of the Peloponnesian War, his influential relatives championed a kind of ideological absolutism that promised to promote the cause of justice in Athens.[3] When I wrote my first book on the Republic twenty-five years ago, I took it for granted that Socrates succeeded in convincing Glaucon of the superiority of the life of philosophy and justice. At some point in teaching and thinking about the dialogue, however, I began to try to justify what I had previously assumed, and instead found myself stirring up doubts. I now strongly suspect something that would have shocked my earlier self, and will doubtless shock many of my readers: that Glaucon did choose tyranny over philosophy. I cannot say whether my argument for this hypothesis—which the historian Mark Munn seems to have been the first to propose—will persuade skeptical students of Plato. But I am convinced that it is a case well worth making. For it opens up unsuspected depths of meaning in the Republic , and sheds fresh light on a neglected but crucial dimension of the Platonic dialogues: Socrates’ rivalry with Critias, the cousin of Plato’s mother Perictone.

Glaucon’s story is part of a well-known political tragedy that swept up many of Plato’s friends and fellow citizens, including Socrates. The evidence for his personal tragedy, however, is deeply embedded in the text. Like a three-dimensional image hidden within a two-dimensional picture, it requires a special adjustment of the eyes to perceive. To bring it into focus, we must trace the primary threads of which the Republic is woven: history, myth, and character.

Plato’s dialogues situate historical characters in a partially fictionalized past. This historical fiction invites readers to view Socrates’ conversations in the light of actual events and circumstances, and vice versa. While Plato does not hesitate to fabricate conversations that never took place, his literary inventions spring from, and illuminate, historical realities. We know, for example, that Socrates associated with Alcibiades and Critias, men the Athenians rightly blamed for many of their political ills. What was the nature of Socrates’ relationship with these individuals? What was the gist of their conversations? Plato offers informed, imaginative answers to these questions in dialogues like the Symposium and the Charmides .

Two features of the Republic directly link this work with Plato’s personal experience. The first is the fact that Glaucon and Adeimantus, Socrates’ main interlocutors, are Plato’s older brothers. Why, one wonders, is the Republic framed almost entirely as a conversation between Plato’s teacher and his siblings? Why does Glaucon in particular command so much of Socrates’ attention? Could it be that the central subject of the dialogue, the choice between the just life and the unjust life, is especially relevant to him? The second is that Plato structures the Republic in a way that foreshadows the violent civil strife in Athens in the aftermath of the Peloponnesian War—violence for which his own relatives were largely responsible.

The Republic , which is set during the war, is saturated in the bloody history of the Thirty, the Spartan-backed oligarchy that came to power after the Athenian surrender in 404. The Thirty, led by Plato’s older cousin Critias and (in a lesser office) his uncle Charmides, governed Athens for eight months in 404–403 and put to death roughly 1,500 Athenians. Of the eleven men Socrates identifies by name in the dialogue, all of whom are actual historical persons, the Thirty executed Niceratus and possibly Cleitophon, robbed and murdered Polemarchus, and were defeated by an army that Lysias (Polemarchus’s brother) supplied with shields and mercenaries. Socrates’ indictment and execution under the restored democracy in 399 is attributable partly to his association with Critias—even though the Thirty tried to silence him, and even though he bravely defied their order to arrest Leon of Salamis, as he tells us in Plato’s Apology .[4] Critias and Charmides were killed and the Thirty dealt a fatal blow by a democratic coalition in the Battle of Munychia in 403. This battle occurred on the very road, and at roughly the same spot, where Socrates and Glaucon are playfully arrested in the Piraeus by Polemarchus at the beginning of the Republic .

Might the political violence that looms on the horizon of the Republic be connected with the centrality of Glaucon in its argument and action? In a rich study of the intellectual ferment and political rivalries of Athens in the last decades of the fifth century, Mark Munn offers an astonishing conjecture: Glaucon died fighting for the Thirty at Munychia. The evidence for Munn’s hypothesis is circumstantial, but suggestive: Xenophon’s testimony regarding Glaucon’s extreme political ambition; the centrality and vividness of Glaucon’s character in the Republic and the location of the opening scene at the site of the Battle of Munychia; a poem about Glaucon’s courage in battle that was written by his lover (possibly Critias); the dialogue’s concluding image of Er, a “bold warrior slain in battle”; and Glaucon’s absence from the trial of Socrates—a fact that suggests he was no longer alive in 399.

Plato scholars rarely ask whether Socrates had any lasting effect on Glaucon, and the few who have done so almost always suppose that, by the end of the dialogue, Socrates did manage to persuade him that the just life is preferable to the unjust one. Munn’s historical hypothesis casts the Republic in a radically new light, endowing it with a moral urgency that shades into tragedy. For if he is right, the Republic is haunted by Glaucon’s death, and by how far his life of politics and ideology fell short of the philosophical life he might have led. If he is right, Plato’s intelligent and courageous brother—suspended as he was between the corruption of Athenian politics and the integrity of Socratic inquiry, between kinsmen who were leaders of the Thirty and a just friend who fell afoul of them—could not be saved even by the age’s most capable advocate of virtue and philosophy.

This essay is an excerpt from Jacob Howland’s book, Glaucon’s Fate (Paul Dry Books, 2018) . We highly recommend this book to our readers. Excerpt published with permission from the author.

This essay was first published here in May 2020.

The Imaginative Conservative applies the principle of appreciation to the discussion of culture and politics—we approach dialogue with magnanimity rather than with mere civility. Will you help us remain a refreshing oasis in the increasingly contentious arena of modern discourse? Please consider donating now .

