biology research paper example high school

200 Biology Research Topics For High School

Research papers are an integral part of high school. A detailed research paper is required in most of the subjects, and one just cannot back out, as this is a part of their curriculum. However, what is even more laborious than writing the whole research paper? Finding a good topic!

The same goes for biology. Although there are plenty of topics out there that a student can write about, choosing a relevant topic is often a taxing job since they may need to brainstorm various factors. However, it can be disentangled with clarity and appropriate counsel. 

While this subject deals with various areas like cells, animals, plants, and human anatomy; in this post, we would appraise you with 200 biology research topics handpicked for aspiring high schoolers, to make their task easier.

Biology Research Topics- Finding the Right one 

Choosing the right topic can be a long expedition. However, it can be effortless when students are clear about their requirements personally and academically. To discern the same, it can be a fair idea to look into some crucial attributes that can lead a high schooler towards a desired biology research topic.

• Know your niche

Learners often have one or more notions that they feel enticing to learn and travel with. For instance, a student may like to learn and work in cell biology, while another may love studying more about genetics. Knowing the niche in which they can excel can make their topic selection facile.

• Stick to one Narrow topic

After comprehending the choice of the niche, the scholar may need to narrow down to one topic which is intriguing and manageable at the same time. Evidently, “Study of Mitochondria and its benefits ” is a better choice than “Cell biology”. Choosing a righteous narrow topic may mitigate the constraints like taxing research and report length later. 

• Consult mentors and Peers

Instructors are always available to answer the queries of pupils. Students can take their inputs to add strength to their research topics. Mentors not only assist to choose the right topic but also can advise a few changes in the choice to make it finer. Say, a student has chosen “Study of DNA”, the mentor can suggest modifying it to ”Role of DNA in Curing Diseases”. Brainstorming sessions with peers may also ameliorate the topic decision 

• Ensure the School Regulations 

High school research is often guided by some crucial regulations to stipulate students work efficiently. Students may need to choose a topic somehow related to the academic syllabus. Further, they may be stimulated to address burning issues to create awareness. Adhering to the guidelines can mitigate the need for rectifications later. 

200 Biology Research Topics- To Start With Right Away

High School biology has several sections to choose from, which may make it taxing for students to resolute on one choice. Here is a sizable list of 201 biology research topics for high schoolers which they can start instantly: 

Cell Biology

• Animal cell and its structure
• Functions of Cells
• Mitochondria- the PowerHouse of cell
• Functions of an RBC- How does it transfer Oxygen?
• Functions of a WBC- How does it retain immunity?
• Components of Plant Cell
• Plant Cell Vs. Animal Cell
• Cell Division
• Mitosis Vs. Meiosis
• Bacteria- How is it different from cells?
• Cell structure and antibiotic Resistance
•  What are cancer cells? Are they Dangerous?
• Mushrooms and Molds- A brief Study of Fungi
• Curing Cancer Cells
•  Stem Cells- A brief Study
• Embryonic vs Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
• Adults vs Induced Pluripotent stem Cells 
• The Build of Human DNA
• Components of DNA
• Chromosomes- A brief Study
• Double Helix Structure of DNA
• Singled celled Organisms and their DNA
• Bacteria and its DNA
• X and Y chromosomes
• Genetic INformation in DNA
• DNA modification- Its application in medicine
• Cancer and DNA modification
• DNA of dinosaurs
• Do plants have DNA?

Molecular Biology

•  Gene- A Brief History
• Components of Gene
• Drugs for Humans
• Vaccine vs Drugs
• A brief study of Gregor Mendel
• Dominant vs recessive genes
• Widow’s peak illustration of Genes
• What is mutation?
• Hormones and their functions
• Artificial hormones for animals
• PCR tests for analyzing DNA
• Structure of a Molecule
• Structure of prion
• DNA transcription-Its applications
• Central Dogma
• Heredity and traits 

NeuroBiology

• Human Nervous System- A brief description
• Structure and components of neurons.
• Neurons vs Animal cell
• A brief study of electric pulses in the human brain
• Altering reaction speed in the brain
• Alzheimer’s disease- its study in genetics
• Neurobiological Degeneration- does it have a cure?
• Brain injuries and cures
• Spinal Cord Injuries and cures
• Narcolepsy 
• A brief study of mental health with neurobiology
• Various emotions and their neural pulses
• A brief study of the human neurological system

Genetics 

• A brief study of ancient cloning techniques
• Reasons behind Abortion. Is it ethical
• Procedure of abortion
• What is human cloning? 
• Side effects of Human Cloning
• Goals of Human Cloning
• Transplantation vs Human Cloning
•  Perfect child theory. Is it ethical?
• Gene cloning- Removal of undesirable traits.
• Genes and ethics
•  Gene therapy
• Gene therapy vs Cloning
• Curing Cancer with Gene therapy
• Cons of Cloning

Environment and Ecology

• A Brief Study of Charles Darwin 
• The Evolution Theory
• Natural Selection- the complete study
• Mutation- A brief study with examples
• Adaptations in animals- Study with 5 examples
• Divergent evolution
• Convergent evolution
• Parallel Evolution
• Components of a sustainable environment
•  Environmental Friendly Practices
• Role of Plastics in pollution
• Alternatives for Plastic
• Deforestation
• Solutions for Deforestations
• Ecological concerns
• History of the Ozone layer
• Change in ecology- A study of extinct animals
• Effects of Fast Food factories
• Reversing ecological changes
• Climate changes and their effects
• Global Warming
• GreenHouse effect

Plants And Animals

• A study of Endangered animals
• Melatonin therapy
• Benefits of growing plants in the home
• A brief study of popular plant diseases
• Effects of pesticides and herbicides
• Immunity in plants
• The Banana Pandemic
• Weedy and Invasive Plants
• Genetic analysis of plants
• Medicinal plants- A brief study
• Evolution in plants
• Plants in Food production
• Components of Photosynthesis
• A brief study of Phytohormones
• Antibiotics and phytocides
• A detailed study of Stomata structure
• Grafting techniques
• Roots and stem modification
• Real-life examples of taxonomy
• Study of sweet potato Virus
• Classifications of animals
• Evolution of marine life
• Prehistoric aquatic life- study of enormous creatures
• Evolution of land-based life
• Zoos and petting- are they ethical?
• Drug testing on animals
• A brief study of cows and their benefits on Humans
• Food chain and classification
• Vegans vs carnivores
• Resistance in animals
• Behavioral changes  in animals due to evolution
• A brief study of intelligence in animals
• Migration of birds- a brief study.
• Study of extinct species and bringing back them
• Types of dinosaurs
• Male pregnancy in animals 

Marine Biology

• Oil spilling in the ocean- strategies to mitigate
• Ocean Acidification and its effects
• Evolution in aquatic animals
• Camouflage mechanism
• Petting marine species
• Study on Ultrasonic communication in whales
• Role of marine shows and debate on its ethics
• Are mermaids real?
• A study of immortal marine species
• Plankton and its medicinal uses
• Underwater ecologies
• Freshwater And Seawater
• A brief study of coral reefs
• Medicinal values of coral reef plants
• Tectonic plates and underwater earthquakes

Cardiovascular 

• Heart Rhythm and Arrhythmias
• Preventive Cardiology
• Hypertension
• InterventionalCardiology
• Heart Failure (Myocardial Biology)
• Heart Disease in various age groups
• Signs, symptoms and first aid for Heart Disease.
• A study of ECG and other apparatus

Hormone Biology

• Pregnancy and hormonal changes
• Bipolar Disorder
• Endocrine and related diseases
• MEntal health in different genders. 
• Stress and immunity

Reproductive System

• Cervical Cancer and its cure
• A brief study of puberty
• Contraception
• Infertility
• Test tube babies
• The concept of surrogacy
• Tubectomy and vasectomy
• Male Reproductive complications and their cures
• Female reproductive complications and their cure

Digestive System

• Gastrointestinal tract- a brief study
• Components of Digestive systems
• A brief study of stomach and liver
• Functions of intestines

Skeletal System

• The function of the skeletal system
• Type of bones
• Functions of Sesamoid bones
• Foods for healthy bones 
• A brief study of Spinal Cord

Excretory System

• The detailed study on Kidney and its Function
• Gross Anatomy of the Urinary System
• Reasons for Renal Calculi (Kidney Stones) and cures

Miscellaneous 

• Coordination between muscular system and skeletal system 
• Benefits of ecotourism
• Extinction of bees- A brief study
• The green revolution
• US Grain economy
• Agricultural practices for more yield
• World trade of food
• A brief study of Covid 19
• Renewable energies and their effect on plants 
• Bacteria and depression
• Genes and neuron functions
• Robotic surgeries- the study of the future. 
• Benefits of organic farming
• Study of various components of flower and a fruit
• Diet and obesity
• Various components of Brain
• Diabetes and its cure
• CRISPR and Genetic Engineering
• A brief on Cell tissue engineering

Having a large number of alternatives often creates incertitude. The topics we put forward are all worth considering. Determining your area of interest can make your choice facile. For instance, if you feel genetics enticing, prefer choosing relevant topics. You may consider consulting researchers, faculty and pertinent professionals to add muscle to your research. Review our picks to see if any of those can fit your choice in making a credible research paper. 

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Biology Research Projects for High School Students

Indigo Research Team

Are you looking for biology-related topics for your high school research project? If yes, then you have come to the right place. 

We do understand that finding the right topic for research that connects with you can be challenging. This is particularly true for the field of biology since it is very diverse. A good biology project needs to have enough scientific research backing it so that it helps support or disprove your hypothesis. 

This article is all about easy and interesting research projects designed just for keen high school students. We'll explore topics in the domain of the human body, ecosystems, diseases and their treatments, and more. 

Biology Project Ideas For High Schoolers

Here's a carefully curated compilation of cool biology topics to inspire and kick-start your creativity. We have broken the list into categories so that it's easier for you to navigate projects that fall into your interest.

Human Body Project Ideas

The human body is said to be the most complicated biological machine, which opens room for good research topics .  Let's check out some exciting project ideas about the human body.

1. Exploring the Rate of Cognitive Decline at Different Elevations

At higher altitudes, there's a reduction in oxygen partial pressure, impacting blood oxygenation and potentially influencing brain function. If you've ever experienced altitude sickness, you've felt the effects of this phenomenon. The decrease in atmospheric pressure at elevated altitudes results in lower partial pressures of gases, including vital oxygen necessary for our bodily functions.

This project can investigate the impact of sudden increased elevation, such as climbing Denali, on brain health and cognition. Additionally, you can also explore whether continuous exposure to high elevations might contribute to an increased risk of dementia. This biology research project can also analyze published studies examining the correlation between altitude and cognitive brain functions. ‍

2. Making a Visual Guide for Blood Vessel Formation

Create an illustration using online images to showcase the process of blood vessel development. In this project, you can search existing research to understand the current knowledge about how blood vessels form and grow. Then, you can use this gathered information to design a graphic explaining how the network of blood vessels, known as vasculature, takes shape.

This is one of the most interesting human biology project ideas that aims to convey scientific concepts visually, making the information more accessible to a broader audience. ‍

3. Exploring Bacterial Communities in Different Homes

If you’re looking for immune system project ideas, this might be it for you. Bacterial microbiomes are groups of bacteria living on or around living things. These communities of tiny cells are essential for our health, helping with digestion and keeping our immune system in check. The microorganisms in our body outnumber our own cells by approximately 10:1. This project mainly focuses on figuring out how the bacteria on our skin differ between people from different households. To execute this biology project, you can create various bacterial media at home and select other microorganisms. 

Note: While conducting research, avoid abrasions, needle sticks, or cuts to avoid getting bacterial infections. Wearing safety goggles, a face mask, or a face shield can help keep you safe. It is also important after the experiments to wash your hands with soap and water and disinfect surfaces that may have been in contact with the bacteria. At the end of your experiment, fully sterilize everything before disposal.

4. Understanding the Control of Biological Clocks

Next up in the human biology project ideas is understanding how biological clocks work. Sleep is managed by two main processes: the circadian clock, which aligns sleep patterns with the day-night cycle, and sleep homeostasis, which tracks sleep debt as a way to recover from sleep loss. 

You've probably heard about the circadian rhythm, our body's internal clock. Circadian sleep regulation is crucial for animals to predict when they should be awake or sleepy each day. These processes can be controlled at different levels, such as genes, proteins, and neurons in the clock. 

This biology research topic can focus on exploring the regulation of circadian clocks at various genetic levels. This project will help you develop important scientific skills in two areas: the first one is learning how to read and summarize information from scientific articles efficiently,  and the second is finding effective ways to present the gathered information. ‍

5. Exploring the Science of Getting Older

Exploring the science of getting older is one of the most groundbreaking human biology research topics. Growing older is the main factor that increases the risk of various diseases like cancer, neurodegenerative conditions, and sensory impairments. Recently, researchers began to unravel the mysteries of ageing and discover ways to slow down or potentially reverse its effects.

What are the signs of ageing? How do scientists study the process of getting older? How do human lifespan and ageing compare to other animals? Can we actually put a halt to or undo the impacts of ageing? What progress has been made in this area? You can delve into these topics for biology projects or brainstorm other inquiries about the biology of ageing.

Animals, Plants, and Nature Project Ideas

Next up, we’ll discuss the biology research projects related to animals, plants, and nature. These environments are very close to human and they are definitely very interesting to explore.

1. Examining the Impact of Genetically Modified Mosquitoes on Disease Rates

In some areas, like the island of Príncipe, many genetically modified mosquitoes are set free every week. These mosquitoes are modified so they can't easily spread diseases like dengue fever, Zika, and malaria. They're released into nature to mix with regular mosquitoes that carry diseases. But only some agree on whether this is a good idea, as there could be unexpected environmental effects. 

You can conduct research on what could be the good and not-so-good things about this. This biology project is about researching articles and videos to understand how and why scientists use these mosquitoes to reduce diseases and to understand exactly how this works. You may even want to explore exactly how scientists create these genetically modified mosquitoes. 

‍ 2. Effectiveness of Ocean-Protected Zones

Ocean-protected zones, known as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), are specific parts of the sea or coastal waters set aside to conserve marine resources sustainably. Governments, NGOs, or other groups create these areas, and they can vary from entirely off-limits "no-take" zones to zones with controlled fishing or other activities. While MPAs can help manage resources wisely and safeguard biodiversity, there are various reasons why they might need to be revised.

For your marine biology project ideas, investigate the factors that could make MPAs less effective. Then, devise an alternative plan for creating, modeling, and implementing an efficient Marine Protected Area.

For an insightful example of student-led research in this area, explore this project on Applications of Australian Native Aquatic Plants in Purifying Wastewater Sources at Indigo Research . ‍

3. Learning from Nature: Can Animals Provide Solutions?

Exploring the wisdom of the natural world, you can delve into the intriguing question: Can animals offer us innovative solutions to complex problems? How can studying how lizards and newts regrow their limbs help us make wound treatments better or even help someone who is paralyzed from injury to their spinal cord? Why is tilapia skin useful for burns? Explore these new topics in biology on how animals contribute to shaping modern medicine and its future possibilities. 

Also, consider if there are any ethical worries tied to these discoveries and developments. If there are, what are they, and should we be concerned?  ‍

4. Understanding the Impact of Climate Change on the Habitats of Rare Species

Climate change, marked by factors like global warming and prolonged drought, threatens some of the rarest plants and animals on our planet. It is crucial to figure out how the future living spaces for these rare species might change so we can focus our efforts on preserving specific areas. 

In this project, you can choose a rare species you're interested in and gather online data about where it currently exists. This is a great idea for a biology research project if you’re interested in the environment, ecology or rare plant and animal species, in which you can find out how to use species distribution modeling to map where it lives now and where it might thrive. 

5. Complex Relationships in Coral Reefs

Coral reefs worldwide are struggling, and one big reason is "coral bleaching," making the reefs look white, as you might have seen in the news. Coral bleaching happens when the teamwork between the coral animals and the tiny, helpful algae inside them breaks down. These coral and algae buddies can handle different temperatures, but we don't really know why. 

This biological project can be about reading what scientists have researched about this teamwork and determining what factors can tell us when corals might turn white and how well they can handle temperature changes.

Genetic Project Ideas

If you want to base your project on genetics, we have a few ideas you can look at. 

1. Understanding the Relationship between Genetics and Height 

Epigenetics studies how heritable cellular phenotype or gene expression changes occur without altering the DNA sequence. Such changes are affected by lifestyle and diet. In these biochemical projects, you can analyze the open dataset on identical (or monozygotic) twins to find what biological features are shared between monozygotic twins and which are not. The latter might be affected by non-genetic factors that control these features

You will learn how to use the R tool to look at and analyze data, and use statistical tools to identify significant differences between groups, and, in the end, showcase your research with graphics to communicate it effectively to the audience. 

2. Exploring personalized medication

Just like fingerprints, each of us has a unique genetic code that determines things in our body, like our hair color, height, and eye color. Even diseases like cancer have their own unique codes inside the malignant cells that define important features of the  a tumor. 

For decades, everyone with a specific cancer has been treated the same way with surgery, chemo- or radiotherapy, even if their malignant cells are different. That's where one of the most interesting biology topics for research, personalized medication, comes in. 

It's a new and exciting way to treat diseases. Personalized medicine aims to use the disease's genetic code to customize the treatment to that particular individual. This domain of biology has a lot of published research and a lot of room for new research as well. 

One thing you can do for your biology project subject is to pick one disease whose treatment can really benefit from personalized medication and write a research paper on it based on the work of reputable researchers. 

3. The genetics of neurodevelopmental disorders

Many neurodevelopmental or psychiatric disorders like autism spectrum disorder or schizophrenia have a strong genetic basis. What genes are involved? What proteins do they produce and what are their functions? How do these genetic changes affect brain development and function? Can this knowledge help scientists develop new drugs to treat conditions like schizophrenia that is still being treated with the same drugs as 50 years ago?

