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Abstract Generator

Get your abstract written – skip the headache., writefull's abstract generator gives you an abstract based on your paper's content., paste in the body of your text and click 'generate abstract' . here's an example from hindawi., frequently asked questions about the abstract generator.

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What are the Abstract Generator's key features?

Research Paper Abstract Generator

Writing the abstract for your research paper, dissertation, or book chapter is usually one of the final steps before you submit your work. It’s also the activity that many students and researchers find most difficult. A strong abstract must be clear, succinct and informative, but how do you decide what to include?

Structuring your abstract

Many journals require the abstract to be structured according to

whereas the abstract for your dissertation or chapter may just be a short narrative paragraph. Either way, the abstract should contain key information from the study and be easy to read. Creating an abstract is as much an art as a science.

Happily, Scholarcy can help by identifying exactly the right information to include in your abstract.

Abstract in numbers

4 steps to generate an abstract with scholarcy.

Upload your article

Simply upload your article to Scholarcy Library to generate a summary flashcard that outlines your research and contains the information needed to create your abstract.

View Scholarcy Highlights

The Scholarcy Highlights tab contains 5-7 bullet points comprising the background to the study, the key findings, and the conclusion.

View Scholarcy Summary

If your paper contains standard IMRaD sections, then the Scholarcy Summary will automatically be structured to follow these headings and will include any study objectives that you have written.

And the Study subjects and participants tab extracts key information about study participants, interventions, and quantitative results. Perfect for your abstract!

Try Smart Synopsis

Alternatively, for your dissertation or book chapter, you can use our Smart Synopses tool to create a more naturally flowing, narrative abstract.

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• Abstract Generator

Abstract generator lets you create an abstract for the research paper by using advanced AI technology.

This online abstract maker generates a title and precise overview of the given content with one click.

It generates an accurate article abstract by combining the most relevant and important phrases from the content of the article.

How to write an abstract for a research paper?

Here’s how you can generate the abstract of your content in the below easy steps:

• Type or copy-paste your text into the given input field.
• Alternatively, upload a file from the local storage of your system.
• Verify the reCAPTCHA.
• Click on the Generate button.
• Copy the results and paste them wherever you want in real-time.

Features of Our Online Abstract Generator

Free for all.

Our abstract generator APA is completely free for everyone. You don’t have to purchase any subscription to abstract research papers and articles.

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To get rid of typing or pasting long text into the input box, you can use this feature.

This will allow you to upload TXT, DOC, and PDF files from the local storage without any hurdles.

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This abstract creator online makes it easy for you to generate a title and precis overview of the given text with one click.

It takes the important key phrases from the content and combines them to create an accurate abstract with advanced AI.

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You can use this feature of our online abstract maker to copy the result text in real-time and paste it wherever you want without any hassle.

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This feature lets you download the abstracted text in DOC format for future use just within a single click.

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This free text abstraction tool requires no signup or registration process to use it. Simply go the Editpad.org , search for the Abstract Generator, open it, and enter your text to create an abstract of any text within seconds.

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Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Table of Contents

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

• Describe the paper.
• Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
• Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
• Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

• Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
• What you want to study, achieve or discover.
• Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

• A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
• Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
• A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
• An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

• Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
• Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
• Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

• A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
• It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
• A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
• It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
• It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
• A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
• It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
• It is written impartially and objectively.

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

• What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
• What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

• A significant take-home message.
• Corresponding important findings.
• The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

Interested in learning more about dedicated research solutions? Go to the SciSpace product page to find out how our suite of products can help you simplify your research workflows so you can focus on advancing science.

The best-in-class solution is equipped with features such as literature search and discovery, profile management, research writing and formatting, and so much more.

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Research Paper Abstract Generator

The abstract of a research paper provides a key summary of your paper. They give the reader a summary of your paper; however, the majority of individuals are terrified of writing this essential section.

Why? It may determine the success or failure of a paper.

Would you like to present at a conference? You must include an abstract with your application, and it must pique the reviewers’ interest. When you submit your paper for grading or present the field in which you worked with your most recent study, your abstract must be as strong as possible.

Although it may appear scary, especially if this is your first time, we have provided you with information on what abstracts are and basic instructions on how to write abstracts for a variety of scenarios.

What Is a Research Paper Abstract Generator?

Using superior AI technology, the abstract generator enables you to compose an abstract for your research paper. The free abstract generator generates a title and precise description of the material given with a single click. The research paper abstract generator generates an acceptable research paper abstract by including the most pertinent and essential phrases from the paper’s body.

What Is An Abstract?

Let’s define an abstract prior to entering the abstract domain.

An abstract is a succinct and unambiguous overview that comprises your hypothesis, the context of your study, a sentence or two describing your methodology, and your conclusion. It provides viewers with a preview of your work and helps them decide whether to read it. Consider it a more in-depth book summary or movie trailer! Including all of this essential information enables others to acquire the knowledge they need for their professions fast. Importantly, your abstract should be concise; you should aim for between 100 and 500 words. Aim for around 300 words for an exact word count.

Your abstract is not an expansion or evaluation of your research work, nor is it a criticism or suggestion. Its purpose is to explain your article. When submitting your work for evaluation, publishing, submission to a regulatory body, or permission to speak at a conference, you are typically expected to produce an abstract. Consequently, your abstract must contain a great deal of information. Refrain from believing that a single notion will suffice in all of these circumstances.

Writing an Abstract

You may be tempted to write your abstract first because it will be the first section of your paper, but it’s better to wait until you’ve done your entire project so you know exactly what you’re summarizing. If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may provide you with precise guidelines on its content and structure. Similarly, scientific publications often adhere to stringent abstract standards. In addition to following the directions on this page, you should look for and adhere to any rules from the course or publication for which you are writing.

The Structure of a Research Paper

Willing to examine scientific publications, evaluate several studies, and even learn how a research paper summary tool operates? In this case, you will be inquisitive about the structure of such academic papers. Here, we have just described the normal format of scholarly papers.

Include the following sections in your research paper:

The abstract of a research paper provides a summary of the research project. It emphasizes the premise and noteworthy findings. Your audience will utilize it to comprehend the overall concept and purpose of the study rapidly. Utilize our online summary generator for this section. Abstracts in scientific works are often one paragraph at maximum.

Introduction

In the beginning, you should situate your study subject. Describe the subject and include any pertinent earlier research. Additionally, this is where you would typically outline a knowledge gap you wish to address. Explain why the topic you are addressing is significant and requires more examination.

Methodology

In this part, you must describe the study’s methodology. Describe how the research was conducted and who was involved. Describe your methodology as well as the materials and technologies employed. You must also outline the data collecting and analysis procedures. It is essential to remember that someone else should be able to duplicate your study using these ideas.

In the results portion of your research report, you will provide the collected data. You must also include the findings of any statistical tests you conduct. Keep in mind the main research questions throughout this strategy. In this area, you should relate your findings to it.

Explain the relevance of your methodology and results once you have completed your report. Discuss the consequences of the most significant components of your study. Consider your topic and your objectives for the research. Discuss its flaws and how they can be addressed in the future.

The final portion of your work is a bibliography also known as references. It is a list of the sources you consulted for your paper. It should be formatted according to your school’s specifications. Ensure that things are organized alphabetically.

Instructions for Writing an Abstract

It may take a great deal of effort to condense your whole work into a few hundred words, but the research paper abstract will be the first (and often only) item that people read, so it is crucial that it be written correctly. These tips can help you get started.

View Further Abstracts

Reading the abstracts of others is the best approach to learning how to write an abstract on your topic. Consider utilizing journal article abstracts as a model for organization and style, as you have likely read hundreds of them while performing your research review. Thesis and dissertation databases also provide hundreds of samples of dissertation abstracts.

Description in Reverse

Not all abstractions will include identical components. For lengthier works, write your abstract in reverse outline format. Each chapter or section should include a list of keywords and a one- to a two-line summary of the major point or argument. This will serve as a guide for the organization of your abstract. Then, modify the phrases to establish connections and illustrate how the argument develops.

Write Effectively and Concisely

An effective abstract is concise and persuasive, so ensure that every word counts. Each sentence should elaborate on a significant point.

Passive Expressions Must Be Avoided

Frequently, passive construction should be shorter. Employ the active voice to make them shorter and more comprehensible.

Avoid Using Obscure Jargon

The abstract should be understandable to those unfamiliar with the subject matter.

Avoid Duplication and Filler

Replace nouns with pronouns wherever feasible and avoid using unneeded words.

Avoid Extensive Descriptions

The purpose of an abstract is not to provide detailed definitions, context, or commentary on the work of other scholars. Instead, provide this material in the body of your dissertation or paper.

Investigate Your Formatting

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a publication, the abstract must be structured exactly; be sure to adhere to the instructions and prepare your work accordingly. APA research papers may utilize the APA abstract format.

Only Copy Complete Phrases from Papers

In theory, it may appear to be a great strategy, but in practice, it will just bring you headaches. You will need more than just using terminology from your work to write a clear, accurate, and succinct abstract. This will prevent your abstract from becoming an actual abstract and will likely make it illogical.

Include Important Information

You must include the required information in your abstract to be accepted.

Avoid Adding Too Many Details

To qualify the preceding point, it is also a major no-no to provide too much information in your abstract. Finding the optimal balance might be challenging; thus, your abstract should be clear and transparent. Remove unnecessary phrases and terms that “fluff up” your research.

Your Abstract Is What Piques the Reader’s Curiosity

Unfortunately, they only have time to read your entire paper, especially in the case of conference submissions. The readers want to know if your work will aid them with their study or if it is the appropriate piece for their conference.

What Makes A Bad Abstract?

Not following abstract structure directions.

If you have been informed of the structure and format that the institution to which you are submitting your abstract requires, adhere to it precisely. Remember to include everything, and do not assume that if you miss one small detail, it will not matter because it will!

Omission to Include Important Keywords

In order for your abstract/paper to be effectively indexed and easily discoverable, you must include keywords.

Not Offering an Exhaustive Overview

You must provide a brief description of each section of your work. You’ve included the results, but if you have an introduction, method, outcomes/results, and analysis/discussion, you must summarize them all in your abstract.

