phd organizational theory

Tepper School of Business

Ph.D. Program in Organizational Behavior and Theory

Interdisciplinary approach & methodological rigor.

Understanding human behavior in organizations and solving problems requires the integration of a variety of social science and related disciplines. A distinguishing feature of the Tepper School's OBT Ph.D. program is the broad interdisciplinary training it provides across an array of areas (e.g., psychology, sociology, economics, strategy, and computer and data science). Not only do OBT doctoral students interact with other students and faculty within the Tepper School of Business, through cross-registration in courses and participation in colloquia, OBT doctoral students also have opportunities to interact with students and faculty in departments such as Engineering and Public Policy, Human-Computer Interaction, Social and Decision Sciences, Psychology and a variety of departments at the University of Pittsburgh. A cornerstone of the OBT Ph.D. program is its methodological training and rigor. From computer science courses in machine learning and AI to courses in advanced statistical methods, students develop a deep understanding of analytical methods and tools.

Collaborative Culture

A small number of students are accepted into the group each year, with a total of about 10 OBT doctoral students in residence. Student-faculty relationships are close, which permits the tailoring of the program of study to fit the background and career goals of the individual.

Course of Study

Our program emphasizes preparation for careers in scholarly research, and graduates of the program usually pursue careers in academic or research institutions. During their course of study, students have the opportunity to engage with faculty in doctoral seminars and joint research, meet with visiting scholars, and interact with other faculty and students across campus. We prepare our graduates to be competitive on the academic job market by getting them involved in research from Day 1.  Program requirements include the successful completion of two research-based papers in the first and second years of the program, qualifying exams, a “minor” area requirement and a doctoral dissertation.  

Research Specializations

Diversity, inclusion, and human capital.

Diversity is at the core of many important organizational problems and many of our OBT faculty make important contributions to the growing knowledge base on diversity and its impact on individual, group, and organizational outcomes.

FACULTY RESEARCH INTERESTS

• Rosalind Chow: gender and promotion processes
• Oliver Hahl: gender, race, and cultural capital effects on supply and demand for human capital in markets (i.e., hiring and career outcomes)
• Denise Rousseau: the employment relationship, evidence-based management
• Catherine Shea: gender issues in management, advice seeking, interpersonal dynamics
• Laurie Weingart: gender and non-promotable tasks in the workplace, gender and negotiation, interdisciplinary teams
• Anita Williams Woolley: gender diversity, cognitive diversity and team collective intelligence

Ethics and Justice

Unethical and unjust behaviors are costly to organizations and society. The OBT group in the Tepper School has three members with expertise in the areas of business ethics and social justice (Aven, Chow, and Cohen). The Tepper School is also home to ethics scholar Tae Wan Kim, whose research takes philosophical perspectives on business ethics.

• Brandy Aven: relational attributes of fraud and corruption
• Rosalind Chow: perceptions of and responses to social inequality
• Taya Cohen: interpersonal misconduct, workplace deviance, moral character, guilt, shame, trust and trustworthiness
• Tae Wan Kim: artificial Intelligence ethics, future of work, business ethics

Groups and Teams

The OBT group in the Tepper School houses three scholars who are leaders in the areas of groups and teams (Argote, Weingart, and Woolley) and others whose work is directly relevant (Aven, Chow, Cohen, and Hahl). The Tepper School and Carnegie Mellon more broadly host several other faculty who work in this area (Carley, Kiesler, and Krackhardt). We regularly graduate students who conduct research on groups and teams.

• Linda Argote: learning, transactive memory and knowledge transfer within and between groups
• Brandy Aven: networked teams
• Rosalind Chow: power and status within/between groups, impacts of diversity on group functioning and performance
• Taya Cohen: cooperation and conflict within and between groups, pathways to status and leadership in groups
• Oliver Hahl: perceptions of status, authenticity and identity within/between groups
• Laurie Weingart: conflict in teams, multiparty negotiation, negotiation and group dynamics
• Anita Woolley: collective intelligence, team strategic orientation, team performance

Knowledge Transfer and Learning in a Technologically-Driven World

The OBT group in the Tepper School includes scholars whose work has been foundational to the field of organizational learning (Argote) and includes four other scholars who are substantially engaged in the growing body of work on knowledge transfer and learning (Aven, Hahl, Lee, and Woolley). Reflecting the Tepper School's focus on the intersection of business and technology, faculty research involves responses to rapid change, coordination of work distributed across time and place, organizational learning. Our work also connects to scholars working in related areas in Information Systems (Mukhopadhyay and Singh) and Economics (Epple) at the Tepper School, as well as researchers at Heinz (Krishnan), Engineering (Fuchs), and Computer Science (Carley, Dabbish, and Rose) at Carnegie Mellon, also conduct research relevant to learning.

• Linda Argote: transactive memory systems, knowledge transfer, organizational learning, the effects of technology on learning and knowledge transfer
• Brandy Aven: transactive memory systems, the effects of technology on networked systems for learning and knowledge transfer
• Oliver Hahl: learning and knowledge transfer, effect on firm performance
• Sunkee Lee: organizational learning, effect of the spatial design of workplaces and incentive systems on organizational learning, knowledge transfer, exploration vs. exploitation, learning from own and others’ experiences
• Anita Woolley: learning and collective intelligence in groups and organizations, increasing collective intelligence in human-computer systems

Networks and Organizations

Research on the formation and consequences of social networks in organizations and markets have become central to our understanding of how organizations and markets work. The OBT group in the Tepper School hosts four scholars who work on important areas related to the role of social networks in organizations (Argote, Aven, Hahl, and Shea). Researchers at Heinz (Krackhardt) and Computer Science (Carley) at Carnegie Mellon, also conduct research in areas that inform our knowledge of social networks as well as the methodologies employed to distinguish their antecedents and effects.

• Linda Argote: learning and knowledge transfer through social networks
• Brandy Aven: formation of social networks, persistence (or not) of social networks, learning and deviance within social networks, knowledge sharing in social networks
• Oliver Hahl: identity in social networks, perceptions of brokers in networks, organizational networks and individual performance
• David Krackhardt: social network analysis theories and methods, informal organizations
• Catherine Shea: social network cognition, network formation, experimental methods in social networks

Entrepreneurial and Organizational Strategy

The “Carnegie School” has long influenced research on strategy, particularly by looking at the microfoundations of strategic selection, implementation, and performance. The OBT group in the Tepper School hosts four scholars who work on important areas in firm strategy (Argote, Aven, Hahl, and Lee) that all tie back to the Carnegie School’s foundations in the Behavioral Theory of the Firm . Additionally, scholars in Economics and Marketing (Miller, Epple and Derdenger) at the Tepper School and in the Engineering and Public Policy school at Carnegie Mellon (Fuchs and Armanios) also collaborate in research with Tepper faculty and students research in areas that inform organizational theory, entrepreneurial strategy, firm strategy selection and implementation, and firm performance.

• Linda Argote: organizational learning and capability development, micro foundations of strategy and firm performance, behavioral theories of strategy
• Brandy Aven: entrepreneurial strategies, entrepreneurial teams, behavioral theories of entrepreneurship and strategy
• Oliver Hahl: identity-based strategies, categories, diversification, status and authenticity in markets, human capital management and firm performance, microfoundations of strategy and firm performance, behavioral theories of strategy
• Sunkee Lee: organization design, exploration/exploitation, incentives, spatial design, response to performance feedback, firm acquisition behavior and performance, microfoundations of strategy and firm performance, behavioral theories of strategy

P lease visit our Ph.D. Student Profiles page t o view the profiles of our current doctoral candidates.

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• Ph.D. in Accounting
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• Ph.D. in Organization Studies

Ph.D. in Organization Studies

Designed to prepare students for academic careers, the Ph.D. Program in Organization Studies at Boston College is recognized worldwide for its rigorous curriculum and exceptional faculty who are leaders in their fields.

The program emphasizes a strong foundation in organizational theory, research methods, and statistics. Students begin the program with a set of complementary courses in micro- and macro-organizational theory, qualitative and quantitative research methods, statistics, and teaching skills. In the third year, students complete a major empirical research project and teach a course of their own.

Throughout the Ph.D. program, students pursue research on their own and in collaboration with faculty. All students are encouraged to deliver papers at national and international professional conferences, as well as to submit articles for publication in top-tier research journals. Our graduates emerge as creative, independent scholars who can craft and pursue their own research agendas.

