american traditions essay

American culture: Traditions and customs of the United States

American culture's languages, religion, sports, styles, foods, arts and holidays

American style

American food, american holidays, additional resources.

American culture encompasses the customs and traditions of the United States. "Culture encompasses religion , food , what we wear, how we wear it, our language , marriage, music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how we behave with loved ones, and a million other things," said Cristina De Rossi , an anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College in London .

The United States is the third largest country in the world with a population of more than 332 million, according to the U.S. Census Bureau . A child is born every 9 seconds, and a person dies every 11 seconds.

In addition to Indigenous Americans who were already living on the continent, the population of the United States was built on immigration from other countries. A new immigrant moves to the United States every 666 seconds, according to the Census Bureau.

Because of this, the United States is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world, according to The London School . Nearly every region of the world has influenced American culture, most notably the English who colonized the country beginning in the early 1600s, according to the Library of Congress . U.S. culture has also been shaped by the cultures of Indigenous Americans, Latin Americans, Africans and Asians.

The United States is sometimes described as a "melting pot", according to Golden Beacon USA , in which different cultures have contributed their own distinct "flavors" to American culture. Just as cultures from around the world have influenced American culture, today American culture influences the world. The term Western culture often refers broadly to the cultures of the United States and Europe, according to ScienceDaily .

The way people "melt" in the United States differs. "Different groups of immigrants integrate in different ways," De Rossi told Live Science. "For example, in the United States, Catholic Spanish-speaking communities might keep their language and other cultural family traditions, but are integrated in the urban community and have embraced the American way of life in many other ways."

The Northeast, South, Midwest, Southeast and Western regions of the United States all have distinct traditions and customs. Here is a brief overview of the culture of the United States.

There is no official language of the United States, according to the U.S. government . While almost every language in the world is spoken in the United States, the most frequently spoken non-English languages are Spanish, Chinese, French and German. Ninety percent of the U.S. population speaks and understands at least some English, and most official business is conducted in English. Some states have official or preferred languages. For example, English and Hawaiian are the official languages in Hawaii, according to the Washington Post . 

The Census Bureau estimates that more than 350 languages are spoken in the United States. The bureau divides those languages into four categories: Spanish; other Indo-European languages, which includes German, Yiddish, Swedish, French, Italian, Russian, Polish, Hindi, Punjabi, Greek and several others. Asian and Pacific Island languages, including Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Thai, Tamil and more are also included. There is also a category for "all other languages," which is for languages that didn't fit into the first three categories, such as Hungarian, Arabic, Hebrew, languages of Africa and languages of native people of North, Central and South America.

Nearly every known religion is practiced in the United States, which was founded on the basis of religious freedom . About 70% of Americans identify themselves as Christians, according to information gathered by the Pew Research Center , a nonpartisan research group, in 2017. The research also found that about 23% had no religious affiliation at all and around 6% of the population is made up non-Christian religions. 

The number of people who identify with no religion seems to be decreasing. According to the Pew Research Center , this category is expected to drop from 16% in 2015 to 13% in 2060.

Clothing styles vary by social status, region, occupation and climate. Jeans, sneakers, baseball caps, cowboy hats and boots are some items of clothing that are closely associated with Americans, though there have been a variety of other styles throughout the decades, according to InterExchange . Ralph Lauren , Calvin Klein , Michael Kors and Victoria Secret are some well-known American brands.

American fashion is widely influenced by celebrities and the media, in 2019 US Clothing and Accessories sales amounted to 24 Billion US Dollars, according to Statista . More and more Americans are buying fashion, electronics and more online. According to the Census Bureau , U.S. retail e-commerce sales for the third  quarter of 2021 totalled $214.6 billion.

American cuisine was influenced by Europeans and Native Americans in its early history. Today, there are a number of foods that are commonly identified as American, such as hamburgers, hot dogs, potato chips, macaroni and cheese, and meat loaf. "As American as apple pie", despite the dishes non-American origins, has come to mean something that is authentically American, according to the Smithsonian .

There are also styles of cooking and types of foods that are specific to a region. Southern-style cooking is often called "American comfort food" and includes dishes such as fried chicken, collard greens, black-eyed peas and cornbread, according to Southern Living . Tex-Mex, popular in Texas and the Southwest, is a blend of Spanish and Mexican cooking styles and includes items such as chili and burritos, and relies heavily on shredded cheese and beans, according to Culture Trip .

Jerky, dried meats that are served as snacks, is also a food that was created in the United States, according to NPR .

The United States is widely known around the world as a leader in mass media production, including television and movies. According to the Select US A , the United States comprises one-third of the worldwide media and entertainment industry and is worth $717 Billion.

The television broadcasting industry took hold in the United States in the early 1950s, and American television programs are now shown around the world, according to PBS. The United States also has a vibrant movie industry, centered in Hollywood, California, and American movies are popular worldwide. The U.S. film industry earned a record $100 Billion in 2019, according to Forbes , before dropping in 2020 due to the COVID pandemic .

The United States' arts culture extends beyond movies and television shows, though. New York is home to Broadway, and Americans have a rich theatrical history, according to Arcadia Publishing . American folk art is an artistic style and is identified with quilts and other hand-crafted items, according to the Folk Art Museum . American music is very diverse with many, many styles, including rhythm and blues, jazz, gospel, country and western, bluegrass, rock 'n' roll and hip hop.

The United States is a sports-minded country, with millions of fans who follow football, baseball, basketball and hockey, among other sports . Baseball, which was developed in colonial America and became an organized sport in the mid-1800s, according to Sporcle Blog , is known as America's favorite pastime, although its popularity has been eclipsed by football for the past three decades, according to the Harris Poll .

Many holidays are celebrated only in the United States. Americans celebrate their independence from Britain on July 4. Memorial Day , celebrated on the last Monday in May, honors those who have died in military service. Labor Day, observed on the first Monday in September, celebrates the country's workforce. Thanksgiving , another distinctive American holiday, falls on the fourth Thursday in November and dates back to colonial times to celebrate the harvest. 

Presidents' Day, marking the birthdays of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln , is a federal holiday that occurs on the third Monday in February. The contributions of veterans are honored on Veterans' Day, observed on Nov. 11. The contributions of civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. are remembered on the third Monday in January.

Additional reporting by Alina Bradford, Live Science Contributor. 

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Callum McKelvie is features editor for All About History Magazine . He has a both a Bachelor and Master's degree in History and Media History from Aberystwyth University . He was previously employed as an Editorial Assistant publishing digital versions of historical documents, working alongside museums and archives such as the British Library . He has also previously volunteered for The Soldiers of Gloucestershire Museum , Gloucester Archives and Gloucester Cathedral . 

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• What Defines The American Culture?

• With over 300 million people of different races and ethnicities, The United States is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world.
• There are over 300 languages spoken across the United States.
• The popular culture of the US (encompassing arts, sports, music, movies, and many other cultural aspects) is one of the most influential and recognizable phenomena in the world.

Defining American culture in simple terms is not as easy as it may seem. American culture is not only defined by its fast-paced lifestyle, fashion, and "to-go" coffee cups. It is also the culture of many diversity, different religions, races, and ethnicities. It is a culture that nourishes competition and political correctness, and also tries to enforce the freedom of speech. Some would say that American culture is contradictory, a flux of different people and values. Is there something that is uniquely American and recognizable as such? Probably Americana!

The Origin Of Diversity In The United States

The definition of culture is a subject of many academic debates, but most will agree that culture is many things and that it is embedded in how we behave, what we eat, how we tell right from wrong, what music we listen and clothes we wear. Culture is all those things and many more. More than 300 million people live in The United States, making it the third-largest country in the world, and also one of the most culturally diverse (racially and ethnically) countries.

Throughout its history, American culture has been influenced by many different cultures like Native American, Latin American, African, and others, and is often called a " melting pot ." Simply put, it is a metaphor that describes a heterogeneous society becoming more homogenous. Since every community had different ways of adapting to life in the United States, they might keep their cultural traditions, customs, and language.

Still, they will also absorb the American customs and their way of life in addition to their own. More than 300 languages are spoken in the United States , and while there is no official language per se, around 90% of the population understands the English language. Religion diversity is also another aspect of the American culture, and many different religions are practiced daily in the United States, with Christianity being the most prominent religion.

Kaleidoscope Of Different Influences

There is something unmistakably American in the cultural heritage of the United States, and Americana is a term that encompasses the history, geography, and folklore of a certain part of American culture. It is a period that idealizes diners, apple pies, baseball, and many other motifs, along with ideals of The American Dream, patriotism and nostalgia. America is also known for its mass media production and rich, popular culture.

Ever since the '50s, American television programs found a place in many homes across the globe. Even today, the popular culture of America is very influential and recognizable all over the world. The rise of Hollywood made people fall in love with movies and give birth to an industry of cheap entertainment. Truly many things define American culture, but the real beauty is in its diversity and contradictions, and all the different people and cultures that make it a unique country.

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Native american religious and cultural freedom: an introductory essay (2005).

I. No Word for Religion: The Distinctive Contours of Native American Religions

A. Fundamental Diversity We often refer to Native American religion or spirituality in the singular, but there is a fundamental diversity concerning Native American religious traditions. In the United States, there are more than five hundred recognized different tribes , speaking more than two hundred different indigenous languages, party to nearly four hundred different treaties , and courted by missionaries of each branch of Christianity. With traditional ways of life lived on a variety of landscapes, riverscapes, and seascapes, stereotypical images of buffalo-chasing nomads of the Plains cannot suffice to represent the people of Acoma, still raising corn and still occupying their mesa-top pueblo in what only relatively recently has come to be called New Mexico, for more than a thousand years; or the Tlingit people of what is now Southeast Alaska whose world was transformed by Raven, and whose lives revolve around the sea and the salmon. Perhaps it is ironic that it is their shared history of dispossession, colonization, and Christian missions that is most obviously common among different Native peoples. If “Indian” was a misnomer owing to European explorers’ geographical wishful thinking, so too in a sense is “Native American,”a term that elides the differences among peoples of “North America” into an identity apparently shared by none at the time the continents they shared were named for a European explorer. But the labels deployed by explorers and colonizers became an organizing tool for the resistance of the colonized. As distinctive Native people came to see their stock rise and fall together under “Indian Policy,” they resourcefully added that Native or Indian identity, including many of its symbolic and religious emblems, to their own tribal identities. A number of prophets arose with compelling visions through which the sacred called peoples practicing different religions and speaking different languages into new identities at once religious and civil. Prophetic new religious movements, adoption and adaptation of Christian affiliation, and revitalized commitments to tribal specific ceremonial complexes and belief systems alike marked religious responses to colonialism and Christian missions. And religion was at the heart of negotiating these changes. “More than colonialism pushed,” Joel Martin has memorably written, “the sacred pulled Native people into new religious worlds.”(Martin) Despite centuries of hostile and assimilative policies often designed to dismantle the structures of indigenous communities, language, and belief systems, the late twentieth century marked a period of remarkable revitalization and renewal of Native traditions. Built on centuries of resistance as well as strategic accommodations, Native communities from the 1960s on have vigorously pressed their claims to religious self-determination.

B. "Way of Life, not Religion" In all their diversity, people from different Native nations hasten to point out that their respective languages include no word for “religion”, and maintain an emphatic distinction between ways of life in which economy, politics, medicine, art, agriculture, etc., are ideally integrated into a spiritually-informed whole. As Native communities try to continue their traditions in the context of a modern American society that conceives of these as discrete segments of human thought and activity, it has not been easy for Native communities to accomplish this kind of integration. Nor has it been easy to to persuade others of, for example, the spiritual importance of what could be construed as an economic activity, such as fishing or whaling.

C. Oral Tradition and Indigenous Languages Traversing the diversity of Native North American peoples, too, is the primacy of oral tradition. Although a range of writing systems obtained existed prior to contact with Europeans, and although a variety of writing systems emerged from the crucible of that contact, notably the Cherokee syllabary created by Sequoyah and, later, the phonetic transcription of indigenous languages by linguists, Native communities have maintained living traditions with remarkable care through orality. At first glance, from the point of view of a profoundly literate tradition, this might seem little to brag about, but the structure of orality enables a kind of fluidity of continuity and change that has clearly enabled Native traditions to sustain, and even enlarge, themselves in spite of European American efforts to eradicate their languages, cultures, and traditions. In this colonizing context, because oral traditions can function to ensure that knowledge is shared with those deemed worthy of it, orality has proved to be a particular resource to Native elders and their communities, especially with regard to maintaining proper protocols around sacred knowledge. So a commitment to orality can be said to have underwritten artful survival amid the pressures of colonization. It has also rendered Native traditions particularly vulnerable to exploitation. Although Native communities continue to privilege the kinds of knowledge kept in lineages of oral tradition, courts have only haltingly recognized the evidentiary value of oral traditions. Because the communal knowledge of oral traditions is not well served by the protections of intellectual property in western law, corporations and their shareholders have profited from indigenous knowledge, especially ethnobotanical and pharmacological knowledge with few encumbrances or legal contracts. Orality has also rendered Native traditions vulnerable to erosion. Today, in a trend that linguists point out is global, Native American languages in particular are to an alarming degree endangered languages. In danger of being lost are entire ways of perceiving the world, from which we can learn to live more sustainable, balanced, lives in an ecocidal age.

D. "Religious" Regard for the Land In this latter respect of being not only economically land-based but culturally land-oriented, Native religious traditions also demonstrate a consistency across their fundamental diversity. In God is Red ,Vine Deloria, Jr. famously argued that Native religious traditions are oriented fundamentally in space, and thus difficult to understand in religious terms belonging properly tothe time-oriented traditions of Christianity and Judaism. Such a worldview is ensconced in the idioms, if not structures, of many spoken Native languages, but living well on particular landscapes has not come naturally to Native peoples, as romanticized images of noble savages born to move silently through the woods would suggest. For Native peoples, living in balance with particular landscapes has been the fruit of hard work as well as a product of worldview, a matter of ethical living in worlds where non human life has moral standing and disciplined attention to ritual protocol. Still, even though certain places on landscapes have been sacred in the customary sense of being wholly distinct from the profane and its activity, many places sacred to Native peoples have been sources of material as well as spiritual sustenance. As with sacred places, so too with many sacred practices of living on landscapes. In the reckoning of Native peoples, pursuits like harvesting wild rice, spearing fish or hunting certain animals can be at once religious and economic in ways that have been difficult for Western courts to acknowledge. Places and practices have often had both sacred and instrumental value. Thus, certain cultural freedoms are to be seen in the same manner as religious freedoms. And thus, it has not been easy for Native peoples who have no word for “religion” to find comparable protections for religious freedom, and it is to that troubled history we now turn.

II. History of Native American Religious and Cultural Freedom

A. Overview That sacred Native lifeways have only partly corresponded to the modern Western language of “religion,” the free exercise of which is ostensibly protected by the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution , has not stopped Native communities from seeking protection of their freedom to exercise and benefit from those lifeways. In the days of treaty making, formally closed by Congress in 1871, and in subsequent years of negotiated agreements, Native communities often stipulated protections of certain places and practices, as did Lakota leaders in the Fort Laramie Treaty when they specifically exempted the Paha Sapa, subsequently called the Black Hills from land cessions, or by Ojibwe leaders in the 1837  treaty, when they expressly retained “usufruct” rights to hunt, fish, and gather on lands otherwise ceded to the U.S. in the treaty. But these and other treaty agreements have been honored neither by American citizens nor the United States government. Native communities have struggled to secure their rights and interests within the legal and political system of the United States despite working in an English language and in a legal language that does not easily give voice to Native regard for sacred places, practices, and lifeways. Although certain Native people have appealed to international courts and communities for recourse, much of the material considered in this website concerns Native communities’ efforts in the twentieth and twenty-first century to protect such interests and freedoms within the legal and political universe of the United States.

B. Timeline 1871 End of Treaty Making Congress legislates that no more treaties are to be made with tribes and claims “plenary power” over Indians as wards of U.S. government. 1887-1934 Formal U.S. Indian policy of assimilation dissolves communal property, promotes English only boarding school education, and includes informal and formalized regulation and prohibition of Native American ceremonies. At the same time, concern with “vanishing Indians” and their cultures drives a large scale effort to collect Native material culture for museum preservation and display. 1906 American Antiquities Act Ostensibly protects “national” treasures on public lands from pilfering, but construes Native American artifacts and human remains on federal land as “archeological resources,” federal property useful for science. 1921 Bureau of Indian Affairs Continuing an administrative trajectory begun in the 1880's, the Indian Bureau authorized its field agents to use force and imprisonment to halt religious practices deemed inimical to assimilation. 1923 Bureau of Indian Affairs The federal government tries to promote assimilation by instructing superintendents and Indian agents to supress Native dances, prohibiting some and limiting others to specified times. 1924 Pueblos make appeal for religious freedom protection The Council of All the New Mexico Pueblos appeals to the public for First Amendment protection from Indian policies suppressing ceremonial dances. 1924 Indian Citizenship Act Although uneven policies had recognized certain Indian individuals as citizens, all Native Americans are declared citizens by Congressional legislation. 1928 Meriam Report Declares federal assimilation policy a failure 1934 Indian Reorganization Act Officially reaffirms legality and importance of Native communities’ religious, cultural, and linguistic traditions. 1946 Indian Claims Commission Federal Commission created to put to rest the host of Native treaty land claims against the United States with monetary settlements. 1970 Return of Blue Lake to Taos Pueblo After a long struggle to win support by President Nixon and Congress, New Mexico’s Taos Pueblo secures the return of a sacred lake, and sets a precedent that threatened many federal lands with similar claims, though regulations are tightened. Taos Pueblo still struggles to safeguard airspace over the lake. 1972 Portions of Mount Adams returned to Yakama Nation Portions of Washington State’s Mount Adams, sacred to the Yakama people, was returned to that tribe by congressional legislation and executive decision. 1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act Specifies Native American Church, and other native American religious practices as fitting within religious freedom. Government agencies to take into account adverse impacts on native religious freedom resulting from decisions made, but with no enforcement mechanism, tribes were left with little recourse. 1988 Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association Three Calif. Tribes try to block logging road in federal lands near sacred Mt. Shasta Supreme Court sides w/Lyng, against tribes. Court also finds that AIRFA contains no legal teeth for enforcement. 1990 Employment Division, Department of Human Resources v. Smith Oregon fires two native chemical dependency counselors for Peyote use. They are denied unemployment compensation. They sue. Supreme Court 6-3 sides w/Oregon in a major shift in approach to religious freedom. Scalia, for majority: Laws made that are neutral to religion, even if they result in a burden on religious exercise, are not unconstitutional. Dissent identifies this more precisely as a violation of specific congressional intent to clarify and protect Native American religious freedoms 1990 Native American Graves and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) Mandates return of human remains, associated burial items, ceremonial objects, and "cultural patrimony” from museum collections receiving federal money to identifiable source tribes. Requires archeologists to secure approval from tribes before digging. 1990 “Traditional Cultural Properties” Designation created under Historic Preservation Act enables Native communities to seek protection of significant places and landscapes under the National Historic Preservation Act. 1993 Religious Freedom Restoration Act Concerning Free Exercise Claims, the burden should be upon the government to prove “compelling state interest” in laws 1994 Amendments to A.I.R.F.A Identifies Peyote use as sacramental and protected by U.S., despite state issues (all regs must be made in consultation with reps of traditional Indian religions. 1996 President Clinton's Executive Order (13006/7) on Native American Sacred Sites Clarifies Native American Sacred Sites to be taken seriously by government officials. 1997 City of Bourne v. Flores Supreme Court declares Religious Freedom Restoration Act unconstitutional 2000 Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA) Protects religious institutions' rights to make full use of their lands and properties "to fulfill their missions." Also designed to protect the rights of inmates to practice religious traditions. RLUIPA has notably been used in a number of hair-length and free-practice cases for Native inmates, a number of which are ongoing (see: Greybuffalo v. Frank).

III. Contemporary Attempts to Seek Protection Against the backdrop, Native concerns of religious and cultural freedoms can be distinguished in at least the following ways.

• Issues of access to, control over, and integrity of sacred lands
• Free exercise of religion in public correctional and educational institutions
• Free Exercise of “religious” and cultural practices prohibited by other realms of law: Controlled Substance Law, Endangered Species Law, Fish and Wildlife Law
• Repatriation of Human Remains held in museums and scientific institutions
• Repatriation of Sacred Objects/Cultural Patrimony in museums and scientific institutions
• Protection of Sacred and Other Cultural Knowledge from exploitation and unilateral appropriation (see Lakota Elder’s declaration).

In their attempts to press claims for religious and cultural self-determination and for the integrity of sacred lands and species, Native communities have identified a number of arenas for seeking protection in the courts, in legislatures, in administrative and regulatory decision-making, and through private market transactions and negotiated agreements. And, although appeals to international law and human rights protocols have had few results, Native communities bring their cases to the court of world opinion as well. It should be noted that Native communities frequently pursue their religious and cultural interests on a number of fronts simultaneously. Because Native traditions do not fit neatly into the category of “religion” as it has come to be demarcated in legal and political languages, their attempts have been various to promote those interests in those languages of power, and sometimes involve difficult strategic decisions that often involve as many costs as benefits. For example, seeking protection of a sacred site through historic preservation regulations does not mean to establish Native American rights over access to and control of sacred places, but it can be appealing in light of the courts’ recently narrowing interpretation of constitutional claims to the free exercise of religion. Even in the relative heyday of constitutional protection of the religious freedom of minority traditions, many Native elders and others were understandably hesitant to relinquish sacred knowledge to the public record in an effort to protect religious and cultural freedoms, much less reduce Native lifeways to the modern Western terms of religion. Vine Deloria, Jr. has argued that given the courts’ decisions in the 1980s and 1990s, especially in the Lyng and Smith cases, efforts by Native people to protect religious and cultural interests under the First Amendment did as much harm as good to those interests by fixing them in written documents and subjecting them to public, often hostile, scrutiny.