Online Services for Abstract Writing

Researchers devoted a number of hours to ensuring that their investigation was conducted thoroughly and precisely that all approaches and new discoveries were examined, and that every minute observation was recorded.

So, when it’s time to publish your work, how can you condense your research into a concise essay that satisfies the Journal’s stringent requirements without sacrificing essential information?

You have access to a number of online abstract writing services . These services will condense your whole material without compromising vital details or the effectiveness of your work. These online writing services will also ensure that the content flows logically and is accessible to a wide variety of readers. Your abstract will also contain potent keywords that will increase your database search results.

Research paper abstracts are an excellent way for summarizing your study for your audience. It describes the nature of the inquiry, the methodology employed, and the results. Consider refining your academic writing abilities in order to excel in your abstract. In addition, despite the fact that writing an abstract may first look tough, if you follow the guidelines provided above, you should find the process easier and more fun.

Frequently Asked Questions

How to write a good research paper abstract.

An abstract should be able to be understood without reading the full article or consulting any other resources. It emphasizes important subject areas, the purpose of your research, the relevance of your work, and the primary conclusions.

How do I start an abstract research paper?

The abstract should begin with a brief yet precise statement of the problem or topic, followed by a discussion of the research methods and methodology, the noteworthy results, and the conclusions reached.

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APA Abstract (2020) | Formatting, Length, and Keywords

Published on November 6, 2020 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on January 17, 2024.

An APA abstract is a comprehensive summary of your paper in which you briefly address the research problem , hypotheses , methods , results , and implications of your research. It’s placed on a separate page right after the title page and is usually no longer than 250 words.

Most professional papers that are submitted for publication require an abstract. Student papers typically don’t need an abstract, unless instructed otherwise.

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Table of contents

How to format the abstract, how to write an apa abstract, which keywords to use, frequently asked questions, apa abstract example.

Formatting instructions

Follow these five steps to format your abstract in APA Style:

• Insert a running head (for a professional paper—not needed for a student paper) and page number.
• Set page margins to 1 inch (2.54 cm).
• Write “Abstract” (bold and centered) at the top of the page.
• Do not indent the first line.
• Double-space the text.
• Use a legible font like Times New Roman (12 pt.).
• Limit the length to 250 words.
• Indent the first line 0.5 inches.
• Write the label “Keywords:” (italicized).
• Write keywords in lowercase letters.
• Separate keywords with commas.
• Do not use a period after the keywords.

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The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
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The abstract is a self-contained piece of text that informs the reader what your research is about. It’s best to write the abstract after you’re finished with the rest of your paper.

The questions below may help structure your abstract. Try answering them in one to three sentences each.

• What is the problem? Outline the objective, research questions , and/or hypotheses .
• What has been done? Explain your research methods .
• What did you discover? Summarize the key findings and conclusions .
• What do the findings mean? Summarize the discussion and recommendations .

Check out our guide on how to write an abstract for more guidance and an annotated example.

Guide: writing an abstract

At the end of the abstract, you may include a few keywords that will be used for indexing if your paper is published on a database. Listing your keywords will help other researchers find your work.

Choosing relevant keywords is essential. Try to identify keywords that address your topic, method, or population. APA recommends including three to five keywords.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

An APA abstract is around 150–250 words long. However, always check your target journal’s guidelines and don’t exceed the specified word count.

In an APA Style paper , the abstract is placed on a separate page after the title page (page 2).

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2024, January 17). APA Abstract (2020) | Formatting, Length, and Keywords. Scribbr. Retrieved April 10, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-abstract/

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How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper | Examples

What is a research paper abstract?

Research paper abstracts summarize your study quickly and succinctly to journal editors and researchers and prompt them to read further. But with the ubiquity of online publication databases, writing a compelling abstract is even more important today than it was in the days of bound paper manuscripts.

Abstracts exist to “sell”  your work, and they could thus be compared to the “executive summary” of a business resume: an official briefing on what is most important about your research. Or the “gist” of your research. With the majority of academic transactions being conducted online, this means that you have even less time to impress readers–and increased competition in terms of other abstracts out there to read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) notes that there are  12 questions or “points” considered in the selection process  for journals and conferences and stresses the importance of having an abstract that ticks all of these boxes. Because it is often the ONLY chance you have to convince readers to keep reading, it is important that you spend time and energy crafting an abstract that faithfully represents the central parts of your study and captivates your audience.

With that in mind, follow these suggestions when structuring and writing your abstract, and learn how exactly to put these ideas into a solid abstract that will captivate your target readers.

Before Writing Your Abstract

How long should an abstract be.

All abstracts are written with the same essential objective: to give a summary of your study. But there are two basic styles of abstract: descriptive and informative . Here is a brief delineation of the two:

Of the two types of abstracts, informative abstracts are much more common, and they are widely used for submission to journals and conferences. Informative abstracts apply to lengthier and more technical research and are common in the sciences, engineering, and psychology, while descriptive abstracts are more likely used in humanities and social science papers. The best method of determining which abstract type you need to use is to follow the instructions for journal submissions and to read as many other published articles in those journals as possible.

Research Abstract Guidelines and Requirements

As any article about research writing will tell you, authors must always closely follow the specific guidelines and requirements indicated in the Guide for Authors section of their target journal’s website. The same kind of adherence to conventions should be applied to journal publications, for consideration at a conference, and even when completing a class assignment.

Each publisher has particular demands when it comes to formatting and structure. Here are some common questions addressed in the journal guidelines:

• Is there a maximum or minimum word/character length?
• What are the style and formatting requirements?
• What is the appropriate abstract type?
• Are there any specific content or organization rules that apply?

There are of course other rules to consider when composing a research paper abstract. But if you follow the stated rules the first time you submit your manuscript, you can avoid your work being thrown in the “circular file” right off the bat.

Identify Your Target Readership

The main purpose of your abstract is to lead researchers to the full text of your research paper. In scientific journals, abstracts let readers decide whether the research discussed is relevant to their own interests or study. Abstracts also help readers understand your main argument quickly. Consider these questions as you write your abstract:

• Are other academics in your field the main target of your study?
• Will your study perhaps be useful to members of the general public?
• Do your study results include the wider implications presented in the abstract?

Outlining and Writing Your Abstract

What to include in an abstract.

Just as your  research paper title  should cover as much ground as possible in a few short words, your abstract must cover  all  parts of your study in order to fully explain your paper and research. Because it must accomplish this task in the space of only a few hundred words, it is important not to include ambiguous references or phrases that will confuse the reader or mislead them about the content and objectives of your research. Follow these  dos  and  don’ts  when it comes to what kind of writing to include:

• Avoid acronyms or abbreviations since these will need to be explained in order to make sense to the reader, which takes up valuable abstract space. Instead, explain these terms in the Introduction section of the main text.
• Only use references to people or other works if they are well-known. Otherwise, avoid referencing anything outside of your study in the abstract.
• Never include tables, figures, sources, or long quotations in your abstract; you will have plenty of time to present and refer to these in the body of your paper.

Use keywords in your abstract to focus your topic

A vital search tool is the research paper keywords section, which lists the most relevant terms directly underneath the abstract. Think of these keywords as the “tubes” that readers will seek and enter—via queries on databases and search engines—to ultimately land at their destination, which is your paper. Your abstract keywords should thus be words that are commonly used in searches but should also be highly relevant to your work and found in the text of your abstract. Include 5 to 10 important words or short phrases central to your research in both the abstract and the keywords section.

For example, if you are writing a paper on the prevalence of obesity among lower classes that crosses international boundaries, you should include terms like “obesity,” “prevalence,” “international,” “lower classes,” and “cross-cultural.” These are terms that should net a wide array of people interested in your topic of study. Look at our nine rules for choosing keywords for your research paper if you need more input on this.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

As mentioned above, the abstract (especially the informative abstract) acts as a surrogate or synopsis of your research paper, doing almost as much work as the thousands of words that follow it in the body of the main text. In the hard sciences and most social sciences, the abstract includes the following sections and organizational schema.

Each section is quite compact—only a single sentence or two, although there is room for expansion if one element or statement is particularly interesting or compelling. As the abstract is almost always one long paragraph, the individual sections should naturally merge into one another to create a holistic effect. Use the following as a checklist to ensure that you have included all of the necessary content in your abstract.

1) Identify your purpose and motivation

So your research is about rabies in Brazilian squirrels. Why is this important? You should start your abstract by explaining why people should care about this study—why is it significant to your field and perhaps to the wider world? And what is the exact purpose of your study; what are you trying to achieve? Start by answering the following questions:

• What made you decide to do this study or project?
• Why is this study important to your field or to the lay reader?
• Why should someone read your entire article?

In summary, the first section of your abstract should include the importance of the research and its impact on related research fields or on the wider scientific domain.

2) Explain the research problem you are addressing

Stating the research problem that your study addresses is the corollary to why your specific study is important and necessary. For instance, even if the issue of “rabies in Brazilian squirrels” is important, what is the problem—the “missing piece of the puzzle”—that your study helps resolve?

You can combine the problem with the motivation section, but from a perspective of organization and clarity, it is best to separate the two. Here are some precise questions to address:

• What is your research trying to better understand or what problem is it trying to solve?
• What is the scope of your study—does it try to explain something general or specific?
• What is your central claim or argument?

3) Discuss your research approach

Your specific study approach is detailed in the Methods and Materials section .  You have already established the importance of the research, your motivation for studying this issue, and the specific problem your paper addresses. Now you need to discuss  how  you solved or made progress on this problem—how you conducted your research. If your study includes your own work or that of your team, describe that here. If in your paper you reviewed the work of others, explain this here. Did you use analytic models? A simulation? A double-blind study? A case study? You are basically showing the reader the internal engine of your research machine and how it functioned in the study. Be sure to:

• Detail your research—include methods/type of the study, your variables, and the extent of the work
• Briefly present evidence to support your claim
• Highlight your most important sources

4) Briefly summarize your results

Here you will give an overview of the outcome of your study. Avoid using too many vague qualitative terms (e.g, “very,” “small,” or “tremendous”) and try to use at least some quantitative terms (i.e., percentages, figures, numbers). Save your qualitative language for the conclusion statement. Answer questions like these:

• What did your study yield in concrete terms (e.g., trends, figures, correlation between phenomena)?
• How did your results compare to your hypothesis? Was the study successful?
• Where there any highly unexpected outcomes or were they all largely predicted?