• Academic Program
• Class Profile

Ph.D. students take a total of 15 courses during the program that includes both 7- and 14-week courses. All students begin the organization studies program with a set of foundational courses in organizational behavior and organizational theory, qualitative and quantitative research methods, statistics, research, and teaching skills.

Comprehensive Examination

The comprehensive examination is given at the end of the second year. To pass the exam, students must demonstrate a substantial knowledge of theory and methods involved in the study of organizational behavior and theory.

Research Project and Dissertation

By the end of the third year, students complete a research paper demonstrating the ability to conduct innovative research in organizational studies. The culmination of the program is the dissertation: a substantial, significant, and original contribution to the body of knowledge in organizational studies that is prepared under the guidance of a dissertation committee of three faculty members.

Research and Teaching Assistantship Requirement

Doctoral students at the Carroll School are expected to serve as research assistants, teaching assistants, and/or instructors throughout their studies. Students work for a set number of hours per week, throughout the duration of their Ph.D. programs. In exchange, the Carroll School provides financial support for doctoral students in the form of a stipend and tuition remission.

Sample Schedule

*Refers to courses typically taught in 7 weeks.

Electives may be taken from other departments and universities, subject to approval.

Note: The following information reflects data for the entering classes of 2019–2023. Updated September 25, 2023.

Academic & Professional Profile

Demographics, meet our students.

Learn more about current Ph.D. in Organization Studies candidates. 

Where do our graduates work?

Babson College

Boston University

EDHEC Business School (France)

Harvard University

IESE Business School (Spain)

Kookmin University (South Korea)

Loyola University New Orleans

New York University

Northeastern University

United States Coast Guard Academy

University of Kentucky

University of Maryland

University of Massachusetts Amherst

University of Massachusetts Boston

University of Michigan

University of Western Ontario (Canada)

University of Virginia

Western Michigan University

Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania 

Yonsei University (South Korea)  

Management & Organization Faculty

Ph.d. admission faq, application link & deadlines.

Application Deadline:  The deadline to apply for Fall 2024 is January 9, 2024.

Application Fee: All applicants are required to pay a nonrefundable application fee of $100 USD.

Interviews: If selected, applicants will be invited to interview in early spring.

Admission Decisions: Applications are generally reviewed after the final deadline has passed. There is no specific decision notification date for Ph.D. programs. Final decisions are typically available by mid-spring.

CV and Resume

Your current curriculum vitae should include your education, research, and professional information.

We also require  a separate Employment History, using the form provided within the online application.

Recommendations

Recommendations from two individuals who can provide an objective appraisal of your capacity for intensive graduate study and potential for professional success.

Transcripts

All applicants must possess a four-year bachelor’s degree from an accredited college or university. You must submit transcripts from every institution where you were enrolled in a degree-granting program. At the time of application, only a self-reported transcript is required but if you are admitted, we will require an official transcript sent directly from your degree-granting institution. Transcripts should include:

Course names

All grades received (including transfer credits and study abroad programs)

Cumulative GPA

Degree conferral information

Graduates of non-U.S. institutions must possess a college or university degree equivalent to a four-year U.S. bachelor’s degree. If admitted, international students are required to submit an official English translation of all academic credentials, along with a third-party degree verification from an agency such as  SpanTran or  World Education Services (WES) .

GMAT or GRE Scores

Applicants must submit GMAT or GRE scores from within the past five years. We accept both the GMAT Exam and GMAT Focus Edition. Our test codes are:

• GMAT school code: 44x-J5-96
• GRE school code: 3033

While Graduate Admissions does not have a preference between the GMAT or GRE, we encourage you to consult class profile data for average test scores in order to gauge where you stand.

English Proficiency

If you are not a U.S. citizen or permanent resident, you are required to submit an English language proficiency exam score with your application. We accept TOEFL, IELTS, or PTE scores. We do not accept the Duolingo English Test.

Scores must be from within the past two years, and applicants must meet the following minimum scores:

TOEFL, iBT, and TOEFL iBT Home Edition: 100

You are eligible to waive the language test requirement if you meet either of the following criteria:

You have completed a four-year bachelor’s degree or a two-year master’s degree (or higher) at an institution where the medium language of instruction is English. You must have completed your degree in its entirety at the English-medium institution. The medium language of instruction must be indicated on your transcript or verified in an official letter from the institution.

You have worked in a full-time, post-degree position for at least two years in the United States or a country where English is an official language. NOTE: Working for a company that conducts its business in English in a country where English is not an official language will not qualify you for a language test waiver.

If you are eligible to waive the language test requirement, you do not need to submit a waiver request beforehand and can simply move forward with your application.

Required & Optional Essays

Applicants must submit a required essay discussing their research interests and career objectives. You may also submit an optional essay that addresses aspects of your candidacy that have not already been covered in other parts of the application.

If you have any further questions, please email us at bcmba@bc.edu , or schedule a phone call or Zoom appointment with a member of the Graduate Admission team.

Quick Links

Graduate admission faq, why the carroll school, diversity & inclusion, facts & figures.

Organization & Management

One degree many paths, organization & management curriculum timeline, faculty research and published work.

The Organization & Management faculty study a wide range of topics, from micro-level individual perceptions and capabilities to more macro-level phenomena such as the strategies and performance of organizations, industries, and institutions. To do so, they utilize a wide array of research techniques, including experiments, longitudinal event history analysis, computer simulations, surveys, and more.

The Organization & Management group seeks to train future scholars who wish to make an impact on research in the science of organizations through an academic appointment. Applicants to our program should articulate their research interests and should specify whether they wish to work primarily with the macro-oriented or micro-oriented research faculty. On the macro side, faculty who are currently active in advising students include Kocak , Longhofer , Negro , and Swaminathan . On the micro side, faculty who are currently active in advising students include Bianchi , Dittmann , Fernandes , Hall , Perry-Smith , and Williams .

The Organization & Management faculty publish in leading journals in management as well as the reference disciplines of sociology, psychology, and economics. Our scholars have a history of visible roles in professional associations and on the editorial boards of leading journals, including: American Journal of Sociology , Academy of Management Journal , Academy of Management Review , American Sociological Review , Administrative Science Quarterly , Journal of Applied Psychology , J ournal of Experimental Social Psychology , Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , Organization Science , Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , Psychological Science , Social Forces , and Strategic Management Journal .

Organization & Management Faculty

Emily Bianchi

Andrea Dittmann

Catarina Fernandes

Erika V. Hall

Robert Kazanjian

Özgecan Koçak

Wesley Longhofer

Giacomo Negro

Jill Perry-Smith

Peter Roberts

Anand Swaminathan

L.G. Thomas

Melissa Williams

Organization & management phd students.

Ashlyee Freeman

Sara Kaplan

Sharvika Kherde

Arielle Lewis

Joseph Nixon

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Pursuing a phd in o&m.

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Organization Studies

Organization Studies is a multidisciplinary activity that brings together the concepts and research methodology of social psychology, sociology, anthropology, and other social sciences. The Organization Studies research group focuses on interactions across individuals, groups, organizations, and institutions, as well as organizational processes themselves.

Specific areas of inquiry include:

People in organizations

Individual and organizational information processing

Decision making and its relationship to achieving personal, professional, and organizational goals

The impact of technology on organizational processes and its transfer across organizational and national boundaries

Relationships between organizational structure and performance

Analysis of group composition and communications patterns within and among groups in relation to group effectiveness and innovation

Collaboration across boundaries

Study of organizational environment relationships

The impact of changing demography and family patterns in the U.S. workforce on organizational processes

Organization Studies Faculty 

More Information

Organization Studies Graduates 

Example Thesis Topics 

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Organizational Behavior

• Technology & Operations Management
• Program Requirements

Scholars in the doctoral program in Organizational Behavior at Harvard Business School are prepared to pursue an interdisciplinary inquiry into issues that are broadly related to the functioning of individuals within groups, at either the micro or macro level. Graduates of our program go on to become the leading researchers and thinkers in organizational behavior, shaping the field and advancing theoretical understanding in posts at schools of management or in disciplinary departments.

The Organizational Behavior program is jointly administered by the faculty of Harvard Business School and the Department of Sociology in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and students have the opportunity to work with faculty from both the Faculty of Arts and Sciences and Harvard Business School.