This project will allow you to read exciting research that has been published over the last few years, and learn about genetics and neuroscience, two of the most exciting areas of biology and medicine. You will develop skills in scientific research and ways to present complex ideas to an audience. 

Projects based on exciting biological topics allow students to explore the science of living things and get hands-on experience with everything they learned in high school. From investigating altitude's impact on cognition in human beings to exploring genetically engineered mosquitoes, these projects help in understanding biology. 

Students develop critical thinking and research skills in each biology project, apply classroom knowledge, and communicate findings effectively. These projects provide students the freedom to explore individual interests and pave the way for future scientific endeavors. 

If you're interested in conducting biology research, consider finding a mentor who can guide you through your innovative biology project ideas. At Indigo Research, you can start your research at any time of the year, building on the knowledge and skills you've acquired from your internships or academic coursework.

150 Actual Biology Research Paper Topics

Table of contents

• 1 What Is Biology? What Topics Might Biologists Study?
• 2 How to Choose a Topic for Biology Research Paper?
• 3.1 15 Developmental Biology Topics For Research
• 3.2 15 Immune System Biology Research Topics
• 3.3 15 Cell Biology Research Topics
• 3.4 15 DNA Research Topics
• 3.5 15 Molecular Biology Research Topics
• 3.6 15 Neurobiology Research Topics
• 3.7 15 Abortion, Human cloning, and Genetic Researches Topics
• 3.8 15 Environmental and Ecology Topics for Your Research
• 3.9 15 Plant Pathology Biology Research Topics
• 3.10 15 Animals Biology Research Topics
• 3.11 15 Marine Biology Research Topics
• 3.12 15 Zoology Research Topics
• 3.13 15 Genetics Research Topics
• 3.14 15 Biotechnology Research Topics
• 3.15 15 Evolutionary Biology Research Topics

Biology is one of the most magnetic fields of study these days. If you want to be a biologist or scientist in the future, there is no better time to start than right now. Biology research topics covered in this article will keep you busy and interested. Writing a research paper is one of the best ways to dip your toes into the field. Before doing that, you need to know some good topics for the research paper . They should be suitable for biology students rather than cutting-edge researchers. On Papersowl.com , we provide as many biology research paper examples as possible so that you have a huge choice.

What Is Biology? What Topics Might Biologists Study?

Biology is simply the study of everything that has a form of life. It includes investigations on plants, animals, and everything found in the environment. It is about studying how life forms grow, develop, and interact with each other. Biology essay topics for research encompass all these and more.

This science uncovers many fields where various life forms are studied. It makes sense to look through these fields to help you decide which suits you the best.

Plant Biology research topics are about studying the plants around us. They disclose information about their existence as a part of the ecosystem, their life cycle, resources they can give us, their ability to preserve them from climate changes, and so on. There are many ideas to choose from, but you must focus on a specific one.

Human Biology research topics are all about us. These topics focus on different body parts, such as the human brain, the human immunological system, the nervous system, etc. In addition, you can discuss DNA modifications in humans and explain why genetic disorders occur in your research projects. Various cell research is also common today.

Biology research topics on the environment are in great demand too. For example, climate change is becoming a more significant threat every day. By studying environmental topics in biology for projects and research, we can come up with ways to combat them and preserve ecosystems.

Microbiology research topics delve into things we can’t see. There are trillions of microbes and bacteria all around us. Knowing about them is essential to understanding what makes us sick and how to fight against them. All microbiology research paper topics are pretty complicated yet very engaging to include in your paper research.

Molecular biology topics dive even deeper into the level of atoms and molecules. The various medicines and drugs we take were all created through molecular-biology research. It is one of the areas full of ideas, but there is yet to be much evidence. Science is advancing in this realm but still needs a lot of time. Topics of molecular biology will need days for research only.

Keep in mind that there are more ideas and variations of this science. We offer more examples in further sections of the article about developmental biology, marine biology, evolutionary biology, etc. Explore them and make your writing appealing and meaningful in the eyes of a professor.

How to Choose a Topic for Biology Research Paper?

When choosing a biology project topic, you must be aware of one or more fields of science. Biology research is critical to the present world. By doing research, we can learn more about genetic disorders, immune disorders, mental health, natural disease resistance, etc. Knowing about each of these could save lives in the future.

For those who may not have the time or resources to do their own research, there are research paper writing services that can provide assistance with the project. And we are always here to help you find your own topic among interesting biology research topics. Here we prepared some useful tips to follow.

• Tip 1: The level of interest matters Pay attention to one that interests you, and you might have ideas on how to develop the topic. Passion is fundamental in research, after all.
• Tip 2: Explore the topic Try to narrow things down a bit. If the topic is too broad, you may not be able to cover all aspects of it in one research paper. If it is too narrow, the paper could end up too short. Analyze the topic and the ways to approach it. By doing so, you can strike a balance between the two.
• Tip 3: Discover the recent developments To make your research paper touchable with the present day, you must explore the latest developments in the field. You can find out what kind of research has been done recently by looking at journals. Check out research papers, topics, research articles, and other sources.
• Tip 4: Ensure to get enough resources When choosing a topic, make sure it has plenty of resources available. For example, a research paper on xenobiology or cutting-edge nanobiology might sound attractive. Still, you might have difficulties getting data and resources for those unless you are a researcher at a government lab. Data, resources, complex numbers, and statistics are all invaluable to writing a paper about these topics.

That is why we have selected a range of biological topics. The topics on this list are all hopefully exciting topics for research you could write an excellent paper on. We should also add that easy biology topics to research are rare, and a writer usually needs days to prepare and start writing. Yes, biology research topics for high school students are a bit easier, but still, they need time to explore them.

On the other hand, biology research topics for college students are far more complex and detailed. Some people prefer evolutionary biology research paper topics, and we can agree with this claim. These research areas do have a lot of potential and a lot of data to support the claims. Others prefer cell biology research topics that are a bit specific and fun. Anyway, with this article’s list of easy biology research topics, you will surely find the one matching your interest.

For those who may not have the time or resources to do their own research, there are provide assistance with the project.

Top Research Biology Paper Topics

This section contains a large selection of research biology paper topics. You will be able to find one that will suit you the best. The only thing left is to decide what variation of science you prefer. Whether you’re interested in microbiology, genetics, or any other type of science, you’ll find a topic to get you started. If you’re ever stuck or need some extra help, you can always pay someone to write your paper for you. So, take a look, and choose the perfect topic for your project!

15 Developmental Biology Topics For Research

Exploring the processes of how cells grow and develop is exciting. The human body contains millions of cells, and it’s interesting to research their behavior under different conditions. If you feel like writing about it, you can find some interesting biology topics below.

• How do stem cells form different tissues?
• How are tumors formed?
• Duplication of genomes
• Plasticity of development
• Different birth defects
• Interactions between genes and the environment
• Anticancer drugs mixtures
• Developmental diseases: Origin
• Drosophila Oogenesis
• Most deadly viruses
• Most deadly bacteria in the world
• How do germs affect cells?
• How does leukemia start?
• Development of the cardiovascular system in children
• How do autoimmune diseases start and affect the human body?

15 Immune System Biology Research Topics

For decades, many scientists and immunologists have studied the human immune system and tried to explain its reaction to various pathogens. This area allows you to deepen into it and reveal how a body protects itself from harmful impact. Look over the biology research questions below and find your match-up.

• How does the human body’s immune system work?
• The human immune system: How to strengthen it?
• What makes the immunological system weaker?
• The notion of auto-immune diseases and their effect on the body’s immune system
• The global HIV/aids epidemic
• What methods are used to prevent the spread of hives?
• Living with auto-immune diseases
• Genetics and the immune system: effects and consequences
• How do immune disorders affect the body, and what causes them?
• Are allergies signs of worrying about an immune disorder?
• DNA modification in solving immune disorders
• Stress as the biggest ruiner of the immunological system
• Vaccines as strong supporters of the immunological system
• The perception of vaccines in society
• Why do some people refuse vaccines and put others around them in danger?

15 Cell Biology Research Topics

Cell study might seem challenging yet very engaging. It will be a good idea to compare various types of cells and compare them in animals and plants. Make your choice from the list of cell biology research topics below.

• The structure of an animal cell
• Mitochondria and its meaning in cell development
• Cells classification and their functions
• Red blood cells and their function in transporting oxygen
• White blood cells and their responsibility to fight diseases
• How are plant cells different from animal cells?
• What would it be if animals had a function to photosynthesize?
• Single-celled organisms: What is it, and how do they work?
• What processes do cells go through in division?
• Invasion of bacteria into the body
• Viruses – alive or not?
• Fungi: their reproduction and distribution
• Cancer cells: Why are they so dangerous?
• What methods are used to kill cancer cells?
• The role of stem cells and their potential in a body

15 DNA Research Topics

The variety of biology research topics for college students might impress you a lot. This is a science with a large field of investigation, disclosing much scientific information to use in your project. The notion of DNA and its gist are also excellent options to write about.

• The structure of the human DNA
• The main components of a DNA chain
• Why does DNA have a double-helix spiral structure?
• The purpose of chromosomes
• MRNA and its relation to DNA
• Do single-celled organisms have DNA?
• Do viruses have DNA?
• What happens if you have too many or too few chromosomes?
• Analyzing the structure of DNA using computers
• Uses for the DNA of extinct organisms like mammoths and dinosaurs
• Storing non-genetic information in DNA
• Can you write a computer program into human DNA?
• How does radiation affect DNA?
• Modifying DNA to treat aids
• Can we fight cancer through DNA modification?

15 Molecular Biology Research Topics

Do you prefer to research molecules’ chemical and physical composition? We gathered some molecular biology research topics to make your choice easier.

• The structure and components of a gene
• How do molecules move in and out of a cell?
• The basic building blocks of life
• How are drugs designed for humans?
• How is a vaccine designed to target a specific disease?
• Dominant genes vs. recessive genes
• Prion disease – why is it so dangerous?
• Hormones and their function in the body
• Developing artificial hormones from other animals
• How to carry out a western blot?
• Testing and analyzing DNA using PCR
• The three-dimensional structure of a molecule
• What is DNA transcription, and how is it used?
• The structure of a prion
• What is the central dogma of molecular biology?

15 Neurobiology Research Topics

The more you dive into science, the more exciting things you find. That’s about biology. Here, you can choose biology research topics for high school and try to reveal more simply.

• Nervous system: its structure and function
• Neurons as unique cells playing a central role in the nervous system
• What is the maximum reaction speed in a human?
• Reaction speed: how to improve it?
• Research on Organic Farming
• What are the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease?
• Why do we feel happy or sad?
• Headaches in terms of Neurobiology
• What are the reasons for neurobiological degeneration?
• Myths and reality of Amnesia
• What causes Alzheimer’s Disease, and what are the consequences of the disease?
• What is the treatment for Spinal Cord Injury?
• Studies on Narcolepsy and Insomnia: What are the causes?
• Is there a connection between Mental Health and Neurobiology?
• Emotions in terms of their reflection in the brain

15 Abortion, Human cloning, and Genetic Researches Topics

There are so many scientific researches and theories that society accepts or neglects. You can operate different notions and try to explain them, reflecting their advantages and downsides for a human being. We gathered some enticing life science research topics for high school students that might interest you.

• The controversy around abortion: legal or not?
• Can abortion be safe?
• Human cloning – reality vs. science-fiction
• The goals of cloning humans
• Are human cloning and transplantation ethical?
• Having a “perfect child” through gene therapy: Is it a myth?
• How far has gene therapy gone in genetic research?
• Advantages and disadvantages of gene therapy
• How gene therapy can help beat cancer
• How gene therapy can eliminate diabetes
• The opportunity to edit genes by CRISPR
• DNA modifications in humans to enhance our abilities – an ethical dilemma
• Will expensive gene therapy widen the gap between the rich and the poor?
• Cloning: the good and the Bad for a Generation
• The disadvantages of cloning
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15 Environmental and Ecology Topics for Your Research

The nature around us is so enormous and includes many branches to investigate. If you are keen on the environment and how ecology affects it, the list of follow-up biology paper topics might be helpful to you.

• The theory of evolution
• How does natural selection work?
• How do living organisms adapt to their environment?
• The concept of divergent and convergent evolution
• Building a sustainable environment
• Development of environment-friendly cities
• How to control population growth?
• Why have recycling resources become so essential in the modern world?
• The effect of plastic on the environment
• What are the global consequences of deforestation?
• What can we expect when losing biodiversity?
• Ecological damage: How to prevent it?
• How can GMO products affect ecology?
• Cloning endangered or extinct species: Is it a good idea?
• Is climate change the main reason for disrupting ecology?

15 Plant Pathology Biology Research Topics

Many factors impact human health and the quality of food products matters. These easy biology research topics will be useful if you want to describe the connection between those two concepts.

• How do plants protect themselves from diseases?
• How to increase the plant’s resistance to diseases?
• Diseases distribution among plants
• The banana pandemic
• How do herbicides influence plants?
• Corn blight
• Can any plant diseases affect humans?
• The issue of stem rust and its impact on wheat
• What approaches are used to struggle against invasive plants and affected weeds?
• Fertilizers: their pros and cons on plants
• Plant disease genetics: its system and structure
• What is the connection between ecological changes and plant diseases?
• Modifications on food production because of plant diseases
• How do fungal and viral diseases appear in plants?
• The sweet potato virus

15 Animals Biology Research Topics

It’s hard to find someone who doesn’t like animals. If you are curious about animals scientifically, here you are with biology research paper topics in this field.

• Classification of animals
• Land-based life: its evolution history
• Controversies about keeping animals as pets
• Is it ethical to test drugs and products on animals?
• Why do nature reserves against zoos?
• Evidence on prehistoric aquatic animals growing giant
• What species of animals are vegan?
• Animals and their social behavior
• Primate behavior
• How intelligent can other primates be?
• Are wolves and dogs intelligent?
• Domesticating animals
• Hibernation in animals
• Why animals migrate
• Should we bring back extinct animals?

15 Marine Biology Research Topics

The marine theme is engaging as it reveals so many interesting facts about life forms dwelling under the water. You can make your paper look captivating using biology topics in marine below.

• How acidification affects aquatic environments
• Evolution in the deep sea
• What’s the meaning of camouflage mechanism in sea life?
• Consequences of oil spills on marine life
• Oldest marine species
• How do whales communicate with each other?
• How blind fish navigate
• Are marine shows and aquariums ethical?
• The biology and life cycle of seabirds
• How jellyfish are immortal
• Plankton ecology
• Difference between freshwater and seawater marine life
• Coral reefs: their importance and evolution
• Saving and restoring coral reefs
• Life in the deep-sea ocean trenches

15 Zoology Research Topics

Zoology can be an excellent choice to write about if you are close to animal studies. Look at biology topics to research and choose the one that fits your interest most.

• Asian elephants and human speech patterns
• Oyster genomes and adaptation
• Darwin’s work in the Galápagos Islands
• Asian carp: Invasive species analysis
• Giant squids: Fact vs. fiction
• Coyote and wolf hybrid species in the United States
• Parasites and disease
• Migration patterns of killer bees
• The treatment of species in Melville’s Moby Dick
• Biodiversity and plankton
• The role of camels and the development of Africa and the Middle East
• Muskellunge and adaptive creek mechanisms to small water
• Ants and cooperative behavior among species
• Animal communication and the origin of language
• Speech in African Gray Parrots

15 Genetics Research Topics

Writing about modifications caused on the gene level is pretty challenging but very fascinating. You can select one among the biological questions for research and bring up a meaningful paper.

• Genetics and its role in cancer studies
• Can genetic code be confidential?
• Is it possible to choose the sex of a person before birth?
• Genetics as a ray of hope for children with an intellectual disability
• What factors in human genetics affect behavior?
• Is it somehow possible to improve human personality through genetics?
• Are there any living cells in the gene?
• Fighting HIV with gene mutations
• Genetic mutations
• How addictive substances affect genes
• Genetic testing: is it necessary?
• Cloning: positive or negative outcome for future generations
• Pros and cons of genetic engineering
• Is the world ready for the bioethics revolution?
• The linkage between genetics and obesity

15 Biotechnology Research Topics

The way scientists conduct research today is magnificent. Implementing high-tech innovations in biology research brings new opportunities to study the world. What are these opportunities? Explore biotechnology research topics for college students and disclose the best options for you.

• Biotechnology used in plant research
• What is the contribution of biotechnology to food?
• Pharmacogenetics: What is it, and how it works?
• How are anti-cancer drugs produced to be effective?
• Nanotechnology in DNA: How to isolate it?
• Recent nanotechnology used in HIV treatment
• What biotech apps are used to detect foodborne pathogens in food systems?
• Genotypes research: Why are they tolerant and sensitive to heavy metal?
• High-tech solutions in diagnosing cancer
• Forensic DNA and its latest developments
• Metabolic changes at the level of cells
• Nanotechnology in improving treatments for respiratory viruses
• The latest biotech discoveries
• Digital evolution: bioresearch and its transformation
• The concept of vaccine development

15 Evolutionary Biology Research Topics

Knowing how life forms started their existence is fundamental. And more interesting is to look through the evolution of many processes. If you find this trend of research more engaging, we outlined evolutionary biology research paper topics to diversify your choice.

• Darwin’s concept’s impact on science
• The evolution concept by Lamarck
• Origins of the evolutionary theory
• Evolution acceptance: a belief vs. a theory?
• Evolutionary in microbiology
• Development of robotics
• Revealing differences: human brain & animal brain
• Preservation of biological resources
• Transformations in aging
• Adaptive genetic system
• Morphometrics’ history
• Developmental theory and population genomics
• Bacteria ecology’s evolution
• Biological changes: impact and evolution
• Infectious diseases and their profession

The world of science and biology is vast, making research tedious. Use our list of interesting biology research topics to choose the best issue to write your own paper.