A. First Amendment Since the 1790s, the First Amendment to the Constitution has held that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” The former of the amendment’s two clauses, referred to as the “establishment clause” guards against government sponsorship of particular religious positions. The latter, known as the “free exercise” clause, protects the rights of religious minorites from government interference. But just what these clauses have been understood to mean, and how much they are to be weighed against other rights and protections, such as that of private property, has been the subject of considerable debate in constitutional law over the years. Ironically, apart from matters of church property disposition, it was not until the 1940s that the Supreme Court began to offer its clarification of these constitutional protections. As concerns free exercise jurisprudence, under Chief Justices Warren and Burger in the 1960s and 1970s, the Supreme Court had expanded free exercise protection and its accommodations considerably, though in retrospect too few Native communities were sufficiently organized or capitalized, or perhaps even motivated, given their chastened experience of the narrow possibilities of protection under U.S. law, to press their claims before the courts. Those communities who did pursue such interests experienced first hand the difficulty of trying to squeeze communal Native traditions, construals of sacred land, and practices at once economic and sacred into the conceptual box of religion and an individual’s right to its free exercise. By the time more Native communities pursued their claims under the free exercise clause in the 1980s and 1990s, however, the political and judicial climate around such matters had changed considerably. One can argue it has been no coincidence that the two, arguably three, landmark Supreme Court cases restricting the scope of free exercise protection under the Rehnquist Court were cases involving Native American traditions. This may be because the Court agrees to hear only a fraction of the cases referred to it. In Bowen v. Roy 476 U.S. 693 (1986) , the High Court held against a Native person refusing on religious grounds to a social security number necessary for food stamp eligibility. With even greater consequence for subsequent protections of sacred lands under the constitution, in Lyng v. Northwest Cemetery Protective Association 485 U.S. 439 (1988) , the High Court reversed lower court rulings which had blocked the construction of a timber road through high country sacred to California’s Yurok, Karok and Tolowa communities. In a scathing dissent, Harry Blackmun argued that the majority had fundamentally misunderstood the idioms of Native religions and the centrality of sacred lands. Writing for the majority, though, Sandra Day O’Connor’s opinion recognized the sincerity of Native religious claims to sacred lands while devaluing those claims vis a vis other competing goods, especially in this case, the state’s rights to administer “what is, after all, its land.” The decision also codified an interpretation of Congress’s legislative protections in the 1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act as only advisory in nature. As of course happens in the U.S. judical system, such decisions of the High Court set new precedents that not only shape the decisions of lower courts, but that have a chilling effect on the number of costly suits brought into the system by Native communities. What the Lyng decision began to do with respect to sacred land protection, was finished off with respect to restricting free exercise more broadly in the Rehnquist Court’s 1990 decision in Employment Division, State of Oregon v. Smith 484 U.S. 872 (1990) . Despite nearly a century of specific protections of Peyotism, in an unemployment compensation case involving two Oregon substance abuse counselors who had been fired because they had been found to be Peyote ingesting members of the Native American Church , a religious organization founded to secure first amendment protection in the first place, the court found that the state’s right to enforce its controlled substance laws outweighed the free exercise rights of Peyotists. Writing for the majority, Justice Scalia’s opinion reframed the entire structure of free exercise jurisprudence, holding as constitutional laws that do not intentionally and expressly deny free exercise rights even if they have the effect of the same. A host of minority religious communities, civil liberties organizations, and liberal Christian groups were alarmed at the precedent set in Smith. A subsequent legislative attempt to override the Supreme Court, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act , passed by Congress and signed into law in 1993 by President Clinton was found unconstitutional in City of Bourne v. Flores (1997) , as the High Court claimed its constitutional primacy as interpreter of the constitution.

i. Sacred Lands In light of the ruling in Lyng v. Northwest Cemetery Protective Association (1988) discussed immediately above, there have been few subsequent attempts to seek comparable protection of sacred lands, whether that be access to, control of, or integrity of sacred places. That said, three cases leading up to the 1988 Supreme Court decision were heard at the level of federal circuit courts of appeal, and are worthy of note for the judicial history of appeals to First Amendment protection for sacred lands. In Sequoyah v. Tennessee Valley Authority , 19800 620 F.2d 1159 (6th Cir. 1980) , the court remained unconvinced by claims that a proposed dam's flooding of non-reservation lands sacred to the Cherokee violate the free excersice clause. That same year, in Badoni v. Higginson , 638 F. 2d 172 (10th Cir. 1980) , a different Circuit Court held against Navajo claims about unconstitutional federal management of water levels at a am desecrating Rainbow Arch in Utah. Three years later, in Fools Crow v. Gullet , 760 F. 2d 856 (8th Cir. 1983), cert. Denied, 464 U.S.977 (1983) , the Eighth Circuit found unconvincing Lakota claims to constitutional protections to a vision quest site against measures involving a South Dakota state park on the site.

ii. Free Exercise Because few policies and laws that have the effect of infringing on Native American religious and cultural freedoms are expressly intended to undermine those freedoms, the High Court’s Smith decision discouraged the number of suits brought forward by Native communities under constitutional free exercise protection since 1990, but a number of noteworthy cases predated the 1990 Smith decision, and a number of subsequent free exercise claims have plied the terrain of free exercise in correctional institutions. Employment Division, State of Oregon v. Smith (1990)

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iii. No Establishment As the history of First Amendment jurisprudence generaly shows (Flowers), free exercise protections bump up against establishment clause jurisprudence that protects the public from government endorsement of particular traditions. Still, it is perhaps ironic that modest protections of religious freedoms of tiny minorities of Native communities have undergone constitutional challenges as violating the establishment clause. At issue is the arguable line between what has been understood in jurisprudence as governmental accommodations enabling the free exercise of minority religions and government endorsement of those traditions. The issue has emerged in a number of challenges to federal administrative policies by the National Park Service and National Forest Service such as the voluntary ban on climbing during the ceremonially significant month of June on what the Lakota and others consider Bear Lodge at Devil’s Tower National Monument . It should be noted that the Mountain States Legal Foundation is funded in part by mining, timbering, and recreational industries with significant money interests in the disposition of federal lands in the west. In light of courts' findings on these Native claims to constitutional protection under the First Amendment, Native communities have taken steps in a number of other strategic directions to secure their religious and cultural freedoms.

B. Treaty Rights In addition to constitutional protections of religious free exercise, 370 distinct treaty agreements signed prior to 1871, and a number of subsequent “agreements” are in play as possible umbrellas of protection of Native American religious and cultural freedoms. In light of the narrowing of free exercise protections in Lyng and Smith , and in light of the Court’s general broadening of treaty right protections in the mid to late twentieth century, treaty rights have been identified as preferable, if not wholly reliable, protections of religious and cultural freedoms. Makah Whaling Mille Lacs Case

C. Intellectual Property Law Native communities have occasionally sought protection of and control over indigenous medicinal, botanical, ceremonial and other kinds of cultural knowledge under legal structures designed to protect intellectual property and trademark. Although some scholars as committed to guarding the public commons of ideas against privatizing corporate interests as they are to working against the exploitation of indigenous knowledge have warned about the consequences of litigation under Western intellectual property standards (Brown), the challenges of such exploitation are many and varied, from concerns about corporate patenting claims to medicinal and agricultural knowledge obtained from Native elders and teachers to protecting sacred species like wild rice from anticipated devastation by genetically modified related plants (see White Earth Land Recovery Project for an example of this protection of wild rice to logos ( Washington Redskins controversy ) and images involving the sacred Zia pueblo sun symbol and Southwest Airlines to challenges to corporate profit-making from derogatory representations of Indians ( Crazy Horse Liquor case ).

D. Other Statutory Law A variety of legislative efforts have had either the express purpose or general effect of providing protections of Native American religious and cultural freedoms. Some, like the Taos Pueblo Blue Lake legislation, initiated protection of sacred lands and practices of particular communities through very specific legislative recourse. Others, like the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act , enacted broad protections of Native American religious and cultural freedom [link to Troost case]. Culminating many years of activism, if not without controversy even in Native communities, Congress passed the American Indian Religious Freedom Act , signed into law in 1978 and amended in 1993, in order to recognize the often difficult fit between Native traditions and constitutional protections of the freedom of “religion” and ostensibly to safeguard such interests from state interference. Though much heralded for its symbolic value, the act was determined by the courts (most notably in the Lyng decision upon review of the congressional record to be only advisory in nature, lacking a specific “cause for action” that would give it legal teeth. To answer the Supreme Court's narrowing of the scope of free exercise protections in Lyng and in the 1990 Smith decision, Congress passed in 2000 the  Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA)  restoring to governments the substantial burden of showing a "compelling interest" in land use decisions or administrative policies that exacted a burden on the free exercise of religion and requiring them to show that they had exhausted other possibilities that would be less burdensome on the free exercise of religion. Two other notable legislative initiatives that have created statutory protections for a range of Native community religious and cultural interests are the 1966 National Historic Preservation Act and the Native American Language Act legislation beginning to recognize the significance and urgency of the protection and promotion of indigenous languages, if not supporting such initiatives with significant appropriations. AIRFA 1978 NAGPRA 1990 [see item h. below] Native American Language Act Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA)  2000 National Historic Preservation Act  [see item g below]

E. Administrative and Regulatory Policy and Law As implied in a number of instances above, many governmental decisions affecting Native American religious and cultural freedom occur at the level of regulation and the administrative policy of local, state, and federal governments, and as a consequence are less visible to those not locally or immediately affected.

F. Federal Recognition The United States officially recognizes over 500 distinct Native communities, but there remain numerous Native communities who know clearly who they are but who remain formally unrecognized by the United States, even when they receive recognition by states or localities. In the 1930s, when Congress created the structure of tribal governments under the Indian Reorganization Act, many Native communities, including treaty signatories, chose not to enroll themselves in the recognition process, often because their experience with the United States was characterized more by unwanted intervention than by clear benefits. But the capacity and charge of officially recognized tribal governments grew with the Great Society programs in the 1960s and in particular with an official U.S. policy of Indian self-determination enacted through such laws as the 1975 Indian Self Determination and Education Act , which enabled tribal governments to act as contractors for government educational and social service programs. Decades later, the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act formally recognized the authority of recognized tribal governments to engage in casino gaming in cooperation with the states. Currently, Native communities that remain unrecognized are not authorized to benefit from such programs and policies, and as a consequence numerous Native communities have stepped forward to apply for federal recognition in a lengthy, laborious, and highly-charged political process overseen by the  Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Federal Acknowledgment . Some communities, like Michigan’s Little Traverse Band of Odawa have pursued recognition directly through congressional legislation. As it relates to concerns of Native American religious and cultural freedom, more is at stake than the possibility to negotiate with states for the opening of casinos. Federal recognition gives Native communities a kind of legal standing to pursue other interests with more legal and political resources at their disposal. Communities lacking this standing, for example, are not formally included in the considerations of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (item H. below).

G. Historic Preservation Because protections under the National Historic Preservation Act have begun to serve as a remedy for protection of lands of religious and cultural significance to Native communities, in light of first amendment jurisprudence since Lyng , it bears further mention here. Native communities seeking protections through Historic Preservation determinations are not expressly protecting Native religious freedom, nor recognizing exclusive access to, or control of sacred places, since the legislation rests on the importance to the American public at large of sites of historic and cultural value, but in light of free exercise jurisprudence since Lyng , historic preservation has offered relatively generous, if not exclusive, protection. The National Historic Preservation Act as such offered protection on the National Register of Historic Places, for the scholarly, especially archeological, value of certain Native sites, but in 1990, a new designation of “traditional cultural properties” enabled Native communities and others to seek historic preservation protections for properties associated “wit cultural practices or beliefs of a living community that (a) are rooted in that community’s history, and (b) are important in maintaining the continuing cultural identity of the community.” The designation could include most communities, but were implicitly geared to enable communities outside the American mainstream, perhaps especially Native American communities, to seek protection of culturally important and sacred sites without expressly making overt appeals to religious freedom. (King 6) This enabled those seeking recognition on the National Register to skirt a previous regulatory “religious exclusion” that discouraged inclusion of “properties owned by religious institutions or used for religious purposes” by expressly recognizing that Native communities don’t distinguish rigidly between “religion and the rest of culture” (King 260). As a consequence, this venue of cultural resource management has served Native interests in sacred lands better than others, but it remains subject to review and change. Further it does not guarantee protection; it only creates a designation within the arduous process of making application to the National Register of Historic Places. Pilot Knob Nine Mile Canyon

H. Repatriation/Protection of Human Remains, Burial Items, and Sacred Objects Culminating centuries of struggle to protect the integrity of the dead and material items of religious and cultural significance, Native communities witnessed the creation of an important process for protection under the 1990 Native American Graves and Repatriation Act . The act required museums and other institutions in the United States receiving federal monies to share with relevant Native tribes inventories of their collections of Native human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of “cultural patrimony” (that is objects that were acquired from individuals, but which had belonged not to individuals, but entire communities), and to return them on request to lineal descendants or federally recognized tribes (or Native Hawaiian organizations) in those cases where museums can determine cultural affiliation, or as often happens, in the absence of sufficiently detailed museum data, to a tribe that can prove its cultural affiliation. The law also specifies that affiliated tribes own these items if they are discovered in the future on federal or tribal lands. Finally, the law also prohibits almost every sort of trafficking in Native American human remains, burial objects, sacred objects, and items of cultural patrimony. Thus established, the process has given rise to a number of ambiguities. For example, the law’s definition of terms gives rise to some difficulties. For example, “sacred objects” pertain to objects “needed for traditional Native American religions by their present day adherents.” Even if they are needed for the renewal of old ceremonies, there must be present day adherents. (Trope and Echo Hawk, 143). What constitutes “Cultural affiliation” has also given rise to ambiguity and conflict, especially given conflicting worldviews. As has been seen in the case of Kennewick Man the “relationship of shared group identity” determined scientifically by an archeologist may or may not correspond to a Native community’s understanding of its relation to the dead on its land. Even what constitutes a “real” can be at issue, as was seen in the case of Zuni Pueblo’s concern for the return of “replicas” of sacred Ahayu:da figures made by boy scouts. To the Zuni, these contained sacred information that was itself proprietary (Ferguson, Anyon, and Lad, 253). Disputes have arisen, even between different Native communities claiming cultural affiliation, and they are adjudicated through a NAGPRA Review Committee , convened of three representatives from Native communities, three from museum and scientific organizations, and one person appointed from a list jointly submitted by the other six.

I. International Law and Human Rights Agreements At least since 1923, when Haudenosaunee Iroqois leader Deskaneh made an appeal to the League of Nations in Geneva, Native communities and organizations have registered claims and concerns about religious and cultural freedoms with the international community and institutions representing it in a variety of ways. Making reference to their status as sovereign nations whose treaties with the U.S. have not been honored, frustrated with previous efforts to seek remedies under U.S. law, concerned with the capacity for constitutional protection of what are typically “group” and not individual rights, and sometimes spurned by questions about the rightful jurisdiction of the U.S., Native organizations have sought consideration of their claims before the United Nations and engaged in its consultations on indigenous rights. After years of such appeals and efforts, a nearly unanimous  United Nations General Assembly passed the United Nations Declarations on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples The 1996  Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples includes reference [article 12] to the “right to manifest, practice, develop and teach their spiritual and religious traditions, customs and ceremonies; the right to maintain, protect, and have access in privacy to their religious and cultural sites; the right to the use and control of ceremonial objects,; and the right to the repatriation of human remains.” Importantly, the Declaration does not exclude those communities whose traditions have been interrupted by colonization. Indigenous peoples are recognized as having “the right to maintain, protect and develop the past, present and future manifestations of their cultures as well as the right to the restitution of cultural, intellectual, religious and spiritual property taken without their free and informed consent or in violation of their laws, traditions and customs.” Also specified are their rights to their languages. An offshoot of the American Indian Movement, the International Indian Treaty Council is one such organization that has shifted its attention to the international arena for protections of indigenous rights, including those of religious and cultural freedom.]]

J. Negotiated Agreements and Private Transactions Many if not most Native claims and concerns related to religious and cultural freedoms have been and will continue to be raised and negotiated outside the formal legal and regulatory structures outlined above, and thus will seldom register in public view. In light of the career of Native religious and cultural freedoms in legislative and legal arenas, Vine Deloria, Jr., has suggested the possibilities of such agreements to reach Native goals without subjecting Native communities to the difficulties of governmental interference or public scrutiny of discreet traditions (Deloria 1992a). Still, the possibilities for Native communities to reach acceptable negotiated agreements often owe to the legal and political structures to which they have recourse if negotiations fail. The possibilities of such negotiated agreements also can be shaped by the pressures of public opinion on corporate or governmental interests. Kituwah Mound Valley of the Shields/Weatherman’s Draw

IV. Selected Past Native American Religious and Cultural Freedom Court Cases

A. Land Sequoyah v. Tennessee Valley Authority 620 F. 2d 1159 (6th Cir. 1980) . Dam’s Destruction of Sacred River/Land Badoni v. Higginson 638 F 2d 172 (10th Cir. 1980) . Desecration of Rainbow Arch, Navajo Sacred Spot in Utah Fools Crow v. Gullet 706 F. 2d. 856 (8th Cir. 1983), cert. Denied, 464 U.S. 977 (1983) . State Park on top of Vision Quest site in S. Dakota Wilson v. Block 708F. 2d 735 (D.C. Cir. 1983) ; Hopi Indian Tribe v. Block; Navajo Medicine Men Assn’ v. Block Expansion of Ski Area in San Francisco Peaks, sacred to Navaho and Hopi Lyng v. Northwest Cemetery Protective Association 485 U.S. 439 (1988) Logging Road in lands sacred to Yurok, Karok, and Tolowa

B. Free Exercise Bowen v. Roy 476 U.S. 693 (1986) Native refusal of Social Security Number U.S. v. Dion 476 U.S. 734 Sacramental Eagle Hunt contra Endangered Species Act Frank v. State 604 P. 2d 1068 (Alaska 1979) Taking moose out of season for potlatch *Native American Church v. Navajo Tribal Council 272 F 2d 131 (10th Cir. 1959) Peyotists vs. Tribal Gov’t Prohibiting Peyotism People v. Woody 61 Cal.2d 716, 394 P.2d 813, 40 Cal. Rptr. 69 (1964) Groundbreaking recognition of Free Exercise exemption from State Ban. Employment Division, State of Oregon v. Smith 484 U.S. 872 (1990) Denial of Peyotist’s unemployment compensation held constitutional

C. Prison cases involving hair *Standing Deer v. Carlson 831 F. 2d 1525 (9th Cir. 1987). *Teterud v. Gilman 385 F. Supp. 153 (S. D. Iowa 1974) & New Rider v. Board of Education 480 F. 2d 693 (10th Cir. 1973) , cert. denied 414 U.S. 1097, reh. Denied 415 U.S. 939 *Indian Inmates of Nebraska Penitentiary v. Grammar 649 F. Supp. 1374 (D. Neb. 1986)

D. Human Remains/Repatriation *Wana the Bear v. Community Construction, Inc. 180 Cal Rptr. 423 (Ct. App. 1982). Historic Indian cemetery not a “cemetery.” *State v. Glass 273 N.E. 2d 893 (Ohio Ct. App. 1971). Ancient human remains not “human” for purposes of Ohio grave robbing statute

E. Treaty Rights Pertaining to Traditional/Sacred Practices *U.S. v. Washington 384 F. Supp. 312 (W.D. Wash. 1974) aff’d 520 F.2d 676 (9th Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 1086 (1976). Boldt Decision on Salmon Fishing *Lac Court Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians v. Voight, 700 F. 2d 341 (7th Cir.) Cert. denied, 464 U.S. 805 (1983) 653 F. Supp. 1420; Fishing/Ricing/Gathering on Ceded Lands Minnesota v. Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians 124 F 3d 904 affirmed. (1999) Fishing/Ricing/Gathering on Ceded Lands

V. References & Resources

Brown, Michael, Who Owns Native Culture (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2003). Burton, Lloyd Worship and Wilderness: Culture, Religion, and Law in the Management of Public Lands and Resources (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002).

Deloria, Vine, Jr., “Secularism, Civil Religion, and the Religious Freedom of American Indians,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 16:9-20 (1992).

[a] Deloria, Vine, Jr., “Trouble in High Places: Erosion of American Indian Rights to Religious Freedom in the United States,”in The State of Native America: Genocide, Colonization, and Resistance , ed. M. Annette Jaimes (Boston: South End Press, 1992).

[b] Echo Hawk, Walter,  In the Courts of the Conqueror: The 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided ( Fulcrum Publications , 2010) . Fine-Dare, Kathleen, Grave Injustice: The American Indian Repatriation Movement and NAGPRA (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002).

Ferguson, T.J., Roger Anyon, and Edmund J. Ladd, “Repatriation at the Pueblo of Zuni: Diverse Solutions to Complex Problems,” in Repatriation Reader , ed. Devon Mihesuah (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000) pp. 239-265.