Curriculum & Coursework

Our program offers two distinct tracks, with research focused either on the micro or macro level. Students who choose to focus on micro organizational behavior take a psychological approach to the study of interpersonal relationships within organizations and groups, and the effects that groups have on individuals. In macro organizational behavior, scholars use sociological methods to examine the organizations, groups, and markets themselves, including topics such as the influence of individuals on organizational change, or the relationship between social missions and financial objectives.

Your core disciplinary training will take place in either the psychology or sociology departments, depending on the track that you choose. You will also conduct advanced coursework in organizational behavior at HBS, and complete two MBA elective curriculum courses. Students are required to teach for one full academic term in order to gain valuable teaching experience, and to work as an apprentice to a faculty member to develop research skills. Upon completion of coursework, students prepare and present a dossier that includes a qualifying paper, at least two other research papers, and a statement outlining a plan for their dissertation. Before beginning work on the dissertation, students must pass the Organizational Behavior Exam, which presents an opportunity to synthesize academic coursework and prepare for an in-depth research project.

Research & Dissertation

Examples of doctoral thesis research.

• Cross-group relations, stress, and the subsequent effect on performance
• Internal group dynamics of corporate boards of directors
• Organizational mission and its effect on commitment and effort
• Psychological tendencies and collaboration with dissimilar others

Aurora Turek

Justine Murray

Jaylon Sherrell

“ In HBS’s Organizational Behavior program I receive outstanding, rigorous training in disciplinary methods and also benefit from the myriad resources that HBS has to offer. HBS scholars are looking to apply their research to real-world problems, come up with interventions, and make a real difference. ”

Current Harvard Sociology & Psychology Faculty

• George A. Alvarez
• Mahzarin R. Banaji
• Jason Beckfield
• Lawrence D. Bobo
• Mary C. Brinton
• Joshua W. Buckholtz
• Randy L. Buckner
• Alfonso Caramazza
• Susan E. Carey
• Paul Y. Chang
• Mina Cikara
• Christina Ciocca Eller
• Christina Cross
• Fiery Cushman
• Frank Dobbin
• Samuel J. Gershman
• Daniel Gilbert
• Joshua D. Greene
• Jill M. Hooley
• Rakesh Khurana
• Alexandra Killewald
• Talia Konkle
• Max Krasnow
• Michèle Lamont
• Ellen Langer
• Joscha Legewie
• Ya-Wen Lei
• Patrick Mair
• Peter V. Marsden
• Katie A. McLaughlin
• Richard J. McNally
• Jason P. Mitchell
• Ellis Monk
• Matthew K. Nock
• Orlando Patterson
• Elizabeth A. Phelps
• Steven Pinker
• Robert J. Sampson
• Daniel L. Schacter
• Theda Skocpol
• Mario L. Small
• Jesse Snedeker
• Leah H. Somerville
• Elizabeth S. Spelke
• Tomer D. Ullman
• Adaner Usmani
• Jocelyn Viterna
• Mary C. Waters
• John R. Weisz
• Christopher Winship
• Xiang Zhou

Current HBS Faculty

• Teresa M. Amabile
• Julie Battilana
• Max H. Bazerman
• David E. Bell
• Ethan S. Bernstein
• Alison Wood Brooks
• Edward H. Chang
• Julian De Freitas
• Amy C. Edmondson
• Robin J. Ely
• Alexandra C. Feldberg
• Carolyn J. Fu
• Amit Goldenberg
• Boris Groysberg
• Ranjay Gulati
• Linda A. Hill
• Nien-he Hsieh
• Jon M. Jachimowicz
• Summer R. Jackson
• Leslie K. John
• Jillian J. Jordan
• Rakesh Khurana
• Joshua D. Margolis
• Edward McFowland III
• Kathleen L. McGinn
• Tsedal Neeley
• Michael I. Norton
• Leslie A. Perlow
• Jeffrey T. Polzer
• Ryan L. Raffaelli
• Lakshmi Ramarajan
• James W. Riley
• Clayton S. Rose
• Arthur I Segel
• Emily Truelove
• Michael L. Tushman
• Ashley V. Whillans
• Letian Zhang
• Julian J. Zlatev

Current Organizational Behavior Students

• Jennifer Abel
• Yajun Cao
• Hanne Collins
• Grace Cormier
• Megan Gorges
• Bushra Guenoun
• Elizabeth Johnson
• Caleb Kealoha
• Kai Krautter
• Justine Murray
• C. Ryann Noe
• Dominika Randle
• Elizabeth Sheprow
• Jaylon Sherrell
• Yoon Jae Shin
• Erin Shirtz
• Samantha N. Smith
• Tiffany Smith
• Channing Spencer
• Yuval Spiegler
• Emily Tedards
• Aurora Turek
• Julie Yen

Current HBS Faculty & Students by Interest

Recent placement, nicole abi-esber, 2023, elliot stoller, 2023, ariella kristal, 2022, leroy gonsalves, 2020, alicia desantola, 2019, catarina fernandes, 2019, rachel arnett, 2018, evan defilippis, 2023, hayley blunden, 2022, lumumba seegars, 2021, karen huang, 2020, stefan dimitriadis, 2019, elizabeth hansen, 2019, erin frey, 2018, jeff steiner, 2023, ahmmad brown, 2022, yanhua bird, 2020, jeffrey lees, 2020, alexandra feldberg, 2019, martha jeong, 2019.

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In the field of organizational behavior we research fundamental questions about the behavior of individuals, groups and organizations, from both psychological and sociological perspectives.

A distinguishing feature of Stanford’s PhD Program in organizational behavior is the broad interdisciplinary training it provides. Our students benefit from their interactions with scholars from many disciplines within the Graduate School of Business, as well as from Stanford University’s long-standing strength in the study of psychology, organizations, and economic sociology.  The program is broken down into two broad subareas: Macro Organizational Behavior and Micro Organizational Behavior .

Cross-registration in courses, access to faculty, and participation in colloquia are available in other Stanford departments, such as sociology and psychology . Strong relations with these departments mean that students can build their careers on the foundation of strong disciplinary training in psychology and sociology, respectively.

A small number of students are accepted into the program each year, with a total of about 20 organizational behavior students in residence.

The doctoral program places a heavy emphasis on training students through active engagement in the process of doing research. In addition to formal seminars with invited presenters, our faculty and students exchange research ideas and advice at informal weekly lunches and lab meetings. Students work as research assistants and are expected to conduct independent research early in the program. 

Macro Organizational Behavior: Organizational Theory and Economic Sociology

The Macro OB track is dedicated to training students who will be leading researchers in the fields of organizational theory and economic sociology. Our faculty members are among the foremost scholars who bring a sociological approach to the study of organizations and markets.

The training provides a deep grounding in the study of:

• Organizations as social systems
• The dynamics of change in organizations
• Industries and markets
• The relationships between organizations and their environments

Faculty study a range of topics, such as:

• The role of identity and categories in organizational processes
• Organizational culture and its dynamics
• Change in cultural categories and markets
• Social movements and their influence on firms and markets
• Firm strategies and the effects of long-run histories of strategic interaction
• The impact of workforce demographic change and labor market inequality
• Organizational learning processes
• Social networks
• Entrepreneurship and firm formation processes

Micro Organizational Behavior

The study of how individuals and groups affect and are affected by organizational context. Drawing primarily on psychological approaches to social science questions, this area includes such topics as:

• Decision-making
• Moral judgment
• Social norms
• Negotiation and bargaining
• Cooperation and altruism
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There is also a formal institutional link between the behavioral side of marketing and the micro side of organizational behavior, which is called the Behavioral Interest Group. The Stanford GSB Behavioral Lab links members of this group. This lab supports work across field boundaries among those with behavioral interests.

Preparation and Qualifications

All students are required to have, or to obtain during their first year, mathematical skills at the level of one course each of calculus and linear algebra, probability, and mathematical statistics.

Macro Organizational Behavior Faculty

William p. barnett, robert a. burgelman, glenn r. carroll, julien clement, amir goldberg, helena miton, hayagreeva rao, sarah a. soule, jesper b. sørensen, micro organizational behavior faculty, justin m. berg, jennifer eberhardt, francis j. flynn, michele j. gelfand, deborah h. gruenfeld, michal kosinski, brian s. lowery, ashley martin, david melnikoff, dale t. miller, benoît monin, charles a. o’reilly, jeffrey pfeffer, emeriti faculty, michael t. hannan, roderick m. kramer, joanne martin, margaret ann neale, jerry i. porras, recent publications in organizational behavior, social norm change: drivers and consequences, bayesianism and wishful thinking are compatible, changes in social norms during the early stages of the covid-19 pandemic across 43 countries, recent insights by stanford business, why investors throw money at eccentric ceos, psst — wanna know why gossip has evolved in every human society, unlocking the “iron cage” of corporate conformity.