However, it is still hard to prepare a high-quality biology research paper, even with a brilliant topic. Not all college students can do it. Do you feel like you need some help? Then buy biology paper from our professional writers! Our experts will choose the best biology experimental research topics for you and can bring up top-level papers within the shortest time. Additionally, if you need help with a statistics project related to biology, our team of experienced professionals is equipped to provide you with the utmost quality of research and analysis.

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Writing A High School Biology Research Paper: General Guidelines

High school learning is always riddled with many a challenge among which is the limited focus on studies which many students tend to have. On this premise, learning is more or less teacher-centered than student participatory and engagement. So, when it comes to doing a research study, proper guide and close supervision is always the only way to ensure that students get to understand what it takes to be involved in practical learning. Academic research is taught right from high school, except that at this level, it is rather concentrated on the fundamental aspects of it such as sections of a paper and writing process. However, in some cases, students will always be required to do a write-up on the study findings. This is meant to equip them with date analysis and presentation skills at a later stage where academic study is not an option. With the advent of the internet, things have become a lot easier because students can today partake on fact finding to know exactly what is expected of them when it comes to doing a term paper to the best of their knowledge.

Biology is an interesting subject, however, its expansive nature has always proved quite a hurdle to some students who when tasked to do an academic research on this subject, meet varied challenges such as topic selection, formatting and writing itself. On this premise, this is a great website which would be a culmination of your online search for tips on writing a high school biology term paper. On this site, you would find fundamental guidelines discussed hereafter.

Selecting a topic

Topic selection will always jumpstart any writing process and so when it comes to choosing one for your Biology term paper, you have to know from which unit you pick on a title you can effectively research on. Biology encompasses the study of all living things such as animals, humans, insects, plants and many others usually summarized as flora and fauna. On this premise, your topic should be precise to guarantee a good study. If need be, ask your tutor for a guide in this.

The process of writing

Biology research papers are always riddled with interesting findings based on real life experiences with nature. So, do not speculate anything. Go out in the field and interact with flora and fauna if you want have enough to write.

Formatting your paper

Lastly, always make sure your paper is well formatted and that your findings are grouped into subtopics and supported with factual findings.

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Biology Research Paper : Biology Research Paper Assignment

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Assignment: Write a 6-10 page (Honors 10-15) informative/explanatory research paper on an approved biological science topic, argument, or question . Students are to examine and explore the topic by asking numerous relevant questions, which are answered directly with supporting facts and evidence extracted from credible, properly cited resources. The paper should convey complex ideas and information clearly and accurately through effective selection, organization, and analysis of content. Do you know your stuff and can you communicate effectively? You and a partner will write a research paper that is to be used support your Spring Biology Research Experiment. One paper submitted per pair.

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10/5(6) Three Science Questions - possible research subjects

10/9(10) Five (5) specific questions exploring a topic

10/13 Research topic and partner

10/19 (20) Three (3) research “index cards” with one fact/concept each (MLA style reference info on back) ...or same content within the graphic organizer

11/2(3) 15 total research “index cards” with one fact/concept each (MLA style reference info on back) ...or same content within the graphic organizer

11/13(14) 30 total research “index cards” with one fact/concept each (MLA style reference info on back) ...or same content within the graphic organizer

11/20(21) Outline

11/27(28) Rough Draft

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Learning Biology through Research Papers: A Stimulus for Question-Asking by High-School Students

• Gilat Brill
• Anat Yarden

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Question-asking is a basic skill, required for the development of scientific thinking. However, the way in which science lessons are conducted does not usually stimulate question-asking by students. To make students more familiar with the scientific inquiry process, we developed a curriculum in developmental biology based on research papers suitable for high-school students. Since a scientific paper poses a research question, demonstrates the events that led to the answer, and poses new questions, we attempted to examine the effect of studying through research papers on students' ability to pose questions. Students were asked before, during, and after instruction what they found interesting to know about embryonic development. In addition, we monitored students' questions, which were asked orally during the lessons. Questions were scored according to three categories: properties, comparisons, and causal relationships. We found that before learning through research papers, students tend to ask only questions of the properties category. In contrast, students tend to pose questions that reveal a higher level of thinking and uniqueness during or following instruction with research papers. This change was not observed during or following instruction with a textbook. We suggest that learning through research papers may be one way to provide a stimulus for question-asking by high-school students and results in higher thinking levels and uniqueness.

INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Scientific research may be conceived as a question-and-answer process ( Dillon, 1988a ). In this dynamic and ongoing process, questions are asked and answered, and presuppositions are accepted or abandoned ( Dillon, 1988a ). Rescher ( 1982 ) describes scientific inquiry as “a step-by-step exchange of query and response that produces sequences within which the answers to our questions ordinarily open up yet further questions.” Thus, questions are an important part of the ongoing scientific research process. Asking research questions in the experimental sciences usually requires a combination of domain-specific declarative knowledge and procedural or strategic knowledge ( Alexander and Judy, 1988 ; Farnham-Diggory, 1994 ), which together enable the performance of the required experiments in an attempt to answer the research question.

In addition to its fundamental role in scientific research, question-asking has an important educational role ( Biddulph et al. , 1986 ; Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1992 ; White and Gunstone, 1992 ; Watts et al. , 1997 ; Chin et al. , 2002 ). Self-generated questions are thought to contribute to meaningful learning and to the construction of knowledge ( Chin et al. , 2002 ). Question-asking by students can be considered a constructivist way of learning ( Watts et al. , 1997 ), which serves to close gaps in the minds of the askers ( Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1992 ). Question-asking may also create the motivation to find answers and, thus, contribute to higher cognitive achievements ( White and Gunstone, 1992 ). In addition, question-asking can help teachers reveal the students' reasoning, alternative views and interest ( Biddulph et al. , 1986 ).

Although question-asking is a basic requirement for the performance of scientific research, and for meaningful learning, the way in which science lessons are conducted does not usually stimulate question-asking by the students ( Dillon, 1988b ). Questions are posed mainly by teachers during lessons ( Allison and Shrigley, 1986 ; Dillon, 1988b ; Dori and Herscovitz, 1999 ) and not by the students. Many of the questions that are posed during lessons ( Barden, 1995 ) or that are found in textbooks ( Shepardson and Pizzini, 1991 ) require low levels of thinking (of the knowledge category, according to the taxonomy of Bloom et al. [ 1956 ]). In textbooks and in the classroom, students are required to learn techniques that will enable them to solve exercises that usually have one correct answer ( Zoller, 1987 ). These kinds of questions only develop technical skills; they do not encourage high levels of thinking, and they create a learning environment that is far from the environment that exists while conducting real scientific research.

As already mentioned, students do not usually tend to ask questions. Therefore, question-asking by students has to be encouraged by the environment created during the lesson ( Dillon, 1988b ; Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1992 ; Shodell, 1995 ). There is a variety of ways to conduct a question-stimulating lesson. Discussion is one of the ways in which, in addition to questions asked by the teacher, questions can also be posed by the students ( King, 1994 ). Cognitive conflict ( Allison and Shrigley, 1986 ), real-world problem-solving activities ( Zoller, 1987 ; Chin et al. , 2002 ), or case studies ( Dori and Herscovitz, 1999 ) have also been reported as catalysts to question-asking, provided the students are required to ask questions. Training students to ask questions and to improve their questioning skills can also serve to stimulate them to generate their own questions ( Hartford and Good, 1982 ; Dillon, 1988b ).

As with their answers to a teacher's questions, students' questions can reveal their level of understanding ( Biddulph et al. , 1986 ; Dillon, 1988b ). The skill of posing questions can be evaluated in several ways, most of which refer to the level of thinking required in order to answer the questions. One way is to evaluate questions according to Bloom's taxonomy (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation [ Bloom et al. , 1956 ]). A simpler evaluation involves distinguishing among three categories of questions ( Shepardson and Pizzini, 1991 ): input category—a question that requires recalling knowledge; processing category—a question that requires linking pieces of information; and output category—a question that requires hypothesizing, generalizing, criticizing, etc. Dori and Herscovitz ( 1999 ) suggested three different categories: the quantity of questions posed by the student; the orientation of the answer to the question—descriptive, consequences or effects, a solution to a problem or hypothesis; and the complexity of the answer—application, interdisciplinary, judgment, criticism, personal opinion. Scardamalia and Bereiter ( 1992 ) described another two categories of questions posed by students: text-based questions that are generated while reading texts, usually in response to specific requests to ask questions as part of the learning process; and wonderment questions that result from a deep interest of the student trying to make sense of the world.

In an attempt to specifically classify research questions, Dillon ( 1984 ) proposed five main categories: rhetorical, properties, comparisons, contingencies, and other. According to Dillon ( 1984 ), each category represents a different order of information that can be obtained by the research driven by this type of research question. The three categories—properties, comparisons, and contingencies—were classified by Dillon ( 1984 ) as first-, second-, and third-order categories, respectively, indicating their relative increase in contribution to scientific knowledge. In contrast, the rhetorical questions were classified by Dillon ( 1984 ) as zero order, since they will never contribute new knowledge. Dillon considered causal questions to be of the highest order of research questions since “they represent the kind of knowledge that scientific inquiry is conceived ultimately to aspire to and that it is hoped eventually to attain.” Dillon ( 1984 ) further characterized each of the five categories of questions and specified all of the possibilities in each category.

To make high-school biology students more familiar with the process of scientific research, we developed learning material in developmental biology that is based on selected research papers ( Yarden and Brill, 2000 ). In addition to processing research articles so they suit the cognitive level of high-school students, the curriculum includes an introduction expressing the main principles in developmental biology and major research questions in the field ( Yarden et al. , 2001 ). Although scientists commonly report their research in research papers and continuously read research papers to learn about research performed by others, text-based learning through the use of scientific research papers in high schools is less common ( Yarden et al. , 2001 ). As mentioned previously, the research question is an important component of research articles, as it combines procedural and declarative knowledge and can reveal the rationale of the research. The format of a research paper usually unfolds in an orderly way, describing the theoretical background that gave rise to the research question, the methods that were chosen according to the research question, and the nature of the results obtained in the research. Thus, we wondered whether learning through research papers could serve as a catalyst to asking research-type questions among high-school biology students.

Research Sample

New learning material in developmental biology ( Yarden and Brill, 2000 ) was initially introduced to high-school biology majors (17-year-old students in 11th grade [three classes; n = 17, n = 12, n = 30] and 18-year-old students in 12th grade [one class; n = 10]) at four urban high schools in Israel. The total number of student participants in the experimental group was 69. The group was composed of an approximately equal number of males (33) and females (36). In addition to this group of students, the same curriculum was introduced to an additional class (18-year-old students in 12th grade; n = 18) at another urban high school in Israel. From this additional class, qualitative data were collected and analyzed.

The control group consisted of an additional class of high-school biology majors from an urban high school in Israel (17-year-old students in 11th grade; n = 38). This class did not learn the developmental biology curriculum and was engaged in learning genetics, as an advanced topic of the syllabus for biology majors (see below).

In Israel, students choose to major during 11th and 12th grades in at least one scientific or nonscientific topic, which is evaluated in a national matriculation examination. The syllabus for biology-major studies in Israel (300 h of teaching [Israeli Ministry of Education, 1991 , 2003 ]) includes, in addition to basic topics, advanced topics that are aimed to reflect the dynamics of biological research and discovery. Each of the advanced topics, including the curriculum in developmental biology, is designed for 30 h of teaching.

The Developmental Biology Curriculum

The curriculum unit in the area of developmental biology is described in detail by Yarden et al. ( 2001 ). Briefly, the program introduction describes principal stages in embryonic development and presents five key research questions in developmental biology. Each question is accompanied by a short discussion, which presents the rationale that led to posing the question. The main part of the program contains four research papers in developmental biology focusing on four different questions.

Apart from the translation of the original papers into Hebrew, each paper was modified as follows. (1) Essential information was added to the introduction of the article in order to help students understand the academic background of the research question. (2) The scientific methods used in the research and the discussion were simplified and adapted to the students' level. (3) Results that did not relate directly to the research questions were omitted. (4) A section about the contribution of the research to the understanding of processes occurring in humans, as well as in other organisms, was added to each paper.

Teachers were also provided with guiding questions for the introduction of the curriculum, as well as for the research articles. The main rationale behind these questions was to encourage a student-centered approach in which a discourse is created between the students and the text, leading the students to actively build their own knowledge structure while reading the article and the introduction of the curriculum. This is in contrast to a teacher-centered approach in which the teacher transfers the content of the text to the students.

The questions were variable and referred to different sections of the article (abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussion) as well as to the introduction of the curriculum. The main aims of the questions were (1) to recruit prior knowledge; (2) to organize newly acquired knowledge; (3) to formulate the research questions of specific experiments; (4) to emphasize the difference between past experiments that are brought up in the introduction of the article, from which the research question emerged, and the experiments that were conducted in the currently reported research; (5) to help the students connect the terms they use in class with “real” research language; (6) to clarify the differences between the experiments that were conducted in the reported research; and (7) to connect relevant parts of the articles to the introduction of the curriculum.

The genetics curriculum introduces basic topics in classical genetics, as well as some molecular aspects. Briefly, the students of the control group learned about Mendelian heredity, multiple gene heredity, basic probability, linkage of genes, meiosis and mitosis, the chromosomal basis of heredity, and the process of gene transcription and mRNA translation. This topic was studied using a textbook ( Atidya, 1990 ), which consisted of descriptive parts, followed by questions.

Acquisition of Quantitative Data

Quantitative data were collected using paper-and-pencil questionnaires, which were given to the students at the four high schools. The questionnaire included (among other questions) the following: “ What would it interest you to know about embryonic development? ” The questionnaire was handed out to the students at three time points during the 30-h teaching program: before starting the program (a pretest, T1), after learning the introduction and five research questions (T2), and following the study of one research article (T3). T2 served especially to monitor questions posed after the declarative part of the curriculum had been taught. Studying research papers, which followed immediately after T2, does not add a substantial amount of declarative knowledge ( Yarden et al. , 2001 ). Indeed, the contribution of one of these articles to scientific declarative knowledge was summarized by one of the students in only one sentence ( Yarden et al. , 2001 ). The contribution of the research papers seems, rather, to be to students' acquaintance with the rationale of the research, the research question, and scientific methods. It should be emphasized that during the implementation of the developmental biology curriculum there was no educational effort to elicit question-asking, and the students were not encouraged in any explicit way to ask questions.

The control group, which studied genetics, was asked to answer the question, “ What would it interest you to know about genetics? ” at two time points: the first was about 3 weeks after the beginning of the teaching period of the topic and was, therefore, parallel to T2 of the experimental group. The second time point was 3 weeks after T2, paralleling T3 of the experimental group. By T2, the control class had learned about Mendelian heredity, multiple gene heredity, and some basic probability. At T3, this class had learned most of the other subtopics of the subject (see The Developmental Biology Curriculum, above).

Acquisition of Qualitative Data

In addition to a quantitative approach, we used a qualitative approach to examine the way research articles influence the kind of questions students ask during actual lessons. In the past decade there has been a growing use of qualitative approaches in social science research, including research in science teaching. The need for qualitative research emerged from the difficulties encountered in trying to understand complex environments, in which many factors contribute to the observed phenomenon ( Guba and Lincoln, 1998 ). In such environments, it is difficult to apply classical positivist research approaches, in which variables must be controlled or altered. Qualitative research may focus on a single event, or even a single research subject, but allows one to obtain rich and in-depth data as well as to analyze several variables at once ( Guba and Lincoln, 1998 ). Qualitative research does not contradict quantitative research; rather the two can complement each other, as was our aim here.

Qualitative data were collected during the implementation of the developmental biology curriculum in one of the classrooms. Our analysis focused on the discourses that took place during two of the lessons: (1) a lesson in which part of the introduction to the curriculum was discussed and (2) lesson in which the methods and the results of one of the four research papers in the curriculum were discussed (this research article was modified from Riddle et al. [ 1993 ]). The first lesson spanned 45 min; the second, 70 min. The two lessons took place 3 weeks apart. They were videotaped and transcripts were prepared.

Categories of Questions According to the Order of Information

The questions, obtained either quantitatively or qualitatively, were evaluated using three categories following Dillon's ( 1984 ) classification of research questions. These categories refer to the thinking level required to provide the answers to those questions: (1) properties—answers to questions in this category describe the properties of the subject in question; (2) Comparisons—answering questions in this category requires a comparison between the subjects in question; and (3) causal relationships—answering questions in this category requires finding the relation, correlation, conditionality, or causality of the subjects in question. In most cases, an experiment is needed in order to answer questions in this category. Questions that raise some kind of criticism of the research were also included in this category, since they indicate contradictory relationships. Usually, questions from the properties category referred to one variable, while questions from the comparisons and causal relationships categories referred to at least two variables.

In the quantitative analysis of the students' questions, we referred to the class as a whole, and not to individual students, the main reason being that the number of students changed while the experiment was in progress (see Discussion). In addition, the change in the questions students asked is demonstrated by the number of questions in each category, rather than the change in the total number of questions. This is because the order of information that even one question seeks was considered the most important parameter, rather than the number of questions asked during a class session.

Analysis of Quantitative Data

All of the questions written by the students in the questionnaires, which were introduced in the four different schools at the three time points, were pooled to a single file, for a total of 224 questions. All the questions from the control group at the two time points were also pooled to a different file, for a total of 98 questions. Question categorization was carried out independently by the two researchers. The degree of agreement between the two independent categorizations was calculated by kappa analysis ( Fleiss, 1981 ; Agresti, 1990 ).

Categories of Question Uniqueness

In addition to the categorization described previously, questions that were collected quantitatively were coded according to content. Questions that received the same code were either similar (for example, the question,“ What are the stages in embryonic development?” and the question,“ What develops when, and in what order?”) or identical. Questions that received a different code were considered unique. The number of unique questions was then compared for each stage (T1, T2, and T3 for the experimental group, T2 and T3 for the control group), and a χ 2 test was applied to ensure statistical significance.