5) State your conclusion

In the last section of your abstract, you will give a statement about the implications and  limitations of the study . Be sure to connect this statement closely to your results and not the area of study in general. Are the results of this study going to shake up the scientific world? Will they impact how people see “Brazilian squirrels”? Or are the implications minor? Try not to boast about your study or present its impact as  too  far-reaching, as researchers and journals will tend to be skeptical of bold claims in scientific papers. Answer one of these questions:

• What are the exact effects of these results on my field? On the wider world?
• What other kind of study would yield further solutions to problems?
• What other information is needed to expand knowledge in this area?

After Completing the First Draft of Your Abstract

Revise your abstract.

The abstract, like any piece of academic writing, should be revised before being considered complete. Check it for  grammatical and spelling errors  and make sure it is formatted properly.

Get feedback from a peer

Getting a fresh set of eyes to review your abstract is a great way to find out whether you’ve summarized your research well. Find a reader who understands research papers but is not an expert in this field or is not affiliated with your study. Ask your reader to summarize what your study is about (including all key points of each section). This should tell you if you have communicated your key points clearly.

In addition to research peers, consider consulting with a professor or even a specialist or generalist writing center consultant about your abstract. Use any resource that helps you see your work from another perspective.

Consider getting professional editing and proofreading

While peer feedback is quite important to ensure the effectiveness of your abstract content, it may be a good idea to find an academic editor  to fix mistakes in grammar, spelling, mechanics, style, or formatting. The presence of basic errors in the abstract may not affect your content, but it might dissuade someone from reading your entire study. Wordvice provides English editing services that both correct objective errors and enhance the readability and impact of your work.

Additional Abstract Rules and Guidelines

Write your abstract after completing your paper.

Although the abstract goes at the beginning of your manuscript, it does not merely introduce your research topic (that is the job of the title), but rather summarizes your entire paper. Writing the abstract last will ensure that it is complete and consistent with the findings and statements in your paper.

Keep your content in the correct order

Both questions and answers should be organized in a standard and familiar way to make the content easier for readers to absorb. Ideally, it should mimic the overall format of your essay and the classic “introduction,” “body,” and “conclusion” form, even if the parts are not neatly divided as such.

Write the abstract from scratch

Because the abstract is a self-contained piece of writing viewed separately from the body of the paper, you should write it separately as well. Never copy and paste direct quotes from the paper and avoid paraphrasing sentences in the paper. Using new vocabulary and phrases will keep your abstract interesting and free of redundancies while conserving space.

Don’t include too many details in the abstract

Again, the density of your abstract makes it incompatible with including specific points other than possibly names or locations. You can make references to terms, but do not explain or define them in the abstract. Try to strike a balance between being specific to your study and presenting a relatively broad overview of your work.

Wordvice Resources

If you think your abstract is fine now but you need input on abstract writing or require English editing services (including paper editing ), then head over to the Wordvice academic resources page, where you will find many more articles, for example on writing the Results , Methods , and Discussion sections of your manuscript, on choosing a title for your paper , or on how to finalize your journal submission with a strong cover letter .    

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Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

• CONSORT for randomized trials.
• STROBE for observational studies
• PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

• Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
• Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
• Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
• Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
• Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
• Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
• Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

Don’t

• Sensationalize your research.
• Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
• Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
• Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
• Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
• Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
• Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
• How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

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Make an abstract for your paper in 4 steps:

• Choose between a simple and an advanced option
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Your abstract may be:

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Having trouble writing an abstract? You’re not alone.

Crafting an abstract can be problematic, especially when dealing with voluminous work. After all, converting a 100-page academic paper into 150 words is not an easy task. And this is where an abstract maker can help you immensely.

The amount of time you’ll save by relying on a machine to do the work for you is huge. Not to mention the result will be entirely error-free. No logical, grammatical, or other mistakes will spoil your piece.

Sounds interesting? Then, keep reading to learn more about abstracts and our generator.

An abstract is a brief summary of a work. Usually, it's a single paragraph containing 150 to 250 words. It describes all the key points and elements of an article, essay, or work of any other format.

Keep in mind that an abstract merely describes a text. It shouldn’t be an evaluation or an attempt to defend the paper. Instead, it’s just an overview.

Structure of an Abstract

An abstract is not a simple summary. It has a specific structure and should contain the following elements:

Remember that an abstract is separate from the rest of the paper. For the reader to get the complete picture of your research, your abstract must include everything listed above.

✍️ How to Write an Abstract

It can be tempting to go and write an abstract right away. But make sure to finish the planning of your work first. You want to write your abstract about your piece's contents, not build the contents around your abstract.

To make the writing process easier, divide it into 5 manageable steps:

• Check the requirements. First off, you need to know how much you are allowed to write. An average abstract is about 150-250 words long, but there is often a strict limit. Make sure to stay within it!
• Establish the goal and the problems of the research. The reader needs to know what your paper will be about right from the get-go. That’s why you need to formulate your thesis and showcase it first.
• Establish the methods. Tell the reader how you did your research. Don’t go in too deep: simply describe the methods without unnecessary details.
• Describe the results. Write a couple of sentences about the outcome of your investigation.
• Write a conclusion. Address the issue you established in the second step. You might also want to mention your work’s limitations regarding your research samples or methods. Try to give the reader a clear understanding of your goal and how you achieved it.

Want to make the process even easier? Use our abstract tool! Online generators like ours will help you craft an excellent paragraph in a matter of seconds.

Abstract Writing Tips

Finally, we want to help you make your abstract truly amazing. Check out our best tips below:

• It's best to get to the point immediately and without adding any filler or unnecessary details.
• The less specific your abstract is, the better.
• Check out some examples before you start writing. Sometimes the best way to learn something is to watch how everyone else does it.
• Avoid long sentences or bizarre vocabulary to make an abstract paragraph as concise as possible.
• It’s a great idea to single out some keywords from your outline and put them into your abstract.
• Don't forget about formatting. Any serious academic work has its requirements. Make sure you check them before writing your piece.

Following these simple tips will make you a master of abstract writing.

✨ Free Abstract Sample

As an example, check out this abstract of the article “Bioeffcacy of Mentha piperita essential oil against dengue fever mosquito” by Sarita Kumar:

The Mentha balsamea, or peppermint plant, is a result of cross-breeding between spearmint and water mint. These plants are most commonly used in the area of repelling insects. The following research revolves around peppermint oil insect repellent and its development. As a part of an experiment, we obtained 25 grams of fresh peppermint and, after grinding it, put it in a glass jar with olive oil. The jar was then left for two days in a warm temperate. Next, the oil was strained with a cheesecloth, gathered, and diluted at 70%. It then got separated into three different spray bottles. The test was to put the spray sample into a jar with mosquitoes and equate the result to the same test with a commercial repellant. Thus, we challenged the stereotype of synthetic repellents being more efficient than their analogs made from natural materials.

That will be the end of our guide on abstract writing. Thank you for reading, and make sure to try out our abstract writer tool to get the best results!

❓ Abstract Generator FAQ

❓ how do you write an abstract for a research paper.

You may use an abstract tool and make the writing process entirely automatic. If you can’t use it, write an abstract yourself by describing the following:

• The main problem.
• Background information.
• The end goal.
• Description of methods you used.
• The results of the research.

❓ What are the 5 parts of an abstract?

Parts of an abstract depend on the contents and limitations of your research. The 5 main elements are:

• The introduction
• Research significance
• Method description

❓ What makes a good abstract in a research paper?

A good abstract is one that:

• Meets all the requirements.
• Establishes the problem and main issues of the research.
• Describes the methods you used during the analysis.
• Showcases results of the study.
• Provides a clear conclusion.

❓ How long should my abstract be?

An average abstract is about 150-250 words long. You may often get strict limits that can go above or beyond these numbers. Your supervisor should provide the exact requirements for abstract length. So, make sure to double-check them.

Updated: Apr 9th, 2024

• Writing an Abstract: George Mason University
• Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper: University of Wisconsin - Madison
• Writing an Abstract: Australian National University
• The Abstract: The University of Toronto

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This Abstract Generator is basically a guideline for writing abstracts. We have also written an article on how to write abstracts. Go through the post and use our tools to create properly formatted abstracts. Note: An abstract should be between 100 - 250 words.

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Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

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Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

• Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
• Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
• Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
• Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
• Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

• Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
• Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
• Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
• Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
• Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
• Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

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The best apa abstract generator.

Abridgments are difficult. You have to go piece by piece through your paper, making sure that you’ve covered the salient points but not included too much. It’s so difficult to summarize a long text into a compact yet meaningful introduction that interests the reader and gives you a good idea of what the text is about. Yet abstracts are incredibly important. If you ever want to be published, you’re going to have to be able to produce an abstract. And, of course, plenty of class assignments require them. They are a crucial part of the academic development process.

Automatic Abridgment Tool

Given this difficult situation, what would you possibly do? The answer is to use an online abstract generator for papers! If you’ve never used one, they’re quite simple. All you have to do is paste text in, specify the length, and click go. Those are the only steps, so you may see how easy it is. It will take only a few seconds to give you a complete abridgment. You could have a finished product in less than ten minutes, and that’s only if you take the time to tweak it a little bit! Use it as-is and it could take less than two minutes from start to finish. That’s a timeframe worth working in! You’ll be able to spend all your time on the paper itself and very little worrying about your abridgment. Think of what a relief it’ll be. There’s also an APA abstract generator to help you with your text length.

Use Abridgments Maker Online

The speed of the abridgment maker gives it significant advantages. But did you know it’s also easily accessible from anywhere? We’ve optimized it for mobile and desktop, and we give you the option of using either. Just bookmark the URL and use it anywhere and get an abridgment while waiting in line at the movie theater if you so desire. Additionally, the abstract art title generator:

• Smart enough to leave in the most important stuff
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• Always correct spelling and grammar

As long as your paper or just an abstract for thesis contains no typos, so your abridgment will not. You can look at the work that the abstract word generator has done to figure out how to do your own, too. It’s always helpful to have a good pattern, and you’ll learn the ins and outs quickly and easily with this abstract art generator. Use it to create abstracts of the perfect length and then go on to do your own if you want.