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Academic Catalog

Doctor of philosophy (ph.d.) in organization development.

College: Daniel L. Goodwin College of Business Department: Business Student Type: Doctorate Semester Degree: Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) Campus: Lisle Campus

Introduction

The doctoral program in Organization Development (OD) is an outgrowth of the master’s level program at Benedictine University which was one of the first graduate Organizational Behavior programs in the country. It focuses on the importance of leadership and management of change to better understand how to address global trends and emerging problems. It prepares advanced professionals with state-of-the-art doctoral education and is a rigorous, Higher Learning Commission accredited doctoral program. The program offers a unique combination of research, theory, practice, and action-based learning to equip students with the knowledge and skills needed to lead strategically within organizations and at the intersection of business and society.

The coursework is designed for organization development professionals who perceive the management of change and the creation of high-performance organizations as central parts of their careers. The program is designed to be completed in three years as a full-time program integrated with and complementary to full-time work activities. It is tailored to meet the exacting standards and demanding schedules of senior leaders who work full-time. To accommodate those who commute from long distances both nationally and internationally, classes are held on weekends. Benedictine University is about a 30-minute drive from Chicago’s O’Hare and Midway airports. The first two years of the Ph.D. in Organization Development program curriculum is devoted to coursework.

The first year courses concentrate on setting the tone and developing sensitivity to the role of organization development and leadership within the applied behavioral sciences. Coursework topics focus on the empirical research that helps us understand behavior at all levels – self, interpersonal, teams, organizations, inter-organizational, and society. Heavy emphasis is placed on the philosophy of science, the development of research skills,and organization research and theory.

At the end of the first-year students must choose a concentration in either of two areas: (1) Organization Change or (2) Values-Driven Leadership. Each concentration involves five courses that provide further in-depth study of OD or Values-Driven Leadership.

Organizational Change Concentration:

This concentration places organization development within management and the strategic role of human resources. The curriculum is devoted to the development of a core of organization development competencies and selected, advanced topics courses covering state-of-the-art interventions. Organizational theory and research comprise much of the concentrations coursework.

Values-Driven Leadership Concentration:

This concentration focuses on values-driven leadership –the theory and practice of leading profitable, sustainable, and responsible companies in today’s global economy. The concentration equips students to become thought-leaders who inform business and society by leading at four levels: personal, interpersonal, organizational and global.

Rounding out the second year of coursework for both concentrations are classes in qualitative and quantitative research methods that are offered to assist students in preparing their dissertation research and proposals.

During the third-year students work with OD faculty and their dissertation committees to tailor their research and writing to help advance the student’s career and individual goals. This results in a defended dissertation based on original research. Additionally, students receive credit for an international experience by attending an international academic conference or other international experience with a faculty member

The Ph.D. in Organization Development program prepares management professionals, academics, and executives with state-of-the-art education. Built on a 50-year history of successful graduate-level OD education, this program is intended for those persons with extensive experience, who currently hold responsible positions either in the field of organization development or human resource management, or have executive leadership experience. It is a three-year program, consisting of a first year of context courses, a second year covering some core OD knowledge or Values Driven Leadership topics and a third year consisting of an international experience and the completion of a dissertation. The doctoral degree in Organization Development at Benedictine University was one of the first graduate OD programs in the country. The Ph.D in Values-Driven Leadership was the first scholar-practitioner program in the world focusing explicitly on values-driven leadership.

Semester Curriculum

If the required dissertation was not completed by the end of third year of the program, students will continue to enroll in MNGT 8201 Dissertation Continuation (6 credits) each subsequent semester until the dissertation is completed to remain active in the program.

Dissertation:

While the program is a three-year initiative, the dissertation is designed to be integrated throughout all years of study. Students are encouraged to begin reviewing dissertation possibilities upon being accepted into the program and to continue to explore and develop dissertation topics throughout their coursework. Students are encouraged to select topics consistent with the major research themes within the program. It is expected that research topics be selected during the first year as part of the initial research course. During the second year, it would be expected that papers be presented at local or regional professional meetings as part of the learning and feedback process. In the final year of the program, during completion of the dissertation, students would be expected to present their work at national meetings and submit papers for publication. 

Quarter Curriculum

Students may not enter the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) program on quarters as of the Summer 2022 term.  

Existing students should refer to original catalog of entry for appropriate academic requirements.

Students in the  Ph.D. in Organization Development will achieve the following student learning outcomes (SLO):

Student Learning Outcome 1:  Foundational Knowledge:  Understand and apply core knowledge in the field of OD from the frame of a scholar-practitioner, including history, emerging concepts and theories, current and projected global trends and problems, and application through practice.  

Student Learning Outcome 2:  Research Methods and Analysis: Understand and apply appropriate research methods in the field of Organization Development.

Student Learning Outcome 3:  OD in a Global Setting:  Describe and understand major global environmental trends, including economic, demographic, political, legislative, influencing organizational effectiveness and the role of organizational development.

Student Learning Outcome 4:  Scholarly Contributions to the Field: Demonstrated command of both theory and practice in the field of organizational development. 

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The Organisatio…

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The study of organisations and grand challenges in the digital global business landscape requires a multidisciplinary perspective. For this reason, the Organisational Theory and Information Systems (OTIS) PhD pathway brings together scholars from organisation theory and information systems to investigate both emerging and long-standing issues faced by individuals and organisations concerning institutional and organisational change, as well as digital innovation and work practices.

The breadth of interests pursued by our OTIS faculty and students creates a vibrant research environment has fuelled our strong international reputation for qualitative research whilst being supportive of a wide range of methods.

Professor Jennifer Howard-Grenville talks about the Organisational Theory and Information Systems pathway.

Hello. I’m Professor Jennifer Howard-Grenville, and I’m a member of the Organisation Theory and Information Systems subject group, and the lead for this pathway on our PhD programme. A PhD in the Organisation theory and information systems or OTIS Pathway at the Cambridge Judge Business School will lead you to an exciting and impactful academic career.

Our faculty and PhD students have a worldwide reputation as leading scholars who use primarily qualitative methods to explore important questions related to organising in general, as well as organising in relation to digital technologies.

We studied diverse topics and contribute to a range of academic and theoretical conversations, including those on institutional and organisational change, social innovation, digital innovation, and social and environmental issues.

What unites us are several common elements. The first is a deep intellectual curiosity, which means we draw from and contribute to various theories from within and beyond Organisation studies. The second is a passion to shed light on the organising practises and their consequences in settings that really matter.

Often, these relate to societal grand challenges, such as those around social or environmental issues, whether they occur in communities or much broader scales. And finally, our commitment to methods that enable us to get up close to the phenomena we study, which include ethnographic methods, in-depth interviewing, and other qualitative data collection techniques.

As a PhD student in the OTIS pathway, like all CJBS PhD students, you would enjoy a close and collaborative relationship with the faculty members. We publish regularly in our top academic journals, as well as other outlets. And many of us serve, or have served, as Associate or Senior Editors, or on the editorial review boards of our top journals.

This means we can effectively mentor our students to learn the craft of academic publication and navigate this process. If you’d like to learn more about how you can join us as a PhD student, please look at our information about the key entry modes, either through our MPhil on Innovation, Strategy and Organisation, or through the Master of Research or MRes programme.

As well, read below for some of the types of questions you might explore as a member of our group and for further information about what sets us apart. Finally, be sure to check out our faculty web pages for what we’re currently studying, and please get in touch if we can help with your questions.

View video with transcript

The pathway

To start on the OTIS pathway you must take one of the following 9-month masters programmes:

Essential reading

Download detailed information about the 9-month + 4-year programme structure and content.

The OTIS PhD pathway

• Research areas What we expect from you What you can expect from us PhD supervisors
• What we expect from you Research areas What you can expect from us PhD supervisors
• What you can expect from us Research areas What we expect from you PhD supervisors
• PhD supervisors Research areas What we expect from you What you can expect from us

Research areas

Our world-renowned faculty and PhD students study diverse issues and contribute to a range of academic and theoretical conversations, including those on institutional and organisational change, social innovation, digital innovation, and social and environmental issues. 