Quantitative Analysis of the Influence of Studying through Research Papers on the Type of Questions Posed by Students

Most of the questions (94%) posed by the students before the initiation of the learning using research papers were of the properties category ( Table 1 ). Answering a question in this category requires only declarative knowledge. All questions of this kind that were posed by the students dealt with the different stages or course of events in the development of an embryo. The main characteristic of these questions was their generality: The students did not ask about specific stages or about specific embryos. The questions referred mainly to the whole-embryo level, for example, “In which order does the embryo develop?” and“ What are the different stages of embryonic development?” Some of the questions did not have the structure of a question but, rather, were part of a phrase, for example,”stages of development” (see also Table 2 ). Only 3% of the students, at the initiation of the program, asked questions that were classified into the second or third categories ( Table 1 ). Questions that were posed at this stage of the learning and were classified in the comparisons category were also general and dealt with stages of embryonic development ( Table 2 ).

a The categories used for classifying the questions, according to Dillon ( 1984 ).

b For the developmental biology curriculum, T1 to T3 represent the time points at which the questionnaire was introduced: T1—before starting the developmental biology program (a pretest); T2—after studying the introduction to the learning material; T3—following the study of one research article. For the genetics curriculum, T2—after studying three subtopics in genetics; T3—after studying additional subtopics in genetics. n represents the number of questions collected from the four schools at each time point; k represents the kappa value of the degree of agreement between the two independent categorizations of questions carried out by the two researchers. A k of 0.75 or greater represents a high degree of interrater agreement among coders, while a k of 0.4-0.75 represents good agreement among coders ( Fleiss, 1981 ; Agresti, 1990 ). The k value was not calculated for the group that studied genetics, since 0% of questions were asked in certain categories. The percentage agreement between the two independent categorizations of questions carried out by the two researchers is shown in parentheses.

At the second time point at which the questionnaires were introduced, following a study of the introduction to the learning material in developmental biology, 85% of the students still posed questions that were in the properties category ( Table 1 ). Some of these questions referred to some kind of manipulation of the embryo. An example of this kind of question is, “What are the reversible stages in the development of the embryo and what are the irreversible ones?” This student probably thought of some manipulation of the embryo (for example, replacing pieces of tissue) but did not express this in the question. Most of the questions in this category referred to the specific-organ level but were still general (for example, “How does the brain develop?”; see also Table 2 ). Eleven percent of the questions were of the second category, requiring some kind of comparison between embryos of different organisms, and 4% were of the third category, requiring some kind of manipulation of the embryo (Tables 1 and 2 ).

A substantial change was seen after reading one research paper (of the four research papers in the learning material). At this stage, 21% of the questions posed by the students were of the third category—causal relationships—while 6% of the questions were of the second category, and 73% were of the first category ( Table 1 ). An example of a question from the third category after learning one research articles is,”If we take a primary muscle cell at a certain stage in the differentiation process, could we create a muscle cell that would help a person who has a problem with his muscles?” This question was posed after studying an article that focused on mechanisms that control muscle differentiation (following Hasty et al. , 1993 ). The student clearly combines procedural knowledge (taking an embryonic cell out of the embryo and into a new context—the patient) with declarative knowledge (differentiation of cells occurs gradually). In doing so, the student generates a typical if–then question, characteristic of hypothesis (additional examples appear in Table 2 ).

We noticed that none of the students' questions that were classified in the third category included questions of criticism. One possible reason for this is that the questionnaire presented a general request to ask questions about developmental biology, and therefore no questions of criticism were posed.

In contrast to the change observed in questions from the third category after learning through research articles, no such change was observed in the control group, which studied genetics using a textbook ( Table 1 ). The type of questions asked by these students at T2 were similar to the type of questions asked by the students who learned developmental biology at T2 ( χ 2 control = 3.03, df = 2, p = .22). At T3, students from the control group asked only questions from the first category (properties) and did not ask any other type of question. Thus, there was a significant difference between the type of questions asked by students in the control group and the type of questions asked by the students who learned using research papers at T3 ( χ 2 = 12.702, df = 2, p = .002). At both time points (T2 and T3), the main characteristic of the questions asked by students in the control group was their generality: They referred to general topics in genetics, such as genetic engineering and mutations. Most of the questions did not have question structure; rather they were part of a phrase, for example, “about cloning.”

In addition to the increase in questions in the third category, which occurred after learning through a research article, an increase in the number of unique questions was also observed. Questions were coded according to their content, and the proportion of questions that were either similar or identical, as well as the proportion of unique questions at each stage, is shown in Table 3 . As can be seen, the proportion of unique questions was significantly ( p = .001) higher in T3 (73%) than the proportion in T1 (31%) or T2 (54%). While similar questions were only questions in the properties category, unique questions included those from all three information–order categories (properties, comparisons, and causal relationships). In contrast, questions asked in the control class, i.e., those who studied genetics using a textbook, revealed a decrease in unique questions (from 26% at T2 to 17% at T3; Table 3 ) and no significant difference was found in the proportion of unique questions between T2 and T3 ( p = .33; Table 3 ). However, a significant difference ( χ 2 = 27.947, df = 1, p = .001) was found at T3, between the group that studied using a text book and the group that studied using research papers.

a The questions were coded according to their content. Unique questions were separated from similar and identical questions.

b For the developmental biology curriculum, T1 to T3 represent the time points at which the questionnaire was introduced: T1—before starting the developmental biology program (a pretest); T2—after studying the introduction to the learning material; T3—following the study of one research article. For the genetics curriculum, T2—after studying three subtopics in genetics; T3—after studying additional subtopics in genetics. n represents the number of questions collected from the four schools at each time point.

c The chi-square tests the significance of the difference between the number of similar/unique questions asked at T3 and the number asked at T2 and T1.

d The chi-square tests the significance of the difference between the number of similar/unique questions asked at T3 and the number asked at T2.

Qualitative Analysis of a Change in the Type of Questions Posed during Actual Lessons

The aforementioned changes in students' questions that were observed at the three time points during the learning process of the developmental biology curriculum were obtained from written questionnaires handed out to the students before or following instruction, and not during the actual learning process itself. To trace possible changes in the questions posed by students who are engaged in a learning process through research papers themselves, we followed students' questions that were asked orally during two lessons: One lesson dealt with a subject from the introduction to the curriculum in developmental biology, and the other, with one of the research articles from the curriculum. Although we refer to questions posed by all the students during the lesson, we focused on one student, M, who was particularly determined in her discussions with the teacher during the lesson that dealt with the research paper.

The First Lesson: Learning the Introduction to the Unit. This lesson was conducted as a typical Socratic dialogue. Questions were posed predominantly by the teacher, a phenomenon that has been described by Dillon ( 1988b ). Nevertheless, students did ask questions ( n = 24 during 35 min), although the purpose of many of these questions ( n = 14) was to obtain information that did not concern the biological issue being discussed during the lesson, for example, “On which page is it?“and “What did you write there [on the blackboard]?” These types of questions have been reported as common in lessons that are based on Socratic dialogue and classified as conversational questions ( Dillon, 1988b ).

Students' questions that addressed the biological subject of the lesson were mostly of the properties category ( n = 7; for example, “Is the ectoderm the inner tissue?”), and only one question that was asked during this lesson was of the comparisons category (“Is a cell that makes a growth factor itself affected by a growth factor?”). Most of these questions were short, as were the conversations with the teacher that followed them.

During this lesson, M was an active participant. She volunteered to read aloud when the teacher asked for volunteers. She gave correct answers to questions asked by the teacher. In addition, she was aware of differences between what the teacher said and what was described in the textbook, and commented on them. It was obvious that her peers considered her a very intelligent person. M also tried to explain a question to the teacher that another class member had asked and that the teacher had not understood. During this lesson, there is only one episode in which M asked the teacher questions:

M: What does “alters the shape of the receptor” mean?

Teacher: Yes, well, the receptor, when it receives a growth factor ...

Teacher:... the shape that faces the internal part of the cell changes.

M: Oh, as if to mark that it received it [the signal]?

Teacher: It received it, something changed there, and as a result protein molecules inside the cell change.

In this episode, M's questions are characteristic properties-type questions. They deal with only one variable (the change in the shape of the receptor), and as soon as M receives the teacher's answer the lesson continues. This episode is similar to other episodes of questions posed by other students in the class during this lesson, in which the questions were of the properties category, and as soon as the answer was given by the teacher the lesson continued.

The Second Lesson: Learning through a Research Article. In this lesson, the teacher and the students went through the methods and the results of the research article they had just been reading (which was modified from Riddle et al. , 1993 ). The teacher conducted a lesson based on guiding questions meant to help the students make sense of what they had read: organize the knowledge they obtained from the article, monitor their understanding, help them connect the paper to other topics in biology, etc. The teacher usually asked the question and discussed it with the whole class. Sometimes she asked the students to answer the questions in groups, sometimes by themselves, but then she always conducted whole-class discussions of the answers. It should be emphasized that during the lesson, the teacher did not explicitly encourage the students to ask questions. At times her reactions even unconsciously discouraged students to ask questions (for example, ignoring students' questions).

The questions that students asked during this lesson ( n = 19 during 70 min) were of two categories: either properties ( n = 10) or causal relationships ( n = 9). The students were interested in the methods used for the specific research and tried to understand the logic behind the method and the experiments (for example, “But doesn't the virus eventually ruin the cells?” “How do they make more of them [the viruses], if they do not overtake the [cell's mechanism of] translation with the disease?”). Their comments during the lesson, including their questions, were longer, delving into more detail (“We said that we use viruses that do not infect the ... this chicken species, or something like that. That the ... viruses ... that the cells of the chicken are resistant to the viruses. So, it cannot influence the chicken. It cannot spread.”).

A change was also evident in M's comments and questions during this lesson. M kept asking questions about the methods and the results described in the article. Some of her questions were of the properties category and involved one variable, for example, “Why do they implant the viruses if they cannot cause the illness?”“And then the virus injects its DNA into the cells and now they have the gene in them?” and “What does the virus do except for the fact that it has the gene?”

Other questions involved some kind of procedure, like proposing an experiment: “Why transplant it in the wing? Why not transplant it in the leg, or in the head? Every organ in the body has polarity!”

During this lesson, M continuously criticized the way in which the research had been done and offered her own ways to conduct the experiments. The following episode illustrates this.

M: Can't you just infect cells that [already] have that gene, instead of like ... transfer DNA into new cells?

Teacher: What you would like is ... you would like to control the way the gene is expressed. This means that in cells that normally have this gene, because all chick cells have that gene like you saw in the article, there is a certain stage in which the gene is expressed and certain stages in which it isn't.

M: So, according to what you are saying, this gene also exists in fibroblasts ...

Teacher: That's right!

M: So, what is the difference?

Teacher: But it isn't expressed there.

M: So, the fact that we transfer DNA ...

Teacher: So with genetic engineering methods we transfer the DNA in such a way that there will be a high quantity of the gene, and also that it will be expressed.

M: How do you know that specifically the gene that you transferred will be expressed?

Teacher: These are already details that you are not supposed to get into, but you transfer it with a very strong promoter to which the RNA polymerase binds strongly, so you will have transcription anyway.

This episode shows that M wants to understand the heart of the matter and she keeps asking until she does. Her questions indicate that she does not take things for granted, consistent with her learning behavior during the first lesson. She also offers other ways to conduct the experiment described in the research paper (“Can't you just infect cells that [already] have that gene, instead of like ... transfer DNA into new cells?”), a phenomenon that was not observed during the first lesson, when students learned about other experiments in a textbook format. The episode is also much longer than the typical episodes from the first lesson.

During this lesson, there are four similar episodes (including the episode above) in which M expresses her skepticism and offers other ways to conduct the experiments. In these episodes, M's conversations with the teacher are long, and she poses questions of the third category, mainly questions expressing criticism, as well as questions of the properties category. These episodes lead M and the teacher to talk about the methods used in the experiments and the need to conduct manipulative research but, nevertheless, to conclude about normal development.

Question-asking is an important skill for both scientific research and meaningful learning. The acquisition of the question-asking skill is gradual: Students do not spontaneously pose questions reflecting a high level of thinking ( Dillon, 1988b ). In order to do so, they need either a stimulus or training ( Dillon, 1988b ). The new learning material that we developed may be one of the ways to stimulate question-asking at high thinking levels among high-school students. This is indicated by the data given here: During and after the reading of research papers, and without specific training, students (sometimes even spontaneously) started asking questions of high thinking levels, which dealt with causal relationships between variables and with criticism. In addition, students tended to ask more unique questions and fewer similar ones. This may indicate the more diverse directions of thinking that arise after reading research papers. A possible reason for these phenomena is the nature of research papers in which the reader, in our case high-school students, is exposed to the whole procedure of the research (the research question, the methods, the rationale of the experiments). In contrast, textbooks, which are the common learning material in high-school biology classrooms, usually either explain experiments without detailing the research methods or simply bring only the results of the research or even only the conclusions, without explaining how they were obtained. We believe that students who learn through textbooks do not usually question the data they obtain from those books or during the lessons. In contrast, students who are exposed to research papers start to grasp the way in which the research was conducted and how the conclusions were obtained. Since they are not familiar with the methods of the research, they tend to ask more about its details and, like M, may begin to criticize the way in which the research was conducted. After they understand better, students start to use the research methods they have learned to phrase new research questions, which deal with causal relationships. The combination of research methods (procedural knowledge) and theoretical background (declarative knowledge) allows a variety of possibilities and combinations in formulating research questions and, therefore, results in an increase in unique questions.

It may be postulated that the change in the type of questions posed by students that learn through research papers is simply due to the extra learning time that has elapsed between studying the introduction to the curriculum (T2) and studying the research papers (T3) and the acquisition of new knowledge during this period. In this view, the change in the questions generated by the students merely reflect different stages in their learning ( Watts et al. , 1997 ). We believe this not to be the case for three main reasons. (1) The group that studied genetics using a standard textbook did not reveal such a change in the type of questions asked by the students, although a similar period of time had elapsed. It should be noted that the pattern of the type of questions in this group at T2 was similar to the pattern at T2 for the students who had learned through research articles. This may indicate that the ability to ask certain types of questions was similar in both groups. (2) It has previously been reported that students generate low–thinking level questions either during or following instruction due to the environment in the lessons, which discourages their asking (for review see Dillon 1988b ), as well as to the examples of questions that students encounter in textbooks ( Zoller, 1987 ; Shepardson and Pizzini, 1991 ) and that are posed to them by the teachers. (3) As already mentioned, the main declarative knowledge of the curriculum was taught during its introduction. Studying a research article does not add substantial declarative knowledge, as it can be summarized by the students in a single sentence ( Yarden et al. , 2001 ). Its contribution seems, rather, to be to the development of the students' acquaintance with the rationale of the research, the research question, and the scientific methods.

It should be noted that the change we observed in the type of questions posed by students who learned through research articles from our curriculum was a nominally moderate change (from 3 questions in the causal relationships category at T1 and T2 to 11 at T3; see also Table 1 ). This moderate change could be due to the fact that asking questions requires not only a stimulating curriculum, but also a combination of factors that may contribute to a substantial increase in causal relationship-type questions. Those factors might be the teachers' reactions to students' questions ( Dillon, 1988b ), the students' reaction to peers' questions, or the students' knowledge about different levels of questions. Therefore, the teaching approach to learning through research articles should also contribute to the students' ability to ask causal relationship-type questions, but the teachers who participated in this research did not change any of their previous teaching approaches while using the research papers. In our current attempts to develop new methods of teaching through research articles, we try to create a supportive environment for students' questions during the lesson, and indeed in such an environment, we have noticed that students tend to ask higher–thinking level questions (data not shown). We therefore believe that the moderate change in the type of questions that we observed while students learned through research articles should be regarded as an initiation of developing the ability to ask higher level-questions and, together with the other factors mentioned above, can influence this thinking skill.

In contrast to the increase in the quality of the questions posed by students during the implementation of the developmental biology curriculum, there appeared to be a decrease in the total number of questions (T1, n = 91; T2, n = 81; T3, n = 52. A decrease was also observed in the class that learned genetics (T2, n = 58; T3, n = 40), and this was probably not due to the usage of either particular curriculum. This trend can be explained by the time that passed from T1 to T2 and then to T3, which was rather short (for some classes only a week; for other classes, 2 or 3 weeks). Repeating the task of asking questions in such a short time, especially when the students are not used to question-asking, can be quite tedious and may result in some reluctance to cooperate. Some of the teachers explicitly requested a certain number of questions on one occasion but not on others, and different teachers gave different times on task. In addition, for technical reasons, the composition of the students in a class changed from time to time. In classes that learned the developmental biology curriculum, the percentage of absent students changed from 16% at T1, to 58% at T2, to 36% at T3. The reasons were variable (for example, illness, special activities at school, matriculation examinations for some of the students). Therefore, the students that composed a class at T1 were not necessarily the same students at T2 and T3. These considerations, as well as others (see Categories of Questions According to the Order of Information, under Methods), led us to regard the students as a community of learners and to analyze the quality of the questions rather than their quantity.

The change we observed in the type of questions that students asked was not due to any intentional act of teaching. Teachers were provided with the same type of guiding questions for both the introduction to the curriculum and the research papers. In addition, teachers who taught the curriculum were not informed of our research question and were not instructed to teach any differently than they normally would. M's teacher, for example, did not use the questions asked by M as a stimulus for class discussion, resulting in a discourse between only the teacher and the student. Nevertheless, since teachers are not used to conducting text-based science lessons, we expected that using a curriculum based on research articles might in and of itself change their teaching approach and influence the type of questions the students asked. To our disappointment, this did not happen. We were present at all lessons that were conducted in all the classes that participated in this research, and although we did not perform a detailed follow-up of the lessons, as was done in student M's class, we did not observe any major changes in the teaching approaches of the teachers. Lessons were still conducted as a Socratic dialogue, with the teachers expecting the students to find the answers to the teachers' questions in the text. Therefore, we are now trying to implement the curriculum with appropriate teaching approaches, which will hopefully further allow and stimulate the question-asking abilities of the students and help them answer their own questions, if possible, using the text of the research article, as well as encourage active learning through the text ( Yarden et al. , 2001 ).