Actual Structure You Must Follow

The actual structure is based on seven different components. These elements are the pillars of a thesis or many other types of research studies. The structure is being shared in these 7 points.

• Introduction. This part should give the reader the context of your topic. It shouldn’t be extremely detailed but should garner the reader’s interest in the topic.
• Discussion. Briefly describe the types of data that will be generated as a result of this work and how it addresses an issue in the field.
• Literature review. Describe the existing findings, setting the stage for the analysis question that you are proposing to address in the next section. Demonstrate that you are well-versed in the current affairs of the field.
• Abridgment. Identify the question you seek to address, and describe how it might be used to address a current issue.
• Methodology. Describe how the data will be gathered to answer the question identified in the previous section, using technical terms well-understood by those in the field.
• Results. Analyze and present the results of the analysis, describing how they relate to answering the main question at the heart of your thesis.
• Conclusion. Summarize the important findings of your data, and explain its importance. Additionally, here you are choosing to delineate potential future steps.

Learn the Steps to Write Conclusion Paragraph

Once you are done with the paper, it is suggested to keep all the major points in your mind. This might help you to discuss all of such points in the concluding passage. Adding the introductory information isn’t necessary to be discussed in the conclusion. With the help of automatic abstract generator, try to add the crux of the study by discussing the reasons for the occurred problem and their solutions. Abstract generator APA might be useful for you to avoid asking how to write a conclusion paragraph.

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We can provide excellent services for writing reports and research articles. The academic studies are conducted in the most appropriate way of gathering the relevant finding. Writing a thesis is something that requires a lot of time and focus. An individual who wants to generate the best study must make in-depth research for it. If you need help writing a research proposal , these services are exceptional and make your work be sold in no time. The abstract generator and many other features used by the team are ideal to make the research valuable. Keeping the clients satisfied with help is the top priority. After keeping the clients fully satisfied, we make sure that they never ask for any revisions at all.

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CPS Online Library Research Guide (UNH Manchester Library): How to Write an Abstract

• Home & Table of Contents
• Different Types of Information
• The Savvy Information Consumer
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• Understanding the Assignment
• Preliminary Considerations
• 7 Steps to Completing a Research Assignment
• Define the Topic
• Find & Evaluate Your Sources
• Research Integrity & Citing Your Sources
• Searching for Information
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• How to Read an Academic Journal Article This link opens in a new window
• Evaluating Social Media Sources
• Writing Your Research Paper
• Create a Literature Review
• Summarize an Article
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Write a Book Review
• How to Do an Annotated Bibliography
• Finding Professional Organizations
• Find Key Journals in Your Field of Study
• Find Peer-Reviewed Articles
• Write a Research Paper Proposal
• Research a Company This link opens in a new window
• Citing Your Sources
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• NHCUC Libraries
• Other Types of Research
• Academic Libraries in NH
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• Using Google for Academic Research
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What is an Abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why Write an Abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of Abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative . They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical , but it is rarely used.  If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Descriptive abstract example:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Informative abstract example:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If You are Abstracting Your Own Writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If You are Abstracting Someone Else’s Writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. when revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. the idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. the word count feature of microsoft word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length., examples of abstracts by discipline, example 1: humanities abstract.

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it

The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used

Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does

The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

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• Koopman, Philip. “How to Write an Abstract.”
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Regeneration of the heart: from molecular mechanisms to clinical therapeutics

• Qian-Yun Guo 1 ,
• Jia-Qi Yang 1 ,
• Xun-Xun Feng 1 &
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Military Medical Research volume  10 , Article number:  18 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Heart injury such as myocardial infarction leads to cardiomyocyte loss, fibrotic tissue deposition, and scar formation. These changes reduce cardiac contractility, resulting in heart failure, which causes a huge public health burden. Military personnel, compared with civilians, is exposed to more stress, a risk factor for heart diseases, making cardiovascular health management and treatment innovation an important topic for military medicine. So far, medical intervention can slow down cardiovascular disease progression, but not yet induce heart regeneration. In the past decades, studies have focused on mechanisms underlying the regenerative capability of the heart and applicable approaches to reverse heart injury. Insights have emerged from studies in animal models and early clinical trials. Clinical interventions show the potential to reduce scar formation and enhance cardiomyocyte proliferation that counteracts the pathogenesis of heart disease. In this review, we discuss the signaling events controlling the regeneration of heart tissue and summarize current therapeutic approaches to promote heart regeneration after injury.

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death and accounts for approximately 32% of global deaths, resulting in the losses of 17.9 million lives each year [ 1 , 2 ]. Military personnel is significantly more likely to report higher work-related stress than civilians [ 3 , 4 ], contributing to the long-term development of cardiovascular diseases and acute triggering of heart failure [ 5 ]. Cardiovascular disease represents the cause of more than 10% of military pilots’ groundings [ 6 ]. The rate of heart failure among hospitalized veterans reaches as high as 0.5% [ 7 ]. These studies highlight the importance of cardiovascular research in military medicine. Despite tremendous efforts and advances in cardiovascular research and therapies, heart failure continues to maintain high mortality and morbidity rates [ 1 , 8 ]. Taking longer life expectancy, higher rates of obesity, diabetes, and modern lifestyle into consideration, epidemiologic studies predicted a 46% increase in heart failure patients by 2030 [ 9 , 10 ]. Figure  1 illustrates the standard of care for managing heart failure. Currently, pharmacological treatment can slow down heart failure progression, but it still needs a breakthrough.

Standard of care for heart failure. Pharmacological treatment and medical devices are currently being used to manage the progression of diseases. β-blocker, ACEi, MRA, and SGLT2i are usually used for all patients with heart failure in order to reduce mortality. For selected patients, diuretic, ivabradine, and digoxin might be used. For advanced stage patients, device and surgery would be recommended. ACEi angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, ARNi angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor, ARB angiotensin receptor blocker, MRA aldosterone receptor antagonists, SGL2i sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor, HR heart rate, CRT-P cardiac resynchronization therapy-pacemakers, CRT-D cardiac resynchronization therapy-defibrillators, ICD implantable cardioverter defibrillator, MCS mechanical circulatory support

Potential approaches for cardiac regeneration have been tested, including strategies based on in situ cellular reprogramming and de novo tissue engineering methods. Although promising data have been accumulated, each of these approaches faces challenges. Cardiomyocytes of the adult human heart are terminally differentiated and have virtually no regenerative capacity, making it hard to reboot the proliferation of cardiomyocytes after injuries [ 11 ]. Although tissue engineering approaches have developed rapidly owing to the improvement of biomaterials and 3D printing, creating a functional heart in vitro remains a great challenge [ 12 ]. Stem cell-based therapies attempt to promote heart regeneration by injecting stem cells into patients. However, the survival, anchor, differentiation, and maturation of stem cells at the injured site are hard to control, and thus require further optimization before being ready for clinical practice [ 13 , 14 ]. Recent studies suggest that the substances secreted by stem cells may promote heart regeneration [ 15 , 16 ], initiating the search for drugs that target the molecular signaling pathways induced by these substances. Therefore, further understanding the molecular mechanism controlling heart regeneration will help to facilitate the emergence of new therapies that could restore cardiac function. This review summarizes the molecular signaling pathways for heart regeneration and discusses the progress and challenges of approaches for heart regeneration.

Role of molecular signalings in heart regeneration

Notch and notch intracellular domain (nicd) promote cardiomyocyte proliferation and inhibit immune cell infiltration.

Heart regeneration was first described in zebrafish 20 years ago by Poss et al. [ 17 ]. Since this milestone study, the underlying signaling pathways have been extensively studied, as summarized in Fig.  2 , first, showing that Notch mediates heart generation [ 18 ]. Since then, efforts have been made to understand the signaling events boosting cardiomyocyte proliferation, with the hope of aiding human heart regeneration. Notch signaling plays an important role in regulating endocardium maturation via serpine1. Inhibiting or activating Notch both result in impairment of heart regeneration, indicating a dynamic change of Notch activity is crucial [ 19 ]. In addition, Notch signaling in the endocardium interacts with cardiomyocytes as an antagonist for Wnt signaling and promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation [ 20 ]. Following the initial inflammatory response, the endocardium and epicardium regenerate first to provide the right environment for cardiomyocyte proliferation. For example, the endocardium and epicardium secrete retinoic acid, and the epicardium produces fibronectin of extracellular matrix (ECM) [ 21 , 22 ]. The newly-formed heart muscle is found to populate via cardiomyocyte dedifferentiation and proliferation [ 23 ]. A study by Gemberling et al. [ 24 ] demonstrated that neuregulin 1 (Nrg1) is up-regulated after heart injury and serves as a potent inducer of cardiomyocyte proliferation. Notch signaling is also involved in this process, and a remarkable increase in Notch1b and DeltaC expression has been observed [ 18 ]. Interestingly, both Notch inhibition and Notch overexpression have been found to inhibit cardiomyocyte proliferation and heart regeneration, suggesting a delicate balance of this pathway is required [ 25 ]. Further studies by Pfefferli et al. [ 26 ] and Gupta et al. [ 27 ] have distinguished the contribution of different layers of cardiomyocytes during regeneration. Fate mapping with careg:EGFP has shown that the primordial cardiac layer incompletely regenerates after cryoinjury and grow restrictively by lateral expansion, while cortical and trabecular layers are primarily responsible for myocardium growth. When overexpressed specifically in cardiomyocytes, Notch also improves cardiac function by reducing the formation of scars [ 28 ]. Notch signaling pathway as a potential target for therapeutic approaches has been recently discussed [ 29 ]. Functional screening of congenital heart disease risk loci shows that maml3 mutants can decrease cardiomyocyte proliferation through inhibition of Notch signaling [ 30 ], indicating that overexpression of maml3 may induce cardiomyocyte proliferation by activating Notch.