Elements that unite our researchers

• A deep intellectual curiosity, which means we draw from and contribute to various theories from within and beyond organisation studies.
• A passion to shed light on organising practises and their consequences in settings that matter – often these relate to societal grand challenges, such as those around social and environmental issues.
• The use of primarily qualitative methods to explore important questions related to organising in general, as well as organising in relation to digital technologies.
• A commitment to methods that enable us to get up close to the phenomena we study – including ethnographic methods, in-depth interviewing, and other qualitative data collection techniques.

Representative questions that are of interest to OTIS PhD pathway students and faculty

• How do individuals effectively advance innovation in their organisation and sector? What roles do organisational culture, identity and creativity play in managing change and innovation?
• How do new institutional fields and markets emerge? How does social change come about? What is the role of hybrid organisations and social innovation in these processes?
• How is digital innovation shaping the evolution of organisations and industries?
• How can we theorise the relationship between digital technologies, people and organisational practices?
• What roles do partnership and collaboration play in sustainable global business development?
• What role do organisations play in addressing the fundamental global social challenges of poverty, climate change, health inequalities and chronic disease?
• How, when and why are new ventures created? And how can they be a force for social good as well as economic value generation?

What we expect from you

You are intellectually curious and have a passion for developing new ideas and knowledge that will enable you to make your mark on both the academic field and wider society. You want to develop a rewarding academic career in a business school, and you have a strong desire to engage with external organisations as well. 

You will need to have a first class bachelors degree or equivalent. In some cases you will need to have a masters degree from a highly regarded university and to have performed within the top 5% of your class. Please see the MPhil in Innovation, Strategy and Organisation or Master of Research (MRes) academic requirements for more details. Our students have first degrees in areas such as business, management, economics, humanities, psychology, philosophy and sociology. You will be able to provide evidence of excellent writing skills and quantitative ability. A degree of practical management experience is welcome but not essential.

For more details, please see the academic requirements for the:

What you can expect from us

There are several distinguishing features that make the OTIS PhD pathway at Cambridge Judge Business School unique. This pathway has been designed to prepare students to conduct independent, high-calibre research in the OTIS field and to pursue an academic career as a faculty member at a highly regarded, research-led university.

Rigorous academic training

We work with you to develop an integrated and coherent programme of study that includes lectures, intensive seminars and workshops. Students receive funds to attend cutting-edge and highly specialised research methods workshops offered by renowned scholars at other institutions. The research methods you will study include quantitative and qualitative techniques that enable you to adopt either single or mixed methods in your research. This programme will train you in the latest research methods and emerging thinking in innovation, strategy and organisation.

Close research collaborations

The core feature of the programme is the close collaboration between our faculty members and doctoral students. You will work with the faculty on joint research projects for presentation at top international conferences and for publication in leading academic journals. Our faculty members maintain research collaborations with students long after they have graduated. Our faculty have served as associate and senior editors and on the editorial boards of leading academic journals, in addition to regularly publishing in these journals. These experiences will help you ensure your work is tailored for academic impact.

Highly selective and global

The programme is highly selective. You will interact closely with outstanding fellow PhD students who represent a wide variety of professional backgrounds, nationalities and ethnicities.

Connections with renowned scholars and schools around the world

You can interact and collaborate closely with leading scholars from around the world through our active research seminars and renowned visiting scholar programmes. The Business School also helps to support student exchange programmes, which will enable you to spend part of your PhD programme at a top international school of your choice. Our students have visited renowned institutions such as Wharton, Oxford and London Business School as part of the PhD programme.

Deep engagement approach

The hallmark of this PhD pathway is the combination of high standards of academic rigour and strong practical relevance to the business world. We will help you engage with organisations directly to gain access to unique data and rich insights on key problems facing organisations. This engagement will help you shed new light on ongoing academic debates, and it is this synergy of rigour and relevance that makes the OTIS PhD pathway unique.

State-of-the-art facilities and infrastructure

You will have access to comprehensive research databases and the latest software and computer equipment.

PhD supervisors

Your principal supervisor will be a senior academic from within the OTIS pathway. You will benefit from their guidance and counsel throughout the programme, and beyond: in helping you to succeed in the job market and in gaining a faculty position at a leading business school. Your principal supervisor will take an active role in your research programme and will assemble a group of faculty (your advisory committee) who will co-author papers with you. 

Take a look at the faculty who may serve as your principal supervisor and view their research interests: 

Michael Barrett

Professor of information systems & innovation studies, read more about michael.

Research interests

Michael Barrett researches digital innovation in diverse settings, including university-based ecosystems, healthcare, and banking. He draws primarily on practice-based theories for understanding digital innovation and transformation. He has also developed rhetorical strategies for understanding IT diffusion, and deploys longitudinal case study research using interpretive and mixed-methods approaches.

View Michael's profile

Mark de Rond

Professor of organisational ethnography, read more about mark.

Mark de Rond studies people by living with them under similar conditions so as to better understand how they experience, and develop meaningful relations to, the world as it happens. His fieldwork has included long stints with war surgeons, elite rowers, biochemists, and comedians. He contributes to institutional theory and uses ethnographic methods.

View Mark's profile

Matthew Grimes

Professor of entrepreneurship and sustainable futures, read more about matthew.

Matthew Grimes researches how individuals and organisations create, introduce, and sustain positive social change by way of entrepreneurship. He studies these topics primarily in contexts such as social entrepreneurship and business incubators/accelerators. He employs a range of methodologies, including qualitative and quantitative methods.

View Matthew's profile

Helen Haugh

Associate professor in community enterprise, read more about helen.

Helen Haugh researches organisational theory; social and community entrepreneurship; qualitative research methods, particularly ethnography.

View Helen's profile

Jennifer Howard-Grenville

Diageo professor in organisation studies, read more about jennifer.

Jennifer Howard-Grenville researches organisational and social change processes, often as they relate to environmental sustainability. She contributes to the literatures on organisational routines, culture, and identity, and has studied the semiconductor manufacturing, oil and gas, and athletic apparel industries, as well as communities and occupations. Her work draws on qualitative data and analysis.

View Jennifer's profile

Professor Matthew Jones

Professor of information systems, not available to take incoming phd students in october 2024..

Matthew Jones researches the relationship between information systems and social and organisational change. The primary empirical focus of his recent work has been on practice-based studies of (big) data in healthcare using qualitative methods. He also explores theoretical and methodological issues in information systems and organisational research.

Thomas Roulet

Professor of organisational sociology and leadership, read more about thomas.

Thomas Roulet researches negative social evaluations (stigma, scandals) and their antecedents (misconduct, deviance). He also contributed to the development of institutional theory and research methods (in particular observational and historical methods). While primarily a qualitative researcher, a share of his work is based on mixed-methods and combines different approaches.

View Thomas' profile

Paul Tracey

Professor of innovation & organisation, read more about paul.

Paul Tracey researches social enterprise, entrepreneurship, social innovation, and regional innovation. He contributes to the literatures on institutions and institutional change, as well as that on stigma and legitimacy. He uses qualitative methods to approach these topics.

View Paul's profile

PhD advisory team

Dr Stella Pachidi, Dr Karla Sayegh and Dr Virginia Leavell supervise MPhil individual research projects and MPhil dissertations, and are available to join a PhD advisory team.

Organisational Theory and Information Systems faculty

Learn more about the faculty that teach on this pathway.

Learn more about the Organisational Theory and Information Systems subject group

Learn more about the application process and deadlines

Explore fees and funding options

Contact the admissions team

Organizational Behavior

PhD in Psychology

Doctoral research in Organizational Behavior prepares graduates to implement organizational theory and research in order to achieve organizational effectiveness and improve individual work life.

Program Highlights

• All Organizational Behavior research graduate students are encouraged to gain practical experience through projects, internships, or jobs, often at CGU’s research centers and affiliates, such as the Claremont Evaluation Center or the Health Psychology and Prevention Science Institute.
• All Organizational Behavior research students who request financial aid receive fellowships. DBOS also regularly hires students for paid teaching assistantships.
• DBOS offers a certificate program and professional development workshops in Evaluation & Applied Methods for those seeking continuing education.