In the course of studying the new learning material in developmental biology, we could discern three stages, which were accompanied by a typical level of questions posed by the students.

Information-gathering: At this stage, students lack basic knowledge of the subject matter. Therefore, their questions are of the lowest thinking level (of the knowledge category according to the taxonomy of Bloom et al. [ 1956 ]). Developmental biology is a topic in which high-school biology students in Israel have relatively low prior knowledge, and thus this level of questions was expected.

Knowledge organization: After, and sometimes also during, the gathering of basic knowledge on a topic, students raise questions that involve linking pieces of information. Descriptions of experiments in textbooks may stimulate general questions about the rationale of the research.

Participation in scientific research: At this stage, the students encounter the research papers, which provide them mainly with procedural knowledge and with examples of the rationale of a specific research work, and research questions. Therefore, they can integrate declarative knowledge, which they acquired through the introduction of the curriculum, and the procedural knowledge, in order to ask questions of a high thinking level, which may require actual experiments or manipulations. They can then also criticize the specific research study about which they are reading.

The first two stages occurred while students were engaged in learning the introduction to the curriculum. This part of the curriculum is not very different from other textbooks and, therefore, requires familiar ways of learning and offers mainly declarative knowledge. Students in high school readily reach stages 1 and 2. We propose that, if after reaching these stages students are exposed to scientific papers, they will gradually become involved in the research. They will be aware of the cascade of events that led to the answer, they will become familiar with the methods that enabled conducting the experiments that examined the research question, and they will read about the new questions raised by the paper. This opportunity can stimulate them to formulate questions of a high thinking level, which will result in meaningful learning.

Chin et al. ( 2002 ) reported that when sixth graders were engaged in laboratory activities and were not explicitly asked to generate questions, many of their attempts to construct meaning were not apparent to their teacher. During the lesson we described in this research, and in the questionnaire, students were not explicitly encouraged to ask questions. Nevertheless, during these lessons and also in the questionnaires, we could detect a change in their self-generated questions. We are currently attempting to apply students' generated questions to the process of learning through research articles. It would be interesting to determine whether the intrinsic ability of research papers to elicit high-level questions can be even stronger when students are explicitly encouraged to ask questions.

Monitoring Editor: James Gentile

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the teachers Mrs. Masha Sheffi, Mrs. Tova Peri, Mr. Sagi Ben-Bassat, Mrs. Kiui Shpirer, Dr. Sima Grinberg-Levy, and Dr. Michal Zion for teaching the learning material in their classrooms. We are also thankful for the statistical analysis, which was conducted by Mrs. Yetti Varon, and for critical comments on the manuscript made by Professor Bat-Sheva Eylon and Professor Avi Hofstein. Gilat Brill's work was supported by the Sacta-Rashi Foundation.

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Submitted: 19 December 2002 Revised: 27 May 2003 Accepted: 28 May 2003

© 2003 by The American Society for Cell Biology

• developmental biology
• question-asking
• primary literature
• inquiry process

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National Research Council (US) Committee on High-School Biology Education; Rosen WG, editor. High-School Biology Today and Tomorrow: Papers Presented at a Conference. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1989.

High-School Biology Today and Tomorrow: Papers Presented at a Conference.

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19 Teaching High-School Biology: Materials and Strategies

Rodger W. Bybee

• Whom Are We Teaching Biology?

High-school biology is offered in 99% of high schools in the United States (Weiss, 1987). This is a 4% increase since 1977 (Weiss, 1978). Biology is the most commonly offered science course—35% of all science courses. Half of all science classes relate to the biological sciences (Weiss, 1987). It is safe to say that biology is taken by the majority of high-school students. And for many of those students, biology is the last science course they will take.

It is absolutely essential to consider the demographics of education as we look for a reform of biology education. In All One System , Harold Hodgkinson (1985) presents demographic trends—changes in population groupings that move through the educational system. Hodgkinson summarized his findings (p. 7):

What is coming toward the educational system is a group of children who will be poorer, more ethnically and linguistically diverse, and who will have more handicaps that will affect their learning. Most important, by around the year 2000, America will be a nation in which one of every three of us will be non-white. And minorities will cover a broader socioeconomic range than ever before, making simplistic treatment of their needles. even less useful.

Other national reports serve to remind us that our educational programs at the precollege level must recognize the personal needs of all youth and the aspirations of society. One such report is The Forgotten Half: Non-College Youth in America (Commission on Work, Family, and Citizenship, 1988). This report is a counterpoint to the numerous reports that explicitly or implicitly focus on the college-bound student.

Whom are we teaching biology? We are teaching the majority of students. And we must recognize that the majority is a diverse group, with different needs, perceptions, and aspirations. High-school biology should be designed for all students, those who are college-bound and those who will enter the workforce immediately after high school.

• Characteristics of Students

Contemporary research findings about students as learners underlie my discussion of instruction. One finding is that students are motivated to learn science. They are naturally curious about all aspects of the biological world. Whether it is recognizing plants and animals, understanding biotechnology, or investigating ecological systems, students have an interest in their world and seek explanations for how things work.

A second finding is that students already have explanations, attitudes, and skills when a biology lesson begins. Students' explanations, attitudes, and skills may well be inadequate, incomplete, or inappropriate. Contemporary educational researchers use such terms as ''misconceptions" and "naive theories" to characterize the cognitive component of student understanding. Briefly, students interpret instructional activities in terms of what they already know; then they actively seek to relate new concepts, attitudes, or skills to their prior set of concepts, attitudes, or skills. The assimilation of new experiences is based on the students' prior experiences, and it may or may not get "learned" the way the teacher intended. Students' learning is accurately viewed as the process of refining and reconstructing extant knowledge, attitudes, and skills, rather than the steady accumulation of new knowledge, attitudes, and skills.

A third finding is that students have different styles of learning. "Learning style" refers to the way individuals perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment. Learning styles have cognitive, affective, and physical components. While instructional strategies vary between and within projects, they are based on the idea that learning style is an aspect of students' learning and should be recognized in the strategies of teaching.

The fourth finding is that students pass through developmental stages and that tasks influence learning. In the 1960s and 1970s, Jean Piaget's theory was popular, and it influenced curriculum development. Piaget's work concentrated on cognitive development. Current research in the cognitive sciences is, in many respects, an extension of Piaget's theories. Contemporary curriculum development holds a larger view of student development. In addition to cognitive development, we should also attend to the student's ethical, social, and psychomotor development. This broader view of development is important to the selection of instructional methods.

The general view of student learning presented in the four findings is constructivist. In the constructivist model, students reorganize and reconstruct core concepts, or intellectual structures, through continuous interactions with their environment and other people. Applying the constructivist approach to teaching requires the teacher to recognize that students have conceptions of the natural world. Those may be inadequate and need further development. Curriculum developers can design materials and teachers can use strategies so that students encounter objects or events that focus on the concepts, attitudes, or skills that are the intended learning outcomes. Then they can have students encounter problematic situations that are slightly beyond their current level of understanding or skill. The instructional approach then structures physical and psychological experiences that assist in the construction of more adequate explanations, attitudes, and skills. These new constructions are then applied to different situations and tested against other constructions used to explain and manipulate objects and events in the students' world. Briefly, the students' construction of knowledge can be assisted by using sequences of lessons designed to challenge current conceptions and by providing time and opportunities for reconstruction to occur.

• What Should We Teach?

Through most of time, the immense journey of biological evolution has been directed by natural laws. With scientific and technological advances, such as the discovery of DNA and the development of biotechnology, and with the problems of population, resources, and environments—such as famine, destruction of tropical rain forests, and ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere—we have abilities and influences that go beyond our meager understanding and myopic visions. Evolution may now be directed by humans themselves. Here is a clear and profound connection between biology as a pure science and the influence of biology on our global society. Students need an ecological perspective. All other arguments for a particular curriculum emphasis in biology pale in comparison.

A recent editorial in Science (Koshland, 1988) descried the importance of ecological understanding:

Ecology, the study of the delicate balance between species and environment ... shows that evolution has developed clever strategies ... to use resources to maximum effectiveness. Those strategies sometimes involve symbiosis, sometimes tacit agreements on territory, and sometimes murderous aggression, but all are based on the assumption that resources are limited so that the clever and the parsimonious will gain relative to the inefficient and wasteful.

At the end of the editorial, Koshland made a clear connection to human populations:

Most species struggle to overcome poverty of resources and occupy niches that allow a critical number to survive in competition with other species. Modern civilization has upset that process so that many (although certainly not all) humans are living far beyond a survival level. The brain that allowed that situation needs now to curb a primordial instinct to increased replication of our own species at the expense of others because the global ecology is threatened. So, ask not whether the bell tolls for the owl or the whale or the rhinoceros; it tolls for us.

This powerful statement has the implied theme of educating the public about global ecology. The public has an increased awareness and concern related to interactions among individuals, groups of individuals, and the environment. Public attention is directed to these primary units of ecological study. This attention has influenced the growing public concern for ecology and public debate about policies that extend the concern to human ecology.

In biology education, there has been an essential tension between the need to teach "real biology"—the science of life—and the need to achieve educational goals related to personal development and societal aspirations—the science of living. The continuing debate about the primary goals—whether the biology curriculum ought to be a science of life or a science of living—is essential to the continued evolution of biology education. The history of this debate has been described elsewhere (Rosenthal and Bybee, 1987, 1988). I perceive the contemporary resolution of the debate to favor human ecology, which should be the conceptual framework for the curriculum in biology.

The teaching of human ecology is an integrative endeavor among humanists, social scientists, and natural scientists. Separate disciplines—such as biology, sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, philosophy, theology, and history—evolved to improve understanding of the human condition and, we may assume, the human predicament. Now, when problems cut across these disciplines, there is reluctance to transcend the disciplinary boundaries. Such reluctance must be overcome for the very reasons for which disciplines were invented—the cause of human understanding, if not survival. The idea of cooperation among the various disciplines serves to maintain the integrity of disciplines while permitting study of the unifying conceptual schemes of biology and the central issues of human ecology—population dynamics, growth, resource use, environmental practices, and the complex interaction of human populations, resources, and environment (Moore, 1985; Ehrlich, 1985).

To say that generally the biology textbook is the organizing framework for the curriculum and reading the textbook is the dominant method of instruction is not an overstatement. Over 90% of science teachers use published textbooks (Weiss, 1978, 1987). And science instruction tends to be dominated by teacher lectures and reading of the textbook (Weiss, 1987; Mullis and Jenkins, 1988). Any consideration of reforming high-school biology must examine the role of the textbook in instruction.

There is a contradiction associated with the use and review of textbooks. A majority (76%) of science teachers in grades 10-12 do not consider textbook quality to be a significant problem (Weiss, 1987). On the other hand, many educators do consider textbook quality and usability to be problems (Muther, 1987; Carter, 1987; AAAS, 1985; Apple, 1985; Armbruster, 1985; Moyer and Mayer, 1985; McInerney, 1986; Rosenthal, 1984).

Science teachers are clearly satisfied with the quality of textbooks. In a national survey of science education, Weiss (1987) asked several specific questions about the quality of science textbooks. Some of the items that received favorable ratings by a majority of respondents are the following:

• Have appropriate reading level (87%).
• Are interesting to students (52%).
• Are clear and well organized (85%).
• Develop problem-solving skills (61%).
• Explain concepts clearly (74%).
• Have good suggestions for activities and assignments (74%).

Why are the teachers satisfied? The textbooks are meeting teachers' needs and their conceptions of good biology and appropriate biology education. The problem here is similar to that of the biology student who has misconceptions about the energetics of cells or the mechanisms of evolution. The means of changing the misconceptions is likewise similar. There is need to challenge current concepts and introduce biology teachers to perceptions about textbooks that are counter to their own. Then, provide time, opportunities, and examples that allow teachers to reform their ideas.

We may also have to consider the questions that probe beyond those asked in the survey. For instance, the material is clear and well organized; but should we be teaching that material? Or, the textbooks develop problem-solving skills; but which problem-solving skills, and are they really developed? The problem of teacher satisfaction with textbooks is central to any reform of biology education.

Content and pedagogy are central to the textbook situation. One assessment of content is the copyright date of textbooks in use. Seventy-one percent of science classes in grades 10-12 use books with a copyright date before 1983, and 22% before 1980. So one dimension of the content problem is that the information is dated.

Gould (1988) published "The Case of the Creeping Fox Terrier Clone," in which two themes were developed. One was the presentation of controversial issues, such as evolution, in textbooks. The second, and more important, was that textbooks in a given market, like tenth-grade biology, are very similar to one another. Gould did an informal review of biology textbooks and had this to say (1988, p. 19):

In book after book, the evolution section is virtually cloned. Almost all authors treat the same topics, usually in the same sequence, and often with illustrations changed only enough to avoid suits for plagiarism. Obviously, authors of textbooks are copying material on a massive scale and passing along to students will considered and virtually xeroxed versions with a rationale lost in the mists of time.

At the end of the article, Gould remarked on the educational effect of cloning (p. 24):

[Textbook cloning] is the easy way out, a substitute for thinking and striving to improve. Somehow, I must believe—for it is essential to my notion of scholarship—that good teaching requires fresh thought and genuine excitement and that rote copying can only indicate boredom and slipshod practice. A carelessly cloned work will not excite students, however pretty the pictures. As an antidote, we need only the most basic virtue of integrity—not only the usual, figurative meaning of honorable practice but the less familiar, literal definition of wholeness. We will not have great texts if authors cannot shape content but must serve a commercial master as one cog in an ultimately powerless consortium with other packagers.

What about pedagogy? The design of textbooks supports the science teachers' increased use of lecture and decreased use of laboratory (Weiss, 1987). One can imagine the situation getting worse, because the feedback within the system will continue to support the trend. More information is added to textbooks, but teachers have a fixed time to cover information. Fewer laboratory experiments are done, because more time is needed for lectures. Somehow, the cycle must be interrupted.

Reforming the content and pedagogy of textbooks is a complicated and complex proposition. Who is in control? Authors? Publishers? State adoption committees? Curriculum developers? Administrators? Teachers? The fact is that all groups are in some control and to some degree controlled. Most of the feedback in the system tends to perpetuate the current situation. It will take the concerted efforts of those within the system to bring about change. How might this happen? We need only look back 30 years to find a historical example. Support for several innovative biology programs, such as those developed in the late 1950s and 1960s, could bring about some change. Those programs incorporated the best scientists and teachers in the design of new textbooks. The original development and field-testing of materials was heavily supported and unencumbered by restraints of the market, adoption committees, and administrative budgets. The science-education community united to develop innovative programs; then the market adapted.

What should we do differently in the 1980s? First, I think several different groups should be developing biology programs. While the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BUSCH) was successful in developing three programs, I think there is need for even more diversity. Second, the projects should be funded by both private and public sources. The reasons for this are to encourage greater diversity and innovation of programs and to provide enough funding for significant innovation, such as the integration of technology (educational software), and major field-testing of the programs. Third, only publishers that are willing to give control of content and pedagogy to the developers should be involved in the projects, and those publishers should be involved throughout the development process. Fourth, development should include implementation of the program. Finally, teacher education at the preservice level should be integral to development and implementation of the new programs.

The use of educational technology has great potential for improving instruction in biology. According to Weiss (1978), computer use increases with grade levels, with approximately 36% of science classes in grades 10-12 using computers. Although the amount of time computers are used is small, at grades 10-12 computers are used primarily for drill and practice, for simulations, for learning content, and as laboratory tools (Weiss, 1987). In contrast to 1977, the 1985-1986 national survey indicated that computers are a part of science education. I assume that the trend toward increased use of computers will continue. Among the justifications for greater use of computers are the demands of an increasingly information-oriented and technological society and use of computers in the workplace (Ellis, 1984).

There have not been sufficient quantities of good software and affordable hardware for computers to have a widespread impact on curriculum and instruction in biology. Individual pieces of software are used as supplements to instruction. But the occasional application of a tutorial or simulation is not enough to bring about the reformation of thinking required to incorporate computer technologies fully into the biology program. As hardware and software evolve, there is reason to believe that they will become integral components of biology education (R. Tinker, unpublished manuscript).

There are three types of software that have immediate and important implications for instruction in biology: HyperCard, microcomputer-based laboratories, and modeling.

Textbooks have reached the point of diminishing returns relative to the amount of information they can reasonably contain for high-school biology. HyperCard is an educational technology that has relevance for the problem of teaching students how to ask questions and get information on selected subjects. They can simply view the information that someone else has organized, or they can "collect" information and organize it in a notebook (Kaehler, 1988).

Biology teachers are concerned that students must "learn" information that teachers do not have time to teach. HyperCard allows the students to gain access to information when they need it, to the depth that they want.

Microcomputer-Based Laboratory (MBL)

MBLs permit the acquisition of data in the laboratory through probes and sensors linked with a computer. This educational application was pioneered by Robert Tinker at Technical Education Research Centers. Data types that might be used in biology instruction include temperature, sound, light, pressure, distance measurement, electrical measurements (such as resistance and voltage), and physiological measurements (such as heart rate, blood pressure, and electrodermal activity).

MBL offers extensions of many current laboratories in biology education. It has several educational advantages, such as immediate feedback for students, capability for long-term collection of data, and easy construction of graphs for display of data. There is little reason not to use this technology in biology instruction.