Signaling pathways in heart repair and regeneration. Hippo-YAP, Notch and Nrg-ErbB signaling pathways are the major players in regulating heart repair and regeneration after injuries. Hippo-Yap regulates cardiomyocyte proliferation, migration, and apoptosis, thus affecting scar formation after injury. Notch signaling controls cardiomyocyte proliferation, as well as immune cell infiltration and endocardial cell maturation. Nrg-ErbB signaling affects cardiomyocyte dedifferentiation, division, and survival. FAT4 FAT atypical cadherin 4, MST macrophage stimulating, SAV1 salvador family domain-containing protein 1, LATS large tumor suppressor kinase, MOB1 MOB kinase activator 1, YAP Yes-associated protein, TAZ tafazzin, phospholipid-lysophospholipid transacylase, TEAD TEA domain family, ADAM ADAM metallopeptidase domain, NICD Notch intracellular domain, MAM mastermind, CSL citrate synthase like, ErbB2 Erb-B2 receptor tyrosine kinase, RAF v-raf-leukemia viral oncogene, PI3K phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, MEK1 mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1, ERK extracellular signal-regulated kinase, Akt protein kinase B, mTOR mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase, JUN Jun proto-oncogene, ETS ETS transcription factor family, FOS FBJ osteosarcoma oncogene, LRP LDL receptor related protein, GSK-3β glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta, TCF T-cell factor, LEF lymphoid enhancer factor

Hippo and Yes-associated protein (YAP) regulate cardiomyocyte proliferation and scar formation

The Hippo-YAP pathway is highly conserved and plays a pivotal role in cardiomyocyte cell cycle re-entry. Hippo deficiency enhances cardiomyocyte regeneration and heart functional recovery while reducing scar formation after myocardial infarction in adult mice [ 31 , 32 ]. The Hippo-deficient cardiomyocytes express higher levels of proliferative and stress response genes, such as Park2 [ 32 ]. YAP, the inactivated downstream effector of Hippo, is abundant in neonatal heart tissue but not in adult heart tissue. Recent studies found YAP to be a key regulator for cardiac development and regeneration in mice [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. Similar to inhibiting Hippo, activation of YAP results in less scar formation and improved heart function after myocardial infarction at postnatal days 7 and 28 as well as adult stages [ 35 , 36 ]. In Erb-B2 receptor tyrosine kinase (ErbB2)-overexpressed mice, YAP mediated a robust epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-like regeneration by interacting with the cytoskeleton and altering the mechanical characteristics of the cell [ 33 ]. In addition, non-coding RNAs make up a major part of the complex regulatory signaling network. Eulalio et al. [ 37 ] found that miR-199a and miR-590 can effectively induce cell cycle re-entry of cardiomyocytes in vitro as well as in neonatal and adult mice. In murine myocardial infarction models, overexpression of miR-199a and miR-590 via single-dose injection of synthetic RNA promotes cardiac regeneration and recovery of cardiac function [ 37 , 38 ]. Recently, Gabisonia et al. [ 39 ] found that, using infarcted pig hearts, miR-199a was shown to facilitate cardiac repair and increase muscle mass and contractility. Follow-up studies on miR-199a have identified potential downstream signaling, such as CD151 [ 40 ], mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) [ 41 ] and Wnt2 [ 42 ]. Cardiac-specific overexpression of miR-128 in neonatal mice attenuates cardiomyocyte proliferation and functional recovery after myocardial infarction. miR-128 regulates cardiomyocyte cell cycle re-entry via SUZ12, a chromatin modifier that targets p27, cyclin E, and CK2 [ 43 ]. Overexpression of miR-195 (a member of miR-15) leads to reduced proliferation and hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes, while inhibition of the miR-15 family increases cardiomyocyte proliferation after myocardial infarction in adult mice. The downstream target of miR-195 includes cell cycle genes, mitochondrial genes, and inflammatory genes [ 44 ]. Similarly, miR-1/-133a is also a negative regulator of cardiomyocyte cell cycle re-entry in the adult heart. Short-term deletion of miR-1/-133a protects against myocardial infarction. However, long-term deficiency leads to heart failure [ 45 ]. circNfix, a circular RNA, is up-regulated in the adult hearts of humans and mice. Knocking down circNfix releases suppression on downstream cyclinA2 and cyclinB1 and increases miR-214 activity, leading to enhanced cardiomyocyte proliferation and recovery after injury [ 46 ]. miR-152 has been found to be a target of Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and induces cardiomyocyte proliferation by regulating cell cycle proteins downstream of YAP1 [ 47 ]. Recent study shows that FAM122A, an endogenous inhibitor of protein phosphatase 2A, is a novel regulator in the mesendodermal specification and cardiac differentiation via Hippo and Wnt signaling pathways [ 48 ]. In the first step, RNA-binding protein LIN28a stimulates the formation of new cardiomyocytes and prevents cardiomyocyte apoptosis [ 49 ]. Activation of YAP promotes progenitor regeneration by triggering LIN28a transcription [ 50 ].

To date, little is understood about the removal of the scar and the functional integration of regenerated cardiomyocytes. The collagenolytic activity was detected in the injured region between day 14 to 30. In the same period, expressions of matrix metalloproteins (MMPs), such as MMP-2 and MMP-14a, are up-regulated, suggesting a potential role for them in scar removal [ 51 ]. Expression of miR-101a is inhibited after the onset of injury but up-regulated between days 7 to 14. Suppression of miR-101a promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation but inhibits scar removal. Depletion of the downstream target gene Fosab rescued the scar-clearing defect of miR-101a inhibition, demonstrating that miR-101a regulates scar removal via Fosab [ 52 ]. Scar formation is regulated by YAP signaling, and macrophages directly produce collagen to make up the scar [ 53 , 54 ]. Deletion of YAP from zebrafish does not affect the proliferation of cardiomyocytes but leads to larger injuries, showing that initial scar formation is important to control the damage [ 53 ]. In zebrafish, fibrosis does not preclude scar-free regeneration [ 55 , 56 ].

ErbB/PI3K/ERK and Wnt/β-catenin control cardiomyocyte proliferation, dedifferentiation, and inflammation

The Nrg1/ErbB has been recognized as a potential signaling pathway involved in the heart regeneration program. Nrg1 was initially proposed for its potential relevance to mitogenic effects in mammalian cardiomyocytes and further was proved in the post-injured zebrafish heart by Gemberling et al. [ 24 ], which provided the foundation for mouse experiments and clinical trials. In adult mice, injection of Nrg1 induces cell cycle re-entry and cardiomyocyte division. Inactivation of the tyrosine receptor ErbB4 for Nrg1 reduces cardiomyocyte proliferation, while stimulation of ErbB4 enhances it [ 57 ]. The deletion of another co-receptor for Nrg1, ErbB2, also shows its importance for cardiomyocyte proliferation in neonatal mice. Constitutive activation of ErbB2 in both neonatal and adult mice leads to cardiomyocyte proliferation and dedifferentiation via extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), protein kinase B (Akt) and glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β)/β-catenin downstream signaling. Notably, transient activation of ErbB2 promotes regeneration after myocardial infarction in mice [ 58 ].

The initial inflammatory response is required for complete regenerative capacity. Anti-inflammatory treatment reduces cardiomyocyte proliferation and impairs the vascularization of newly-formed tissue, resulting in an inability to clear the fibrotic deposition [ 59 ]. In contrast, the immune cell is not required for cardiomyocyte mitotic activity under normal conditions [ 59 ]. Fang et al. [ 60 ] have found that inflammatory cytokines promote cardiomyocyte proliferation via activating JAK1/STAT3 signaling. Inhibiting this signaling by expressing a dominant negative form of STAT3 leads to a reduction in cardiomyocyte proliferation. MAPK/ERK acts as a critical signaling for vertebrate tissue regeneration; its potential roles in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine have been emphasized [ 61 ]. Kynurenine stimulates cardiomyocyte proliferation by activating the cytoplasmic aryl hydrocarbon receptor-SRC-YAP/ERK pathway; it also stimulates cardiac angiogenesis by facilitating aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocation and increasing vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) expression [ 62 ]. Dual-specificity phosphatase 6 (DUSP6), which can dephosphorylate ERK1/2, is a regenerative repressor during zebrafish heart regeneration [ 63 ]. Deletion of Dusp6 in mice improves cardiac outcomes by reducing neutrophil-mediated myocardial damage induced by myocardial infarction-caused inflammation [ 64 ]. Furthermore, a DUSP6 inhibitor has been tested in myocardial infarction rats, showing that it improves heart function and suppresses inflammatory cardiac remodeling [ 65 ]. In addition, the cardiac-derived ECM may provide an ideal scaffold for heart tissue engineering [ 66 ], and nuclear pore numbers are decreased during cardiomyocyte maturation, and this reduces nuclear responses to activation of MAPK induced by extracellular signals [ 67 ]. Activation of Nrf1, a stress-responsive transcription factor is seen in regenerating cardiomyocytes. Nrf1 overexpression can protect the heart from ischemic injury, while deletion inhibits neonatal heart regeneration by affecting proteasome and redox balance [ 28 ]. The role of Wnt in promoting cardiomyocyte differentiation has been further investigated, showing that it may provide a powerful tool for stem cell-based regeneration therapy [ 68 ]. These studies suggest that the molecular events initiated by extracellular signals may have therapeutic benefits for heart regeneration.

Approaches and challenges for heart regeneration

The fate mapping experiments in mice have shown that new cardiomyocytes originate from pre-existing ones, during homeostasis [ 69 ], after injury in adults [ 69 , 70 ], and during neonatal heart regeneration [ 71 ]. In addition, using a transgenic line of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), Kimura et al. [ 70 ] showed that hypoxic cardiomyocytes exhibit characteristics of neonatal heart cells and contribute mostly to cardiomyocyte formation in adults. Despite these results, many efforts have been focused on the c-Kit + progenitor cells from the bone marrow [ 72 ], which were later shown to play a negligible role in heart regeneration [ 73 ]. Using the Cre/lox system and a reporter line, endogenous c-Kit + cells are found to generate cardiomyocytes at a percentage less than 0.03. Although c-Kit + cells contribute to the revascularization of cardiac endothelial cells, their role in myocardium regeneration is insignificant.