Gordon-McCutchan, R.C., The Taos Indians and the Battle for Blue Lake (Santa Fe, New Mexico: Red Crane Books, 1991).

Gulliford, Andrew, Sacred Objets and Sacred Places: Preserving Tribal Traditions (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2000).

Johnson, Greg, Sacred Claims: Repatriation and Living Tradition (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007).

King, Thomas F., Places that Count: Traditional Cultural Properties in Cultural Resource Management (Walnut Creek, Calif: Altamira Press, 2003).

Long, Carolyn, Religious Freedom and Indian Rights: The Case of Oregon v. Smith (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2001).

Maroukis, Thomas A., Peyote Road: Religious Freedom and the Native American Church (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010)

Martin, Joel, The Land Looks After Us: A History of Native American Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).

McLeod, Christopher (Producer/Director), In Light of Reverence , Sacred Lands Film Project, (Earth Image Films, La Honda Calif. 2000).

McNally, Michael D., "Native American Religious Freedom Beyond the First Amendment," in After Pluralism ed. Courtney Bender and Pamela Klassen (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010).

Mihesuah, Devon A., ed., Repatriation Reader: Who Owns American Indian Remains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000).

Nabokov, Peter, A Forest of Time: American Indian Ways of History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

Sullivan, Robert, A Whale Hunt (New York: Scribner, 2000).

Trope, Jack F., and Walter Echo-Hawk, “The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: Background and Legislative History,” in Repatriation Reader , ed. Devon Mihesuah (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), pp. 123-168.

Wenger, Tisa, We Have a Religion : The 1920s Pueblo Indian Dance Controversy and American Religious Freedom (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).

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An Adventure in American Culture & Values

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This article originally appeared at https://www.internationalstudentguidetotheusa.com/articles/culture.php Provided by Marian Beane, Director, International Student/Scholar Office, UNC Charlotte.

Studying in the United States of America can be a wonderful learning experience. Both in and out of the classroom you will learn and practice the English language. You will also learn much about American life and its sometimes confusing culture. As you prepare to come to the U.S., it may help to know something about the values that shape U.S. Americans’ attitudes and behaviors. As you consider these values it is important to remember that:

• U.S. society is made up of a diversity of ethnic groups and cultures that have helped shape American values;
• Some individuals and groups have a set of respected values that are quite different from those of mainstream America;
• People’s attitudes and behavior are based on their values.

Some Major U.S. American Values

Individuality:  U.S. Americans are encouraged at an early age to be independent and to develop their own goals in life. They are encouraged to not depend (too much) on others including their friends, teachers and parents. They are rewarded when they try harder to reach their goals.

Privacy:  U.S. Americans like their privacy and enjoy spending time alone. Foreign visitors will find U.S. American homes and offices open, but what is inside the American mind is considered to be private. To ask the question “What is on your mind?” may be considered by some to be intrusive.

Equality:  U.S. Americans uphold the ideal that everyone “is created equal” and has the same rights. This includes women as well as men of all ethnic and cultural groups living in the U.S. There are even laws that protect this “right to equality” in its various forms.

The general lack of deference to people in authority is one example of equality. Titles, such as “sir” and “madam” are seldom used. Managers, directors, presidents and even university instructors are often addressed by their first or given name.

Time:  U.S. Americans take pride in making the best use of their time. In the business world, “time is money”. Being “on time” for class, an appointment, or for dinner with your host family is important. U.S. Americans apologize if they are late. Some instructors give demerits to students who are late to class, and students at most universities have institutional permission to leave the classroom if their instructor is 10 or 15 minutes late.

Informality:  The U.S. American lifestyle is generally casual. You will see students going to class in shorts and t-shirts. Male instructors seldom wear a tie and some may even wear blue jeans. Female instructors often wear slacks along with comfortable walking shoes.

Greetings and farewells are usually short, informal and friendly. Students may greet each other with “hi”, “how are you”? and “what’s up”? The farewell can be as brief as: “See you”, “take it easy”, or, “come by some time” (although they generally don’t really mean it). Friendships are also casual, as Americans seem to easily develop and end friendships.

Achievement & Hard Work/Play:  The foreign visitor is often impressed at how achievement oriented Americans are and how hard they both work and play. A competitive spirit is often the motivating factor to work harder. Americans often compete with themselves as well as others. They feel good when they “beat their own record” in an athletic event or other types of competition. Americans seem to always be “on the go”, because sitting quietly doing nothing seems like a waste of time.

Direct & Assertive:  U.S. Americans try to work out their differences face-to-face and without a mediator. They are encouraged to speak up and give their opinions. Students are often invited to challenge or disagree with certain points in the lecture. This manner of direct speaking is often interpreted by foreign visitors as rude.

Looking to the Future and to Change:  Children are often asked what they want to be “when they grow up”; college students are asked what they will do when they graduate; and professors plan what they will do when they retire.

Change is often equated with progress and holding on to traditions seems to imply old and outdated ways. Even though Americans are recycling more than before many purchased products are designed to have a short life and then be thrown away.

Adjustment & Culture “Shock”

You may notice that these American values are, in some instances, quite different from your own. When you come to the U.S. the reality of these differences will be more evident. You will likely experience culture “shock” as you learn to adjust to the new culture and way of living. This is very normal and requires both time and patience.

Good Wishes for a New Cultural Experience

Your decision to study in the United States will provide you with endless opportunities to learn about a new culture and about yourself as well. You will also have a chance to “educate” U.S. Americans about your own country and cultural values.

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8.2: American beliefs and values

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As pointed out in the last chapter, it is a mistake to automatically assume that everyone in a large multicultural country like the U.S. shares a common culture. But this hasn’t stopped many writers from suggesting that they do. Among the most recent popular essays to address the question of American beliefs and values is Gary Althen’s “American Values and Assumptions.” Here is a list of the beliefs and values that Althen (2003) identifies as typically American:

• individualism, freedom, competitiveness and privacy
• informality
• the future, change and progress
• the goodness of humanity
• achievement, action, work and materialism
• directness and assertiveness

In what follows, I summarize Althen’s description of typical American values and assumptions, sometimes extending his examples with my own.

Individualism

According to Althen (2003), “the most important thing to understand about Americans is probably their devotion to individualism. They are trained from very early in their lives to consider themselves as separate individuals who are responsible for their own situations . . . and . . . destinies. They’re not trained to see themselves as members of a close-knit interdependent family, religious group, tribe, nation, or any other collectivity.”

Althen illustrates the above point by describing an interaction he observed between a three-year-old boy and his mother. They are at the mall, and the boy wants to know if he can have an Orange Julius, (a kind of cold drink made from orange juice and ice). The mother explains to him that he doesn’t have enough money for an Orange Julius because he bought a cookie earlier. He has enough for a hot dog. Either he can have a hot dog now, she says, or he can save his money and come back another day to buy an Orange Julius.

Althen says that people from other countries often have a hard time believing the story. They wonder, not just why such a young child would have his own money, but how anyone could reasonably expect a three-year-old to make the kind of decision his mother has suggested. But Americans, he says, understand perfectly. They know that such decisions are beyond the abilities of three-year-olds, but they see the mother as simply introducing the boy to an American cultural ideal—that of making one’s own decisions and being responsible for the consequences.

Americans feel strongly about their freedom as individuals. They don’t want the government or other authorities meddling in their personal affairs or telling them what they can and cannot do. One consequence of this respect for the individuality of persons, Althen claims is that Americans tend not to show the kind of deference to parents that people in more family-oriented societies do. For example, Americans think that parents should not interfere in their children’s choices regarding such things as marriage partners or careers. This doesn’t mean that children do not consider the advice of parents; quite the contrary, psychologists find that American children generally embrace the same general values as their parents and respect their opinions. It is just that Americans strongly believe everyone should be free to choose the life he/she wishes to live.

Competitiveness

The strong emphasis on individualism pushes Americans to be highly competitive. Althen sees this reflected not only in the American enthusiasm for athletic events and sports heroes, who are praised for being “real competitors,” but also in the competitiveness that pervades schools and extracurricular activities. According to Althen, Americans are continually making social comparison aimed at determining:

. . . who is faster, smarter, richer, better looking; whose children are the most successful; whose husband is the best provider or the best cook or the best lover; which salesperson sold the most during the past quarter; who earned his first million dollars at the earliest age; and so on.

Americans assign great value to personal privacy, says Althen, assuming that everyone needs time alone to reflect or replenish his or her psychic energy. Althen claims that Americans don’t understand people who think they always have to be in the company of others. He thinks foreigners are often puzzled by the invisible boundaries that seem to surround American homes, yards, and offices, which seem open and inviting but in fact are not. Privacy in the home is facilitated by the tendency of American houses to be quite large. Even young children may have bedrooms of their own over which they are given exclusive control.

The American Declaration of Independence asserted (among other things) that “all men are created equal.” Perhaps most Americans are aware that equality is an ideal rather than a fully realized state of affairs; nevertheless, says Althen, most Americans “have a deep faith that in some fundamental way all people . . . are of equal value, that no one is born superior to anyone else.”

Informality

American social behavior is marked by extraordinary informality. Althen sees this reflected in the tendency of Americans to move quickly, after introductions, to the use of first names rather than titles (like Mr. or Mrs.) with family names. Americans, says Althen, typically interact in casual and friendly ways. Informality is also reflected in speech; formal speech is generally reserved for public events and only the most ceremonious of occasions. Similarly, Americans are fond of casual dress. Even in the business world, where formal attire is the rule, certain meetings or days of the week may be designated as “business casual,” when it is acceptable to shed ties, suit coats, skirts and blazers. Foreigners encountering American informality for the first time may decide that Americans are crude, rude, and disrespectful.

The Future, Change, and Progress

The United States is a relatively young country. Although the first European colonies appeared in North America nearly 400 years ago, the United States is only 230 years old as I write these words. Perhaps this is why the U.S. tends to seem less tied to the past and more oriented towards the future. Moreover, the country has changed dramatically since the time of its founding, becoming a major world power only in the last 75 years.

To most Americans, science, technology and innovation are more salient than history and tradition, says Althen. Americans tend to regard change as good, and the new as an improvement over the old. In other words, change is an indication of progress. Americans also tend to believe that every problem has a solution, and they are, according to Althen, “impatient with people they see as passively accepting conditions that are less than desirable.”

The Goodness of Humanity

Although some Americans belong to religious groups that emphasize the inherent sinfulness of man, Althen claims that the basic American attitude is more optimistic. For one thing, the American belief in progress and a better future, Althen argues, would not be possible if Americans did not believe human nature was basically good, or at least that people have it within their power to improve themselves. The robust commercial literature of self-help or self-improvement is another source of evidence for this conviction.

Americans regard time as a precious resource, says Althen. They believe time should always be used wisely and never wasted. Americans are obsessed with efficiency, or getting the best possible results with the least expenditure of resources, including time.

Achievement, Action, Work, and Materialism

American society is action oriented. Contemplation and reflection are not valued much unless they contribute to improved performance. Americans admire hard work, but especially hard work that results in substantial achievement. “Americans tend to define and evaluate people,” says Althen, “by the jobs they have.” On the other hand, “family backgrounds, educational attainments, and other characteristics are considered less important.”

Americans have also been thought of as particularly materialistic people, and there is no denying that American society is driven by a kind of consumer mania. Material consumption is widely seen as the legitimate reward for hard work.

Directness and Assertiveness

Americans have a reputation for being direct in their communication. They feel people should express their opinions explicitly and frankly. As Althen expresses it, “Americans usually assume that conflicts or disagreements are best settled by means of forthright discussions among the people involved. If I dislike something you are doing, I should tell you about it directly so you will know, clearly and from me personally, how I feel about it.”

Assertiveness extends the idea of directness in the expression of opinion to the realm of action. Many Americans are raised to insist upon their rights, especially if they feel they have been treated unfairly, or cheated, e.g., in a business transaction. There is a strong tradition, for example, of returning merchandise to retail stores, not only if it is defective but even if it just does not live up to an individual’s expectation as a customer. The retailer who refuses to satisfy a customer’s demand to refund the cost of an unacceptable product is likely to face a stiff argument from an assertive or even angry customer. The customer service personnel of major retailers tend, therefore, to be quite deferential to customer demands.

In his discussions of American values and assumptions, Althen is careful to point out that generalizations can be risky—that it would be a mistake to think that all Americans hold exactly the same beliefs, or even that when Americans do agree, that they do so with the same degree of conviction. He is also careful to note that the generalizations represent the predominant views of white, middle class people who have for a long time held a majority of the country’s positions in business, education, science and industry, politics, journalism, and literature. He acknowledges that the attitudes of many of the nation’s various ethnic minorities might differ from the values of the “dominant” culture but insists that as long as we recognize these limitations, it is reasonable to regard the observations he offers as true on the average.

There may be a good deal of truth to Althen’s claim; however, a closer look into American history reveals considerable regional variation in Americans’ understanding of even the most fundamental ideals, e.g., ideas about the freedom of the individual. In Part 2, we will see that a closer look at the American political scene, may force us to conclude that even when Americans endorse the same values, they may actually have different things in mind.

American Culture

United States of America

Core Concepts

The Indigenous people and nations of North America are the traditional custodians of the land, having inhabited it for at least 15,000 years before Europeans arrived. The process of colonisation caused existing Indigenous populations to experience widespread violence and dispossession of their land, fracturing and marginalising their communities and cultural identities.

Since the modern formation of the United States of America, mass immigration has dramatically changed the social demographics of the population and established a western European cultural mainstream. The following cultural profile depicts this newly dominant culture – a Western society and value system influenced by continual migration to the American continent.

• Independence
• Individualism
• Capitalism/Private Enterprise
• Extroversion
• Informality
• Equal opportunity

The United States of America is a country comprising 50 states expanding over the southern half of the North American continent, with Alaska in the northwest and Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. It is the third most populous country in the world, home to more than 328 million people. American society is strongly underpinned by moral and religious principles centring around Christianity (followed by approximately 70% of the population), as well as civic and political values of personal freedom, liberty and independence.

In many ways, the United States has tended to set the example of what many perceive typical ‘western’ society and values to be, as it’s media, politics, technology, pop culture, economic and military powers have had incredible international influence. Today, most foreigners are likely to have a rough familiarity with what ‘American life’ looks like. However, the idea of a homogenous American culture is no longer reflective of the plurality of values and populations within it.

American society is highly culturally diverse, with the social, ethnic and religious make-up of the population having been shaped by a history of immigration. One commonly finds social attitudes, lifestyles and beliefs can differ significantly between regional, ethnic, socio-economic or partisan backgrounds. Considering this large demographic diversity, the following descriptions are unlikely to be representative of every American person’s experience or views. However, there are common themes and principles that contribute to the values, attitudes, beliefs and norms of the dominant society.

Colonial History

The land of present-day America was originally home to expansive numbers of Indigenous peoples and nations, including the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora.1 European colonisation began in 1607, with settlers establishing multiple separate colonies across land. In 1776, these colonies united to fight for independence from the United Kingdom, eventually forming what is now known as the ‘ United States of America ’.

The European migrants that arrived over the colonisation period were from a variety of religious and social groups, who were mostly fleeing religious persecution or seeking a better life. For example, many English Protestants non-conformists (such as Quakers and Puritans) migrated to escape religious persecution in Europe and preserve their beliefs in new communities.2 Additional migrants were also sent to the United States against their will, including convicts, indentured servants and enslaved Africans. Such migration dramatically changed the ethnic and social make-up of the United States and ultimately established a European-like cultural mainstream. The variation of social and religious communities established over the colonisation period continue to inform the diversity of American society today.

National Identity and Values

While many other nations base their national identity on shared ethnic or ancestral origins, the American identity and patriotism is largely rooted in shared moral and political values.3,4,5,6 This has been shaped by its history of European colonisation . Many of the early colonists were considered radical for their time, holding beliefs about social mobility in the class system and limited government that were not common in Europe at the time.7 They were often highly individualistic and determined to preserve strongly held social, religious, political or economic ideals (such as liberty, equality before the law, individual responsibility, democratic and laissez-faire economics).8 In turn, the American national identity became largely defined by a set of foundational ideas and values about what a liberal society should look like. For example, the Declaration of Independence directly articulates a belief in the limited involvement and control of the government on citizen’s personal lives.

These ideologies persist in the moral and civic culture of American society today. Such values of personal freedom and liberty especially have become intrinsic to the country’s cultural identity and character.9 For example, 77% of Americans view “having freedom of choice in how to live one’s life” as the most valuable aspect of American life.10 This is epitomised in the common expressions describing the United States as a “free country”, the “land of opportunity” or “cradle of liberty”.11 The American Constitution is generally regarded to embody the fundamental American notion of independence – particularly in regards to the First and Second Amendments (which guarantee freedom of religion, freedom of speech and the right to keep and bear arms).12,13 Indeed, a 2017 study found 84% agreed that individual liberties as protected by the Constitution personify the national character.14 Ultimately, such notions of ‘freedom’ and ‘independence’ tend to occupy a more prominent place in public and private discourse in the United States than elsewhere.15

The idea of cultural assimilation has been particularly powerful throughout the country’s history, whereby migrants can become ‘American’ by accepting and embracing American values. There remains a general expectation that new migrants and citizens will respect cultural values and develop similar patriotism. However, the notion of cultural assimilation is changing as more emphasis is being put on the importance of a bi-cultural identity in appreciation of the country’s broad ethnic, religious and cultural diversity.

American Exceptionalism

The United States’ national identity has also been informed by a notion of exceptionalism that became prominent in public discourse both within the country and overseas. This refers to the idea that the United States is in some way different from other countries, possessing unique characteristics that are worthy of universal admiration.16,17 There is a common assumption that the United States’ values, political system and history grant it the capacity and responsibility to make the world a better place.18 Such a view of the United States’ global role has been further influenced by its involvement in foreign affairs and trade, in which it has played a powerful and influential role.19 Indeed, many of its citizens have considered the nation to be an example and guardian of democracy and freedom.20

Moreover, the globalisation of American cultural values has led many to view it as the archetype of what a liberal capitalist, developed country is. American ideas of freedom now reverberate throughout the world, promoted by an internationalised mass media, consumer culture, and economic marketplace.21 As such, while Americans may criticise their government, the notion of the United States’ cultural superiority remains very strong. Opinion polls show most believe the United States is one of the greatest countries in the world, if not the best.22

National pride is expressed quite openly in American culture. For example, it is common for people to publicly describe themselves as ‘patriotic’. While there are differing views on what being ‘patriotic’ means, it is typically associated with showing respect, loyalty and love for one’s country.23 Traditional symbols and displays of patriotism include showing support for military troops and servicemen, standing for the national anthem and reciting the Pledge of Allegiance to the American flag. One’s perceived patriotism may also be defined by the degree to which they show dedication to American political institutions and national values, such as freedom, liberty and democracy (see National Identity and Values ).24,25

The United States’ national identity and patriotism has traditionally been thought to unify the population in spite of its diversity (whether differences are ethnic, religious, class-based, or ideological), just as it united early colonisers from different lands. However, public opinion polls show American pride has declined over the 21st century as displays of patriotism are arguably becoming more politicised.26,27 Shifts in values and social norms have changed some Americans’ views of the country’s identity, leading them to feel the United States is more disunited than united.28

Racial and Ethnic Demography

The United States has a very racially and ethnically diverse population, the social make-up of which has largely been determined by immigration over the past four centuries. According to the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2019 population estimate, 75% of Americans identify as white, 18.5% identify as Hispanic or Latino and 14.2% identify as black or African-American.29 A further identify 6.8% as Asian, 1.7% as Native American or Alaska Native, 0.4% as Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander and 5.5% identify with some other race .30 These percentages total more than 100% because many Americans describe themselves as fitting into more than one ethnic or racial category. There are also many other ethnic categories that are not captured by this data and may be classified as ‘white’ by default in the U.S. Census, such as Jewish and Arab Americans.31,32

According to the 2019 population estimate, 75% of Americans identify as white – of which 21% are ethnically Hispanic or Latino (see Hispanic below).33 In contemporary America, essentially anyone of European descent is considered White. However, many also have multicultural backgrounds. Some of the largest ancestries are German, Irish, English, Italian, French, Polish and Scottish. Some white Americans may self-identify their ancestry as simply ‘American’ due to the length of time their family has inhabited the United States (those who do so are usually of English/European descent). Overall, the states with the highest concentration of ‘non-Hispanic whites’ are found in the Midwest, New England, the Rocky Mountains, Kentucky, West Virginia and East Tennessee.

As the majority, much social discourse within the United States tends to use the socioeconomic status of the white demographic as the standard measurement from which other ethnic and racial groups’ social and economic well-being is compared. Indeed, white Americans have generally held the highest political and economic positions in the country. The white working class had also decreased over the past 30 years, as more have gained higher education.34

However, today multiple studies show a notable social and political divide between the white working class (broadly defined as those without college degree and with an annual income lower than the national median) and the lower and upper middle classes (those with college educations and higher income status). The working class are more likely to have experienced shortfalls in their income and wealth, while the upper class is more likely to have experienced stronger gains in the past 10 years.35 This divide has been correlated with political positions and divisions, with the former more likely to vote Republican and the latter is more likely to vote Democrat.36 Ultimately, it is important to note that ‘white American’ encompasses almost a quarter of a billion people, spread across all classes of society with diverging experiences.