Models and Simulations

Modeling tools are available in software packages that assist students in quantitative assessment. STELLA is the archetype of this software (Tinker, unpublished manuscript). Modeling applies very nicely to such subjects as population growth, resource depletion, and environmental degradation. Simulations provide students with opportunities to try ideas, change variables, and run hypothetical experiments. Computer technology affords the opportunity for students to investigate topics that they ordinarily could not study.

My discussion of teaching is divided into two sections. The first concerns the laboratory and the second argues for a more systematic approach to instruction. The 1985-1986 national survey indicated that since 1977, science teachers have increased the amount of time in lecture and decreased the time in laboratory activities (Weiss, 1987). There is a need to renew and expand the emphasis on the laboratory and inquiry strategies (Costenson and Lawson, 1987).

Human Ecology and the Biology Laboratory

Human ecology is the conceptual orientation that I recommend for the biology laboratory (Bybee, 1984, 1987). Human ecology as a specific approach to the laboratory is described in Bybee et al. (1981). The following are characteristics of a laboratory program with a human ecological approach. The characteristics describe an orientation and direction for the science laboratory. Table 1 compares traditional and human ecological approaches to the science laboratory.

Comparison of Traditional and Human Ecological Approaches to Science Laboratory.

Study of Significant Problems

Laboratory activities will be related to problems in the human environment. Problems arise from situations that involve a question, discrepancy, or decision concerning the student, society, or the environment. Investigations should be selected that provide opportunities for students to help to define problems significant to them—problems that they think they can and are willing to help to solve (Bybee et al., 1980). Investigations should be oriented toward ways of acquiring information and using that information in making decisions about current personal and social problems. The following subjects could form the basis for study: world hunger and food resources, population growth, air quality and atmosphere, water resources, war technology, human health and disease, energy shortages, land use, hazardous substances, nuclear reactors, extinction of plants and animals, and mineral resources. The selection of subjects is based on surveys of different populations, including American citizens (Bybee, 1984) and science educators in other countries (Bybee, 1987).

Study of Ecosystems

An instructional orientation toward the ecosystem is appropriate. Of necessity, biology teachers will have to include other levels of biological organization, but students can experience and understand many changes in ecosystems, especially as they study them at local levels.

An ecosystems perspective is a good way to integrate various disciplines; it provides a common conceptual framework and language. The perspective could be introduced early in the biology program and thus provide concepts and terminology for the students' continuing study.

Holistic Methods of Study

Ecologists use holistic perspectives in scientific inquiry. Holistic methods can develop the students' ability to identify various interacting parts of systems (subsystems) and to understand the behavior of whole systems. Holistic methods of study are complementary to reductionistic methods, and students should experience the appropriate application and unique strengths of these methods.

Integrative Study

Biology education has held as important goals the development of and the ability to use biological concepts and methods of biological investigation. An orientation toward human ecology expands these goals in an effort to understand and resolve human problems. Human ecology provides experience in decision-making as a means to help students contribute to the eventual amelioration of problems. Decision-making implies some understanding of the social, political, and economic realms, as well as ethics and values. The primary emphasis of biology education programs should be on the concepts and processes of biology and biological investigation. A secondary emphasis is on the application of other disciplines in the cause of understanding and resolving problems.

Development and Learning

Instruction reflecting a human ecological approach should reflect an understanding of students as learners. Obviously, a global perspective of problems related to such issues as population growth or food resources is beyond the grasp of younger children. But local problems and some basic concepts—such as the difference between arithmetic growth and exponential growth—are not too complex for young children. Successful laboratory instruction in human ecology requires recognition of students' cognitive development and learning limitations.

Perspectives of Space, Time, and Causal Relations

Laboratory experiences should expand students' perspectives of space, time, and causal relations. Over the school years, students should extend their ideas of space from local to regional to national to global perspectives. Their ideas of time should extend to the distant past and to the future. Causal relations should extend from simple cause and effect to the complexities of interrelated and interdependent systems with multiple causal relations. In the end, we are trying to develop students with a global perspective who recognize complex interdependences and consider the future of humanity

It is time to place the laboratory back in biology instruction. The justifications for laboratory experience far outweigh the excuses for lecture and discussion (Costenson and Lawson, 1987; Mullis and Jenkins, 1988).

An Instructional Model

One of the major problems in biology education is the need for instruction that integrates textbooks, technology, and laboratory experiences. The instructional model proposed here is based on a constructivist approach and has five phases: engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation. The model includes structural elements in common with

the original learning cycle used in the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS) program (Atkin and Karplus, 1962) and later discussions and research on the SCIS model (Renner, 1986; Lawson, 1988).

The five phases may be summarized as follows:

This phase of the model initiates the learning task. The activity should (1) make connections between past and present learning experiences and (2) anticipate activities and focus students' thinking on the learning outcomes of current activities. The student should become mentally engaged in the concept, process, or skill to be explored.

Exploration

This phase of the model provides students with a common base of experience within which they identify and develop current concepts, processes, and skills. During this phase, students actively explore theft environment or manipulate materials.

Explanation

This phase of the model focuses students' attention on a particular aspect of theft engagement and exploration experiences and provides opportunities for them to verbalize their conceptual understanding or demonstrate theft skills or behaviors. This phase also provides opportunities for teachers to introduce a formal label or definition for a concept, process, skill, or behavior.

Elaboration

This phase of the model challenges and extends students' conceptual understanding and allows further opportunity for students to practice desired skills and behaviors. Through new experiences, the students develop deeper and broader understanding, more information, and adequate skills.

This phase of the model encourages students to assess theft understanding and abilities and provides opportunities for teachers to evaluate student progress toward achieving the educational objectives.

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• Atkin, M., and R. Karplus. 1962. Discovery or invention . Sci. Teach. 29: 45-51.
• Bybee, R. 1984. Human ecology: A perspective for biology education . Monograph Series II . Reston, Va.: National Association of Biology Teachers.
• Bybee, R. 1987. Human ecology and teaching . New trends in biology teaching. UNESCO; 5:145-155.
• Bybee, R., N. Harms, B. Ward, and R. Yager. 1980. Science, society, and science education . Sci. Educ. 64:377-395.
• Bybee, R., P. Hurd, J. Kahle, and R. Yager. 1981. Human ecology: An approach to the science laboratory . Amer. Biol. Teach. 43:304-311.
• Carter, J. 1987. Who determines textbook content? J. Coll. Sci. Teach. 16: 425,464-468.
• Commission on Work, Family, and Citizenship. 1988. The Forgotten Half: Non-College Youth in America . Washington, D.C.: William T. Grant Foundation. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 290 822)
• Costenson, K., and A. Lawson. 1987. Why isn't inquiry used in more classrooms? Amer. Biol. Teach. 48:150-158.
• Ehrlich, P. 1985. Human ecology for introductory biology courses: An overview . Amer. Zool. 24:379-394.
• Ellis, J. 1984. A rationale for using computers in science education . Amer. Biol. Teach. 64:200-206.
• Gould, S. J. January 1988. The case of the creeping fox terrier done . Or why Henry Fairfield Osborn's ghost continues to reappear in our high schools. Nat. Hist. 19-24.
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• Muther, C. 1987. What do we teach, and when do we teach it? Educ. Leader. 23:77-80.
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• Rosenthal, D., and R. W. Bybee. 1987. Emergence of the biology curriculum: A science of life or a science of living? pp. 123-144. In T. Popkowitz, editor. , Ed. The Formation of School Subjects. New York: Falmer Press.
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Rodger W. Bybee is associate director of the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) in Colorado Springs. Before joining BSCS, Dr. Bybee was associate professor Of education at Carleton College. He is principal investigator for the new BSCS elementary-school program, Science for Life and Living: Integrating Science, Technology, and Health.

• Cite this Page National Research Council (US) Committee on High-School Biology Education; Rosen WG, editor. High-School Biology Today and Tomorrow: Papers Presented at a Conference. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1989. 19, Teaching High-School Biology: Materials and Strategies.
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100 Interesting Research Paper Topics for High Schoolers

What’s covered:, how to pick the right research topic, elements of a strong research paper.

• Interesting Research Paper Topics

Composing a research paper can be a daunting task for first-time writers. In addition to making sure you’re using concise language and your thoughts are organized clearly, you need to find a topic that draws the reader in.

CollegeVine is here to help you brainstorm creative topics! Below are 100 interesting research paper topics that will help you engage with your project and keep you motivated until you’ve typed the final period. 

A research paper is similar to an academic essay but more lengthy and requires more research. This added length and depth is bittersweet: although a research paper is more work, you can create a more nuanced argument, and learn more about your topic. Research papers are a demonstration of your research ability and your ability to formulate a convincing argument. How well you’re able to engage with the sources and make original contributions will determine the strength of your paper. 

You can’t have a good research paper without a good research paper topic. “Good” is subjective, and different students will find different topics interesting. What’s important is that you find a topic that makes you want to find out more and make a convincing argument. Maybe you’ll be so interested that you’ll want to take it further and investigate some detail in even greater depth!

For example, last year over 4000 students applied for 500 spots in the Lumiere Research Scholar Program , a rigorous research program founded by Harvard researchers. The program pairs high-school students with Ph.D. mentors to work 1-on-1 on an independent research project . The program actually does not require you to have a research topic in mind when you apply, but pro tip: the more specific you can be the more likely you are to get in!

Introduction

The introduction to a research paper serves two critical functions: it conveys the topic of the paper and illustrates how you will address it. A strong introduction will also pique the interest of the reader and make them excited to read more. Selecting a research paper topic that is meaningful, interesting, and fascinates you is an excellent first step toward creating an engaging paper that people will want to read.

Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is technically part of the introduction—generally the last sentence of it—but is so important that it merits a section of its own. The thesis statement is a declarative sentence that tells the reader what the paper is about. A strong thesis statement serves three purposes: present the topic of the paper, deliver a clear opinion on the topic, and summarize the points the paper will cover.

An example of a good thesis statement of diversity in the workforce is:

Diversity in the workplace is not just a moral imperative but also a strategic advantage for businesses, as it fosters innovation, enhances creativity, improves decision-making, and enables companies to better understand and connect with a diverse customer base.

The body is the largest section of a research paper. It’s here where you support your thesis, present your facts and research, and persuade the reader.

Each paragraph in the body of a research paper should have its own idea. The idea is presented, generally in the first sentence of the paragraph, by a topic sentence. The topic sentence acts similarly to the thesis statement, only on a smaller scale, and every sentence in the paragraph with it supports the idea it conveys.

An example of a topic sentence on how diversity in the workplace fosters innovation is:

Diversity in the workplace fosters innovation by bringing together individuals with different backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences, which stimulates creativity, encourages new ideas, and leads to the development of innovative solutions to complex problems.

The body of an engaging research paper flows smoothly from one idea to the next. Create an outline before writing and order your ideas so that each idea logically leads to another.

The conclusion of a research paper should summarize your thesis and reinforce your argument. It’s common to restate the thesis in the conclusion of a research paper.

For example, a conclusion for a paper about diversity in the workforce is:

In conclusion, diversity in the workplace is vital to success in the modern business world. By embracing diversity, companies can tap into the full potential of their workforce, promote creativity and innovation, and better connect with a diverse customer base, ultimately leading to greater success and a more prosperous future for all.

Reference Page

The reference page is normally found at the end of a research paper. It provides proof that you did research using credible sources, properly credits the originators of information, and prevents plagiarism.

There are a number of different formats of reference pages, including APA, MLA, and Chicago. Make sure to format your reference page in your teacher’s preferred style.

• Analyze the benefits of diversity in education.
• Are charter schools useful for the national education system?
• How has modern technology changed teaching?
• Discuss the pros and cons of standardized testing.
• What are the benefits of a gap year between high school and college?
• What funding allocations give the most benefit to students?
• Does homeschooling set students up for success?
• Should universities/high schools require students to be vaccinated?
• What effect does rising college tuition have on high schoolers?
• Do students perform better in same-sex schools?
• Discuss and analyze the impacts of a famous musician on pop music.
• How has pop music evolved over the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of women in music changed in the media over the past decade?
• How does a synthesizer work?
• How has music evolved to feature different instruments/voices?
• How has sound effect technology changed the music industry?
• Analyze the benefits of music education in high schools.
• Are rehabilitation centers more effective than prisons?
• Are congestion taxes useful?
• Does affirmative action help minorities?
• Can a capitalist system effectively reduce inequality?
• Is a three-branch government system effective?
• What causes polarization in today’s politics?
• Is the U.S. government racially unbiased?
• Choose a historical invention and discuss its impact on society today.
• Choose a famous historical leader who lost power—what led to their eventual downfall?
• How has your country evolved over the past century?
• What historical event has had the largest effect on the U.S.?
• Has the government’s response to national disasters improved or declined throughout history?
• Discuss the history of the American occupation of Iraq.
• Explain the history of the Israel-Palestine conflict.
• Is literature relevant in modern society?
• Discuss how fiction can be used for propaganda.
• How does literature teach and inform about society?
• Explain the influence of children’s literature on adulthood.
• How has literature addressed homosexuality?
• Does the media portray minorities realistically?
• Does the media reinforce stereotypes?
• Why have podcasts become so popular?
• Will streaming end traditional television?
• What is a patriot?
• What are the pros and cons of global citizenship?
• What are the causes and effects of bullying?
• Why has the divorce rate in the U.S. been declining in recent years?
• Is it more important to follow social norms or religion?
• What are the responsible limits on abortion, if any?
• How does an MRI machine work?
• Would the U.S. benefit from socialized healthcare?
• Elderly populations
• The education system
• State tax bases
• How do anti-vaxxers affect the health of the country?
• Analyze the costs and benefits of diet culture.
• Should companies allow employees to exercise on company time?
• What is an adequate amount of exercise for an adult per week/per month/per day?
• Discuss the effects of the obesity epidemic on American society.
• Are students smarter since the advent of the internet?
• What departures has the internet made from its original design?
• Has digital downloading helped the music industry?
• Discuss the benefits and costs of stricter internet censorship.
• Analyze the effects of the internet on the paper news industry.
• What would happen if the internet went out?
• How will artificial intelligence (AI) change our lives?
• What are the pros and cons of cryptocurrency?
• How has social media affected the way people relate with each other?
• Should social media have an age restriction?
• Discuss the importance of source software.
• What is more relevant in today’s world: mobile apps or websites?
• How will fully autonomous vehicles change our lives?
• How is text messaging affecting teen literacy?

Mental Health

• What are the benefits of daily exercise?
• How has social media affected people’s mental health?
• What things contribute to poor mental and physical health?
• Analyze how mental health is talked about in pop culture.
• Discuss the pros and cons of more counselors in high schools.
• How does stress affect the body?
• How do emotional support animals help people?
• What are black holes?
• Discuss the biggest successes and failures of the EPA.
• How has the Flint water crisis affected life in Michigan?
• Can science help save endangered species?
• Is the development of an anti-cancer vaccine possible?

Environment

• What are the effects of deforestation on climate change?
• Is climate change reversible?
• How did the COVID-19 pandemic affect global warming and climate change?
• Are carbon credits effective for offsetting emissions or just marketing?
• Is nuclear power a safe alternative to fossil fuels?
• Are hybrid vehicles helping to control pollution in the atmosphere?
• How is plastic waste harming the environment?
• Is entrepreneurism a trait people are born with or something they learn?
• How much more should CEOs make than their average employee?
• Can you start a business without money?
• Should the U.S. raise the minimum wage?
• Discuss how happy employees benefit businesses.
• How important is branding for a business?
• Discuss the ease, or difficulty, of landing a job today.
• What is the economic impact of sporting events?
• Are professional athletes overpaid?
• Should male and female athletes receive equal pay?
• What is a fair and equitable way for transgender athletes to compete in high school sports?
• What are the benefits of playing team sports?
• What is the most corrupt professional sport?

Where to Get More Research Paper Topic Ideas

If you need more help brainstorming topics, especially those that are personalized to your interests, you can use CollegeVine’s free AI tutor, Ivy . Ivy can help you come up with original research topic ideas, and she can also help with the rest of your homework, from math to languages.

Disclaimer: This post includes content sponsored by Lumiere Education.

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High school biology

New high school biology course coming soon, unit 1: biology foundations, unit 2: cells, unit 3: energy and transport, unit 4: reproduction and cell division, unit 5: classical genetics, unit 6: molecular genetics, unit 7: evolution, unit 8: human body systems, unit 9: ecology.

How to Publish a Research Paper In High School: 18 Journals and Conferences to Consider

By Alex Yang

Graduate student at Southern Methodist University

9 minute read

So you've been working super hard writing a research paper , and you’ve finally finished. Congrats! It’s a very impressive accolade already, but there’s a way to take it a level further. As we’ve talked about before in our Polygence blog, “ Showcasing your work and sharing it with the world is the intellectual version of ‘pics or it didn’t happen.’ ” Of course, there are lot of different ways to showcase your work , from creating a Youtube video to making a podcast. But one of the most popular ways to showcase your research is to publish your research. Publishing your research can take the great work you’ve already done and add credibility to it, and will make a stronger impression than unpublished research. Further, the process of having your work reviewed by advanced degree researchers can be a valuable experience in itself. You can receive feedback from experts and learn how to improve upon the work you’ve already done.

Before we dive into the various journals and conferences to publish your work, let’s distinguish between the various publishing options that you have as a high schooler, as there are some nuances. Quick disclaimer: this article focuses on journals and conferences as ways to showcase your work. There are also competitions where you can submit your work, and we have written guides on competing in premier competitions like Regeneron STS and competing in Regeneron ISEF . 

Publishing Options for High School Students

Peer-reviewed journals.

This is rather self-explanatory, but these journals go through the peer review process, where author(s) submit their work to the journal, and the journal's editors send the work to a group of independent experts (typically grad students or other scientists with advanced degrees) in the same field or discipline. These experts are peer reviewers, who evaluate the work based on a set of predetermined criteria, including the quality of the research, the validity of the methodology, the accuracy of the data, and the originality of the findings. The peer reviewers may suggest revisions or leave comments, but ultimately the editors will decide which suggestions to give to the student. 