In order to develop new therapies, recent studies have worked on understanding the regulatory role of non-muscle cells, such as immune cells, endothelial cells, and cardiac fibroblasts. In neonatal mice, CD4 + regulatory T cells (Tregs) are necessary for cardiac regeneration. Depletion of Tregs inhibits cardiomyocyte proliferation and induces fibrosis, whereas adoptive transfer of Tregs rescues this phenotype [ 74 ]. Interestingly, ablation of CD4 + Tregs in mice at postnatal day 8 promotes heart regeneration after resection [ 75 ], suggesting the role of immune cells might differ by stages. Endothelial cells support heart regeneration by reassembling arteries, which serve as a scaffold for cardiomyocyte repopulation and also reperfuse the ischemic tissues [ 76 , 77 ]. Endothelial cell migration is induced by the CXCL12-CXCR4 signaling pathway. Genetic inhibition of this signaling leads to formation of larger scars and the reduction of cardiomyocyte proliferation after myocardial infarction [ 76 ]. Consistent with this, inhibition of revascularization in zebrafish with dominant negative VEGF-A also hindered regeneration, suggesting that endothelial cells are actively engaged in cardiomyocyte proliferation [ 78 ]. Cardiac fibroblasts deposit ECM and their number increases during development and diseases, such as heart failure [ 79 ]. Transcriptomic analysis showed different gene expression profiles between fetal and adult fibroblasts of humans, suggesting fibroblasts might be potential contributors to embryonic heart regeneration [ 80 ]. However, ablating activated fibroblasts in mice has a protective effect after acute injuries [ 81 ], which contradicts its vital function in promoting heart regeneration of zebrafish [ 82 ]. This could potentially be explained by the existence of different sub-clusters of fibroblasts in the heart, but further studies are still needed [ 83 ]. In summary, modulating immune cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts after injury may promote cardiac regeneration and lead to further mitigation of disease.

The regenerative ability of the mammalian heart is lost during development. In humans, the scar-free repair of the heart is feasible, but only at early developmental stages [ 84 , 85 ]. A case report of a newborn child by Haubner et al. [ 86 ] showed strong regeneration ability after severe myocardial infarction and tissue damage. The cardiac function of this 1-year-old child recovered a few weeks after the initial injury. Similar responses have been seen in other cases by Cesna et al. [ 87 ], Deutsch et al. [ 88 ], and Farooqi et al. [ 89 ], leading to the hope of repairing a damaged adult heart by reactivating regenerative processes that are present during the neonatal stage. Similar to humans, mice lose the capacity for heart regeneration during the early postnatal stage between postnatal days 1 to 7 [ 84 ]. A well-designed study by Drenckhahn et al. [ 90 ] showed that embryonic cardiomyocytes are able to re-enter the cell cycle and proliferate to form heart muscles. In this study, the X-linked gene Hccs was deleted specifically in the heart muscle; this deletion is lethal for the cell. In heterozygous females (half of the cardiomyocytes were normal due to random X inactivation), the mutant cells contributed to less than 10% of tissue volume, showing that the normal cardiomyocytes are able to regenerate about 50% loss of cardiomyocytes at embryonic stage [ 90 ]. By removing 10% of the ventricle from mice at various ages, the time windows of regeneration are characterized [ 71 ]. The murine heart can regenerate at postnatal day 1 after surgical resection with minimal scar or hypertrophy [ 91 ]. This regenerative ability is continuously lost until it ceases at postnatal day 7. In support of this conclusion, similar results have been observed in many other injury models by Haubner et al. [ 92 ] and Porrello et al. [ 44 ] although the collagen scar has been observed when resecting a larger part (20%) of the ventricle [ 93 ]. A study by Porrello et al. [ 44 ] using left anterior descending artery (LAD) ligation-induced injury showed that the heart regenerates within 3 weeks after extensive necrosis. This study compared changes in gene expression after injury between postnatal days 1, 3, and 10. Many genes regulating mitosis, cell division, cell cycle, and ECM synthesis have been identified, including NPPA (atrial natriuretic factor), Nanog (stem cell marker), and HIF3A (hypoxia-inducible factor-3α gene) [ 92 ]. Further study by Darehzereshki et al. [ 91 ] with cryoinjury models has revealed different modes of repair after different types of injury. Neonatal hearts are able to regenerate after non-transmural cryoinjury but not after transmural injury and differential plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) expression could be a potential explanation. Konfino et al. [ 94 ] found that both neonatal and adult mice respond differently to LAD-induced myocardial infarction and resection. The adult heart forms a thin scar after myocardial infarction, whereas apical resection leads to the occurrence of a hemorrhagic scar. Together, these findings suggest that different treatments should be developed to administer to specific injuries.

The limitation of this model is the lack of cell death, inflammation, and debris clearance steps during the healing process [ 95 ]. Cryoinjury is one of the most commonly used methods, in which a precooled metal is used to freeze part of the ventricle [ 55 , 56 ]. Although cardiac tissue loss is similar to the resection model, it takes much longer, around 130 d, to regenerate the heart after cryoinjury [ 56 ]. Genetic models of cardiomyocyte death have also been used to study heart regeneration in zebrafish. Wang et al. [ 96 ] ablated cardiomyocyte with the expression of cytotoxic diphtheria toxin A chain, induced by cell-specific cyclization recombination enzyme (Cre). This method induces around 60% loss of cardiomyocytes while leaving the endocardium and epicardium intact, which resembles cardiomyopathy in human patients [ 97 ]. Heart function and tissue are restored in around 30 d, which could be attributed to the importance of epicardium in heart regeneration [ 98 ].

Using these injury models, the cellular processes of heart regeneration have been better characterized and a signaling network of genes was identified to be crucial for scar-free regeneration. The regenerative process can be separated into four major stages: 1) the acute reaction to injury, including recruitment of immune cells and deposition of fibrotic tissues; 2) the endocardium and epicardium regenerate in order to support the myocardium; 3) the myocardium is regenerated via proliferation, and 4) the functional integration of newly generated cardiomyocytes, scar removal, and inflammation resolution [ 95 ].

Transplantation of progenitor-derived cells and stem cells

Cell transplantation to repair the injured heart has been started for more than a decade. Intracoronary administration of bone marrow-derived progenitor cells can improve the recovery of left ventricular contractile function in patients with acute myocardial infarction [ 99 ]. However, studies with double-blind randomized designs show that injection of bone marrow mononuclear cells fails to improve the left ventricular contractile function [ 100 , 101 , 102 ]. The randomized placebo-controlled study of myoblast transplantation also shows that myoblast injections are unable to improve echocardiographic heart function [ 103 ]. Adverse effects such as arrhythmias are always problematic, as skeletal myoblasts are not able to conduct electromechanical signals as cardiomyocytes [ 104 ]. Therefore, efficient treatment may be cell-specific and achieved by transplantation of progenitor-derived cells. Recent studies have graded mesoderm assembly controls cell fate and morphogenesis of the early mammalian heart [ 105 ].

Another approach is to induce the differentiation of cardiomyocytes in vitro using embryonic stem cells (ESCs) or induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Both cell types are able to succeed in vitro to produce cardiomyocyte-like cells [ 106 , 107 ]. Convincing evidence shows that transplantation of ESC-derived cardiomyocytes improves heart function by integrating with pre-existing cardiomyocytes to transduce electromechanical signals [ 108 , 109 ]. Although transplantation of human ESC-derived cardiomyocytes can regenerate the infarcted pig heart, it induces ventricular tachyarrhythmias [ 110 ]. There have been few clinical trials in humans given the ethical challenges of ESCs as well as concerns about side effects. One trial shows some positive results, but with an overall low engraft rate and lack of careful characterization of the control group [ 111 ]. Similarly, another trial shows that transplantation of iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes improves ventricular contractility and promotes heart regeneration, but has low engraftment and survival rate of cardiomyocytes, and induces complications such as tachycardia [ 112 , 113 ].

The POSEIDON study shows that bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) may have cardiogenic potential and improve the functional capacity of the heart [ 114 ]. However, the conclusion is hindered by the lack of a placebo control group and a small patient cohort of 30. However, a randomized double-blind trial shows that bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells produce a moderate improvement in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and stroke volume of ischemic heart [ 115 ]. Similar results have been reported in trials using MSCs derived from different sources, such as the umbilical cord-mesenchymal stem cell (UC-MSC) [ 116 ]. The Congestive Heart Failure Cardiopoietic Regenerative Therapy (CHART-1) trial demonstrated that MSC injection is overall safe [ 117 ] and has long-term benefits in patients with significant left ventricular enlargement [ 118 , 119 ]. The recent CONCERT-HF trial shows that MSC in combination with c-Kit positive cells (CPCs) can significantly reduce heart failure-related major adverse cardiac events (HF-MACE). However, no improvement in left ventricular function or reduction of scar size can be achieved, requiring further elucidation of the underlying mechanism [ 120 , 121 ]. Other clinical trials show that MSC injection fails to produce functional improvement of the heart [ 122 , 123 ]. Although MSCs can differentiate into cardiomyocytes in vitro [ 124 ], MSC-derived endothelial cells are the main contributor to heart regeneration in animal model [ 125 ]. A randomized double-blind multi-center trial TEAM-AMI shows that the efficacy of MSC injection is highly dependent on the microenvironment [ 126 ], supporting that the clinical benefits are mainly mediated by indirect effects instead of by generating new cardiomyocytes [ 123 ]. Vagnozzi et al. [ 127 ] showed that intracardiac injection of killed stem cells or use of chemical inducers for immune response produced similar results as live adult stem cell. All these treatments induce a regional accumulation of CCR2 + and CX3CR1 + macrophages, which affect fibroblasts and the ECM at the injury site. A series of animal studies by Bolli et al. [ 128 ] demonstrated that transplanted cells cannot engraft into the myocardium nor differentiate to cardiomyocytes, although improved cardiac function was observed. This dissociation of therapeutic improvement with engrafting rate has been seen among MSCs, ESCs, and CPCs treatment, independent of delivery method and preconditions [ 129 ]. These new findings suggest that the benefits from stem cell injection are mainly due to secreted factors instead of cell replenishment. Therefore, understanding the molecular signaling induced by factors secreted by stem cells becomes more important for treatment of heart injury. Recent studies show that endoderm-derived islet1-expressing cells can differentiate into endothelial cells to function as hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells [ 130 ], which may serve as an alternative approach for stem cell transplant; in addition, human- or animal-derived decellularized heart patches have been used in vivo and in vitro studies to promote the regeneration of heart tissue [ 131 ]. However, due to the complexity of cardiac tissue engineering, significant hard work must be done before the approaches can be clinically used.