‘Hispanic or Latino’ describes any person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish descent.37 This is an ethnic signifier, not a racial category. Therefore, a ‘ Hispanic or Latino ’ person may be of any race (i.e. white, black, Asian, etc.). According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 18.5% of the American population (over 60 million people) identify as Hispanic or Latino.38,39

Hispanic Americans reflect a large diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages. Most Hispanics Americans have Mexican (61.5%), Puerto Rican (9.6%), Cuban (3.9%), Salvadoran (3.8%) or Dominican (3.5%) ancestry.40 According to the US Census Bureau 2019, 65% of Hispanics identified their race as white and a further 25.6% identified with some other race not recognised in the census.41 This likely reflects the fact that a significant portion self-identify as mestizo (a person of mixed race that has European and native Amerindian heritage to some degree) or mulatto (a person of mixed race that has European and African ancestry to some degree).

Migration from Latin America has been one of the largest drivers increasing the Hispanic population in the United States, with thousands of immigrants arriving in the United State every year. However, two thirds (67%) of all Hispanic and Latino Americans were born in the United States.42 The Spanish-speaking population also has a long history in America that pre-dates British colonisation . For example, the states in the Southwest, West Coast and Florida were originally colonised by Spain. Meanwhile, present-day California, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona and Texas were originally part of Mexico until 1848. This Spanish-speaking history continues to be visible in the names of major cities, such as Los Angeles, San Antonio and San Diego. Many of these states continue to have the largest Hispanic populations in the country. It is estimated over 40 million Americans speak Spanish at home in total.43 The states and territories with the largest Hispanic populations are California, Texas, Florida, Puerto Rico and New York.

According to the national census, 14.2% of Americans identify as black or African-American.44 The term ‘ black ’ refers to the race , while ‘ African-American ’ specifically refers to an ancestral subgroup within that race (usually those descending from slaves of the 19th century). Some people may not feel a strong affiliation with their African genealogy , but identify as ‘African-American’ for its cultural meaning in contemporary America. More recently, others have preferred for their race to be referred to as simply ‘black’, finding terms readdressing their identity by another category to be insulting.

The United States’ black population was initially formed as a result of the transatlantic slave trade (from the 16th to 19th century), during which hundreds of thousands of African captives were sent to the United States and forced into slavery.45 By 1860, the number of enslaved Africans in the United States reached nearly four million, with more than half living in the cotton-producing states of the South.46 Many were forced to work as servants or labourers in industries such as cotton or tobacco production, and were subjected to inhumane treatments and abuse.47 Although slavery was outlawed in 1865, in the South enforced racial segregation legislation from 1877 to 1954 (known as ‘Jim Crow’) that systematically marginalised blacks as inferior to whites, affecting almost every aspect of daily life.48 This history of domination, subjugation and exploitation continues to impact the experience of black Americans today and remains a sensitive topic (see Racial and Ethnic Relations below).

The United States still struggles to build and maintain positive race relations between white majority and black minority amidst racial inequalities (see Racial and Ethnic Relations below). The black population is still significantly disadvantaged in regards to rates of imprisonment, education, income and political representation. As such, one’s experience as a black person in the United States differs significantly from those of the white population. Further, black Americans are more likely to say their race is central to their identity than those of other racial backgrounds. A 2019 survey of black adults found about three-quarters of respondents stated being black was extremely (52%) or very (22%) important to how they think of themselves.49

Today, most of the black population is born in the United States, descending from former slaves. However, the foreign-born black population has also increased in recent years, with significant voluntary migration from Africa, parts of South America and Caribbean Islands (such as Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic and Trinidad and Tobago). Each of these groups has distinct cultural and social identities. Over half of the country’s black population (56%) lives in the South.50

It is estimated 6.8% of the American population are Asian (23 million people), making this the fastest growing racial group in the country.51,52 The term ‘Asian American’ refers to a vast and diverse group of people who trace their roots to over twenty countries across East and Southeast Asia, as well as the Indian subcontinent.53 The largest ancestry groups among Asian Americans are Chinese (23%), Indian (20%), Filipino (18%), Vietnamese (9%), Korean (8%) and Japanese (6%).54 However, it is estimated 14% of Asian Americans identify with one or more races and 3% identify as Hispanic.55 As such, it is important to note that the Asian population of the United States encompasses many different cultural backgrounds, histories, languages and other characteristics.

It is estimated 57% of the Asian population was born in another country.56 However, many of these people migrated over 10 years ago and have since had families in the United States. For example, most people with Japanese heritage are American-born. Overall, the Asian population in the United States is considered to have high economic status and educational attainment when compared with the overall population.

However, this does not reflect significant variations between different origin groups. For example, while 75% of Indians 25 years or older hold a bachelor’s degree or higher, this figure is only 15% among Bhutanese. There are also vast differences between how recently individuals migrated, their pre-arrival life experiences and migration circumstances. For example, the experience of those who arrived as refugees in the 1970s (e.g. many Cambodians, Laotians, Hmong) are likely to vary significantly from those who arrive as skilled migrants today. As of 2019, nearly a third of America’s Asian population live in California.

Before colonisation , the land of present-day America was home to expansive numbers of Indigenous peoples and nations (including the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora).57 European colonisers violently conquered and dispossessed the existing Indigenous populations. Indigenous people were forcibly assimilated or displaced from their traditional lands, fracturing and marginalising their communities and societies. The Indian reservation system was created to exclude Indigenous communities from areas of land that European Americans wished to settle. Many of these reservations remain today.

Today, 'Native Americans and Alaska Natives' comprise 1.7% of the American population according to the National Census.58 There is much effort within Indigenous communities to preserve their culture, traditions and spirituality. Despite these positive developments however, Native Americans are still one of the United States’ most economically disadvantaged populations.59 Many continue to face challenges in access to health care and education.60

Importantly, the degree to which a Native American knows or integrates their traditional culture into their life varies and is said not to define them as being any ‘more’ or ‘less’ Indigenous. For example, some Native Americans live with their tribal community and continue to practice their ancestral culture, while others may operate within the United States’ dominant mainstream culture and have a more limited knowledge of cultural practices. There are shared values and attitudes that are common to most Native Americans. However, many traditional customs and practices are tribally specific (such as systems of governance and language). The tribes that have the largest number of people identifying with them are Sioux, Navajo, Choctaw, Chippewa and Cherokee.

Racial and Ethnic Relations

Multi-ethnic familiarity, tolerance, awareness and acceptance has grown significantly in the United States, as different ethnicities and races have gained prominence in the public sphere. However, there are definitive social tensions around the stigma and social disadvantage faced by certain racial or ethnic identities. Due to the country’s recent history of racial segregation and slavery, conversations about racism are especially sensitive. Immigration is also a sensitive topic commonly igniting public and political debate – with stigma often directed towards the Hispanic and Latino population.

Ultimately, race is a key social and cultural touchstone in the United States, discussed more openly and frequently than is common in many other English-speaking countries. Americans are arguably more attuned to perceived racial slights than people from other English-speaking countries and the terminology used to refer to people of different origins is contested (see Other Considerations ). Moreover, it appears the American public has an increasingly pessimistic view of the country’s racial progress.61 National polls conducted in 2019 showed that more adults have a negative view of race relations than they did 20 years ago, with 65% saying that it has become more common to express racist or racially insensitive views.62,63 More recently, police brutality against black citizens has become a flashpoint for public outrage and discussion on race relations in America.

Individualism and the 'American Dream'

American culture is highly individualistic, whereby people are expected to be self-reliant and independent. There is a strong belief in equal opportunity and meritocracy – that reward is based on a person’s abilities rather than their wealth or social position. In turn, American society has long promoted the aspirational belief that any individual should have the opportunity to achieve upwards social mobility, prosperity and success, regardless of their social class or place of birth.

Known as the ‘ American dream ’, this ideal is powered by the individualist mentality that one’s success is a direct result of their own work. Therefore, ideally anyone should be able to obtain a higher standard of living than their parents if they put in the effort. The American dream is often epitomised by entrepreneurs or ‘self-made men’ who work their way from the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder to the top. It also continues to be expressed by many migrants that view America as the gateway to a better life.

However, various studies and public opinion polls show that many Americans are concerned social mobility is becoming less realistic or no longer achievable. While 92% of children born in 1940 ended up in higher income distributions than their parents, this figure was only 40% for those born in the 1980s.64 Moreover, Americans have become more sceptical of the promise of ‘self-made’ success as opportunity for socioeconomic mobility is often dependent on access to previously established privilege, networks or even luck. This pessimism has increased since the Global Financial Crisis of 2007, which saw the American middle class significantly decline; many lower-income families now struggle to rise through the social strata.65

Nonetheless, the enduring belief in the American dream implies a sense of optimism toward the future and the possibility of upward social and economic mobility. Paired with the competitiveness of the free market, these ideals can power an achievement fever in the American workforce and economy.66 Today, Americans are renowned for their optimism, opportunism, individualism and innovative nature. Many people share an emotional desire to continually find and believe in something new.67 This is visible in the way new ideas, opportunities, entrepreneurial ventures and public personalities can gain an eager following in the United States.

_____________________1 Pauls, 20182 Facing History and Ourselves, 20203 Kirsch, 20194 Freese, 20085 Foreman, 20066 Widmer & Erikson, 20177 Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 20208 Bains, 20159 Allen & McGuire, 202010 American Enterprise Institute, 201911 Foner, 201812 Keating, 201013 The White House, 202114 Sedensky, 201715 Foner, 201816 Walt, 201117 Edwards, 2018; Kershaw, 201818 Levitz, 201919 Spencer, 201420 Proquest, 201721 Foner, 201822 Thorsett & Kiley, 201723 Hatemi, Plutzer & Berkman, 201924 Foreman, 200625 Widmer & Erikson, 201726 Brenan, 202027 Ibid.28 Widmer & Erikson, 201729 United States Census Bureau, 2019b30 Ibid.31 Ajrouch, 201632 Korelitz, 199733 United States Census Bureau, 2019e34 Picchi, 201935 Emmons, Kent & Ricketts, 201836 Picchi, 201937 United States Census Bureau, 2019a38 United States Census Bureau, 2019e39 United States Census Bureau, 2019c40 United States Census Bureau, 2019d41 United States Census Bureau, 2019c42 United States Census Bureau, 2019f43 United States Census Bureau, 2017 44 United States Census Bureau, 2019b45 Berry, 201746 Ibid.47 Ibid.48 Urofsky, 202149 Horowitz, Brown & Cox, 201950 Tamir, 202151 United States Census Bureau, 2019b52 Budiman & Ruiz, 2021a53 Budiman & Ruiz, 2021b54 Ibid.55 Ibid.56 Ibid.57 Pauls, 201858 United States Census Bureau, 2019e59 Austin, 201360 Ibid.61 Horowitz, Brown & Cox, 201962 Morales, 202063 Horowitz, Brown & Cox, 201964 Chetty et al., 201765 Bains, 201566 Ibid.67 Ibid.

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Essays on American Culture

Explore the essence of american culture through essays.

Discover the heart and soul of American culture with our extensive collection of essays. American culture, a vibrant amalgamation of diverse influences, traditions, and ideals, offers a fertile ground for exploration and analysis. From the historical roots that have shaped the nation's identity to contemporary issues influencing its societal fabric, our essays delve deep into the elements that define and distinguish American culture.

American Culture Essay: A Window to Understanding Diversity

American culture is as diverse as it is unique, embodying the values, beliefs, and customs of its people. Through our carefully curated essays, gain insights into how cultural diversity enriches the American experience. Topics range from the impact of immigration, the evolution of American music and literature, to the significance of holidays and traditions that celebrate the nation's rich heritage. Each essay serves as a testament to the dynamic and ever-evolving nature of American culture.

A Resource for Scholars and Enthusiasts Alike

Whether you are a student seeking inspiration for your next American culture essay, a researcher aiming to deepen your understanding, or simply a curious mind eager to learn more about the cultural forces that shape America, our collection is an invaluable resource. Engage with essays that not only inform but also provoke thought, inviting readers to reflect on the complexities and nuances of American cultural identity.

Join the Conversation on American Culture

The discourse on American culture is ongoing, reflecting the country's changing dynamics and global influence. We invite you to explore essays that address pressing social issues, celebrate cultural achievements, and examine the challenges facing the nation. By engaging with our collection, you contribute to a deeper, more nuanced conversation about what it means to be part of the American cultural landscape.

Christina Ricci: a Biography Paper

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History and Cultural Features of Chinatown in New York

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American Culture Essay: Customs and Traditions of the USA

All essays on American culture generally explore the customs and traditions of the USA, a country with distinct cultural background encompassing food preferences, language, religious affiliation and much more. American culture would be of great interest to everyone who is fond of learning new things about the world around. Current American culture essay will discuss the most peculiar aspects of the US customs and traditions. The following essay on American culture will deal with such elements of the US culture as language, religion, American style and food, music, sports and some others. The paper will start from providing general background to make it clear to the readers that American culture encompasses various aspects that will be briefly analyzed in the following essay about American culture. Let us discuss the key aspects distinguishing the culture of one of the world’s most developed countries – the United States of America.

• First, it is important to provide a few general facts about the USA. The United States is known as the third largest state in the world. Since the very beginning, the USA has been home to people with diverse cultural backgrounds. It is known that almost every region in the world has somehow contributed to the American culture, as this country has long been a country of immigrants, since the times when it was colonized by the British. Therefore, US culture has been changed and shaped by such nations as Native Americans, Africans, Asians and Latin Americans. It needs to be noted that America is widely considered a “ melting pot ” where diverse cultures have been interacting with one another and bringing something new to the local culture. Just like the nations across the world have greatly influenced the American culture, nowadays, the US nation influences the cultures of other countries all over the globe. Some immigrants coming to the USA keep some of their traditions and language, but integrate into the American lifestyle in a number of ways. At the same time, lots of immigrants bring something new to the American culture so that it continues to change and evolve.
• The next issue to be discussed is the language of the USA. According to the American government, the United States has no official language. This is because nearly every language of the world is widely used in the USA, including Spanish, French, German and Chinese. These are some of the most frequently used non-English languages that are widely spread across the USA. 90% of the whole population, however, understands and uses English language, and most of the official businesses are managed in English as well. It is estimated that over 300 languages are commonly used in the USA. These languages are divided into several groups according to their prevalence across the territory of the country. 
• Another cultural aspect to be discussed is religion. The USA is known to practice almost every world religion, which is explained by the rights of US citizens to choose whatever religion they like. This phenomenon is known as religious freedom. Around 80% of the population identify themselves with Christian religion, while more than 10% of US citizens claim that they do not adhere to any religion at all. It was also found that the second most commonly identified religion in the USA is Judaism with nearly 2% of the population affiliating with it. At the same time, Islamic religion is not that common, with less than 1% of the population identifying themselves as Muslims.
• As for the American style of clothing, it varies according to the social status of a person, the region he/she lives in, his/her occupation and climatic conditions. Jeans, baseball caps, boots, sneakers and often cowboy headwear are among the pieces of clothing that are most commonly associated with the American style. Such American brands as Calvin Klein, Victoria Secret and Ralph Lauren have long become known all over the world being especially popular in their country of origin. American fashion is largely influenced by the style chosen by celebrities as well as the one reflected in mass media. The fashion sales in America reach nearly $200 billion a year.
• Another aspect to be analyzed is American food. This aspect raises concern among Europeans and other nations, because American food is known mostly for its unhealthy qualities and the use of genetic modification. Such American foods as hamburgers, potato chips, hot dogs and meat loaf are among the most widely known examples of traditional American meals. Apple pie is also very popular with Americans being an authentic part of the US cuisine. The types of foods vary depending on the region. Southern manner of cooking is commonly known as “ American comfort food ”. It includes such meals as fried chicken, corn bread and greens. The cuisine of Texas has been influenced by the Mexican and Spanish styles of cooking. It ranges from burritos to shredded cheese and chili. It is also common for Americans to eat various snacks such as dried meats and many more.
• As for such cultural aspect as sports, the United States is widely known as a sports-conscious state. Every region of the USA has thousands of fans who are fond of baseball, football, basketball and many other kinds of sports. It is common to consider that baseball is an inherently American kind of sports. It has been developed during the period of British colonization and has ever since become one of the most favorite pastimes for the American nation. It seems that the popularity of baseball in America will hardly ever wear out. In the USA, baseball is as popular as football in most European countries.
• Finally, there is a need to discuss the diversity of arts in the United States. The arts culture of the US extends far beyond television shows and movies. This can be proved by the fact that New York is known for being home to Broadway, and the whole American nation has a very distinct theatrical history. The folk art of Americans is revealed in the popularity of hand-made items. As for American music, it encompasses many styles and genres, including jazz, western and country music as well as rock ‘n’ roll and blues.

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• American Culture

Essays on American Culture

Your American culture essay is an opportunity to get engulfed in exciting storytime rather than work. The US is an immigrant country, American culture was influenced by nearly every region of the world, but primarily by the British who colonized the country in the early 1600s. Native Americans and Hispanics have had a powerful impact on the country’s culture as well, as pointed out in many American culture essays. The United States is often described as a “melting pot”, blending many “flavors” from across the world into one great American culture. Our American culture essay samples, presented for your viewing below, will provide some interesting ideas for you to munch on. Besides samples, we offer complete essay creation from scratch, because essays on American culture are often as challenging as they are fun.

Ariel Levy’s argument in her article tries to argue how on a raunch culture women tend to engage themselves in sexuality performances, which are not usually their sexuality expressions but are premeditated for the pleasure the males in the society or appear as if they are trying to be pleasurable...

Internationalization of activities has significantly influenced the nature of activities people undertake in the contemporary society. Indeed, a majority of citizens from one country have crossed to other nations for the purposes of studies or business thus influencing the manner in which societies need to operate and accommodate the foreigners....

Words: 2386

1. What does Critchley mean by ethos and ethnos? (i) According to Critchley, Ethos can be described as the concept that links people to their culture, place of residence, their character and how they...

Many organizations have voiced concerns about the effects that the use of various technologies for children for various reasons, such as education and entertainment, has had on both early childhood development and culture. Although their parents may not have paid much notice, the American culture has implemented a number of...

Zora Neale Hurston, who was born in Notasulga, Alabama, developed into a literary legend in the United States. John and Lucy, Zora's parents, were instrumental in developing her poetic heritage. Her works have emerged as significant American literary masterpieces as a result of her prominence in the field. In the...

Attempting to investigate the settlement and later development of the state of Southern California during the first 100 years of its establishment, Heritage Square Museum is a working history museum that is situated in Southern California. Eight Victorian-era buildings that were allocated to the museum were spared from being demolished...

Words: 1581

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It was especially gratifying to think about the poems and life of Gwendolyn Brooks while attending Quraysh Ali Lansana's presentation at the Art Institute of Chicago's Rubloff Auditorium. The presentation was part of a centennial effort to remember and celebrate the memory of the celebrated activist, mother, feminist, and literary...

Although it is frequently used to refer to Chinese contract laborers who immigrated to foreign countries as contracted or indentured workers, the word "coolie" was originally used to describe cheap, unskilled labor from Asia. Due to the Opium War and the abolition of the Atlantic trade, the Chinese coolie trade...

Words: 1207

The Love for Writing: Joan Didion's Journey The author of Why I Write by Joan Didion has used a few specific examples to tell her own tale in the first person to demonstrate her love of writing. Didion is an American novelist whose books highlight the chaos of American culture. She...

Culture Culture is defined as the overall ideas, attitudes, and practices of a specific group or community depending on how they deal with situations or their historical history. Culture encompasses customs, religion, food, clothing (what we wear and how we dress), our beliefs and language, how we sit at the table,...

Words: 1478

Nosedive from Black Mirror and Technopoly from Neil Nosedive from Black Mirror and Technopoly from Neil show the impact of technology on American culture and the implications of that impact. The film Nosedive depicts a society in which people's interactions are assessed on a scale of one to five. Excellent behavior...

Sherman (2016) suggests that the problem of economic inequality in America is unavoidable in his piece, What a Trump Administration Might Mean for Income Inequality. Apparently, a sizable proportion of the middle class felt neglected by the previous administration, making their lives in the region even more difficult. Clearly, the...

Words: 1374

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What Makes a Great American Essay?

Talking to phillip lopate about thwarted expectations, emerson, and the 21st-century essay boom.

Phillip Lopate spoke to Literary Hub about the new anthology he has edited, The Glorious American Essay . He recounts his own development from an “unpatriotic” young man to someone, later in life, who would embrace such writers as Ralph Waldo Emerson, who personified the simultaneous darkness and optimism underlying the history of the United States. Lopate looks back to the Puritans and forward to writers like Wesley Yang and Jia Tolentino. What is the next face of the essay form?

Literary Hub: We’re at a point, politically speaking, when disagreements about the meaning of the word “American” are particularly vehement. What does the term mean to you in 2020? How has your understanding of the word evolved?

Phillip Lopate : First of all, I am fully aware that even using the word “American” to refer only to the United States is something of an insult to Latin American countries, and if I had said “North American” to signify the US, that might have offended Canadians. Still, I went ahead and put “American” in the title as a synonym for the United States, because I wanted to invoke that powerful positive myth of America as an idea, a democratic aspiration for the world, as well as an imperialist juggernaut replete with many unresolved social inequities, in negative terms.

I will admit that when I was younger, I tended to be very unpatriotic and critical of my country, although once I started to travel abroad and witness authoritarian regimes like Spain under Franco, I could never sign on to the fear that a fascist US was just around the corner.  I came to the conclusion that we have our faults, but our virtues as well.