Program At-a-glance

required units

degree awarded

Program Entry

Spring, Fall

5-7 years | full time*

estimated completion time

Regina Burch

Assistant Director of Admissions

Where You Can Find Our Alumni

Centre For Addiction & Mental Health

Vanderbilt University

Graduate Fellow

Lanterman Development Center

Chair of Psychology

The Advocacy and Learning Associates

CEO and Owner

University of Georgia

Executive Director and Professor

Davidson Consulting Ltd.

Evaluation and Organizational Consultant

Delaware Division of Alcohol and Drug Services

Deputy Director

Loma Linda University

Associate Professor of Nursing and Psychology

U.S. Department of State

Foreign Affairs Officer

Michelle Bligh

Interim Executive Vice President & Provost Professor of Organizational Behavior

Research Interests

Leadership, Organizational Culture, Charismatic Leadership

William Crano

Stuart Oskamp Chair of Psychology

Social Influence, Effects of persuasive information on drug addiction and HIV/AIDS, Minority and majority relationships to health information

Stewart I. Donaldson

Distinguished University Professor Executive Director, Claremont Evaluation Center Executive Director, The Evaluators' Institute (TEI)

Positive Organizational Psychology, Health/Well-Being & Positive Functioning Across Cultures, Program Design & Re-Design, Culturally Responsive Theory-Driven Measurement & Evaluation

Cindi Gilliland

Professor of Practice in Organizational Psychology

Social Innovation, Resilience & Well-Being, Diversity and Inclusion

Stephen Gilliland

University Professor

Organizational Justice, Employee Attitudes and Motivation, Leadership

M. Gloria González-Morales

Associate Professor of Psychology Director, Center for Academic & Faculty Excellence

Work stress; work-life issues; workplace victimization and incivility; relational practices and cultures; diversity; positive organizational interventions to enhance well-being and performance.

Michael Hogg

Professor of Social Psychology

Self and Social Identity; Intergroup Relations and Group Processes; Influence and Leadership; Uncertainty, Radicalization and Extremism

Jean Lipman-Blumen

Professor of Organizational Behavior Former Thornton F. Bradshaw Professor of Public Policy

Achieving styles, Crisis management, Gender roles, Leadership, Organizational behavior

Jeanne Nakamura

Associate Professor Director, Quality of Life Research Center

Engagement, Mentoring, Positive Aging

Becky Reichard

Full Professor

Development of those not typically represented in leadership roles (e.g., women, BIPOC, LGBTQ+), Psychological mechanisms underlying the process of leader development (e.g., feedback, goal striving, self-views, implicit theories, leader development readiness), Development of leadership through experiences outside of the work context (e.g., global, sports, volunteering, crisis)

Paul J. Zak

Professor of Economic Sciences, Psychology & Management Director, Center for Neuroeconomics Studies

Neuroeconomics, Neuroscience of Narratives, Neuromanagement

Extended Faculty

Claremont McKenna College

Jennifer Feitosa

Culture, Diversity, Organizational Psychology, Statistics, Teams, Teamwork, Workplace Issues and Trends

Allen Omoto

Pitzer College

Social psychology; volunteerism and prosocial action; environmental concerns; lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender issues; sense of community; civic engagement and civil society

Ronald Riggio

Human resources management, innovation, leadership, Non-verbal communication, organizational psychology

Organizational Behavior Core Courses (16 units) Doctoral Seminar in Organizational Behavior (4 units) Doctoral Seminar in Organizational Theory (4 units) Doctoral Seminar in Organizational Development & Change (4 units) Advanced Topics in Organizational Behavior (4 units)

Organizational Behavior & Related Electives (32 units) Students are often encouraged to take elective courses in the School of Educational Studies, the Drucker School of Management, the Division of Politics & Economics, the Center for Information Systems & Technology, the School of Arts & Humanities, and the Institute of Mathematical Sciences.

Statistics & Methodology (20 units) Research Methods (4 units) Directed Research Seminar: Organizational Behavior (two 2-unit courses) Intermediate Statistics (2 units) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (2 units) Applied Multiple Regression (2 units) Categorical Data Analysis (2 units) PSYCH 315 Sequence: 4 additional units of Advanced Methodology

Field/Teaching Experience (4 units) Supervised Teaching Seminar (4 units) or Field Placement (4 units)

Transdisciplinary Core Course (4 units) All PhD students are required to enroll in a transdisciplinary core course from the “TNDY” course sequence during their first three semesters at Claremont Graduate University.

Portfolio In addition to 72 units of coursework, all students must complete a portfolio that represents a cohesive set of experiences balancing training in their area of specialization.

PhD Completion

• PhD qualifying exam
• Dissertation proposal
• Dissertation and oral defense

In the Field Opportunities Under the supervision of professionals with expertise in your particular areas of interest, you can participate in fieldwork, research, and paid internships at a range of corporations and organizations, including:

• Southern California Edison Company
• Kaiser Permanente
• Orange County Rapid Transit District
• Riverside County Department of Mental Health
• Claremont Evaluation Center
• Institute for Research on Social Issues

Application Guidelines

CGU operates on a priority deadline cycle. Applicants are strongly encouraged to submit complete applications by the priority dates in order to assure maximum consideration for both admission and fellowships.

Spring 2024 Priority Deadline – November 1, 2023 Final Deadline (International) – November 15, 2023 Final Deadline (Domestic) – December 1, 2023 Classes begin – January 16, 2024

Fall 2024 Priority Deadline – February 1, 2024 Final Deadline (International) – July 5, 2024 Final Deadline (Domestic) – August 1, 2024 Classes begin – August 26, 2024

Application Checklist

The Claremont Graduate University online application is hosted online by Slate Technolutions via a secure web server. You will create a username and password so that you can return to continue your application over several sessions and check your status after submission. After you submit your application, it is made available for review by our faculty and staff.

Begin your application

The application fee is non-refundable.

Applicants must submit a sealed, official transcript from every undergraduate and graduate institution that has granted the applicant a degree. Electronic transcripts sent to [email protected] are also accepted. For undergraduate coursework, applicants are required to submit proof of a completed bachelor’s degree from a regionally accredited college or university. Unofficial copies of transcripts are accepted for review purposes, but official copies will be required upon admission.

Applicants currently earning a degree that will be completed prior to attending CGU are required to submit a transcript showing work in progress for evaluation purposes. Once the degree has been granted, a final official transcript documenting the degree conferred must be submitted to CGU.

International applicants are advised to review the International Transcript Guidelines for additional information on submitting international transcripts.

Applicants must submit an up-to-date copy of their resume.

A valid score on one of the following examinations TOEFL, IELTS, Pearson PTE scores is required of all non-native English-speaking applicants. The examination is not required for the following applicants:

• Citizens or permanent residents of countries where English is the sole official language of instruction, e.g., Australia, Bahamas, Barbados, Canada (except Quebec), England, Ghana, Ireland, Jamaica, Kenya, New Zealand, Nigeria, Scotland, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad, Tobago, Uganda, and Wales (see the CGU Bulletin for a complete list of accepted countries).
• Applicants who hold an undergraduate or advanced degree, or will have earned such a degree prior to enrolling at CGU, from an institution in the US or in countries where English is the sole official language of instruction (see above).
• Applicants who have successfully completed an academic English pre-master’s or intensive graduate bridge program from a nationally recognized, regionally accredited four-year college or university in the United States in the last two years, with submitted evidence of successful completion, and subject to curriculum approval.

CGU’s school code for the TOEFL exam is 4053 .

International applicants are encouraged to visit our International Applicants page for more information, including score requirements.

When filling out the online application, please enter references acquainted with your potential for success who will submit a written recommendation on your behalf. In most academic departments, references from faculty members who can speak to your academic ability are preferred; applicants with substantial work experience may request professional references. Please do not enter family members as references.

You will be required to input information for your recommenders (whether they are submitting online or not) in the “Recommendations” section of the online application. Please follow the directions in this section carefully before clicking on “Recommendation Provider List” to input the names and contact information for each recommender. You will have an opportunity to indicate if the reference writer will be submitting online. These reference writers will receive an email from CGU with instructions on submitting an online recommendation.

Recommenders who are indicated as offline will not receive an email from CGU with instructions to submit. These reference writers can submit via traditional mail and should use the supplemental New Student Recommendation Form. Recommenders can also email their letter of recommendation to the Office of Admissions at [email protected] .