Currently, a growing number of clinical trials [ 130 ] (see Bolli et al. [ 129 ] for a comprehensive list of trials) and Meta-analyses [ 132 ] have greatly expanded the knowledge and potential choices of cell sources and interventions for heart disease, such as IMMNC-HF with bone marrow mononuclear cell [ 133 ]; LAPiS (NCT04945018), HEAL-CHF (NCT03763136) and NCT05223894 with human iPSC derived cardiomyocytes; NCT05147766 with UC-MSCs; NCT03797092 with adipose-derived stromal cell; and BioVAT-HF (NCT04396899) with engineered human myocardium. DREAM-HF, a phase III clinical trial, recruited 565 patients and upon completion will provide evidence in analyzing the efficiency of MSC injection as a heart failure treatment [ 14 , 134 , 135 ]. Recent studies show that human mesenchymal stromal cells and endothelial colony-forming cells reduce cardiomyocyte apoptosis, scar size, and adverse cardiac remodeling, compared to vehicle, in a pre-clinical model of acute myocardial infarction [ 136 ]. Human ESC-derived endothelial cells also attenuate cardiac remodeling in a mouse myocardial infarction model [ 137 ]. Besides cardiomyocytes, cardiac interstitial cells also play crucial roles during cardiac regeneration [ 138 ], which opens another avenue to improve heart regeneration. These studies provide useful information for cell therapy approach to treat cardiac injury in the future.

Inducing proliferation of existing cardiomyocytes

The safest and least immunogenic option for cardiac regeneration is using pre-existing cardiomyocytes, although human cardiomyocytes are well-known for being non-proliferative [ 85 ]. There is evidence supporting that cardiomyocytes self-renew at a slow but steady speed [ 69 ], and previous mechanistic studies in mice and zebrafish have provided clues for potential therapeutic targets. Combined expression of cell cycle-related genes, Cdk1 , Ccnb , Cdk4, and Ccnd induces post-mitotic cell proliferation and improves ventricular function after myocardial infarction [ 139 ]. As discussed earlier, the Hippo-YAP pathway is a promising target for promoting cardiomyocyte proliferation. Adeno-associated virus (AAV)-based genetic knockdown of Hippo pathway gene Sav in pig models has been shown to increase the renewal rate of cardiomyocytes after myocardial infarction and improve LVEF [ 140 ]. No arrythmia, tumor formation, or mortality has occurred after treatment, making this a promising approach to advancing clinical trials.

Another potential target is Myc, a transcription factor involved in cell replication, differentiation, metabolism, and apoptosis [ 141 ]. Four-hour acute activation of Myc signaling in juvenile mice leads to a marked proliferative response in vivo [ 142 ]. Mechanistically, this effect is mediated by positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb), which consists of CDK9 and cyclinT1. Furthermore, a transient cardiomyocyte-specific expression of Myc, SRY-box transcription factor 2 (SOX2), OCT4 (named POU5F1; POU domain, class 5, transcription factor 1), and KLF transcription factor 4 (KLF4) can induce dedifferentiation of adult cardiomyocytes characterized by a gene expression profile resembling that of fetal cells. This allows the reprogrammed cardiomyocytes to re-enter the cell cycle and divide into more cardiomyocytes, leading to improved cardiac function after myocardial infarction [ 143 ]. Prolonged expression of these four factors resulted in tumor formation and lethality in mice, however, urging the need for more in-depth studies to avoid potential safety issues.

The Nrg1 has shown its mitogenic effect in pre-existing cardiomyocytes (mentioned in section “ErbB/PI3K/ERK and Wnt/β-catenin control cardiomyocyte proliferation, dedifferentiation, and inflammation”). Furthermore, Polizzotti et al. [ 144 ] show that recombinant neuregulin 1 (rNRG1) induces the proliferation of cardiomyocytes both in mice and in isolated human myocardium, which opened the therapeutic window and prompted clinical trials. A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of neuregulin 1β3 (cimaglermin alfa) shows sustained improvements in LVEF [ 145 ]. Another clinical trial shows that recombinant human neuregulin 1 (rhNRG1) can increase LVEF and decrease end-diastolic volume (EDV) and end-systolic volume (ESV) in chronic heart failure patients. However, these results were statistically indistinguishable from the placebo, and it remains unclear if this treatment improves heart function by inducing regeneration [ 146 ]. Overall, there is active research underway to develop and optimize therapies using identified gene targets and to explore new targets, i.e. , Hoxb13 by Nguyen et al. [ 147 ], Meis1 by Mahmoud et al. [ 148 ], and miR-199a by Eulalio et al. [ 37 ] and Gabisonia et al. [ 39 ].

Reprogramming non-muscle cells into cardiomyocytes

Reprogramming other cells of the heart, such as fibroblasts, into cardiomyocytes, is another way to achieve the challenging task of repairing the heart. As a large cell population of the heart [ 149 ], fibroblasts are the first responders after cardiac injuries, thus making them an ideal source of cardiomyocytes. Forced expression of cardiac transcription factor combinations, such as GATA binding protein 4 (GATA4), myocyte enhancer factor 2C (MEF2C), and T-box transcription factor 5 (TBX5) (GMT cocktail) [ 150 ]; or GATA4, heart and neural crest derivatives expressed transcript 2 (HAND2), MEF2C and TBX5 (GHMT) [ 151 ], can successfully transform fibroblasts into cardiomyocytes in vitro. Bypassing the iPSC stage, this approach reprograms fibroblasts directly into contractile cardiomyocytes that express typical cardiomyocyte markers. In vivo expression of GHMT using retroviral infection in mice showed that reprogramed cells can form cardiomyocytes and conduct electromechanical signals after myocardial infarction induced by LAD ligation [ 151 ]. Many genes and signaling pathways involved in heart regeneration also modulate reprogramming of fibroblast into cardiomyocytes, including Notch signaling [ 152 ], zinc finger transcription factor 281 (ZNF281; regulating inflammation) [ 153 ], fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and VEGF [ 154 ], Akt1/protein kinase B [ 155 ], Bmi1 (epigenetic factor) [ 156 ], and chemical factors [ 157 ]. Recently, Wang et al. [ 158 ] found that autophagic factor Beclin1 negatively regulates fibroblast reprogramming in an autophagy-independent manner, and that Beclin1 haploinsufficiency in mice promotes reprogramming and reduces scar size after myocardial infarction. In addition, a combination of miRNAs, miR-1, -133, -208, and -499 have also been found to induce cardiomyocytes from fibroblasts both in vitro and in vivo [ 159 , 160 ], providing alternative targets for fibroblast reprogramming. Alternatively, Lalit et al. [ 161 ] showed that mesoderm posterior bHLH transcription factor 1 (MESP1), GATA4, TBX5, NK2 homeobox 5 (NKX2-5), and BAF60C (SMARCD3, SWI/SNF related, matrix associated, actin dependent regulator of chromatin, subfamily D, member 3) expressed in fibroblasts produce a progenitor population that gives rise to cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, and mural cells in myocardial infarction mice models. Recent study also suggests that the cardiac gene TBX20 (T-box transcription factor 20) enhances myocardial reprogramming induced by the MGT133 reprogramming cocktail (MEF2C, GATA4, TBX5, and miR-133) [ 162 ]. In summary, transcription factor combinations play an important role in transforming fibroblasts into cardiomyocytes in mice.

Despite the success in mice, human fibroblasts are more resistant to both the transcription factor and miRNA combination-induced reprogramming and have shown overall inadequate efficacy to produce cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, the induced cardiomyocytes mostly lack contractility [ 163 , 164 ]. Follow-up studies discovered that the reprogramming process of human fibroblasts requires the addition of other factors, such as MESP1 and myocardin (MYOCD) [ 165 , 166 ], ZFPM2 (zinc finger protein, FOG family member 2) [ 166 ], V-Ets erythroblastosis virus E26 oncogene homolog 2 (ETS2) and MESP1 [ 167 ]. More efforts are still needed to understand the molecular mechanism and the heterogeneity [ 168 ] of induced cardiomyocytes and improve the efficacy of this approach before clinical application. Nevertheless, studies using mouse models have reached a new level by using a novel Tcf21iCre/reporter/MGTH2A transgenic mouse system showing that cardiac reprogramming can repair myocardial infarction [ 169 ]. However, whether it is safe and efficacy for patients remains to be validated.

Non-cell-based approaches

Although still in the early stages, approaches that are not based on cells have the great potential as they bypass the difficulties related to low engraft rates, unclear mechanism, and ethical and safety problems. Study by Puente et al. [ 170 ] in postnatal mice found that oxidative stress induces cell cycle arrest, thus contributing to the loss of heart regenerative ability. Based on this finding, Nakada et al. [ 171 ] designed experiments where mice were exposed to hypoxia for a week after myocardial infarction. This treatment triggers a robust regenerative response and improves left ventricular systolic response. Fate-mapping showed that pre-existing cardiomyocytes proliferate to form myocardium, making it an intriguing idea to treat patients with gradual systemic hypoxia.