The more I’ve become interested in American history, the more I’ve seen how today’s problems and possible solutions are nothing new, but keep returning in cycles: economic booms and recessions, anti-immigrant sentiment, regional competition, racist Jim Crow policies followed by human rights advances, vigorous federal regulations and pendulum swings away from governmental intervention.

Part of the thrill in putting together this anthology was to see it operating simultaneously on two tracks: first, it would record the development of a literary form that I loved, the essay, as it evolved over 400 years in this country. At the same time, it would be a running account of the history of the United States, in the hands of these essayists who were contending, directly or indirectly, with the pressing problems of their day. The promise of America was always being weighed against its failure to live up to that standard.

For instance, we have the educator John Dewey arguing for a more democratic schoolhouse, the founder of the settlement house movement Jane Addams analyzing the alienation of young people in big cities, the progressive writer Randolph Bourne describing his own harsh experiences as a disabled person, the feminist Elizabeth Cady Stanton advocating for women’s rights, and W. E. B. Dubois and James Weldon Johnson eloquently addressing racial injustice.

Issues of identity, gender and intersectionality were explored by writers such as Richard Rodriguez, Audre Lorde, Leonard Michaels and N. Scott Momaday, sometimes with touches of irony and self-scrutiny, which have always been assets of the essay form.

LH : If a publisher had asked us to compile an anthology of 100 representative American essays, we wouldn’t know where to start. How did you? What were your criteria?

PL : I thought I knew the field fairly well to begin with, having edited the best-selling Art of the Personal Essay in 1994, taught the form for decades, served on book award juries and so on. But once I started researching and collecting material, I discovered that I had lots of gaps, partly because the mandate I had set for myself was so sweeping.

This time I would not restrict myself to personal essays but would include critical essays, impersonal essays, speeches that were in essence essays (such as George Washington’s Farewell Address or Martin Luther King, Jr’s sermon on Vietnam), letters that functioned as essays (Frederick Douglass’s Letter to His Master).

I wanted to expand the notion of what is  an essay, to include, for instance, polemics such as Thomas Paine’s Common Sense , or one of the Federalist Papers; newspaper columnists (Fanny Fern, Christopher Morley); humorists (James Thurber, Finley Peter Dunne, Dorothy Parker).

But it also occurred to me that fine essayists must exist in every discipline, not only literature, which sent me on a hunt that took me to cultural criticism (Clement Greenberg, Kenneth Burke), theology (Paul Tillich), food writing (M.F. K. Fisher), geography (John Brinkerhoff Jackson), nature writing (John Muir, John Burroughs, Edward Abbey), science writing (Loren Eiseley, Lewis Thomas), philosophy (George Santayana). My one consistent criterion was that the essay be lively, engaging and intelligently written. In short, I had to like it myself.

Of course I would need to include the best-known practitioners of the American essay—Emerson, Thoreau, Mencken, Baldwin, Sontag, etc.—and was happy to do so.  As it turned out, most of the masters of American fiction and poetry also tried their hand successfully at essay-writing, which meant including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Walt Whitman, Theodore Dreiser, Willa Cather, Flannery O’Connor, Ralph Ellison. . .

But I was also eager to uncover powerful if almost forgotten voices such as John Jay Chapman, Agnes Repplier, Randolph Bourne, Mary Austin, or buried treasures such as William Dean Howells’ memoir essay of his days working in his father’s printing shop.

Finally, I wanted to show a wide variety of formal approaches, since the essay is by its very nature and nomenclature an experiment, which brought me to Gertrude Stein and Wayne Koestenbaum. Equally important, I was aided in all these searches by colleagues and friends who kept suggesting other names. For every fertile lead, probably four resulted in dead ends.  Meanwhile, I was having a real learning adventure.

LH: Do you have a personal favorite among American essayists? If so, what appeals to you the most about them?

PL : I do. It’s Ralph Waldo Emerson. He was the one who cleared the ground for US essayists, in his famous piece, “The American Scholar,” which called on us to free ourselves from slavish imitation of European models and to think for ourselves.  So much American thought grows out of Emerson, or is in contention with Emerson, even if that debt is sometimes unacknowledged or unconscious.

What I love about Emerson is his density of thought, and the surprising twists and turns that result from it. I can read an essay of his like “Experience” (the one I included in this anthology) a hundred times and never know where it’s going next.  If it was said of Emily Dickenson that her poems made you feel like the top of your head was spinning, that’s what I feel in reading Emerson. He has a playful skepticism, a knack for thinking against himself.  Each sentence starts a new rabbit of thought scampering off. He’s difficult but worth the trouble.

I once asked Susan Sontag who her favorite American essayist was, and she replied “Emerson, of course.” It’s no surprise that Nietzsche revered Emerson, as did Carlyle, and in our own time, Harold Bloom, Stanley Cavell, Richard Poirier. But here’s a confession: it took me awhile to come around to him.

I found his preacher’s manner and abstractions initially off-putting, I wasn’t sure about the character of the man who was speaking to me. Then I read his Notebooks and the mystery was cracked: suddenly I was able to follow essays such as “Circles” with pure pleasure, seeing as I could the darkness and complexity underneath the optimism.

LH: You make the interesting decision to open the anthology with an essay written in 1726, 50 years before the founding of the republic. Why?

PL : I wanted to start the anthology with the first fully-formed essayistic voices in this land, which turned out to belong to the Puritans. Regardless of the negative associations of zealous prudishness that have come to attach to the adjective “puritanical,” those American colonies founded as religious settlements were spearheaded by some remarkably learned and articulate spokespersons, whose robust prose enriched the American literary canon.

Cotton Mather and Jonathan Edwards were highly cultivated readers, familiar with the traditions of essay-writing, Montaigne and the English, and with the latest science, even as they inveighed against witchcraft. I will admit that it also amused me to open the book with Cotton Mather, a prescriptive, strait-is-the-gate character, and end it with Zadie Smith, who is not only bi-racial but bi-national, dividing her year between London and New York, and whose openness to self-doubt is signaled by her essay collection title, Changing My Mind .

The next group of writers I focused on were the Founding Fathers, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, and a foundational feminist, Judith Sargent Murray, who wrote the 1790 essay “On the Equality of the Sexes.” These authors, whose essays preceded, occurred during or immediately followed the founding of the republic, were in some ways the opposite of the Puritans, being for the most part Deists or secular followers of the Enlightenment.

Their attraction to reasoned argument and willingness to entertain possible objections to their points of view inspired a vigorous strand of American essay-writing. So, while we may fix the founding of the United States to a specific year, the actual culture and literature of the country book-ended that date.

LH: You end with Zadie Smith’s “Speaking in Tongues,” published in 2008. Which essay in the last 12 years would be your 101st selection?

PL : Funny you should ask. As it happens, I am currently putting the finishing touches on another anthology, this one entirely devoted to the Contemporary (i.e., 21st century) American Essay. I have been immersed in reading younger, up-and-coming writers, established mid-career writers, and some oldsters who are still going strong (Janet Malcolm, Vivian Gornick, Barry Lopez, John McPhee, for example).

It would be impossible for me to single out any one contemporary essayist, as they are all in different ways contributing to the stew, but just to name some I’ve been tracking recently: Meghan Daum, Maggie Nelson, Sloane Crosley, Eula Biss, Charles D’Ambrosio, Teju Cole, Lia Purpura, John D’Agata, Samantha Irby, Anne Carson, Alexander Chee, Aleksander Hemon, Hilton Als, Mary Cappello, Bernard Cooper, Leslie Jamison, Laura Kipnis, Rivka Galchen, Emily Fox Gordon, Darryl Pinckney, Yiyun Li, David Lazar, Lynn Freed, Ander Monson, David Shields, Rebecca Solnit, John Jeremiah Sullivan, Eileen Myles, Amy Tan, Jonathan Lethem, Chelsea Hodson, Ross Gay, Jia Tolentino, Jenny Boully, Durga Chew-Bose, Brian Blanchfield, Thomas Beller, Terry Castle, Wesley Yang, Floyd Skloot, David Sedaris. . .

Such a banquet of names speaks to the intergenerational appeal of the form. We’re going through a particularly rich time for American essays: especially compared to, 20 years ago, when editors wouldn’t even dare put the word “essays” on the cover, but kept trying to package these variegated assortments as single-theme discourses, we’ve seen many collections that have been commercially successful and attracted considerable critical attention.

It has something to do with the current moment, which has everyone more than a little confused and therefore trusting more than ever those strong individual voices that are willing to cop to their subjective fears, anxieties, doubts and ecstasies.

__________________________________

The Glorious American Essay , edited by Phillip Lopate, is available now.

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612 Culture Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

If you are writing a culture essay, topics are easy to find. However, their abundance can quickly become overwhelming – so we prepared this handy list of culture title ideas, along with writing tips and examples.

🤫 Culture Essays: Topics and Writing Tips

🏆 best culture topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics about culture, 🎓 simple & easy culture title ideas, 📌 cultural topics and writing prompts, 🥇 most interesting culture topics to write about, ❓ research questions about culture.

Describing culture is a challenging task. You have probably stumbled across the concept if you study sociology, media, or a variety of other subjects. There are many cultural differences across the Earth. Each nation, community, and subgroup of people have its own values, vocabulary, and customs. In the 21st century, we can document and share them thanks to cross-cultural communication.

Since there is an almost infinite number of things to consider about this broad topic, our team has collected 582 topics about culture. Check them out on this page!

Culture essays present excellent opportunities for conducting extensive research. They allow students to analyze acute global problems and investigate the topic of diversity, customs, and traditions, as well as the significance of individuals’ cultural backgrounds. You can choose one of the many topics for your culture essay. You can find culture essay ideas online or ask your professor.

We suggest the following culture essay topics and titles:

• The significance of cultural identity in an individual
• Culture as a political instrument in the modern world
• The differences between the Eastern and the Western culture
• The role of culture in people from mixed origins
• The impact of religious views on culture
• Cultural diversity in the workplace
• Are there similarities among different cultures?
• The link between culture and gender roles

After selecting culture essay questions for discussion, you can start working on your paper. Here are some secrets of the powerful paper on the topic:

• Conduct preliminary research on the selected issue. Remember that you should find as much relevant information as possible while presenting a multifaceted perspective on the issue. Ask your professor about the sources you can use and stick to the instructions. Avoid using personal blogs or Wikipedia as the primary sources of information. Do not make a statement if you cannot support it with evidence.
• If you are writing a paper about a particular culture, think about whether you can talk to someone coming from this background. Such an approach can help you to include all the relevant information in your paper and avoid possible crucial mistakes.
• Remember that a well-organized culture essay outline is key for your paper. Think of the main points you want to discuss and decide how you structure your paper. Remember that each topic or subtopic should be stated in a separate paragraph, if possible.
• If it is necessary, check out essay examples online to see how you can organize the information. In addition, this step can help you to evaluate the relevance of the issue you want to discuss. Remember to include an introductory and concluding paragraph in which you will state the main points and findings of your paper.
• Avoid discriminating against some cultures in your essay. Remember that even if you do not understand the causes of some behaviors or norms, you should not criticize them in your paper. Instead, help the reader to understand them better and provide insight into important differences between cultures.
• Be accepting and try to be as accurate as possible. Support your claims with evidence from your preliminary research.
• If relevant, include graphs and charts to represent significant information. For example, you can visualize the presence of diversity in the workplace in different countries.
• Remember that the reader should understand the goal and idea of your paper clearly. Define all terms and avoid using overly complex sentences. Be concise but provide enough relevant information on the topic.
• Make sure that you use correct grammar and sentence structures in your essay. Even an excellent essay can look bad with grammatical mistakes. Grammar-free papers allow the reader to see that your opinion is credible. Check the essay several times before sending it to your instructor.

Do not forget to find a free sample in our collection that will help you get the best ideas for your writing!