Download the Recommendation Form

Please submit a 2-3 page statement of purpose that details your academic and/or professional achievements, your specific areas of research interest within your desired field of study, why you are a strong candidate for graduate studies at CGU, and your career goals.

Tuition and Fees

Estimated tuition (california residents, non-residents, international).

*Based on 2023-2024 tuition rates.

STUDENT FEES (PER SEMESTER)

For estimates of room & board, books, etc., please download CGU’s  Cost of Attendance 2022-2023  .

Review General Costs

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Management & Organizations

What we are looking for in applicants.

Our doctoral students come from a variety of backgrounds. Some have substantial work and professional experiences, or are recent MBA graduates, and others enter directly from undergraduate programs in the social sciences, business, engineering, and allied fields. Though not required, successful applicants often possess one or several of the following characteristics:

• Experience in the social sciences, e.g. through undergraduate or graduate coursework in anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, sociology or related fields
• Research experience, e.g. in the form of an honors or master’s thesis, or research assistant work
• Post baccalaureate work experience
• Evidence of quantitative or statistical skills, e.g., high quantitative test scores or advanced courses in mathematics, statistics, engineering or econometrics
• Relevant master’s degree

Program Requirements

• JOB MARKET CANDIDATES
• JOB PLACEMENT

Our Current PhD Students

Learn more about our faculty, faculty journal publications & books.

• Youth Program
• Wharton Online

Wharton’s PhD program in Management is flexible and interdisciplinary, applying rigorous social science theory and research methods to management problems. It offers specializations in Entrepreneurship, Human and Social Capital, Multinational Management, Organizational Behavior, Organizational Theory, and Strategy.

Wharton’s Management program prepares students to apply rigorous social science disciplinary theory and research methods to the demands of current management and leadership challenges in the public and private sectors. Our faculty has a broad range of interests ranging from the behavior of individuals, teams and groups to organizational strategy of multinational firms. Major areas of faculty research currently include:

• new venture formation, growth, and corporate entrepreneurship;
• human resources and competitiveness;
• emotions, identity, creativity and motivation;
• political and social influence strategies;
• technology and practice adoption, diffusion, and transfer within and across organizations;
• organizational learning and adaptation;
• and the strategic management of complementary resources and capabilities within an organization, alliance, network or ecosystems.

Each student draws on the faculty’s diverse expertise and varied interests to develop a program uniquely suited to his or her interests frequently spanning the formal specializations noted above. The program encourages students to gain research experience by working closely with multiple faculty on a variety of projects beginning with a research assistantship assignment in the first year with the hope of entering the job market in year 4 or 5 with multiple research papers in the publication pipeline.

For information on courses and sample plan of study, please visit the University Graduate Catalog .

Get the Details.

Visit the Management website for details on program requirements and courses. Read faculty and student research and bios to see what you can do with a Management PhD.

Management Program Doctoral Coordinator Prof. Exequiel (Zeke) Hernandez Max and Bernice Garchik Family Presidential Associate Professor of Management Email: [email protected] Phone: (215) 746-1984

• Undergraduate
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PhD in Organizational Behavior

Organizational behavior.

Our Organizational Behavior (OB) PhD Program prepares you to conduct high-impact research on a broad range of topics critical to businesses and managers. Since 2018, our students have secured job placements at many top research schools.

Our faculty have expertise in a wide range of research areas such as leadership (including ethical leadership), emotions, team dynamics, decision-making, motivation, power and influence, negotiations, employee well-being, creativity, voice, and cross-cultural issues. They use cutting-edge methodological approaches including lab experiments, experience sampling, meta-analyses and qualitative interviews.

Through your coursework and research alongside innovative, supportive and passionate faculty, you will learn the necessary skills to become a high-quality researcher and faculty member at a top research university.

While direct research experience is not required, familiarity with academic research in organizational behavior or psychology is a plus to ensure you are prepared for the rigors of conducting research.

We do not narrow our search to students who graduated from a “top” university or have achieved a specific score on a standardized test. We take a holistic approach. We aim to admit students who demonstrate passion for exploring organizational questions and the motivation to put in the work to learn the complex skills and methodological approaches needed to become a high-quality scholar.

We have found the most successful students are self-directed, enjoy problem-solving and are unafraid – if not excited – about digging into some of the most complex challenges facing organizations.

We look for students who are friendly, collaborative and seek a welcoming and intellectually stimulating academic environment.

We welcome potential applicants from all experiences and backgrounds. The UNC Kenan-Flagler OB PhD Program prides itself on a diverse and inclusive student body. Our thriving and collaborative culture (both with faculty and between students) is a focal point to our department. Join us!

Typical course schedule by year

During the first two years of the PhD Program, you will focus on coursework that develops the tools you need to produce high-quality research. Sample classes include:

• Introduction to Organizational Behavior
• Introduction to Social Psychology
• Research Methods
• Dependent Variables
• Groups and Teams
• Interpersonal Processes
• Negotiation, Conflict and Diversity

After the second year, you are required to successfully complete comprehensive exams which covers all of the OB and leadership courses you take in the first two years of the PhD Program.

• Complete a third-year paper
• Full-time research
• Dissertation and oral defense are expected prior to the end of your fifth year.
• Prepare for the job market

We encourage you to attend bi-weekly brown bag lunches organized by PhD students as well as our field’s annual conference – The Academy of Management.

We believe the best scholars are crafted through impactful mentoring relationships. When you begin the program, you will be assigned to one (or two) faculty members with overlapping research interests. These advising relationships are aimed at being both professionally and personally productive for you. From day one you will begin working on research projects (whether self-directed or ongoing faculty projects) alongside these faculty members as they seek to teach you the skills you need to conduct high-quality work and develop your own research identity.

If you ask a UNC Kenan-Flagler OB student the classic question “Who do you work with?” be prepared for a long answer involving multiple faculty. We encourage our students to work with several faculty members to take advantage of the diverse skill sets, theoretical perspectives and research approaches they offer. These collaborations happen informally as you progress and grow within the program and give you flexibility and breadth of resources as you pursue your research passions.

As part of our larger mission to make academia an inclusive place where people of all identities and life experiences can thrive, we view it as a moral imperative to foster a diverse PhD student body that represents the next generation of scholars.

Ensuring that all feel welcome to pursue a doctoral degree is not only the right thing to do – it also is important for producing better science. Identities and life experiences shape the questions that we ask about the world and the knowledge that we produce.

We believe that our understanding of organizational behavior is incomplete if our scholarly community does not reflect the rich diversity of identities, experiences and perspectives that are found in the broader population. Inviting people of all walks of life to enter into our intellectual community can therefore result in better scholarship because it opens the door for new questions to be asked and new truths to be uncovered.

We strive to be a community where every student feels supported in their scholarly journey. We encourage all interested individuals to apply to the program, especially those who belong to historically underrepresented populations. We look forward to learning from you and welcoming you!

View our current Organizational Behavior PhD students .

Related Research

Ashamed to take a break.

UNC Kenan-Flagler researchers show that employees feeling bad that they took breaks can lead to unethical, costly behavior.

You can be too careful

Researchers show what happens when leaders focus too much on preventing errors.

What’s race got to do with it?

Research shows that Black women negotiators receive more favorable offers and outcomes compared with white women and Black men.

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• Organizational Behavior
• Introduction

Harvard Griffin GSAS strives to provide students with timely, accurate, and clear information. If you need help understanding a specific policy, please contact the office that administers that policy.

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Questions about these requirements? See the contact info at the bottom of the page. 

Program of Study

The PhD degree in Organizational Behavior is awarded by the Harvard Kenneth C. Griffin Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

Students will work with faculty in the Harvard Business School (HBS) and take classes within the Department of Sociology or the Department of Psychology within the Faculty of Arts and Sciences (FAS).

Each candidate’s program of study will be developed in consultation with the Faculty Chair of the program and the Doctoral Programs Office at HBS. The normal program is outlined below.

The First Two Years

Regular guidance through contact with faculty advisors is an essential component of doctoral education. Students should maintain close contact with their official advisor(s) throughout their enrollment in the program. Students are encouraged to develop informal advising relationships with several faculty members in addition to their official advisor. 

The first-year advisors provide aid during the initial stages of the program but do not necessarily advise the student throughout their studies. Students are matched with initial advisors based on their research interests. As students familiarize themselves with program faculty during coursework, research work, seminars/workshops, and other activities, they may change their official advisor(s) as their academic and research interests develop. During the early years of study, students should become acquainted with many program faculty members to identify advisors who share their research interests.