Once you’ve received suggestions, you have the opportunity to make revisions before submitting your final product back to the journal. The editor then decides whether or not your work is published.

Non-Peer-Reviewed Journals

These are just journals that do not undergo a review process. In general, peer-reviewed journals may be seen as more credible and prestigious. However, non-peer-reviewed journals may make it easier and faster to publish your work, which can be helpful if you are pressed for time and applying to colleges soon .

Pre Print Archives

Preprint archives or servers are online repositories where student researchers can upload and share their research papers without undergoing any review process. Preprints allow students to share their findings quickly and get feedback from the scientific community, which can help improve the research while you’re waiting to hear back from journals, which typically have longer timelines and can take up to several months to publish research. Sharing your work in a preprint archive does not prohibit you from, or interfere with submitting the same work to a journal afterwards.

Research Conferences

Prefer to present your research in a presentation or verbal format? Conferences can be a great way to “publish” your research, showcase your public speaking skills, speak directly to your audience, and network with other researchers in your field. 

Student-led Journals vs Graduate Student / Professor-led Journals 

Some student-led journals may have peer-review, but the actual people peer-reviewing your work may be high school students. Other journals will have graduate students, PhD students, or even faculty reviewing your work. As you can imagine, there are tradeoffs to either option. With an advanced degree student reviewing your work, you can likely expect better and more accurate feedback. Plus, it’s cool to have an expert look over your work! However, this may also mean that the journal is more selective, whereas student-led journals may be easier to publish in. Nonetheless, getting feedback from anyone who’s knowledgeable can be a great way to polish your research and writing.

Strategy for Submitting to Multiple Journals

Ultimately, your paper can only be published in one peer-reviewed journal. Submitting the same paper to multiple peer-reviewed journals at the same time is not allowed, and doing so may impact its publication at any peer-reviewed journal. If your work is not accepted at one journal, however, then you are free to submit that work to your next choice and so on. Therefore, it is best to submit to journals with a strategy in mind. Consider: what journal do I ideally want to be published in? What are some back-ups if I don’t get published in my ideal journal? Preprints, like arXiv and the Research Archive of Rising Scholars, are possible places to submit your work in advance of seeking peer-reviewed publication. These are places to “stake your claim” in a research area and get feedback from the community prior to submitting your paper to its final home in a peer-reviewed journal. You can submit your work to a preprint prior to submitting at a peer-reviewed journal. However, bioRxiv, a reputable preprint server, recommends on their website that a preprint only be posted on one server, so that’s something to keep in mind as well.

Citation and Paper Formats

All of the journals listed below have specific ways that they’d like you to cite your sources, varying from styles like MLA to APA, and it’s important that you double-check the journal’s requirements for citations, titling your paper, writing your abstract, etc. Most journal websites have very detailed guides for how they want you to format your paper, so follow those closely to avoid having to wait to hear back and then resubmit your paper. If you’re looking for more guidance on citations and bibliographies check out our blog post!

18 Journals and Conferences to Publish Your Research as a High Schooler

Now that we’ve distinguished the differences between certain journals and conferences, let’s jump into some of our favorite ones. We’ve divided up our selections based on prestige and reliability, and we’ve made these selections using our experience with helping Polygence students showcase their research .

Most Prestigious Journals

Concord review.

Cost: $70 to Submit and $200 Publication Cost (if accepted)

Deadline: Fixed Deadlines in Feb 1 (Summer Issue), May 1 (Fall), August 1 (Winter), and November 1 (Spring)

Subject area: History / Social Sciences

Type of research: All types of academic articles

The Concord Review is a quarterly journal that publishes exceptional essays written by high school students on historical topics. The journal has been around since 1987 and has a great reputation, with many student winners going to great universities. Further, if your paper is published, your essays will be sent to subscribers and teachers all around the world, which is an incredible achievement.

Papers submitted tend to be around 8,000 words, so there is definitely a lot of writing involved, and the Concord Review themselves say that they are very selective, publishing only about 5% of the essays they receive.

We’ve posted our complete guide on publishing in the Concord Review here.

Journal of Emerging Investigators (JEI)

Deadline: Rolling

Subject area: STEM 

Type of research: Original hypothesis-driven scientific research

JEI is an open-access publication that features scientific research papers written by middle and high school students in the fields of biological and physical sciences. The journal includes a comprehensive peer-review process, where graduate students and other professional scientists with advanced degrees will review the manuscripts and provide suggestions to improve both the project and manuscript itself. You can expect to receive feedback in 6-8 weeks.

This should be the go-to option for students that are doing hypothesis-driven, original research or research that involves original analyses of existing data (meta-analysis, analyzing publicly available datasets, etc.). This is not an appropriate fit for students writing literature reviews. Finally, a mentor or parent must submit on behalf of the student.

We’ve had many Polygence students successfully submit to JEI. Check out Hana’s research on invasive species and their effects in drought times.

STEM Fellowship Journal (SFJ)

Cost: $400 publication fee

Subject area: All Scientific Disciplines

Type of research: Conference Proceedings, Review Articles, Viewpoint Articles, Original Research

SFJ is a peer-reviewed journal published by Canadian Science Publishing that serves as a platform for scholarly research conducted by high school and university students in the STEM fields. Peer review is conducted by undergraduate, graduate student, and professional reviewers.

Depending on the kind of research article you choose to submit, SFJ provides very specific guidelines on what to include and word limits.

Other Great Journal Options

National high school journal of science (nhsjs).

Cost: $250 for publication 

Deadline: Rolling 

Subject area: All science disciplines 

Type of research: Original research, literature review

NHSJS is a journal peer reviewed by high schoolers from around the world, with an advisory board of adult academics. Topics are STEM related, and submission types can vary from original research papers to shorter articles.

Curieux Academic Journal

Cost: $185-215

Subject area: Engineering, Humanities, and Natural Science, Mathematics, and Social Science

Type of research: Including but not limited to research papers, review articles, and humanity/social science pieces.

Curieux Academic Journal is a non-profit run by students and was founded in 2017 to publish outstanding research by high school and middle school students. Curieux publishes one issue per month (twelve per year), so there are many opportunities to get your research published. 

The Young Scientists Journal 

Deadline: December

Subject area: Sciences

Type of research: Original research, literature review, blog post

The Young Scientists Journal , while a popular option for students previously, has paused submissions to process a backlog. The journal is an international peer-reviewed journal run by students, and creates print issues twice a year. 

The journal has also been around for a decade and has a clear track record of producing alumni who go on to work in STEM.

Here’s an example of research submitted by Polygence student Ryan to the journal.

Journal of Research High School (JRHS)

Subject area: Any academic subject including the sciences and humanities

Type of research: Original research and significant literature reviews.

JRHS is an online research journal edited by volunteer professional scientists, researchers, teachers, and professors. JRHS accepts original research and significant literature reviews in Engineering, Humanities, Natural Science, Math, and Social Sciences.

From our experience working with our students to help publish their research, this journal is currently operating with a 15-20 week turnaround time for review. This is a bit on the longer side, so be mindful of this turnaround time if you’re looking to get your work published soon.

Youth Medical Journal

Deadline: March (currently closed)

Subject area: Medical or scientific topics

Type of research: Original research, review article, blog post, magazine article

The Youth Medical Journal is an international, student-run team of 40 students looking to share medical research.

We’ve found that this journal is a good entry point for students new to research papers, but when submissions are busy, in the past they have paused submissions. 

Journal of High School Science (JHSS)

Subject area: All topics

Type of research: Original research, literature review, technical notes, opinion pieces

This peer-reviewed STEAM journal publishes quarterly, with advanced degree doctors who sit on the journal’s editorial board. In addition to typical STEM subjects, the journal also accepts manuscripts related to music and theater, which is explicitly stated on their website.

Due to the current large volume of submissions, the review process takes a minimum of 4 weeks from the time of submission.

Whitman Journal of Psychology

Subject area: Psychology

Type of research: Original research, podcasts

The WWJOP is a publication run entirely by students, where research and literature reviews in the field of psychology are recognized. The journal is run out of a high school with a teacher supervisor and student staff.

The WWJOP uniquely also accepts podcast submissions, so if that’s your preferred format for showcasing your work, then this could be the journal for you!

Cost: $180 submission fee

Subject area: Humanities

Type of research: Essay submission

The Schola is a peer-reviewed quarterly journal that showcases essays on various humanities and social sciences topics authored by high school students worldwide. They feature a diverse range of subjects such as philosophy, history, art history, English, economics, public policy, and sociology.

Editors at Schola are academics who teach and do research in the humanities and social sciences

Critical Debates in Humanities, Science and Global Justice

Cost: $10 author fee

Subject area: Ethics and frontiers of science, Biology and ecosystems, Technology and Innovation, Medical research and disease, Peace and civil society, Global citizenship, identity and democracy, Structural violence and society, Psychology, Education, AI, Sociology, Computer Science, Neuroscience, Cultural politics, Politics and Justice, Computer science and math as related to policy, Public policy, Human rights, Language, Identity and Culture, Art and activism

Critical Debates is an international academic journal for critical discourse in humanities, science and contemporary global issues for emerging young scholars

International Youth Neuroscience Association Journal

Subject area: Neuroscience

Type of research: Research papers

Although this student peer-reviewed journal is not currently accepting submissions, we’ve had students recently publish here. 

Here’s an example of Nevenka’s research that was published in the November 2022 issue of the journal.

Preprint Archives to Share Your Work In

Subject area: STEM, Quantitative Finance, Economics

arXiv is an open access archive supported by Cornell University, where more than 2 million scholarly articles in a wide variety of topics have been compiled. arXiv articles are not peer-reviewed, so you will not receive any feedback on your work from experts. However, your article does go through a moderation process where your work is classified into a topic area and checked for scholarly value. This process is rather quick however and according to arXiv you can expect your article to be available on the website in about 6 hours. 

Although there’s no peer review process, that means the submission standards are not as rigorous and you can get your article posted very quickly, so submitting to arXiv or other preprint archives can be something you do before trying to get published in a journal.

One slight inconvenience of submitting to arXiv is that you must be endorsed by a current arXiv author, which can typically be a mentor or teacher or professor that you have. Here’s an example of a Polygence student submitting their work to arXiv, with Albert’s research on Hamiltonian Cycles.

Subject area: Biology

Type of research: Original research

bioRxiv is a preprint server for biology research, where again the research is not peer-reviewed but undergoes a check to make sure that the material is relevant and appropriate.

bioRxiv has a bit of a longer posting time, taking around 48 hours, but that’s still very quick. bioRxiv also allows for you to submit revised versions of your research if you decide to make changes.

Research Archive of Rising Scholars (RARS)

Subject area: STEM and Humanities

Type of research: Original research, review articles, poems, short stories, scripts

Research Archive of Rising Scholars is Polygence’s own preprint server! We were inspired by arXiv so we created a repository for articles and other creative submissions in STEM and the Humanities.

We launched RARS in 2022 and we’re excited to offer a space for budding scholars as they look to publish their work in journals. Compared to other preprint archives, RARS also accepts a wider range of submission types, including poems, short stories, and scripts.

Conferences to Participate In

Symposium of rising scholars.

Deadline: Twice a year - February and July

Polygence’s very own Symposium of Rising Scholars is a bi-annual academic conference where students present and share their research with their peers and experts. The Symposium also includes a College Admissions Panel and Keynote Speech. In our 8th edition of the Symposium this past March, we had 60 students presenting live, approximately 70 students presenting asynchronously, and over 100 audience members. The keynote speaker was Chang-rae Lee, award-winning novelist and professor at Stanford University.

We’re looking to have our 9th Symposium in Fall of 2023, and you can express your interest now. If you’re interested to see what our Polygence scholars have presented in the past for the Symposium, you can check out their scholar pages here.

Junior Science and Humanities Symposium (JSHS)

Deadline: Typically in November, so for 2024’s competition look to submit in Fall 2023

Subject area: STEM topics

JSHS is a Department of Defense sponsored program and competition that consists of first submitting a written report of your research. If your submission is selected, you’ll be able to participate in the regional symposium, where you can present in oral format or poster format. A select group from the regional symposium will then qualify for the national symposium.

One of the great things about JSHS compared to the journals mentioned above is that you’re allowed to work in teams and you don’t have to be a solo author. This can make the experience more fun for you and your teammates, and allow you to combine your strengths for your submission.

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Learning biology through research papers: a stimulus for question-asking by high-school students

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• 1 Department of Science Teaching, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
• PMID: 14673492
• PMCID: PMC256972
• DOI: 10.1187/cbe.02-12-0062

Question-asking is a basic skill, required for the development of scientific thinking. However, the way in which science lessons are conducted does not usually stimulate question-asking by students. To make students more familiar with the scientific inquiry process, we developed a curriculum in developmental biology based on research papers suitable for high-school students. Since a scientific paper poses a research question, demonstrates the events that led to the answer, and poses new questions, we attempted to examine the effect of studying through research papers on students' ability to pose questions. Students were asked before, during, and after instruction what they found interesting to know about embryonic development. In addition, we monitored students' questions, which were asked orally during the lessons. Questions were scored according to three categories: properties, comparisons, and causal relationships. We found that before learning through research papers, students tend to ask only questions of the properties category. In contrast, students tend to pose questions that reveal a higher level of thinking and uniqueness during or following instruction with research papers. This change was not observed during or following instruction with a textbook. We suggest that learning through research papers may be one way to provide a stimulus for question-asking by high-school students and results in higher thinking levels and uniqueness.

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An research paper examples on biology is a prosaic composition of a small volume and free composition, expressing individual impressions and thoughts on a specific occasion or issue and obviously not claiming a definitive or exhaustive interpretation of the subject.

Some signs of biology research paper:

• the presence of a specific topic or question. A work devoted to the analysis of a wide range of problems in biology, by definition, cannot be performed in the genre of biology research paper topic.
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The goal of an research paper in biology is to develop such skills as independent creative thinking and writing out your own thoughts.

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Bringing cell biology into classroom: tips to culture and observe skeletal muscle cells in high school and college

• Open access
• Published: 14 May 2024

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• Ryoichi Matsuda   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4204-6715 1 &
• Fumiko Okiharu 1  

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Watching living cells through a microscope is much more exciting than seeing pictures of cells in high school and college textbooks. However, bringing cell cultures into the classroom is challenging for biology teachers since culturing cells requires sophisticated and expensive instruments such as a CO 2 incubator and an inverted phase-contrast microscope. Here, we describe easy and affordable methods to culture and observe skeletal muscle cells using the L-15 culture medium, tissue culture flask, standard dry incubator, standard upright microscope, and modified Smartphone microscope. Watching natural living cells in a “Do-It-Yourself (DIY)” way may inspire more students’ interest in cell biology.

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Introduction

Skeletal muscle cells are one of the best research subjects on cell growth and differentiation. Cell biologists have been fascinated by its dynamic changes in morphology and biochemistry during muscle cell differentiation. Okazaki and Holtzer ( 1965 , 1966 ) pioneered the immunofluorescent antibody technique to study muscle myosin expression at the early phase of skeletal muscle cell differentiation. Later, one of Holtzer’s students, Weintraub, and his colleagues (1987) discovered the muscle-specific transcription factor, Myo D, and elucidated the molecular cascade of muscle cell differentiation (Davis et al . 1987 ). Skeletal muscle cells may also be appropriate for studying cell differentiation in high school and college since their morphological and biochemical changes are evident, and it takes a few days to see the main part of muscle cell differentiation in culture. However, bringing cell cultures into the classroom is challenging for biology teachers since culturing cells requires specialized and expensive instruments such as a CO 2 incubator and an inverted phase-contrast microscope. Due to these technical reasons, biology teachers avoid cell cultures in high school and college. Therefore, students learn about cells mostly from textbooks and Internet sources without any experience of watching actual living cells. Under these conditions, “Study nature, not books (Louis Agassiz)” has never been fulfilled in Cell Biology educational sites.

To overcome these difficulties, developing accessible and affordable methods to culture and observe natural living cells in the current school environment would be preferable.

The main points of the present study are as follows:

To avoid using a CO 2 incubator, we switched the culture medium from Eagle’s minimum essential medium (MEM) to Leibovitz’s L-15 medium, which does not need the CO 2 gas.

By culturing cells in culture flasks, not in culture dishes, we could see cultured muscle cells under a standard upright microscope by flipping over the flask upside-down.

Alternatively, we could observe cells using a lens taken from the laser pickup head of a used/broken compact disk (CD) player, attaching the CD lens to a “Simple Camera”–installed Smartphone—and illuminating the cells with a light-emitting diode (LED) lamp with a pinhole disk, we could focus on cultured cells at the single-cell level. We named this method “the inverted Smartphone microscopy.” Therefore, we can culture and watch natural living cells in high schools and colleges. Using these methods mentioned here, it became possible for students to culture, watch, and take pictures/movies of living cells without using expensive instruments. Watching actual living cells may inspire many students’ interests in cell biology.

Materials and methods

Muscle cell culture.

We used plastic culture flasks (25 cm 2 /Tissue Culture Flask with double seal cap, code no. 3100–025, IWAKI, Japan) to replace culture dishes for muscle cell culture. The bottom surface of the flasks was coated with autoclaved 1% porcine skin gelatin solution (G1890, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) to enhance cell adhesion to the surface (Matsuda et al . 1987 , Sato et al . 2002 ). Instead of using Eagle’s MEM, we used Leibovitz’s L-15 culture medium (cat no. 128–06075, Fujifilm, Japan, Leibovitz 1963 ). The L-15 medium supplemented with 10% horse serum (H1270, Sigma-Aldrich), 4% chicken embryo extract (cat no. 2850145, M.P. Biomedicals, Solon, OH) according to Shimada et al . ( 1967 ) and Yaffe ( 1968 ), and long-lasting vitamin C, l -ascorbic acid 2-phosphate at a final concentration to 0.2 mM (cat no. 66170–10-3, Fujifilm, Japan), according to Takamizawa et al . ( 2004 ), and a mixture of antibiotics (cat no. 168–23191, Fujifilm, Tokyo) at 0.5%. We used 0.5% antibiotics mixture instead of 1% to reduce the side effects of streptomycin (Moss et al . 1985 ). The L-15 medium contained phosphates, free amino acids, and sodium bicarbonate to keep the pH neutral without CO 2 . Using the L-15 culture medium in a culture flask, we could culture cells in the standard dry incubator for over 2 weeks at 37 °C without any medium change.