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• McDonald’s Cultural Issues in India Some of the issues which are discussed include Mcdonald’s historical background, the cultural and ethical issues at the organization’s operations, and the social responsibility issues in different regions where the organization has operations.
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• Japanese Animations’ Effects on the Japanese Economy and Their Cultural Influence on Foreign Countries These artists incorporate the characteristic anime stylizations, gags and methodology in their piece of work to produce animations that are a bit similar to Japanese anime. The growing interest among foreign artists in anime is […]
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• Diverse Contexts and Intercultural Communication at Work As the world moves to the global environment, the modern workplace becomes more and more diverse. When individuals are educated about intercultural differences are more likely to alter their communication styles to suit the needs […]
• The United States of America’s Culture These are however just general views on what the American culture really is, the next section of this paper will go to the specifics, and zero in into the following factors that determine the true […]
• The Effect of Globalization on a World Culture The net result is a global culture; the effect and extent that global culture has gone in the world varied among nations and continents; developed countries have their culture more diffused and uniformity can be […]
• Heritage Tourism and Cultural Tourism In the preservation of the sites for tourism purposes, it is clear that what is termed as the “culture of today” becomes the heritage of the future. There is a need to unveil the complexity […]
• Importance of Cultural Diversity Campaigns such as the Black Lives Matter may be attributed to lack of inclusion and appreciation of different cultures. For instance, the discussion of inclusivity in the 1970s focused on primary and secondary dimensions of […]
• Celebrity Culture and Its Influence on Society Before discussing the way Angelina Jolie and other celebrities affect modern society, it is necessary to identify the origins of the celebrity culture.
• Ethnicity Essay: Cultural Background in the Daily Lives of Children and Young People The idea of a child according to Montgomery and Kellett refers to a representation of a whole category of young people that are identified by their age and intellectual development and also their social maturity […]
• The Kikuyu Community: Religion and Culture The community speaks the Kikuyu language. Kenya’s Kikuyu people are the most popular and largest ethnic group.
• Cultural Identity Theory: “How to Be Chinese” by Celeste Ng Thus, while recognizing the role that the specified cultural signifiers have for Asian American people in their attempts to retain their cultural identity, Ng also demonstrates the urge to introduce immediate change to prevent the […]
• Impacts of Culture on Consumer Behaviour In addition, the impacts of the environment on the conduct of these consumers are made evident. For example, in the field of marketing, the phrase refers to acts and patterns of purchasing and buying.
• Egypt’s History, Culture, Religion, and Economy Over the next three millennia, Egypt would see the rise and fall of several civilizations, including the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom.
• Cultural Analysis – China and the Us In a bid to survive in such a market, it is crucial for the American investors to conduct a broad analysis of the cultural differences between China and the United States.
• Toyota’s Culture and Leadership Strategy Toyota’s Leadership and Culture Irrespective of numerous difficulties, the company is still one of the leaders of the industry. To understand the essence of the lean leadership, it is crucial to consider some peculiarities of […]
• Existential Therapy and Multicultural Perspective Paying attention to the entire idea of existential therapy, the exploring meaning and values of the issue will be considered referencing to the authenticity of the ideas, priorities, and values.
• Communication Culture: Hall’s High and Low-Context Model of Culture The differences in the modes and styles of communication are due to diverse cultures of the people from different countries. The aim of this report is to evaluate the concept of different communication cultures through […]
• Religion and Cultural Belonging: “The Flea Palace” by Elif Shafak The old and the new, the Christianity and Islam, the East and the West are shown closely interconnected for example in the description of the two ancient cemeteries in Istanbul and in the development of […]
• Reasons for Not Appreciating Different Cultural Point of View One of the reasons why people may not appreciate the cultural point of view of others is because of the differences in cultural values.
• Cultural Assimilation: Benefits and Challenges The mass migration of people leads to the fact that the population of the country is constantly growing, new nations come, and cultures are mixed, forming the so-called “melting pot”.
• Tolerance and Respect for Cultural Differences The author concludes the essay in the third section by revisiting the thesis statement and highlighting the various approaches used to develop attitudes that promote respect and tolerance.
• The Impact of the Internet in Culture and Daily Habits The growth of the internet has greatly improved our culture and society today with services it offers in the enrichment of our lives at work and at home.
• Cultural Pride and Cultural Baggage One of the articles that was written by Kincaid gives her experiences in England which portrays her cultural baggage as she finds it quite hard to fit in this society and to adopt a similar […]
• Social and Cultural Aspects of Pre-Colonial Africa in Chinua Achebe: Things Fall Apart The novel emphasize on the encounters of the pre-colonial Africa and the effect of British colonialism during the 19th century. Gender disparity is clear in this village and the crimes are identified with gender where […]
• Social Cultural Causes of Crime There is need to highlight the social cultural factors of crime and describe the necessary positive measures to prevent the occurrences of crime.
• Cultural Diversity in the UAE: Social and Economic Development This view is in line with Rabah’s emphasis on the importance of respecting cultural diversity in the process of nation-building because the concept is useful in solving conflicts and developing solutions that are beneficial to […]
• Culture and Development in Nigeria The following are some of the organizations that are concerned with cultural developments in Nigeria:- The African development bank is involved in major activities in the water sector and in sanitation projects across Nigeria.
• The Mughal Empire: Culture and Heritage The combination of the regions’ economic independence, the tensions between Hindus and Muslims, and the penetration of the subcontinent by the European economic powers led to the decline of the Mughal Empire.
• Adolf Hitler’s Cultural Theories in “Mein Kampf” So, according to Adolf Hitler, the foreign Aryan spirit was the awakener of Japanese people hence the bore a culture that they did not create.
• Culture and Agriculture: Nature and Significance Understanding Seeing that agriculture shapes the society and defines the course of its further development, promoting the ideas of environmentalism and sustainability, it will be reasonable to assume that agriculture belongs to the domain of cultures.
• East Meets West: Culture Differences He described the Japanese as the best people known among the heathens.[2] “Portuguese Views of Chinese”[3] is an account of the first impression the Portuguese had upon encountering the Chinese.
• Political and Cultural Impact of Alexander the Great’s Conquests Due to many territories that he conquered, the dominion that Alexander the Great had was regarded as one of the greatest in the history of the world.
• The Culture Industry According to Adorno and Horkheimer, the culture industry refers to the collection of all the aspects of technology in the modern society that brings change in the lifestyles of many.
• The Zulu Nation’s History and Culture The Zulu people live on the continent of Africa, in the southern part of it, which is known as KwaZulu-Natal. In this family, the husband stands for the chief, and institution of marriage is hallowed.
• Cross Cultural Management and International Business In this essay we will focus on the role of culture in international business situations and also the strategies and frameworks that are appropriate in cross-cultural management.
• The Beautiful Country of Kazakhstan: Kazakh Culture The report on the culture must broaden the audience’s ideas about the country and explain some of the most respected traditions every Kazakh follows.
• The Preservation of Our Cultural Heritage: Music for Entertainment and Communication Similar to how music plays a significant role in the lives of many people, it is an important aspect of history and culture.
• Material and Nonmaterial Culture of Middle East The cultural heritage of the Middle Eastern countries is rooted in the deep history of humanity. The states of this territory almost entirely belong to the countries of the eastern part of the Islamic world.
• Ramen Culture as a Vital Part of the Traditions in Japan Studying the history of the transformation of ramen culture and the role it plays in modern Japanese popular culture helps to explore the uniqueness of the phenomenon and understand the origins of its immense popularity.
• The “Brave” Intercultural Film Analysis In their discourse in the forest, the princess and her mother realized the need for relationship rebuilding, mending the bond that led to a solution for the kingdom’s survival.
• Apple’s Cross-Cultural Problems in China In the case of Apple, the main issues have to do with employee management issues mostly associated with working conditions and compliance to Chinese labor laws.
• The Fashion of the Hippie Culture Studying the fashion of the hippie culture is important because it illustrates the changes that society had undergone in the 1960s not only with regards to the style of clothing that people wore but also […]
• Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication Styles Across Ethnic and Cultural Backgrounds In the essay, I discuss verbal and non-verbal communication styles across ethnic and cultural background, communication styles that a counselor may come across when dealing with culturally diverse clients and how a therapist can succeed […]
• Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: Structuralism and Post-Structuralism In the fields of literature, and design, architecture, in addition to marketing business and the interpretation of culture, history and law are started to analyze on the basis of post-structuralism in the nineteen sixties of […]
• Culture and Communication: Egypt Egypt is the origin of the earliest civilizations and has taken an important position in the Middle East as the connection between the Arab and Europe regions.
• Born Red: A Chronicle of the Cultural Revolution With the fine details included in the memoir, it helps a reader to walk through the Chinese revolutionary era and witness the havoc that the revolution triggered by Mao Zedong had on the Chinese people. […]
• The Luo Culture of Kenya The Luo people are the indigenous people of Kenya living around lake Victoria, which lies in the western part of the country.
• The Role of Ethnocentrism in Intercultural Communication The only way to control ethnocentrism is to avoid biases as we find better ways to understand other people’s point of view.
• Managing Cultural Diversity in the Hospitality Industry This is common due to confusion and the inability to interact with others in the society. This refers to the level of integration in the society.
• ABC Manufacturing Company’s Organisational Structure and Culture So, the owner has vast knowledge in this sector, which helps him to contribute the company for future development; Resources: Now, the company has two brand new large and modern CNC centres with all essential […]
• Jamaican Family Cultural Practices The history of the Jamaicans in the United States began in 1619 when some blacks from Jamaica, as well as from the Caribbean islands migrated to the United States.
• Gang Culture in the USA: Symbols, Norms, Values The term culture refers to the norms and social behavior of a given community or group of people. Having the objects makes them feel brave and ready to act in the interest of the group […]
• Importance of Cross-Cultural Management in International Business As earlier pointed out, a vital requirement for success in an international business setup is the ability of managers to comprehend and appreciate other cultures across the world.
• Convergence vs. Divergence of Culture and Literature – Examples The notion of culture emerged for the first time in the course of the 18th century. It was used to identify the culture of the people.
• Cross-Cultural Environment Negotiations: Japan and America Based on this understanding, this paper shows that understanding the need for neutrality, cultural sensitivity, and flexibility is the key to having a positive outcome in a cross-cultural business negotiation. To have a proper understanding […]
• Italian Culture There is no post of the vice president in Italy and in the event that the president dies, elections will have to be held.
• Managing Cultural Diversity: A Case Analysis of Hilton Hotels Corporation The hospitality industry, in particular, is at the core of recent developments in globalization and labor migration as can be witnessed by the increasing mobility of the workforce and attempts within the industry to expand […]
• Threats of Globalization on Culture of Individual Countries The world has become a “global village” this is due to the expansion of communication networks, the rapid information exchange and the lifting of barriers of visas and passports.
• Hofstede’s Cultural Model in Negotiations It is important to include terms and conditions of the relationship as a measure of reducing conflicts where third parties are involved.
• History of Children’s Literature in Western Culture Plato, one of the most notable rulers of the time, held it that story-telling sessions should take the form of a play and he insisted that professional storytellers and poets be the ones in charge […]
• The Cultural-Individual Dialectic and Social Nature of Intercultural Relationships This specific type of dialectics is based on the idea that communication of persons depends not only on cultural aspects and differences but also on their individual attributes and visions. Thus, the cultural-individual dialectic is […]
• Cultural, Political, Economic and Legal Aspects of Doing Business in France The economy of this country is very strong, considered as the second largest in Europe, and fifth largest in the world.
• Culture and Health Beliefs in Korea Buddhism and Confucianism have had the most profound impact on the spiritual world and the life of the Korean people, and more than half of the country’s cultural heritage is associated with these two religions.
• Body Ritual Among the Nacirema: Cultural Study For instance, the research by Professor Linton is qualitative in the aspect that it tries to unearth the cultural practices and belief system of the Nacirema people.
• Concept of Globalisation and Cultural Diversity The Concept of Globalisation Globalisation can be defined as the minimisation of the differences between people of the world and the maximisation of their similarities through interactions, cooperation and communication.
• A Comparison Between Swedish and Australian Culture Impact of Culture on Life Experience and Belief System The interviewee explained that having been born in Sweden, where Lutheran is the main church, he followed the teachings of the Lutheran church.
• Three Stages of Cultural Development The main goal of this paper is to describe my personal experience along the lines of the stages of cultural development.
• The UAE Cultural Analysis: Adherence to Traditions, Cultural Beliefs, and Values The other important information for the pavement industry with regards to location is that the region lies in a longitude range of 56 to 25 degrees north and in a latitude range of 22 to […]
• Saudi Arabian Culture In this view, observation of Islamic beliefs, norms, values, and traditions enables people to understand the Saudi Arabian culture and adopt it.
• Cultural Competence: Jamaican Heritage Self-reflection as a way to improve one’s cultural competence Jamaican cultural ancestry Addressing social norms, cultural beliefs, behaviors, and the impact on health care Self-reflection has been regarded as an effective way to self-develop […]
• Cultural Hybridization: The Beliefs, Language, and Social Habits The interaction between the Tai, Han and Zhuang was through conflicts between the majority group, the Han in the Northern regions and the minority Zhuang and the Tai in the southern regions of China.
• Subjectivism and Cultural Relativism: Objections and Differences The key difference is that relativism relates the human experience to the influence of culture, while subjectivism states that right and wrong is a matter of personal opinion.
• Communication Challenges in Intercultural Interactions This essay aims to show that communication in intercultural interactions is hindered by the communication style, body language, stereotypes, the tendency to evaluate, high anxiety, and differences in ways of completing tasks.
• Indian Custom and Culture Community For example, there were various activities used to illustrate this marking, and these would include invitation and welcoming of the bridegroom, exchange of flower garlands, presentation of the would-be wife, the ceremony of the sacred […]
• Emerson’s, Whitman’s and Thoreau’s Cultural Impact This movement was based on the belief in the unity of the world and God. The doctrine of “self-confidence” and individualism was developed by convincing the reader that the human soul was connected with God […]
• The Overall Effects of Cultural Diversity in the Hospitality Industry The report focuses on analyzing the overall effects of cultural diversity in the hospitality industry. The nature of the industry’s workplaces and the way they deal with the issues concerning management of cultural diversity.
• Cultural Pollution:Traditions and Historical Concepts The cultures traditions and historical concepts of the Middle East have over the centuries been characterised as by a distinct sense of variety that stems from a whirlwind of customs and traditions.
• Multicultural Education Benefits: Functioning in a Pluralistic and Egalitarian Society Students are thus required to acquire knowledge and skills necessary to function effectively in a pluralistic and egalitarian society. The teacher is thus able to enhance socialization and transmission of culture while providing academic skills […]
• Kazakhstani Culture Through Hofstede’s Theory The purpose of the research paper is to discuss cultural similarities and dissimilarities, challenges of acculturation, helpful patterns of behavior, and look at the featured culture through the prism of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory.
• Culture and Identity: “The House on Mango Street” by Sandra Cisneros The past is a driving force for the future and it is hard to erase that part of an individual’s life.
• Leading a Culture of Excellence in Healthcare Industry The concept of a culture of excellence is to maintain personnel’s conviction that their work is meaningful and requires to be performed with superiority and be continuously improved.
• Cross-Cultural Management Major Theories The study of different languages helps one in comprehending what people have in common and also assist in comprehending the diversity that underlies languages, methods of creating and organizing knowledge and the several different realities […]
• Diversity of Jamaican Culture The culture of Jamaica is a rich blend of the ways deriving from both Spanish and British eras which affected lives of the people on this small island.
• Comparison of the Australian and Indonesian Culture On the other hand, Indonesia is one of the countries with the largest population in the world and it has over two hundred ethnic groups who use different languages. Marriage is also important in the […]
• Impact of Globalization on the Maasai Peoples` Culture This essay will therefore focus on the roles the aforementioned forces have played in changing the culture of the Maasai. Moreover, tourism has resulted in environmental degradation which is putting the Maasai on the brink […]
• Cultural Diversity in the Play “Othello” It is the role of men to support women in this society, and that is why Desdemona’s father goes to court immediately, he is convinced that his daughter was bewitched by Othello.
• Cross Cultural Management Strategies: Brazil vs. America The failures in cross-cultural management mainly arise from the weaknesses of managers to consider the impact of cultural differences in their management practices.
• Cultural Assimilation, Acceptance and Identity in Julia Alvarez’s Poetry The girl from the new family reminded Alvarez of her own plight when she had moved to the United States and had not yet been accepted completely by the community.
• Intercultural Understanding in Hala Alyan’s Poems The mix of cultures that she experiences allows Alyan to notice the difference in perception of various countries and people within it and certain biases and stereotypes surrounding them.
• British and Brazilian People: Cultural Differences It is critical to make appointments in advance, not to begin business discussions before the host, and to be on time for a business meeting.
• Sustaining a Culture in Multinational Corporations The management has to deal with the diverse culture of the organizations to succeed in the global scene. The managers can pick employees from each of the countries in which the organization has operations or […]
• Chinese New Year Foods: Chinese Culture and Traditions This piece of work will give an in depth discussion of Chinese culture with the central focus being on the Chinese New Year Foods and its relationship with the changes that have been experienced in […]
• How Geography Has Impacted the Development of Ancient Cultures They include: the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts, the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers, and The Himalayas. To the Egyptians, the Nile River was also a source of transport, facilitating the movements of the people up and […]
• Multicultural Communication and Its Origin The level of education can be an ultimatum arising in society when healthcare services are administered to patients leading to the dissatisfaction of both patients and the doctors.
• Cultural Identity and Heritage in the “Everyday Use” by Alice Walker In the broad context, Walker designs the story to underscore the conflict that African Americans faced concerning their cultural identity and heritage after the abolition of slavery.
• Cross Culture Management The salaries paid to the employees should be comparable, both within the firm and in the industry. Communication audits should be performed in order to measure the effectiveness of the strategy.
• The Erosion of Cultural Differences and Globalised Consumer Culture This paper looks into globalisation via cultural perspective whereby the mobility of people in the contemporary world has facilitated the understanding of new cultures and identities in a globalised world.
• Cultural Diffusion: Factors and Effects The process by which cultural traits and items are spread from one individual to another, either within a particular cultural setting or from one culture to another is known as cultural diffusion.
• Campinha-Bacote’s Model of Cultural Competence It is valid to specify that the original title of the model is the Process of Cultural Competence in the Delivery of Healthcare Services.
• The Nature of People and Culture The first key point is the understanding that culture is the framework of life and influences the aspects of life for every individual.
• Socialization for the Transmission of Culture Cultural transmission is one of the basic constituents of recreating cultures and passing values from one person or group to others.
• Culture Comparison Between China and Japan In Japan, it can be proved by the fact that the name Japan is written in the Chinese Kanji and not the Japanese Katakana or Hiragana.
• Cultural Differences Among Families in the “Hotel Rwanda” Film Arguably, the existence of cultural differences between families across the lifespan is the most significant problem affecting the family of Rusesabagina as he attempts to play the role of a corporate manager and a family […]
• Influence of Political, Social, and Cultural Issues Political, social, and cultural factors in the world have significant influence on the economic and security status of a society. In the society, there are two types of poverty viz.the absolute poverty, and the relative […]
• Culturally Sensitive Care For Jehovah’s Witnesses They hold the belief that life is the representation of life and taking another human’s blood is equivalent to taking part in his life.
• Culture and Identity as Depicted in Kay’s “Trumpet” It is for this reason that Joss decided to live a double life; as a man to the judgemental world and as a woman to Millie.
• Culture of the Dominican Republic In the end, we attempt to relate the relationship between each aspect and the developments in politics, economics and social lives of the Dominicans.
• Multicultural Education: Action Plan for Professional Development of the School’s Staff Multicultural education has to be emphasized in the discussion to make it the core of a future action plan for the next academic year. It is a chance for teachers to recognize their roles in […]
• Culture, Subculture, and Their Differences
• Football Impact on England’s Culture
• Hall Stuart: Questions of Cultural Identity
• Culture Identity: Asian Culture
• Culture and Health Correlation
• IKEA Company’s Organizational Culture
• eBay in Japan, Its Strategic and Cultural Missteps
• Identity, Language, and Culture
• Principles of Effective Cross-Cultural Communication Essay
• Geography, Peoples and Culture Areas of Oceania
• Intercultural Relationships Importance
• Cultural Aspects in Different Societies
• Taiwan and the U.S. Cultural Elements
• African Cultural Traditions and Communication
• Cultural Intelligence by Christopher and Elaine Mosakowski
• Cultural Convergence: The Interactions Between Different Cultures
• What Role Does Food Play in Cultural Identity?
• IKEA’s and Home Depot’s Cross-Cultural Management
• Anthropological Approach to Culture
• Culture Influence on Intimacy and Human Relationships
• American Culture Pros & Cons
• The Renaissance and Its Cultural, Political and Economic Influence
• The Impact of Fashion Marketing on Culture
• Tesco and Global Supermarket Chain in Hungary: Cultural Issues
• Vanilla: History, Culture and Production
• Authenticity in Cultural Tourism Sites: A Critical Discussion
• Cultural Factors and Their Influence on Individuals
• The “Friends” TV Show as a Cultural Artifact
• Hofstede and Trompenaars Theories of Culture Diversity
• Intercultural Relations: Physical, Economic, and Linguistic
• Adorno and Horkheimer ‘The Culture Industry’ Review
• Western Culture Impacts on the UAE Local Lifestyle
• Heritage Tourism vs. Cultural Tourism Definition
• Organizational Culture of Google Incorporation
• Greek Culture and Traditions
• Hamlet’s Renaissance Culture Conflict
• Society, Culture, and Civilization
• History: Cultural Exchanges in the Medieval Period
• Five Cultural Dimensions for Understanding the Values
• Differences in Culture between America and Sudan
• Korean Culture: History and Principles
• History of Multicultural America by Ronald Takaki
• Music and Its Effects on Culture
• Language and Culture Interaction in English Language Teaching
• African and Western Culture in the “Touki Bouki” Film
• Exploring the Human Culture
• Nacirema Culture
• Cultural Identity in “White Teeth” by Zadie Smith
• Handy and Schein Models in Organizational Culture
• Race Matters, Cancel Culture, and “Boys Go to Jupiter”
• The Marriage Traditions of Wolof Culture
• Organizational Culture & Leadership: Whirlpool Corporation
• Servant Leadership in Indian Culture and Hindu Religion
• Cultural Differences in International Business
• Racial and Cultural Identity Development Model
• The Jarawa People and Their Culture
• Mass Society and Popular Culture Theories
• Disneyland’s Cultural Dimension: USA v. France
• Intercultural Awareness and Multicultural Society in a Global Village
• Youth Culture and Globalization
• Disney and Its Impact on Popular Culture and Society
• Culture, Language and Influences on Development
• Starbucks in China and Cross-Cultural Values
• Cultural Diversity and Cultural Universals Relations: Anthropological Perspective
• Cultural Family Assessment in “Under the Same Moon” Film
• Cultural Bias in Counseling Practices
• Cultural Belief System: Experiences and Traditions
• How Cultural Beliefs, Values, Norms and Practices Influence Communication
• The Influence of the Cultural Current “Modernism” on the Conception of Music in the 20th Century
• Cultural Role of Crepes in France
• Appropriations, Prejudices and Cultural Cruise Control: Overview
• Islamic Culture and Civilization
• Cultural Identity: Problems, Coping, and Outcomes
• Cultural Diversity Management in the Workplace
• Globalization: Not a Threat to Cultural Diversity
• Deaf in America: Voices From a Culture by Carol A. Padden, Tom L. Humphries
• The Spread of European Culture
• Consumerism Culture: Challenges and Solutions
• The Impact of Cultural and Religious Tourism on Communities
• Food, Eating Behavior, and Culture in Chinese Society
• Cultural Products in Strategic Plan Development
• Technology as a Form of Material Culture
• Ways in Which an Organization’s Culture is Transmitted to its Members
• Angels and Insects: The Issue of Incest in the Pop-Culture
• Cultural, Legal, Economic, and Political Aspects of Doing Business in China
• How Does Culture Affect the Self Identity Personal Essay
• Theory of Culture Care Diversity and Universality
• Cultural Prostitution: Okinawa, Japan, and Hawaii
• The History of the Hippie Cultural Movement
• Columbia Under Hofstede’s Cultural Analysis
• People and Culture in Morocco
• Culture Clash as a Great Conflict
• Challenges of Effective Intercultural Communication
• Implications of Korean Culture on Health
• Paisà (1946) by Roberto Rossellini: Style, Theme, and Cultural Value
• An Academic Critique of Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory
• Intercultural Communication Patterns in the U.S. and UK
• Ways to Improve Intercultural Communication
• Cross-Cultural Management and HRM in Walmart
• Qantas Airways: Cross Culture and Safety Management
• Matthew Arnold’s and Raymond Williams’ Ideas About Culture
• The Influence of American Popular Culture on the Heroes of “The Bluest Eye”
• Discussion: Cultural Roots and Routes
• Sushi: History, Origin and the Cultural Landscape
• Jewish Family Cultural Perspective
• American Culture and Indian Culture Comparison
• Cultural Traditions and Practices in the Novel the Namesake by Jhumpa Lahiri
• HR Managers and Cultural Differences
• Cultural Significance of Flynn Rider in “Tangled” by Greno
• Cultural Change: Mechanisms and Examples
• Multicultural Diversity Conceptual Study
• Multicultural Literature. Juliet Kono’s “Sashimi” Poem
• Chicano Culture in “First Communion” by T. Rivera
• The Japanese and the US Cultural Dimensions
• Cabramatta’s Culture and Art
• Cultural Sensitivity and Language Use
• A Discussion of Key Challenges Faced by MNCs in Developing a Cohesive & Inclusive Culture
• Cross-Cultural Marketing and Cultural Differences in Markets
• The White House as a Cultural Symbol in US
• Haiti History and Culture
• Coping With Cultural Shock and Adaptation to a New Culture
• The Cross-cultural Construct of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
• The Parthenon and the Pantheon in Their Cultural Context
• Cross-Cultural Sleeping Arrangements in Children
• Harry Potter Stories and Impact on Pop Culture
• The Culture of the Nacirema Society
• Dubai’s Food, Dress Code and Culture
• Dance Analysis: Social and Cultural Context
• Local Museums and Their Cultural Heritage
• Tribal Tattoos: Cultural Appropriation and Appreciation
• Non-Material and Material Culture
• The Bushmen: Culture and Traditions
• Muriel’s Wedding as a Representation of Australian Culture
• The Depiction of Cultural Conformity and Moral Values in Shirley Jackson’s “The Lottery”
• Cross-Cultural Differences Between the US and Pakistan
• Bahrain Fashion: Culture and Antiquities
• Porsche Brand’s Cultural Biography
• Irish Culture and Stereotypes in The Quiet Man
• Cultural Revolution in China in “Hibiscus Town”
• Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective by Brettell & Sargent
• Marriott Hotel’s Promotion of Intercultural Synergy
• Human Emotions Psychology: Rooting in Biology or Culture
• Cultural Linguistic Autobiography: An Experience of a Second Language
• Billboard as an Element of the Popular Culture
• Business Culture and Muslim Financial Institutions
• Pokémon Go as a Pop Culture Phenomenon
• The Effect of Global Technology on Intercultural Communication
• IBM Company’s Multicultural Project Team Management
• Food Preferences and Nutrition Culture
• Enron Company’s Organisational Culture Problem
• The Role of Chinese Hats in Chinese Culture
• Impacts of Culture on Formulation of International Marketing Strategies
• Compare and Contrast the Political Culture of Australia and Saudi Arabia
• Starbucks Corporation Organizational Culture
• Cross-Cultural Management in Multinational Corporations
• Caribbean Rum: History and Culture
• Roman & Greek Mythology in Pop Culture: Examples, Referenses, & Allusions
• Complexity of Managing Multinational Corporations: MNC Culture
• Subculture Theories: Response to the Dominant Culture
• Cultural Traditions: Arranged vs. Autonomous Marriage
• Socio-Cultural Approach of Humanity Examination
• Building High Performance Culture: Zappos
• Nike, Inc.: The Corporate Culture
• Nissan Motors Company: Cultural Change
• The UK Cultural, Business and Political Environment
• The Egyptians and the Hindu Cultural Rites Comparison
• Hospitality Industry: Coping with Culture Shock
• How Chinese Culture Influences Foreign Businesses
• Weird Chinese Foods: Cultural Practices and Eating Culture
• Beauty and Culture
• Indian Culture and Its Distinctive Qualities
• Challenges of Adapting to Another Culture
• Christianity Social and Historical Impact on Western Culture
• History of Pop Music in the World: Cultural and Social Changes
• Cultural Misunderstandings in Communication
• “Family Supper” by Ishiguro: Eastern and Western Family Attitudes Cultural Differences
• Adorno’s Concept of Culture Industry
• Cultural Diversity in Correctional Facilities
• Caribbean Culture in Senior’s and Stewart’s Short Stories
• Gender and Cultural Studies: Intimacy, Love and Friendship
• Indigenous Australian Culture, History, Importance
• Competent Care: Filipino Cultural Assessment Model
• How the Internet Has Changed World Culture?
• The Effects of Modern Popular Culture on Personal Beliefs and Values
• The Role of Culture in International Marketing
• Culture and Leadership in a Safe Industrial Environment
• Punjabi: the Culture
• The Impact of Nineteenth Century Photography on Visual Representation and the Development of Visual Culture
• Cross Cultural Impacts on the Non-Verbal Communication
• Acadian Culture in Cape Breton in Nova Scotia
• The Effects of Diverse Culture of IKEA in UAE to Impact of Cultural Diversity on IKEA
• What Is the Relationship Between the Social Definition of Deviance and the Media’s Role in the Dissemination of Popular Culture?
• Cultural Revolution and Education in China During the 1960s-1970s
• The Role and Influence of Women in Western Culture
• Socialization in a Multicultural Framework
• Culturally Informed Psychological Assessment
• Cultural Heritage of Oyo Empire in Africa
• Cultural Diversity and Cultural Integration in Western Societies
• How Hutterites of Montana Maintain Their Culture and Effect It Has on State
• Google Inc. Employees’ Intercultural Competencies
• Linguistic Repertoire: Language Identity and Culture
• W.L. Gore Company’s Culture of Innovation
• Diverse Culture in the “Ongka’s Big Moka” Film
• The Culture of Smartness in Education
• General Motors Company: Organizational Culture and Strengths
• Global Business Cultural Analysis: Japan
• The Myth of the Culture of Poverty
• Efficient Intercultural Interaction and Communication
• Culture and Society Through the Babylonian Sufferer
• Gender Inequality: On the Influence of Culture and Religion
• Culture, Globalization and Intercultural Adaptation
• Korean Popular Culture: Attractiveness and Popularity
• Umm Al-Nar: Geoarchaeology and Cultural Heritage
• Impact of Power on Organizational Culture
• The Role of Culture in Gospel Communication
• A Lesson Plan For the Multicultural Learning of Science
• The Impact of the Culture on the Project Management
• Google’s Corporate Culture and its Success
• Social and Cultural Diversity Statement
• Female Chauvinist Pigs: Raunch Culture and Feminism
• Cultural Diversity in Women and Sport Participation
• Cross-Cultural Communication Between the French and German Communities in Switzerland
• Arab Culture and Teenagers
• Cross-Culture Conflicts in the Corning-Vitro Venture
• Juno and Political, Social, and Cultural Ideology
• Singapore Geography and Culture
• Adolescents and Popular Culture: A Critical Analysis on Blogging Culture
• Social, Cultural and Gender Inequality From a Global Perspective
• African Art and Cultural Heritage
• The Māori Culture of New Zealand
• Sports Cards, Their History and Culture
• Culture of Simping and Why One Should Stay Away From It
• Cultural Approaches to Healthcare Delivery in the US
• Xerox: Organizational Culture and Change
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What is America’s Food Culture?