[1] Plato, The Republic , trans. C.D.C. Reeve (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Classics, 2005): 540e–41a.

[2] Ibid., 619b–c.

[3] Epist ., 324d–25a.

[4] Plato, Apology , trans. Benjamin Jowett (Bulgaria: Demetra Publishing, 2019): 32c–d.

The featured image is “ Alcibiades Being Taught by Socrates” (1776) by Marcello Bacciarelli (1731-1818) and is in the public domain, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons .

All comments are moderated and must be civil, concise, and constructive to the conversation. Comments that are critical of an essay may be approved, but comments containing ad hominem criticism of the author will not be published. Also, comments containing web links or block quotations are unlikely to be approved. Keep in mind that essays represent the opinions of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of The Imaginative Conservative or its editor or publisher.

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Resistance in Bilal: A New Breed of Hero and in the Myth of Sisyphus Proposal

In the film Bilal: A New Breed of Hero , resistance is a prominent theme that the hero portrays and which helps him cope with challenges as he fights for his values and beliefs. The proposed research aims to comprehensively analyze the theme of resistance in the film Bilal, comparing it with the ancient Greek legend Myth of Sisyphus . The study uses a comparative analysis of the two texts from a psychological perspective, which also involves a qualitative analysis of additional research that has previously examined the texts’ themes.

Based on this method, the current study finds that as Bilal fights to protect his sister and personal values, he resists multiple forces. Furthermore, the study finds that Bilal is comparable to the ancient Greek legend of Myth of Sisyphus , an individual whose deeds are characterized by an inner force of motivation and resistance that helps him overcome challenges. Nevertheless, as both characters portray, resistance cannot emerge without reason. Instead, an individual needs an internal stimulus to start counteracting. From a psychological point of view, any hero who struggles, such as Bilal or Sisyphus, has a specific inner force making them act in this way. Freud and Lacan tried to understand the peculiarities of resistance and the causes that impacted its emergence. Applying their concepts to the movie and the myth of Sisyphus, one can understand the psychology of heroes and the things they symbolize. Based on the psychological approach, this research concludes that Bilal and Sisyphus’s resistance is the main manifestation of their internal values, freedom, and an attempt to oppose external pressure and defend their egos.

Works Cited

Bilal: A New Breed of Hero . Directed by Khurram H. Alavi and Ayman Jamal, Barajoun Entertainment, 2015.

Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus . Translated by Justin Obrien, Penguin UK, 2013.

Chicago (A-D)
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IvyPanda. (2024, May 19). Resistance in Bilal: A New Breed of Hero and in the Myth of Sisyphus. https://ivypanda.com/essays/resistance-in-bilal-a-new-breed-of-hero-and-in-the-myth-of-sisyphus/

"Resistance in Bilal: A New Breed of Hero and in the Myth of Sisyphus." IvyPanda , 19 May 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/resistance-in-bilal-a-new-breed-of-hero-and-in-the-myth-of-sisyphus/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Resistance in Bilal: A New Breed of Hero and in the Myth of Sisyphus'. 19 May.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Resistance in Bilal: A New Breed of Hero and in the Myth of Sisyphus." May 19, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/resistance-in-bilal-a-new-breed-of-hero-and-in-the-myth-of-sisyphus/.

1. IvyPanda . "Resistance in Bilal: A New Breed of Hero and in the Myth of Sisyphus." May 19, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/resistance-in-bilal-a-new-breed-of-hero-and-in-the-myth-of-sisyphus/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Resistance in Bilal: A New Breed of Hero and in the Myth of Sisyphus." May 19, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/resistance-in-bilal-a-new-breed-of-hero-and-in-the-myth-of-sisyphus/.

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Flickering Myth

Geek Culture | Movies, TV, Comic Books & Video Games

Steven Spielberg sets composers for Ready Player One and The Papers

July 9, 2017 by Gary Collinson

Variety is reporting that the ever-busy Steven Spielberg is set to reunite with John Williams on his Pentagon Papers movie The Papers , which will mark their 28th collaboration. However, with post-production on The Papers set to take place alongside Spielberg’s next film Ready Player One , Williams will be sitting out the latter, with Alan Silvestri stepping in to compose the score for the book adaptation.

“Steven and John decided Alan Silvestri was the perfect choice for ‘ Ready Player One ’ since Steven has worked (as a producer) with Alan on the Back to the Future films in the 1980s and Alan has scored other films for Steven’s Amblin and DreamWorks,” reads the official statement from Amblin Entertainment.

Williams, who is currently working on the score for December’s Star Wars: The Last Jedi , has worked with Spielberg on all but two of the filmmaker’s movies – The Color Purple and Bridge of Spies .

The Papers is slated to open on December 22nd, with a cast that includes Tom Hanks, Meryl Streep, Alison Brie, Carrie Coon, David Cross, Bruce Greenwood, Pat Healy, Tracy Letts, Bob Odenkirk, Sarah Paulson, Jesse Plemons, Matthew Rhys, Michael Stuhlbarg, Bradley Whitford and Zach Woods. Ready Player One is set for release on March 30th 2018 and stars Tye Sheridan, Olivia Cooke, Simon Pegg, Ben Mendelsohn, T.J. Miller, Hannah John-Kamen, Win Morisaki, Philip Zhao and Mark Rylance.

About Gary Collinson

Gary Collinson is a film, television and digital content producer and writer, founder of the pop culture website FlickeringMyth.com, and producer of the upcoming gothic horror feature film 'The Baby in the Basket'. He previously spent a decade teaching and lecturing in film and media, and is also the author of the book 'Holy Franchise, Batman! Bringing the Caped Crusader to the Screen'.

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