Secreted factors, such as growth factors VEGF-A, FGF-2, Nrg1, and thymosin b4, protect against myocardial injuries in animal models [ 172 , 173 ]. However, this effect has not been seen in clinical trials with both VEGF-A and FGF-2 [ 174 , 175 ]. One explanation for this might be that the delivery method cannot ensure a high bioavailability, as a better recovery is achieved by using synthetic mRNA to express VEGF-A in mice [ 176 ]. Recent studies show that VEGF-A-induced angiogenic sprouting can be attenuated by siRNA knockdown or CRISPR/Cas9 knockout of LINC00607 [ 177 ]. VEGF mRNA has been administrated to patients via direct intramyocardial injection, showing that it may be safe for introducing genetic material to the cardiac muscle [ 178 ]. Nrg1 sustains the epicardial-mediated cardiac regeneration capacity of neonatal heart explants [ 179 ]. Oxytocin also activates epicardial cells and promotes heart regeneration after cardiac injury [ 180 ]. Daily administration of thymosin β4, a peptide known to restore vascularization of the epicardium [ 181 ], gives mice the capability of producing new cardiomyocytes and improves recovery after myocardial infarction [ 182 , 183 ]. These studies have been confirmed by a recent report showing that thymosin β4 and also prothymosin α promote cardiac regeneration in mice [ 184 ]. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles containing different cargoes like protein, RNA and lipids [ 185 ]. Exosomes secreted by iPSC or cardiac progenitor populations promote cardiac functional recovery in animal models [ 186 , 187 ]. Furthermore, mechanistic studies by Cai et al. [ 188 ] and Zhou et al. [ 189 ] showed that the epicardium, similar to stromal stem cell, plays an important role in heart regeneration by both serving as a source for cardiomyocytes, and most importantly, by providing the required paracrine factors [ 190 ]. A proteomic study by Arrell et al. [ 191 ] comparing chronic infarction models with and without human stem cell treatment identified 283 and 450 altered proteins, respectively. This finding could provide a roadmap to future therapeutics using secreted factors. Owing to the advancement of the biomedical engineering field, new methods are being developed to efficiently deliver these factors, including exosomes [ 192 ], cardiac patches [ 193 ], and bioactive hydrogel [ 194 ]. For example, a recent report shows that cardiac tissue regeneration can be induced by the delivery of miR-126 and miR-146a via exosomes [ 195 ]. Recent studies show that cardiogel-loaded chitosan patches or injectable hydrogels containing anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and pro-angiogenic agents may have therapeutic benefits for heart injury [ 196 , 197 ]. Together, the precise delivery of factors promoting myocardial proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis and inflammation has the potential to enable heart regeneration in situ.

Together, these findings provide exciting new directions for regenerative therapeutics for human heart disease. Notably, there are several barriers that need to be removed before translating these findings to clinical practice, such as the variability between species and the insufficient reproduction of results [ 198 ]. By using quantitative measurement, human-animal chimeras [ 199 ], large-animal models and platforms, i.e., CIBERCV Cardioprotection Large Animal Platform (CIBER-CLAP) [ 198 , 200 ], standardized protocols and quality-control infrastructure [ 201 ], future preclinical studies are anticipated to yield positive clinical results.

Conclusions and perspectives

In summary, active research in the field has revealed common molecular mechanisms for heart regeneration and potential new targets for therapies. These potential gene targets function to regulate immune response, cardiac fibroblast activation, epicardium recovery, and cardiomyocyte proliferation after injuries. Inspired by these findings, current trials focus on inducing heart regenerative ability by cell-based approaches, including progenitor cell transplantation, inducing cardiomyocyte proliferation, and direct reprogramming. Other ongoing therapeutic explorations involve non-cell-based approaches, such as secreted factors and exosomes. In addition, the contribution of non-cardiomyocytes, such as endothelial cells and the epicardium has been actively studied. Figure  3 illustrates current approaches for heart regeneration. With studies for genetics and genomics developed gradually, gene editing technology, especially CRISPR/Cas9, has made continuous breakthroughs, which opens up a new way to manipulate the genome in vitro and in vivo, and also provides an unprecedented opportunity to explore the application of gene editing in cardiovascular diseases [ 202 , 203 ]. iPSCs are increasingly being used as substitutes or supplements for animal models of cardiovascular disease [ 204 ]. Jiang et al. [ 205 ] have found that fibroblasts could be reprogrammed into cardiovascular progenitor cells using transgenic methods, which are called CRISPR-induced cardiovascular progenitor cells (ciCPCs). The implanted ciCPCs differentiate into cardiovascular cells in vivo, which significantly improve myocardial systolic function and the formation of scars, and provide a new source of cells for myocardial regeneration. With the development of artificial intelligence, Theodoris et al. [ 206 ] recently developed a machine learning approach to identify small molecules, which correct gene networks dysregulated in iPSC broadly. This approach could prevent and treat specific cardiovascular diseases in a mouse model. This study points to human–machine learning, network analysis, and iPSC technology to make this strategy feasible and potentially represent an effective path for drug discovery [ 206 ]. In addition, Lin et al. [ 207 ] demonstrated that multiplexed CRISPRi screening combined with machine learning confers functional robustness to gene expression. The prediction of synergistic enhancers by machine learning provides an effective strategy for identifying pairs of noncoding variants associated with disease-causing genes beyond the analysis of genome-wide association studies [ 207 ]. There’s a reasonable prospect that gene editing and artificial intelligence will also bring breakthroughs in heart regeneration in the future. These attempts generated promising results and could be further optimized and then tested in larger populations. Cre recombinase microinjection will help researchers identify the cell progenitors and gene networks involved in organ development [ 208 ]. A variety of tissues and organs including hearts have been produced via 3D bio-printing, which serves as in vitro models for pharmacokinetics and drug screening [ 209 ]. Although it is not promised, 3D bio-printing may be used for repairing, or even replacing, an injured heart in the future. We believe that the endeavors in fighting against heart injury will finally lead to a breakthrough for adult heart regeneration.

Current approaches for heart regeneration. Current attempts at heart regenerative therapies include cell based and non-cell based approaches. Each of these approaches has its own advantages and faces different challenges. iPSC induced pluripotent stem cell, BMC bone marrow cell, MSC mesenchymal stem cell, Cdk1 cyclin-dependent kinase 1, Ccnb cyclin B, SOX2 SRY-box transcription factor 2, OCT4 POU domain, class 5, transcription factor 1, KLF4 KLF transcription factor 4, YAP Yes-associated protein, Nrg neuregulin, FGF fibroblast growth factor, VEGF vascular endothelial growth factor, GATA4 GATA binding protein 4, HAND2 heart and neural crest derivatives expressed transcript 2, MEF2C Myocyte enhancer factor 2C, TBX5 T-box transcription factor 5

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Adeno-associated virus

Protein kinase B

SMARCD3, SWI/SNF related, matrix associated, actin dependent regulator of chromatin, subfamily d, member 3

Bone marrow cells

Congestive Heart Failure Cardiopoietic Regenerative Therapy

CIBERCV Cardioprotection Large Animal Platform

CRISPR-induced cardiovascular progenitor cells

C-Kit positive cells

Extracellular matrix

End-diastolic volume

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Erb-B2 receptor tyrosine kinase

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase

Embryonic stem cells

End-systolic volume

Fibroblast growth factor

GATA binding protein 4

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta

Heart and neural crest derivatives expressed transcript 2

Heart failure-related major adverse cardiac events

Hypoxia-inducible factor 3α gene

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α

Induced pluripotent stem cells

KLF transcription factor 4

Left anterior descending artery

Left ventricular ejection fraction

Myocyte enhancer factor 2C

Mesoderm posterior bHLH transcription factor 1

Mesenchymal stem cell

Mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase

Notch intracellular domain

NK2 homeobox 5

Neuregulin 1

POU domain, class 5, transcription factor 1

Positive transcription elongation factor b

Recombinant human neuregulin 1

Recombinant neuregulin 1

SRY-box transcription factor 2

T-box transcription factor 5

Regulatory T cells

Toll-like receptor 3

Umbilical cord-mesenchymal stem cell

Vascular endothelial growth factor A

Yes-associated protein

Zinc finger protein, FOG family member 2

Zinc finger transcription factor 281

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Acknowledgements

We want to thank Michael Simons from Yale Cardiovascular Center for providing the learning opportunity for Qian-Yun Guo. In addition, we thank the biorender.com for providing platform of creating research graphics.

This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Beijing, China (7214223, 7212027), the Beijing Hospitals Authority Youth Programme (QML20210601), the Chinese Scholarship Council (CSC) scholarship (201706210415), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2017YFC0908800), the Beijing Municipal Health Commission (PXM2020_026272_000002, PXM2020_026272_000014), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82070293).

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YJZ designed the framework for this review; QYG wrote the manuscript; JQY and XXF helped to further articulate the logics of this manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Guo, QY., Yang, JQ., Feng, XX. et al. Regeneration of the heart: from molecular mechanisms to clinical therapeutics. Military Med Res 10 , 18 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-023-00452-0

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Received : 09 November 2021

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Published : 26 April 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-023-00452-0

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• Heart regeneration
• Cardiac disease
• Therapeutics
• Signaling mechanisms

Military Medical Research

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Article Contents

• 1 Introduction
• 2 Proof of Theorem 1.1
• 3 Proof of Theorem 1.2
• 4 Proof of Theorem 1.3
• 5 Proof of Theorem 1.5
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Critical Points of Polynomials With Roots on the Unit Circle

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Fan Ge, Steven M Gonek, Critical Points of Polynomials With Roots on the Unit Circle, International Mathematics Research Notices , Volume 2024, Issue 7, April 2024, Pages 5434–5457, https://doi.org/10.1093/imrn/rnad152

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Let |${\mathcal {L}}(u)$| be a polynomial with all its roots on the unit circle. We establish an “angle duality” theorem relating the roots and critical points of |${\mathcal {L}}(u)$|⁠ . As an application, we prove that if there is a large gap between roots of |${\mathcal {L}}(u)$|⁠ , then most critical points of |${\mathcal {L}}(u)$| lie close to the unit circle. We also use our result to strengthen Sendov’s well-known conjecture for these special polynomials. Finally, we prove a sharp estimate for the location of the critical point near a small gap between roots of |${\mathcal {L}}(u)$|⁠ .

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