The question, “What is America’s food culture,” produces many responses and almost always uncertainty. As Pollan mentions, America is a melting pot of many different cultures, each one bringing their own culinary traditions. New York City, where I grew up, is the epitome of this culinary melting pot. You can find almost any food from any culture if you look hard enough, from Polish bakeries, to Chinese restaurants, to burrito food trucks. You can even find fusions of these culinary traditions in restaurants, for example, a Spanish inspired sushi restaurant featuring yellowtail tacos. New York City has also latched on to the local movement. Farmers’ markets are popping up in many (upper-middle class) neighborhoods. Farm-to-Table restaurants are all the rage, showcasing produce, meat, and dairy from nearby farms. New York City is not unique in this regard—many other cities across America both have a huge variety of cultural cuisines and also promote local food. I want to think that this is the American food culture: diverse and local.

For many Americans, however, both inside and outside these cities, this food culture is out of reach. Schlosser writes that a meal of a hamburger and French fries from a fast food chain is the “quintessential American meal.” He also says that fast food, along with pop music and jeans, is one of America’s biggest “cultural exports.” This is unfortunate and true. Other countries bring their food traditions to America and they are celebrated, studied and eagerly adopted. Americans bring our food to other countries and it is seen as less sophisticated and less delicious. McDonald’s is now all over the world. This is of course an impressive feat for a company, but the food it sells is not should not make American’s proud.

I remember seeing a McDonald’s in Madrid and having two reactions. At first I felt warmth seeing the golden arches. McDonalds reminded me of home in a place where everything seemed unfamiliar. But then I thought to myself, “why would any Spaniard choose to eat this food when they have so many better options that are equally well priced?” McDonalds had upped its game a little bit in Europe—there was a focaccia burger on the menu (which I ordered)—but it didn’t compare to the ham sandwiches, potato and egg tortillas, and paella sold by the countless small restaurants on nearly every block of the city.

It will be very hard to alter the fast food culture of America. Just as I felt that slight sense of comfort seeing McDonalds abroad, many Americans love fast food because of its familiarity and consistency. I don’t know if there is a way to change the American love of fast food. I hope, however, that the local, seasonal, and sustainable food movement takes an even greater hold across the country and that this type of food becomes accessible to more people. Of course, other countries have been eating this way for a long time. (Last week we read the about Italian Petrini’s Slow Food movement.) Other countries take pride in what is regionally produced. I hope that Americans can claim this type of eating—celebrating what American land can produce rather than what can be created in a factory—as our new food culture.

19 thoughts on “ What is America’s Food Culture? ”

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Or more specifically why I think America is fatter than the rest of the world. For the past 7 months I have been living in one of the most food-obsessed countries in the entire world. The default conversation topic is food, and it is a default conversation that I love to participate in as well, being, well, food-obsessed myself. Paradoxically, this foo- obsessed country is also one of the healthiest, renowned for its Mediterranean diet. America, by contrast, is significantly less food-obsessed and significantly less healthy and also, fatter than services from http://best-essay-services.com/ . At first this situation certainly resembles a “paradox,” but it quickly begins to unravel with some simple analysis. Italians, and much of the rest of the world, think about their meals with much care and analysis before the meal ever takes place. For important occasions, such as Christmas Eve, menu discussions are frequent, and frequently revisited. Everyone has an opinion, and everyone thinks that their opinion is the most important. These conversations are undertaken with great depth, gravity, and severity. Italians may joke about less important things, like politics and the economy (both in questionable places), but rarely will you find the Italian to joke about food — it’s simply not a laughing matter.

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When anyone says”America” and “food” the first thing coming in mind is of course fast food. But really, with a bunch of other traditions like Mexican/Chinse/Thai food or something more like tradional Halloween/Thanksgiving food, the one thing you can say about Americans and food is – fast food 🙂 I don’t think there are many countries in which MacDonalds, burgers and pizza are such a food cult. But I don’t mind , I love fast food myself, I work in this paper writer service so I often can be too busy to have a peoper meal so fast food helps me out in such situations 🙂

Nina, I love your exploration of American food culture, and I think there’s a lot to unpack there. I encourage you to read Dan Barber’s book, the Third Plate, where he focuses on exactly that issue- of how to build a new American food culture that is sustainable, seasonal, and supportive of labor and the earth.

I also had the experience of going to a McDonald’s while I was in France. I ordered “Le Mac”. There is something wonderfully odd about eating at foreign McDonalds. In Japan, they have miniature pancakes that come with frosting packets, that really are divine.

Oh man I want to try those mini-pancakes. Incredible what McDonalds can do…

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The Latin American Tradition. Essays on the Unity and the Diversity of Latin American Culture

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Thomas R. Ford; The Latin American Tradition. Essays on the Unity and the Diversity of Latin American Culture. Hispanic American Historical Review 1 February 1969; 49 (1): 101–102. doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/00182168-49.1.101

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The common concern of these essays is with the aspects of Latin American society and culture that transcend political boundaries. Charles Wagley, who is Director of the Institute of Latin American Studies and Franz Boas Professor of Anthropology at Columbia University, conceives of Latin America “as a broad cultural sphere set off in many ways from the Anglo-American culture sphere with which it shares the new world” (p. vi). The seven essays which comprise the book deal with both the defining and the divergent aspects of this cultural sphere.

The pièce de resistance of the collection, at least for general readers, is “An Introduction to Latin American Culture,” which appears as Chapter II. Originally prepared in 1953 as a training document for the Foreign Service Institute of the Department of State, it became a classic of sorts even before it was published in printed form. Wagley covers so much territory (both geographic and topical) in so few pages with so little distortion or superficiality that his lucid essay can elicit only admiration from those familiar with the enormous difficulties of his task.

His introductory chapter, “A Framework for Latin American Culture,” is a more formal attempt to organize the topics which he had treated discursively in the earlier paper. As the common denominator of Latin American culture he poses a set of “ideal patterns” which are essentially broadly shared conceptions of how social institutions should be organized and function as well as how people should behave in given situations. Although these ideal patterns are to be found throughout Latin American culture, there are obvious variations. These variations are partly regional, but they are also reflections of subcultures to be found within even relatively small communities.

In his third chapter Wagley offers a tentative taxonomy of Latin American subcultures, identifying nine major categories and briefly describing each one. The fourth chapter elaborates one of the nine types, “The Peasant.”

In the fifth chapter, which reproduces his familiar essay, “The Concept of Social Race,” the limitations of his typology become apparent. For while Wagley correctly points out that races in Latin America are essentially sociocultural units, his racial categories do not fit neatly into the subcultural categories which he has previously defined. This, however, does not detract from the basic excellence of his discussion of social race and its implications for understanding the complex interpersonal relations of Latin American society.

A sixth chapter, on kinship relations in Brazil, is less useful to the general reader and probably not very informative for the specialist either. In the final essay, entitled “The Dilemma of the Middle Class,” Wagley returns to a more general theme. Actually he presents not one but a series of economic, social, and political dilemmas. In essence these involve the implementation of middle-class democratic ideals to improve the lot of the lower classes at the risk of losing newly-won social recognition. Wagley believes that, forced to a choice, most of the middle class will opt for status preservation. If accurate—as cited evidence suggests that it is—his view supports his basic thesis about the tenacity of traditional ways in the face of fundamental social and economic change.

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What Are American Traditions?

Aug 11, 2010

E veryone seems to be enthusiastic about tradition nowadays—especially the people who denounce most things established in morals and politics. Professor Henry Steele Commager thinks that the great American tradition is a tradition of doubting everything; Mr. E. V. Walter, writing in Partisan Review, endeavors to establish a radical tradition of knocking institutions down; even Communists avow their enthusiasm for “the American tradition of civil rights,” particularly the Fifth Amendment. One of the more amusing instances of this new affection was an article by Mr. Robert Gorham Davis, a Marxist, in The American Scholar , five years ago, in which he denounced with a virulence which would have done credit to Marx himself a great many people who had deviated from the “democratic tradition” of America—the Southern Agrarians, the New Critics, and everyone else who failed to admit that the American Tradition is a levelling collectivism. “Every circumstance in this country has tended to the strengthening of this tradition,” he wrote, “and no social basis exists for a rival tradition of serious cultural significance.”

Now I happen to think that America has room aplenty for a variety of traditions; diversity and freedom of choice, indeed, are themselves American traditions. And I do not think that there is a Marxist “tradition” embedded in American ways and hearts. Therefore I believe it to be worth the trouble to write something about what the word “tradition” really means, especially here in America.

“Nobody can make a tradition,” Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote; “it takes a century to make it.” There are American traditions, because there have been three centuries of American history; yet this is a brief period of time, when one remembers that some of the traditions of Europe and Asia and Africa have their roots in a past ten thousand years distant. The American experience, moreover, commenced just at the time when the force of tradition in Europe was beginning to give ground before private judgment, widespread literacy, philosophical rationalism, and modern exact science. Yet despite its late growth, tradition in America has far greater influence than many Americans admit, exercising still a power over American minds which a pragmatic educational system and a thoroughgoing mechanization of life have been unable to efface.

The word “tradition” has several usages, of which the two most important, in our time, are these: (1) a belief or body of beliefs handed down from age to age by oral communication; (2) a custom handed down from one age to another, acquiring by prescription almost the force of law. Until the end of the eighteenth century, the word ordinarily was used to describe Christian doctrines not explicit in the scriptures, but accepted as valid because they had been communicated from the earliest ages of the Church, and presumably originated in divine revelation.

No decent definition of the word “tradition” will permit of its employment as a synonym of “ideology.” Democracy is not a tradition, nor is monarchy, nor is Marxism, nor is Benthamism. It is possible for traditions to exist under a democratic domination, or under a monarchical regime; and probably traditions will persist, although much discouraged by one means or another, under a Marxist state or a Bentharnite domination of dry utilitarianism. Traditions are not abstractions; they are particular beliefs and customs closely related to private life and faith. The American Republic has its traditions, and so has the Cambodian Kingdom; but traditions are not created by political authority, and ought not to be debased into party slogans.

Only for the past century and a half has the word “tradition” been employed to signify “ancient customs” or “established habits of life in society.” Edmund Burke, for instance, writing in the last years of the eighteenth century, used the word “prescription” to convey these meanings, rather than the word “tradition.”

When we speak of tradition in America, then, generally we mean prescriptive social habits, prejudices, customs, and political usages which most people accept with little question, as an intellectual legacy from their ancestors. They take these customs and opinions to be good because they have long been accepted as good, and they inquire very little into the origins or sanctions for these traditions. These traditions are very numerous, and some arein conflict with others; yet, provisionally, we may take for examples of American traditions such received opinions as the following: belief in a spiritual order which in some fashion governs our mundane order; belief in political self government; belief in the importance to human persons of certain natural private rights; belief in the value of marriage and the family.

Now of the examples given here, none are entirely peculiar to America; and it must be borne in mind that America originated very few of her own traditions—except for such remnants of Indian tradition as survive in odd corners—but instead received nearly all her traditions from the Old World, modifying them somewhat to suit the American experience. Tradition does not recognize militant nationalism, and it would be presumptuous to write as if Americans had manufactured an entirely new set of received opinions to supersede the judgment of the ages. The religious and moral traditions of America are derived almost wholly from venerable Judeo-Christian sources; as a vigorous dissenting scholar of our time, Professor T. V. Smith, writes, “Our religious system is Judeo-Christian, and we must put ourselves inside that Weltanschauung, not outside it, if we are to further our common spiritual ends.” In this body of Judeo-Christian ethical and spiritual tradition, Protestant Christianity has long had the preponderant influence in America; but Catholicism also has made itself felt strongly since the eighteenth century, and now is almost coordinate in power with Protestant tradition; while Judaism has very greatly increased its influence in America during the past sixty or seventy years. The whole body of assumptions that underlie American private life and social policy, indeed, is profoundly Christian; and these assumptions exercise their power through the force of tradition, rather than the authority of positive law, America having no establishment of religion. The fact that the Christian tradition in America often is flouted does not mean that it has ceased to exist: as T. R. Glover wrote more than forty years ago, in his The Christian Tradition and Its Verification , “Whether there be truth in the Christian religion or not, our first fact is a world-wide society, with a history of nineteen centuries. It touches every part of life, conditions and suggests our thoughts, shapes us, and makes a background for us—and all this in ways that are beyond our reckoning or our understanding—so that we can hardly think of ourselves apart from the fact of the Christian Church and its influence.” The fundament of tradition in America, then, is simply world-wide Christian tradition. America has no new religion and no new morality. And that this tradition is actually increasing in power, the addition to the American oath of allegiance of the qualifying phrase “under God,” by act of Congress in 1954, suggests rather strongly.

If American religious and ethical traditions come almost wholly from Christian and Jewish sources (combining, of course, those classical ideas which were incorporated into Christian and Western civilization), American social traditions are derived chiefly from British tradition. The polyglot nature of the twentieth-century population of the United States has not altered this fact: in one degree or another, American citizens of other racial or national origins have come to conform to the old British pattern substantially established in the seventeenth century. Only the Germans and the Irish have maintained in America, over any greatperiod of time, a distinct body of traditions derived from non-English sources; and even with the Germans and the Irish, the established British set of social traditions has prevailed for the most part, the exceptions being of no great significance. Islands of French tradition remain in Louisiana, and of Spanish tradition in New Mexico and Texas; but these are not considerable enough to constitute any coherent opposition to the domination of British social customs and inherited opinions. American attitudes toward representative government, private property, local and private rights, political community, decent manners, family relationships, and even the physical pattern of civilized life, all are derived principally from British custom; and these constitute true traditions, accepted unquestioningly by the mass of Americans as “the American way of life,” even though they were originally imported from Britain in the seventeenth century, and have been strengthened by borrowings from British society ever since. The American frontier and American democracy modified these traditions for a time, but never modified them beyond recognition. These traditions have been woven into the American consciousness still more intricately by an education based, formerly at least, on the study of English literature.

Thus—as a German-born scholar, Professor Carl J. Friedrich, observed recently—“To all intents and purposes, the United States is today a highly traditional society, in the sense that arguments from tradition carry a great deal of conviction.” Dr. Friedrich goes on to remark that American tradition, indeed, is especially accessible to analysis, “since it is embodied in certain written documents available for inspection and detailed consideration”—the Declaration of Independence, the Constitutions of the United States and of the several States, and the principal writings and speeches of Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, and Adams. The appeal to tradition, religious or social, almost always meets with a sympathetic response in America; the hostility toward tradition, often to be found in modem Europe—French or Spanish radical detestation of “traditionalism” may suffice for examples—is an unusual phenomenon in America. Radical Americans in politics, even the Communists, ordinarily have endeavored to prove that their particular program was really in harmony with the deeper American traditions. To say that America is a land without traditions, then, is to fly in the face of popular opinion and of historical evidence. America has not created many traditions; but she has borrowed and inherited great traditions, chiefly the Christian tradition in religion and the English tradition in politics, and enlarged upon these.

Yet, this said, the student of American thought and society needs to acknowledge that there is no single body of traditions in America, and that all traditions labor under certain handicaps in the United States. The diversity of religious tradition already has been suggested; the cultural and social tradition, too, has its several branches, the principal ones being the Southern and the New England bodies of tradition. A South Carolinian and a man from Maine ordinarily have more in common with each other than either of them would have, in terms of social tradition, with a Rumanian; still, considerable differences of habit and taste separate them even today, and these traditional differences, profoundly important when human welfare is in question, too often are ignored by the statistical sociologist. Moreover, the average South Carolinian and the average man from Maine both tend to lack in some degree the almost congenital attachment of many Europeans to things established, as M. Gabriel Marcel suggests in his essay “The Concept of Spiritual Heritage” ( Confluence , September, 1953): “For an ever increasing number of persons, our heritage is no longer accepted as such…. I thought of an American officer in a little town in Burgundy that had been almost destroyed by the war who said to a young friend of mine, ‘You should be grateful to us for having destroyed all these antiquities. Now you will be able to build a new and more orderly town.’”

The bustle of American life, the migratory habits of many Americans, the frequent exchange or rebuilding of houses, the rarity of old landed families, the great influence of press and radio, and—until recent decades—the continual influx of masses of immigrants, in short, have operated to decrease the influence of tradition in American life. But at the same time, American respect for the Founding Fathers, for republican institutions, and for prescriptive religion, morality, and family relationships, have checked this assault upon tradition, so that, curiously enough, in a nation with only three centuries of history behind it, the mass of the people are probably as sympathetic to tradition as is the bulk of the population anywhere else in the world. In an age when tradition has been terribly hacked and battered in China, India, Africa, Eastern Europe, and much of Western Europe, Americans generally have reaffirmed their faith in the wisdom of their ancestors and in their prescriptive ways of living.

Professor David Riesman, in his Lonely Crowd , suggests that the “tradition-directed individual” is a dying breed in America, to be replaced by “other-directed individuals” who will make the mass-appetites and fads of the hour, rather than prescription, the basis of their conduct. Certainly an ominous tendency in such a direction may be discerned in many quarters in the United States. Mr. Riesman’s principal example of a tradition-guided individual, however, is a Harlem scrubwoman, come to America from the West Indies, and living a life intellectually isolated from the people who surround her. This peculiar example suggests that Mr. Riesman tends to leave out of account the much more pervasive traditions of Christianity and British political and social usage, which, together with American veneration of their constitutional and juristic structure, form a body of traditions much more important and elevated than a scrubwoman’s prejudices and superstitions. It is quite possible to be at once a tradition-directed individual in America and at the same time a person of high intellectual attainment. Speaking for such thinking traditionalists, Mr. Richard Weaver, in his Ideas Have Consequences, makes “a plea for piety”: “The plea for piety asks only that we admit the right to self-ordering of the substance of other beings…. The most vocal part of modern impiety is the freely expressed contempt for the past. The habit is to look upon history in the same way that we look upon nature, as an unfortunate inheritance, and we struggle with equal determination to free ourselves from each.” Professor Weaver sees in Christian and classical and Western tradition, and in American prescription—especially the, traditions of American rural life—an incalculably powerful bulwark against the sterile collectivism of a mass-society without piety.

Sometimes, however, the claims made for “American tradition” are extravagant. “Democracy” is spoken of as an “American tradition,” and so is “individualism.” Although of course a measure of democracy and a strong element of aggressive individuality were present in American society from its beginnings, neither of these general terms can properly be said to have been so generally and unquestioningly accepted by the mass of men as to have constituted a valid tradition. Tradition is something more than mere political ideology. Properly speaking, the traditional attachment in America has been to prescriptive local and representative government, rather than to “Democracy” as an abstraction; while as for “Individualism,” the term was rarely employed in American social discussion until the 1920’s. Tradition, indeed, by its very nature is opposed to moral and social isolation —that is, to doctrinaireindividualism in the sense of Bentham or Godwin or Spencer. Tradition, by definition, is the common possession of a people, what Gabriel Marcel calls “diffuse gratitude,” closely joined to piety, and linking together the generations that are dead with the generation that is now living and with the generations that are yet to be born. Therefore there can be no tradition of “individualism,” if by individualism is meant the doctrine that man can be guided simply by his private interests and private stock of reason. T. R. Glover puts this succinctly:

Robinson Crusoe on his island is hardly a type of the human soul. We are too individualistic—too apt to forget that Robinson Crusoe had an axe and a number of other fascinating things brought from England, all of which implied humanity, and the long history of civilization. He had also a Bible in English, we may remember, which again implied a long history of religion. The individual inherits all this—he is made by it; it is in him; and sound thinking requires the recognition of this fact also, as well as all other relevant facts, in the fulness of its meaning. Without the religious history of the race behind us, not one of us is likely to achieve anything, either in his own religious life or in his thinking. If he starts afresh, he is most like an artist who begins without perspective, and ignores all that has been learned and felt of color.

Here is expressed the essential value of tradition; and the American, like Robinson Crusoe, is not a law unto himself, but participates in that vast body of tradition which goes back to Job and to Plato, and far beyond Job and Plato.

The Georgia Review, Vol. 9, No. 3 (Fall 1955), pp. 283–89.

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More than Regime Change, We Need a New Cosmological Vision

Revolution and Counter Revolution

Nine practices from Native American culture that could help the environment

Since the first Earth Day in 1970, the world has experienced profound ecological changes. Wildlife populations have decreased by 69 percent , the result of habitat loss caused by rapid industrialization and changing temperatures. 2023 was the hottest year on record.

Certain ancient practices could mitigate the deleterious effects of global warming. From building seaside gardens to water management in desert terrain, these time-honored practices work with the natural world’s rhythms. Some might even hold the key to a more resilient future and a means of building security for both Indigenous communities and other groups disproportionately impacted by climate change.