We dissected a pair of breast muscles, M. Pectoralis major , from 11-day chick embryos. We washed the muscle tissue in a Petri dish in calcium- and magnesium-free phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, cat no.166–23555, Fujifilm, Japan). We transferred the muscle tissue to a dry Petri dish, scissored it to make small pieces, and poured them into a 15-mL culture tube filled with PBS. We placed the tube in a rack and waited for several minutes until the tissue pieces sank to the bottom. Then, we discarded the supernatant and added 4 mL of culture medium. Muscle cells were released by repeated pipetting through a 270-mm-long Pasteur pipette mechanically, according to Hagiwara et al . ( 1985 ). We took special care to avoid air bubble formation. In this way, cell dissociation procedures became more manageable and quicker than classic trypsinization. Since we skipped the filtration of cell suspension, muscle tissue clamps remained occasionally in the cell suspension. However, contamination of tissue clamps, or explants, gave another opportunity to watch cells migrate outward from the tissue clamp. We could start cell culture by adding two to four drops of the cell suspension into one culture flask with 12 mL of culture medium. A pair of breast muscles was enough to prepare more than 20 culture flasks.

Settings of inverted and standard upright microscopes for observation

We used an inverted phase-contrast microscope, Nikon TMD, as a control. The flask's spout turned upwards on the inverted microscope stage, as shown in Fig.  1 a  and b . To watch the cells under the standard upright microscope (Olympus G.K., Tokyo, Japan), we flipped the flask upside down and placed it on the microscope stage to keep the distance between cells and the objective lens at a minimum (Fig. 1 c , d ). In this case, the spout of a flask on the stage turned downwards. We adjusted adequate lighting by changing the aperture of the condenser lens, the angle of the reflection mirror of the microscope, and the lamp’s voltage. We used a Nikon D5100 digital camera with an ISO 1600 setting to take photographs.

Setting up of inverted phase-contrast and non-phase-contrast upright microscopes for observation. ( a ) A culture flask placed on the stage of an inverted phase-contrast microscope. ( b ) Enlargement of the flask on the stage. Note the flask’s spout turned upward. ( c ) A flask flipped upside down and placed on the stage of a standard non-phase-contrast upright microscope. ( d ) Enlargement of the flask on the stage. Note the flask’s spout turned downward. The condenser lens aperture set the minimum.

Makings of “the inverted Smartphone microscope” with a CD lens

We used a Smartphone as an alternative microscope since the penetration rate of Smartphones is much higher than that of standard microscopes in high school and college environments. According to Yoshino ( 2022 ), we utilized a single lens of a laser pickup head of a used/broken CD player to increase the magnification (Fig.  2 a ). Laser pickup heads are also available from online stores. We attached the CD single lens at the center of the Smartphone selfie lens with a small piece of Scotch double-sided tape (blue arrow in Fig.  2 b ). We installed “Simple Camera” software on a Smartphone to add an electronic zoom function to the selfie camera. We could observe cultured cells at the single-cell-level cell level with Simple Camera magnification at 10 × .

Makings of an “inverted smartphone microscope.” ( a ) The Lazer pickup head appears in a CD player. A blue arrow indicates the CD lens. ( b ) We attached the CD lens to the top of the selfie lens of the Smartphone, Apple iPhone 11Pro. The CD lens frame was attached close to the smartphone selfie lens with a small piece of double-sided tape. Simple Camera software was pre-installed on the Smartphone before its use.

We prepared a Smartphone microscope stage with an aluminum plate, 30 mm × 100 mm × 0.5 mm in thickness, with one hole of 20 mm in diameter at the edge of the plate shown in Fig.  3 . We used the hole as an observation window. We attached the aluminum plate to a laboratory jack with duct tape (Fig.  3 a ). The light-emitting diode (LED) lamp (black arrow in Fig.  3 b ) illuminated the cells. We adjusted the distance between the culture flask and the CD lens with the laboratory jack to bring cells into focus.

Setting the focus of the inverted Smartphone microscope using a laboratory jack. ( a ) We made an aluminum plate with a hole of 20 mm in diameter ( yellow arrow ) at the edge and attached it to a laboratory jack with duct tape. We used the hole as an observation window of the cell. The size was indicated in mm. ( b ) We placed a culture flask on the aluminum plate and inserted the Smartphone underneath the hole. An LED lamp (indicated with a black arrow ) with a black plastic disk of a 1.5-mm pinhole was attached to the lamp aperture (marked with a red arrow ), illuminating the CD lens’ area from above. The lab jack brought the flask into focus.

Alternatively, we used the barrel of a standard microscope to get the cells in focus instead of a laboratory lack. We prepared a horizontal U-shaped aluminum plate, 30 mm × 180 mm × 0.5 mm, with two holes of 20 mm in diameter at both ends of the plate (yellow arrows in Fig.  4 a , b ). We used the hole in the lower plate as an observation window and the hole in the upper plate to attach the microscope barrel with a tarry cap (green arrow in Fig.  4 a ). We placed the culture flask on the horizontal bottom plate. And we adjusted the distance between the cells and the CD lens (blue arrow in Fig.  4 b ) with the focusing device of the upright microscope to bring cells into focus.

An alternative way of setting the “inverted Smartphone microscope’ and the standard microscopic barrel. ( a ) An aluminum plate, 30 mm × 200 mm × 0.5 mm thick with two 20-mm holes in diameter at both edges, was bent to form a horizontal U-shape ( yellow arrow ). We removed the objective lens from the standard upright microscope before use. We attached the upper hole to the microscope barrel with a tarry cap ( green arrow ). We used the lower hole as the observation window. ( b ) The culture flask was placed on a horizontal U-shape aluminum plate’s lower plate. We inserted the Smartphone with a CD lens underneath the lower hole of the U-shaped plate. A black plastic disk with a 1.5-mm pinhole in diameter was attached to the aperture of the LED lamp ( red arrow ). The LED light illuminated the area of the CD lens ( blue arrow ) from above the culture flask. The focusing devise of the upright microscope brought the cells into the focus of the Smartphone selfie camera.

Illumination of cells with LED lamp through a pinhole

We illuminated the cells with an LED lamp of 2000 lumens with or without a pinhole disk (red arrows in Figs.  3 b and 4 b ). The diameter of the pinhole was 1.5 mm. We also used an inverted phase-contrast microscope with a Nikon D5100 digital camera to compare the image quality.

Results and discussions

Culture flask as a replacement for culture dish.

The L-15 medium could avoid using a CO 2 incubator and keep the medium pH neutral under a standard atmosphere (Leibovitz 1963 ). Repeated pipetting muscle tissue pieces to release single cells mechanically was easier than classic trypsinization. We could watch the significant processes of myogenesis, including striated myofibril formation and spontaneous contractions within 7 d in culture. The cells’ adherence to the flask’s bottom surface was strong enough to endure the vibrations during transportation. Therefore, students could take the flask and continue watching cells at home.

Pinhole illumination improved sharpened images

We observed 1-day cultured cells with the “inverted Smartphone microscope.” We compared the effect of pinhole illumination (Fig.  5 c ). As a control, we observed the same areas of cells with an inverted phase-contrast microscope, Nikon TMD (Fig.  5 a ). As a result, the pinhole illumination improved the contrast and sharpness of the images. The cell images were clear enough to distinguish unfused myoblasts (indicated with arrows in Fig.  5 c ) and aligned myoblasts (marked with asterisks in Fig.  5 c ) at the early phase of myotube formation. Bar indicated 100 µm.

Effect of pinhole illumination on the microscopic images. ( a ) One-day cultured chicken breast muscle cells observed under the inverted phase-contrast microscope, Nikon TMD. We took the photograph with a Nikon D5100 digital camera at ISO1600 setting. The bar indicates 100 µm. ( b ) The same area shown in Fig.  6 a was observed with an inverted Smartphone microscope illuminated by an LED lamp without the pinhole disk. “Simple Camera” software-installed Smartphone, Apple 11Pro, was used. We took the photograph with the smartphone selfie camera. ( c ) We observed cells in the same area shown in Fig.  6 a and b  under an inverted Smartphone microscope illuminated with the LED lamp through a pinhole disk. We obtained a higher contrast image with pinhole illumination (Fig.  6 c ) than without the pinhole (Fig.  6 b ). Mononucleated myoblasts were indicated with arrows, and the early phase of fused myotubes was marked with asterisks . We took the photograph with the Smartphone selfie camera.

Muscle cells observed under a standard upright microscope

On 2 days in culture, unfused myoblasts (indicated with asterisks in Fig.  6 a , b , c ) and premature myotubes (marked with arrows in Fig.  6 a , b ) were observed under an inverted phase-contrast microscope (Fig.  6 a ) and a standard upright microscope (Fig.  6 b ). Cells in the same areas of Fig.  6 a and b were observed under the inverted Smartphone microscope (Fig.  6 c ). Although the image obtained with the inverted phase-contrast microscope was slightly better, the images obtained with the latter two microscopes were good enough to see the muscle cell differentiation at a single-cell level. We could obtain cell images sufficient to study cell biology with these three distinct microscopies.

Observation of muscle cells cultured for 2 d under three microscopies. We observed cells cultured for two d under three distinct microscopies. ( a ) The cells observed under the inverted phase-contrast microscope. We saw spindle-shaped unfused single myoblasts marked with arrows and fused multinucleated myotubes marked with asterisks . ( b ) The flask flipped over, upside-down, and was placed on the stage. We observed cells in the same area shown in Fig.  6 a under the conventional microscope without phase-contrast optics. ( c ) The cells in the same area in Fig.  6 b were observed under the inverted smartphone microscope. Cells in the culture flask illuminated with an LED lamp through a pinhole were shown. Simple Camera software-installed Smartphone, Apple 11Pro, was used. The bar indicates 100 µm.

Myotubes observed with three microscopies

We compared photographs of muscle cells cultured for 6 d under three microscopies.

Images obtained from an inverted phase-contrast microscope (Fig.  7 a ), a standard upright microscope (Fig.  7 b ), and an inverted Smartphone microscope (Fig.  7 c ) were shown. A large myotube (circles in Fig.  7 a , b , c) and surrounding fibroblasts (asterisks in Fig.  7 a, b , c ) were visible.

Observation of muscle cells cultured for 6 d under three distinct microscopes. ( a ) Muscle cells were cultured for 6 d and observed under an inverted phase-contrast microscope. We observed multinucleated myotubes (Indicated with a circle ) and surrounding single cells (Indicated with an arrow ). ( b ) The flask flipped over and upside down, and cells in the same area in ( a ) were observed under a standard upright microscope. We saw multinucleated myotubes and surrounding single cells. ( c ) Cells in the same area shown in ( b ) were observed under the inverted Smartphone microscope. Simple Camera software-installed smartphone, Apple 11Pro, was used. We took the photograph with the smartphone selfie camera. The bar indicates 100 µm.

By staining cells with Giemsa’s Azur eosin methylene blue, nuclei in the myotube were visible under the three microscopies. Images obtained from an inverted phase-contrast microscope (Fig.  8 a ), a standard upright microscope (Fig.  8 b ), and an inverted Smartphone microscope (Fig.  8 c ) were shown. Circle indicated myotube, and asterisks indicated fibroblast areas.

Giemsa’s Azur eosin methylene blue–stained muscle cells cultured for 6 d under three distinct microscopies. ( a ) After staining, we observed the same areas of cells shown in Fig.  7 under an inverted phase-contrast microscope. ( b ) After staining, we flipped the flask over upside-down. We observed the same area of cells in Fig.  7 under a standard upright microscope. ( c ) After staining, we observed the same area of the cells shown in Fig.  7 under the inverted smartphone microscope. We used a Simple Camera software-installed smartphone, Apple 11Pro, Bar=100 µm.

Observation of skeletal muscle explant prepared and photographed by high school students

Even after scissoring and pipetting muscle tissue pieces repeatedly, the remaining cell clamps or muscle explants were inevitable in muscle cell suspension. Therefore, we could occasionally observe the fate of muscle explants unexpectedly. During a public cell culture course, high school students cultured muscle cells in a flask for 2 d, and the same students took photographs under the inverted Smartphone microscope (Fig.  9 ). Myoblasts migrated radially from the explant (white circle in Fig.  9 ), and some aligned to form myotubes (white arrows in Fig.  9 ). This photograph indicated that high school students could culture and observe muscle cells using the methods described here. For students, obtaining natural living cell images in the DIY way was much better for studying cell biology than just looking at pictures in printed textbooks.

Observation of muscle explant culture, prepared and photographed under the inverted smartphone microscope by high school students. A muscle explant culture was prepared and cultured for 2 d and photographed by high school students through the inverted smartphone microscope. Cells migrated out radially from a muscle explant (the right side of the field, a dark area) and formed early myotubes indicated with white arrows . We used a Simple Camera software-installed smartphone, an Apple iPhone 13mini, to take photographs of the cells, Bar=100 µm.

Video recording of spontaneous contraction in 21-day cultured skeletal muscle cells

We could observe spontaneous contractions of myotubes cultured for 21 days on the flipped flask under a standard upright microscope. A high school science teacher took a video of these contracting muscle cells and uploaded a YouTube video at https://youtu.be/V5LqHvXn8ME .

Technical concerns of embryonic chicken muscle cell culture

You may need to obtain authorization for the use of chick embryos at school. We should reduce the number of fertilized eggs used for cell culture. It was enough to obtain breast muscle cells from one chicken embryo for over 20 flasks. It may help to reduce the number of fertilized eggs used for cell culture experiments.

Instructors should explain to students how to terminate embryos and cultures safely.

We cooled down the eggs in a refrigerator for 10 min before dissection to perform cold anesthesia. After finishing the cell culture experiment, we immersed flasks in a 50-times diluted Chlorox/sodium hypochlorite solution for at least 10 min. Then the Chlorox was drained into the sink with enough running water. We should not pour cultures directly down the drain or toilet.

Alternatively, we found that dissociated cells could survive in a culture tube at 20 °C for over 1 w. Longer shelf lives of cells may provide teachers enough flexibility to conduct cell culture experiments in school.

Aseptic procedures in the dissection of embryonic muscles and in preparation of the L-15 culture medium may be the technical bottlenecks in this cell culture experiment. Asking for support in providing dissociated cells and preparing the culture medium from experienced researchers or educational material suppliers may also be helpful.

In our public cell culture course in the winter, we asked students to dissect chick embryos and dissociate cells without using the sterile box; we did not face contamination problems. However, when students performed dissection and cell dissociation in the summer without using the sterile box, we encountered significant bacterial and fungi contaminations due to higher levels of air-borne microorganisms in the summer than in the winter. Even in the winter, quick dissection and dissociation procedures were essential to avoid bacterial contamination.

Impacts of cell observation in high school and college students

With the L-15 medium and air-tight culture flasks, living cells can grow and differentiate in a conventional incubator. We could observe the cells at the single-cell level under a standard upright microscope when we flipped the culture flask upside down. We could also observe cultured cells lens under an inverted Smartphone microscope.

With these tips, culturing cells, watching cells, and taking pictures or videos of living cells in Biology class/laboratory courses in high school and college became more accessible and affordable. The images’ quality was high and almost equivalent to classic inverted phase-contrast microscopes. Students may challenge experiments on changing culture temperatures, light wavelength, frequency of vibrations, adding fungi and bacteria, adding cooking ingredients or chemicals to the media, changing the angle of culture flasks in the incubator, etc. Students can do the DIY experiments in the classroom and at home. This way, “Study nature, not books (Louis Agassiz)” can become a reality in Cell Biology classes.

Conclusions

In the present study, we introduced easy and affordable methods to culture embryonic chicken skeletal muscle cells by using a standard dry incubator instead of a CO 2 incubator and observing them under a standard upright microscope instead of an inverted phase-contrast microscope. We also used the laser pickup lens from a compact disk (CD) player and attached it to the Smartphone’s selfie camera to increase magnification power and resolution. The proposed inverted smartphone microscope allowed us to observe living cells at the single-cell level. It is far more critical for students to watch living cells in a “Do-It-Yourself (DIY)” way than just simply looking at pictures of cells in textbooks.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Dobson, Henry J. R., for his indispensable suggestions while preparing the manuscript. We are also grateful to Iwasaki, I., and Hirata, K., students at Keio Senior High School in Yokohama, Japan, for allowing us to use the photograph of muscle explant culture. We also thank Ms. Nishina, M., a science teacher at Matsuyama High School, Higashi Matsuyama at Saitama, Japan, for sharing her exciting video of spontaneously contracting skeletal muscle cells taken under a school-type standard upright microscope. Lastly, we sincerely thank Tsuzuki I. and Nagayama K. for introducing us to smartphone microscopy. We have authorization no. N23002 from the Animal Experiment Committee at the Tokyo University of Science for using chick embryos.

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Matsuda, R., Okiharu, F. Bringing cell biology into classroom: tips to culture and observe skeletal muscle cells in high school and college. In Vitro Cell.Dev.Biol.-Animal (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11626-024-00906-2

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole . Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

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[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

[25] Li, X.-T., & Zhao, J. (2012). Chapter 4: An Approach to the Nature of Qi in TCM- Qi and Bioenergy. In Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine (p. 79). InTech.

[26] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

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[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

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Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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