Zuni waffle gardens

Jim Enote, 66, has been planting a traditional Zuni waffle garden (or hek’ko:we in the Zuni language) since before he could walk.

“My grandma said I started planting when I was an infant tied to a cradleboard,” said Enote, who grew up on the water-scarce Zuni Pueblo on the southeastern edge of the Colorado plateau. “She put seeds in my baby hands, and I dropped seeds into a hole.”

Enote has continued this ancient garden design, creating rows of sunken squares surrounded by adobe walls that catch and hold water like pools of syrup in a massive earthen waffle. The sustainable design protects crops from wind, reduces erosion and conserves water.

“Water is scarce here and becoming more so every year,” said Enote, referring to the increasing drought and heat caused by climate change. “So, I continue planting waffle gardens.”

‘Good fire’

Before European settlers traveled to the American West, Indigenous people managed the landscape of northern California with “cultural burns” to improve soil quality, spur the growth of particular plants, and create a “healthy and resilient landscape,” according to the National Park Service.

“The Karuk have developed a relationship with fire over the millennia to maintain and steward a balanced ecosystem,” said Bill Tripp, director of natural resources and environmental policy for the Karuk Tribe. “A good portion of the resources that we depend on, in the natural environment, are dependent on fire.”

But in the mid-19th century, Indigenous burning was outlawed. Not only did that cause the Karuk to lose a vital part of their culture, but also, it invited potentially worse wildfires. The burns had reduced the amount of fuel accidental fires feed on.

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“They [forestry agencies] suppressed fire for so long we’re experiencing these massive burns,” said Tripp. A 2023 study published by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that 10 of the largest wildfires in California’s history occurred in the last 20 years.

“And, of course, they’re [fires] being exacerbated by climate change,” he said.

Prescribed burning has returned as state and federal agencies recognize the importance of fire in managing forests. In 2022, California passed legislation affirming the right to cultural fire and is considering another bill (backed by the Karuk Tribe) to reduce the barriers to cultural burns on tribal lands.

According to the Karuk Tribe, “Passage of this bill would be an act of cultural and environmental justice.”

Ancient irrigation

In New Mexico, there are 700 functioning acequias, centuries-old community irrigation systems that have helped the parched state build water resilience.

These acequias — a design from North African, Spanish and Indigenous traditions — were established during the 1600s. The name can refer to both the gravity-fed ditches filled with water and the farmers who collectively manage water. Unlike large-scale irrigation systems, water seepage from unlined acequias helps replenish the water table and reduce aridification by adding water to the landscape. The earthen ditches mimic seasonal streams and expand riparian habitats for numerous native species.

“For one, it’s a very good and sustainable system to take water from one source and put it into the community,” said Jorge Garcia, executive director of the Center for Social Sustainable Systems and secretary of the South Valley Regional Association of Acequias. “Without acequias, none of those ecosystems would exist in the way we know them today.”

“We need to maintain those knowledge systems, especially if we continue through dry years,” said Garcia. “We're going to need all of that to survive.”

The original carbon capture technology

U.S. forests are carbon sinks, sequestering up to 10 percent of nationwide CO2 emissions. Indigenous forestry can play a critical role in reducing global warming by restoring biodiversity and health to these ecosystems, including the management of culturally significant plants, animals and fungi that contribute to healthier soil.

“We know that most of the carbon in the forest is stored in the soil, and healthy soil depends on diversity,” said Stephanie Gutierrez, a member of the San Carlos Apache Tribe and the forests and community program director for Ecotrust. “So, when forests are managed for a diversity of species or purpose and management outcomes, this will lead to better climate outcomes as well.”

Yet tribal forestry remains severely underfunded and underutilized on public lands. Indigenous Hawaiians are reintroducing ancient food forests once destroyed by overgrazing, logging and commercial agriculture. These biodiverse edible forests increase food security and build nutrient-dense soils that sequester carbon .

“Just think about that potential if we implemented tribal forestry practices on [not just] tribally owned lands. Adjacent landowners, community forests, national and state forests and parks should also work with tribes to incorporate their techniques,” Gutierrez said.

Dryland farming

The Hopi nation in Arizona receives an average of 10 inches of rain per year — a third of what crop scientists say is necessary to grow corn successfully. Yet Hopi farmers have been cultivating corn and other traditional crops without irrigation for millennia, relying on traditional ecological knowledge rooted in life in the high desert.

“I like to call traditional ecological knowledge the things my grandfather taught me,” said Michael Kotutwa Johnson, a Hopi dryland farmer and academic. Hopi farming practices include passive rainwater harvesting, myriad techniques to retain soil moisture, and a reliance on traditional seed varieties superbly adapted to the desert.

“The fact we are able to raise crops such as maize with only 6 to 10 inches of precipitation as opposed to the standard 33 inches of precipitation is outstanding,” Johnson said.

As climate change drives increased drought and heat in the region, Johnson looks to the knowledge and practices that have survived thousands of years of climate extremes. “Our agriculture is integrated into our cultural belief system that has sustained us for millennia,” he said.

Restoring salmon runs

In recent decades, an Indigenous-led plan has begun to restore salmon runs on the Klamath River.

The salmon began to disappear in 1918 when the first of five dams blocked the path of the Chinook salmon as they made their way upstream to spawn.

“The river was cut in half,” said the Yurok Fisheries Department Director Barry McCovey Jr. of the devastating impact the dam had on the salmon runs that Indigenous people depended on. Chinook salmon populations on the Klamath River have since declined by an estimated 90 percent due to habitat loss, poor water quality and climate change.

“We’re seeing the system slowly heat up,” said McCovey, explaining that elevated water temperatures can lead to increased disease and toxic algae blooms. “You layer climate change on top [of habitat loss], and it’s not good news for salmon or anything that relies on a healthy river.”

After removing the dams and implementing a massive river restoration, the salmon are returning. “The river, in its natural state, had that climate change resiliency built into it,” McCovey said.

Resilient seeds

Seventy-five percent of global crop diversity has been lost in the past century, further threatening food security as agriculture becomes increasingly vulnerable to climate change.

“Our oral histories and the historical record show extreme droughts,” said Aaron Lowden, a seed keeper and traditional farmer from the Acoma Pueblo, a village west of Albuquerque. “This isn’t the first time they’ve [seeds] been stressed out.”

As former program director for Ancestral Lands and now Indigenous Seedkeepers Network program coordinator at the Native American Food Sovereignty Alliance , Lowden has successfully returned dozens of varieties of traditional arid-adapted seeds such as Acoma blue corn, Acoma pumpkin, Acoma melon and other crops to his pueblo.

For Lowden, building this biodiversity is both a response to climate change and a step in restoring the health and sovereignty of the Acoma people.

“Our people were systemically removed from these lifestyle ways and practices,” said Lowden, who has seen disproportionately higher rates of hunger , diet-related disease and food insecurity in tribal communities. “For me, it’s been trying to dismantle all of that.”

Swinomish clam gardens

When Swinomish fisherman Joe Williams walked onto the shore of Skagit Bay in Washington to help build the first modern clam garden in the United States, he was overwhelmed with a sense of the past and present colliding. “It was magic, really,” said Williams, who also serves as the community liaison for the Swinomish tribe. “I could feel the presence of my ancestors.”

For thousands of years, the Swinomish built and maintained clam gardens on the coasts of the Pacific Northwest. They constructed rock terraces in low-tide lines to increase shellfish production. The gardens also help the clams weather the impacts of a changing climate by moderating water temperature and expanding habitat threatened by rising seas and ocean acidification.

“That was how [ancestors] provided food for their communities, tending these gardens, living through climate change from then to now,” Williams said.

“We are rediscovering this way of life that sustained our people through past natural climate change events,” he said. “We can utilize the playbook that our ancestors left us in terms of adapting to a fast-changing environment.”

Climate-smart Indigenous design

In the field of architecture, Indigenous knowledge and technologies have long been overlooked. Julia Watson’s book “Lo—TEK: Design by Radical Indigenism,” published in 2019, examines Indigenous land management practices that represent a catalogue of sustainable, adaptable and resilient design, from living bridges able to withstand monsoons in northern India to man-made underground streams, called qanats, in what is now Iran.

“Gatekeeping how we technologically innovate for climate resilience by the West can really limit us,” Watson said. “We’re looking for solutions that can adapt to climate extremes and huge fluctuations. These Indigenous technologies evolved from those conditions, molded by huge fluctuations, extreme fire events, water and food scarcity, and flood events.”

Some of the techniques and solutions work with nature instead of attempting to conquer it.

“[Indigenous technologies] are really intelligent and capture the DNA of the ecosystem and communities,” Watson said. “What’s incredibly sophisticated is a technology shaped by man and nature working together.”

More on climate change

Understanding our climate: Global warming is a real phenomenon , and weather disasters are undeniably linked to it . As temperatures rise, heat waves are more often sweeping the globe — and parts of the world are becoming too hot to survive .

What can be done? The Post is tracking a variety of climate solutions , as well as the Biden administration’s actions on environmental issues . It can feel overwhelming facing the impacts of climate change, but there are ways to cope with climate anxiety .

Inventive solutions: Some people have built off-the-grid homes from trash to stand up to a changing climate. As seas rise, others are exploring how to harness marine energy .

What about your role in climate change? Our climate coach Michael J. Coren is answering questions about environmental choices in our everyday lives. Submit yours here. You can also sign up for our Climate Coach newsletter .

• Pollution fueling a sex imbalance among endangered green sea turtles November 26, 2023 Pollution fueling a sex imbalance among endangered green sea turtles November 26, 2023
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• How humans have altered the Earth enough to start a new chapter of geologic time June 20, 2023 How humans have altered the Earth enough to start a new chapter of geologic time June 20, 2023

Assimilation in African American Culture

This essay about the assimilation of African Americans explores the multifaceted relationship between historical events, societal challenges, and cultural identity. It discusses the impact of slavery, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Harlem Renaissance on African American identity and their struggle for inclusion while maintaining cultural distinctiveness. The text highlights the ongoing challenges faced by African Americans, such as racial injustice and stereotypes, emphasizing the dynamic nature of their cultural and societal integration.

How it works

The journey of assimilation for African Americans is intricately interwoven with the threads of history, society, and culture. From the dark legacy of slavery to the nuanced race relations of today, it represents both a pursuit of integration and a fight to preserve unique cultural identities.

The impact of history is deeply felt in the experiences of enslaved Africans, who were forcibly stripped of their identities through the harsh realities of slavery. Despite these bleak conditions, they cultivated pockets of resistance, maintaining their heritage through clandestine gatherings, oral traditions, and spirituals that envisioned a liberty beyond their physical confines.

After slavery, African Americans encountered a changed yet challenging landscape. The early promise of Reconstruction was quickly darkened by the imposition of Jim Crow laws, which curtailed their newfound hopes. Nevertheless, African American communities flourished, creating robust networks within churches, schools, and organizations that protected cultural enclaves against adversity.

The Harlem Renaissance marked a significant cultural resurgence, with African American art and thought flowering spectacularly. Icons like Langston Hughes and Duke Ellington celebrated and critiqued African American identities, challenging and redefining the distorted narratives imposed by prejudice.

Despite strides in progress, resistance persisted. The Civil Rights Movement marked critical advancements and deep sacrifices as African Americans fought for equality amidst systemic racial injustices. This era spurred a growing consciousness fueled by unyielding activism and an intrinsic demand for rights.

Later, the pulse of African American culture continued to resonate through innovations like hip-hop, born in the urban settings of New York City. Combining poetic prowess with rhythmic expressions, this music genre voiced the aspirations and frustrations of its creators, becoming a cultural movement that challenged conventional ideas of assimilation and reshaped the American cultural landscape.

Although African American influences have increasingly blended into the mainstream, full assimilation is still obstructed by structural inequalities, persistent racism, and enduring stereotypes. The rise of the Black Lives Matter movement emphasizes the ongoing struggle for racial justice, igniting important conversations about identity, privilege, and power.

The narrative of African American assimilation is complex, marked by both progress and setbacks—a tale of resilience and resistance. This enduring spirit of defiance and solidarity continues to influence, bridging societal divides and enriching the American cultural tapestry.

Overall, the assimilation of African Americans is a dynamic and evolving process shaped by historical developments, community resilience, and cultural vitality. From surmounting the brutal legacies of slavery to dealing with the complexities of contemporary society, African Americans have navigated a unique route toward assimilation, characterized by enduring perseverance and a rich cultural heritage that continues to shape future generations.

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Guest Essay

The Most Important Thing I Teach My Students Isn’t on the Syllabus

By Frank Bruni

Mr. Bruni is a contributing Opinion writer and the author of the forthcoming book “The Age of Grievance,” from which this essay is adapted.

I warn my students. At the start of every semester, on the first day of every course, I confess to certain passions and quirks and tell them to be ready: I’m a stickler for correct grammar, spelling and the like, so if they don’t have it in them to care about and patrol for such errors, they probably won’t end up with the grade they’re after. I want to hear everyone’s voice — I tell them that, too — but I don’t want to hear anybody’s voice so often and so loudly that the other voices don’t have a chance.

And I’m going to repeat one phrase more often than any other: “It’s complicated.” They’ll become familiar with that. They may even become bored with it. I’ll sometimes say it when we’re discussing the roots and branches of a social ill, the motivations of public (and private) actors and a whole lot else, and that’s because I’m standing before them not as an ambassador of certainty or a font of unassailable verities but as an emissary of doubt. I want to give them intelligent questions, not final answers. I want to teach them how much they have to learn — and how much they will always have to learn.

I’d been on the faculty of Duke University and delivering that spiel for more than two years before I realized that each component of it was about the same quality: humility. The grammar-and-spelling bit was about surrendering to an established and easily understood way of doing things that eschewed wild individualism in favor of a common mode of communication. It showed respect for tradition, which is a force that binds us, a folding of the self into a greater whole. The voices bit — well, that’s obvious. It’s a reminder that we share the stages of our communities, our countries, our worlds, with many other actors and should conduct ourselves in a manner that recognizes this fact. And “it’s complicated” is a bulwark against arrogance, absolutism, purity, zeal.

I’d also been delivering that spiel for more than two years before I realized that humility is the antidote to grievance.

We live in an era defined and overwhelmed by grievance — by too many Americans’ obsession with how they’ve been wronged and their insistence on wallowing in ire. This anger reflects a pessimism that previous generations didn’t feel. The ascent of identity politics and the influence of social media, it turned out, were better at inflaming us than uniting us. They promote a self-obsession at odds with community, civility, comity and compromise. It’s a problem of humility.

The Jan. 6 insurrectionists were delusional, frenzied, savage. But above all, they were unhumble. They decided that they held the truth, no matter all the evidence to the contrary. They couldn’t accept that their preference for one presidential candidate over another could possibly put them in the minority — or perhaps a few of them just reasoned that if it did, then everybody else was too misguided to matter. They elevated how they viewed the world and what they wanted over tradition, institutional stability, law, order.

It’s no accident that they were acting in the service of Donald Trump, whose pitch to Americans from the very start was a strikingly — even shockingly — unhumble one. “I alone can fix it,” he proclaimed in his 2016 speech accepting the Republican Party’s nomination for president; and at his inauguration in January of the following year, the word “humbled,” which had been present in the first inaugural remarks of both Barack Obama and George W. Bush, was nowhere to be found. Nor were any of its variants. That whole sentiment and politesse were missing, as they had been during a campaign centered on his supposed omniscience.

There are now mini-Trumps aplenty in American politics, but anti-Trumps will be our salvation, and I say that not along partisan or ideological lines. I’m talking about character and how a society holds itself together. It does that with concern for the common good, with respect for the institutions and procedures that protect that and with political leaders who ideally embody those traits or at least promote them.

Those leaders exist. When Charlie Baker, a former Massachusetts governor, was enjoying enormous favor and lofty approval ratings as a Republican in a predominantly Democratic state, he was also stressing the importance of humility. He was fond of quoting Philippians 2:3, which he invoked as a lodestar for his administration. “Do nothing out of selfish ambition or vain conceit,” it says. “Rather, in humility value others above yourself.”

That’s great practical advice for anyone in government, where most meaningful success hinges on teamwork and significant progress requires consensus. Governing, as opposed to demagoguery, is about earning others’ trust and cooperation. Exhibiting a willingness to listen to and to hear them goes a long way toward that.

“Insight and knowledge come from curiosity and humility,” Mr. Baker wrote in a 2022 book, “Results,” coauthored with his chief of staff, Steve Kadish, a Democrat. “Snap judgments — about people or ideas — are fueled by arrogance and conceit. They create blind spots and missed opportunities. Good ideas and interesting ways to accomplish goals in public life exist all over the place if you have the will, the curiosity, and the humility to find them.”

Humble politicians don’t insist on one-size-fits-all answers when those aren’t necessary as a matter of basic rights and fundamental justice. Humble activists don’t either. The campaign for same-sex marriage — one of the most successful social movements of recent decades — showed that progress can be made not by shaming people, not by telling them how awful they are, but by suggesting how much better they could be. Marriage-equality advocates emphasized a brighter future that they wanted to create, not an ugly past that they wanted to litigate. They also wisely assured Americans that gay and lesbian people weren’t trying to explode a cherished institution and upend a system of values, but instead wanted in.

“I don’t want to disparage shouting and demands — everything has its place,” Evan Wolfson, the founder of the pivotal advocacy group Freedom to Marry, told me when we revisited the movement’s philosophy and tactics. At times, he acknowledged, champions of a cause “need to break the silence, we need to push, we need to force.”

“But I used to say, ‘Yes, there’s demanding, but there’s also asking,’” he recalled. “And one is not the enemy of the other. People don’t like being accused, people don’t like being condemned, people don’t like being alienated. It’s a matter of conversation and persuasion.”

That’s consistent with the message delivered by Loretta Ross, a longtime racial justice and human rights advocate, through her teaching, public speaking and writing. Troubled by the frequent targeting and pillorying of people on social media, she urged the practice of calling in rather than calling out those who’ve upset you. “Call-outs make people fearful of being targeted,” she wrote in a guest essay for Times Opinion . “People avoid meaningful conversations when hypervigilant perfectionists point out apparent mistakes, feeding the cannibalistic maw of the cancel culture.” Instead, she advised, engage them. If you believe they need enlightenment, try that route, “without the self-indulgence of drama,” she wrote.

She was preaching humility.

She was also recognizing other people’s right to disagree — to live differently, to talk differently. Pluralism is as much about that as it is about a multiracial, multifaith, multigender splendor. That doesn’t mean a surrender or even a compromise of principles; a person can hold on to those while practicing tolerance, which has been supplanted by grievance. Tolerance shares DNA with respect. It recognizes that other people have rights and inherent value even when we disagree vehemently with them.

We all carry wounds, and some of us carry wounds much graver than others. We confront obstacles, including unjust and senseless ones. We must tend to those wounds. We must push hard at those obstacles. But we mustn’t treat every wound, every obstacle, as some cosmic outrage or mortal danger. We mustn’t lose sight of the struggle, imperfection and randomness of life. We mustn’t overstate our vulnerability and exaggerate our due.

While grievance blows our concerns out of proportion, humility puts them in perspective. While grievance reduces the people with whom we disagree to caricature, humility acknowledges that they’re every bit as complex as we are — with as much of a stake in creating a more perfect union.

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Frank Bruni is a professor of journalism and public policy at Duke University, the author of the book "The Age of Grievance" and a contributing Opinion writer. He writes a weekly email newsletter .   Instagram   Threads   @ FrankBruni • Facebook

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True Crime CFP - Mid-Atlantic Popular and American Culture Association Annual Conference

Mid-Atlantic Popular & American Culture Association (MAPACA) 2024 Annual Conference, November 7-9, 2024 in Atlantic City, NJ

True Crime CFP: The True Crime area invites papers and presentations on all aspects of True Crime, including but not limited to nonfiction stories of crimes across a range of media such as podcasts, film/documentaries, and television. Papers may deal with particular case narratives, psychology of a crime, or investigative journalism as it pertains to True Crime. We recognize the interdisciplinarity of the True Crime genre, and also welcome submissions that explore topics such as gender/demographics of audiences, perpetrators or victims; sensationalizing high profile cases; criminology, victimology, and forensics; wrongful convictions and advocacy; prevention of crime and survivor stories; crimes against POC, indigenous groups, or marginalized peoples; and more. Presentations should be aware of and respectful to victims and their families as applicable to the specific topic being explored. For additional information, see: https://mapaca.net/areas/true-crime

General CFP:

Proposals are welcome on all aspects of popular and American culture for inclusion in the 2023 Mid-Atlantic Popular & American Culture Association (MAPACA) virtual conference. Single papers, panels, roundtables, and alternative formats are welcome. This conference will be held at the Tropicana in Atlantic City, NJ.

Proposals should take the form of 300-word abstracts, and may only be submitted to one appropriate area. For a list of areas and area chair contact information, visit  mapaca.net/areas . General questions can be directed to  [email protected] . The deadline for submission is Sunday, June 30th, 2024.

MAPACA’s membership is comprised of college and university faculty, independent scholars and artists, and graduate and undergraduate students. MAPACA is an inclusive professional organization dedicated to the study of popular and American culture in all their multi-disciplinary manifestations. It is a regional division of the Popular Culture and American Culture Association, which, in the words of Popular Culture Association founder Ray Browne, is a “multi-disciplinary association interested in new approaches to the expressions, mass media and all other phenomena of everyday life.”

For more information, visit  mapaca.net .