Micro-Organizational Behavior Track

• Two one-semester courses in foundations of psychology
• Two additional one-semester graduate-level courses in psychology
• One graduate-level elective course in the Social Sciences (“workshop” courses do not fulfill this requirement)
• Two term-length Organizational Behavior courses (HBS 4882 and 4880)
• Two courses in quantitative research methods (FAS courses; sequential courses)
• One course in qualitative research methods
• One course in research design
• Two one-term MBA Elective Curriculum courses (see below)

Sociology Track

• Two one-semester courses on sociological theory (SOC 2204 and 2208)
• Two additional one-semester graduate-level (200-level) Sociology electives (“workshop” courses do not fulfill this requirement)
• Two term-length Organizational Behavior courses (HBS 4882 and 4880) 

MBA Courses

All Organizational Behavior students are required to complete 2 MBA Courses in HBS’ Elective Curriculum (EC) to help them identify managerially relevant research opportunities. Doctoral students will also benefit from learning with the MBA students in their courses, who bring practical real-world perspectives to the classroom conversation. In addition, students will develop relationships with faculty instructors to discuss pedagogy and the integration of research in the classroom.  

Additional requirements for doctoral students in MBA Classes

In addition to completing all regularly assigned course requirements, Organizational Behavior students are required to meet with their MBA Instructors at least twice during the semester to discuss connections between course materials and research opportunities. Students will be responsible for setting an agenda and scheduling the meetings during faculty office hours.

Teaching Fellowships in MBA Curriculum

Students may elect to complete one of the two MBA Course requirements by participating as a Teaching Fellow (TF) in an MBA course. Students are eligible to TF in both Required Curriculum (RC) and EC courses. In order to fulfill an MBA course requirement, the TF is required to:

• attend all class sessions;
• meet with the instructor to discuss connections between the course material and research, as well as to discuss pedagogical decisions made in the classroom.

Note: Being a TF in an MBA course may count as one of the student’s MBA courses as well as the student’s teaching requirement if the student fulfills all dimensions of the teaching requirement. The teaching requirement may be fulfilled in the MBA program by either teaching in three course sessions (either cases or lecture style) or by teaching review sessions (required or optional sessions).​

Research Requirements

Research apprenticeship requirement  .

By the end of the second year of study, students should complete a research apprenticeship with a faculty member affiliated with the program. This research apprenticeship may or may not be a paid position; a typical time commitment would be approximately 100 hours of work. The research work performed during the research apprenticeship should involve the student in the formulation, design, and conduct of a research project in a substantial professional capacity. It should not be limited to routine research tasks typically performed by a “research assistant,” though it may involve some exposure to such work. Students should complete the research apprenticeship requirement not later than the end of the second year of study.

Qualifying Paper Requirement

Students must prepare a qualifying paper that makes a new contribution to knowledge in social psychology, sociology or organizational behavior. It may (but need not) be based on work begun as part of the research apprenticeship, it may be based on a term paper developed in connection with coursework, or it may be based on a student’s independent research activities. Though the qualifying paper is prepared in conjunction with the advice of a faculty committee, it must be original work prepared principally by the student.

The qualifying paper may offer an original interpretation of existing facts, provide new facts in support or disconfirmation of existing interpretations, or both. Its length and quality should resemble that of a research paper suitable for submission for publication in some form. Indeed, the Program’s aspiration is that students will submit their qualifying papers for publication upon completing this requirement.

The student should consult regularly with the chair and other committee members while planning and conducting the research for the qualifying paper, and writing the paper itself. It is typical for qualifying papers to undergo several cycles of revision before they are approved. The paper is acceptable when committee members agree that it is of sufficient quality to merit review for publication in some form, be it as a chapter in an edited work, a specialty journal, or a general journal in organizational behavior or a related discipline.  

The qualifying paper is supervised by a committee consisting of three faculty members, one of whom is designated as the committee chair. The chair will often, but need not necessarily, be a student’s official advisor in the program (see Advising above). Students are encouraged to form a committee in consultation with their advisor, and to include both HBS and FAS faculty among their committee members. Qualifying paper committees must include at least one member of the HBS faculty, and typically will include more than one. The qualifying paper committee needs to be formed and finalized no later than the end of September in the third year.

Students   should begin to work on the qualifying paper requirement by the second year of study.  To be considered in good standing, students should submit the qualifying paper for approval by the end of January in the third year of study. Students who do not complete the qualifying paper by the end of their third year of study are considered to be making unsatisfactory progress and may be withdrawn from the program.

RESEARCH APPRENTICESHIP REQUIREMENT 

By the end of the second year of study, students should complete a research apprenticeship with a faculty member affiliated with the program. This research apprenticeship may or may not be a paid position; a typical time commitment would be approximately 100 hours of work. The research work performed during the research apprenticeship should involve the student in the formulation, design, and conduct of a research project in a substantial professional capacity. It should not be limited to routine research tasks typically performed by a “research assistant,” though it may involve some exposure to such work. Students should complete the research apprenticeship requirement not later than the end of the second year of study. 

The qualifying paper may offer an original interpretation of existing facts, provide new facts in support or disconfirmation of existing interpretations, or both. Its length and quality should resemble that of a research paper suitable for submission for publication in some form. Indeed, the program’s aspiration is that students will submit their qualifying papers for publication upon completing this requirement.

The student should consult regularly with the chair and other committee members while planning and conducting the research for the qualifying paper, and while writing the paper itself. It is typical for qualifying papers to undergo several cycles of revision before they are approved. The paper is acceptable when committee members agree that it is of sufficient quality to merit review for publication in some form, be it as a chapter in an edited work, a specialty journal, or a general journal in organizational behavior or some related discipline.

Students should begin to work on the qualifying paper requirement by the second year of study. To be considered in good standing, the qualifying paper should be approved by the end of January in the third year of study. Students who do not complete the qualifying paper by the end of their third year of study are considered to be making unsatisfactory progress and may be withdrawn from the program.

Organizational Behavior students on the Sociology track should follow procedures for meeting the qualifying paper requirement for graduate students in Sociology as outlined in the Committee on Higher Degrees Procedural Handbook from the Department of Sociology. The chair of the student’s qualifying paper committee must be a member of the Sociology faculty, as must one other committee member. For Organizational Behavior students on the Sociology track, the third member of the qualifying paper committee should be a member of the HBS faculty. Sociology track students may, at their discretion, enroll in the Sociology Department’s qualifying paper workshops (Sociology 310a and Sociology 310b) while working on their qualifying papers.  These workshops are not, however, required of Sociology track Organizational Behavior students and do not satisfy departmental course requirements.

Examinations and Reviews

Organizational behavior (ob) examination.

This examination completes the student's preparation for work on the doctoral dissertation. It is usually taken after all doctoral coursework requirements have been completed; and may be completed at the end of the first or second year. Students who fail the OB examination requirement may retake the exam one time; the exam requirement must be satisfied no later than the end of the student’s third year of study in the Program. The organizational behavior examination requires students to demonstrate conceptual skill and knowledge of existing empirical findings and the ability to move back and forth between theory and practice. 

Third-year dossier review

Soon after completion of the qualifying paper, and in no case later than the end of the third year of study, students undergo a dossier review by a committee consisting of the student’s advisor, one member of the Policy and Admissions Committee (PAC), and one other faculty member. The members of the review committee are selected by the chair of the PAC after consultation with the student and the student’s official advisor.

Students submit a dossier consisting of their CV, qualifying paper, at least two other research papers prepared during their graduate studies at Harvard, and a brief (4-page maximum) statement indicating their plans for future research, including thoughts about their dissertation topic.  The additional papers in the dossier may be term papers prepared in connection with coursework, or papers based on independent research (e.g. prepared in conjunction with the research apprenticeship requirement or other work with faculty). Papers submitted for the dossier review may be coauthored, but the student should be the sole or first author of at least two of the papers submitted for the review.

After the committee reviews the dossier, its members meet with the student to discuss the papers submitted, the student’s future academic plans, plans for the dissertation, or any other matters pertinent to the student’s professional development. The review is intended as a constructive stock-taking of the work the student has conducted in the program to that point, and an occasion to discuss their progress toward meeting the program’s aspirations, as well as plans for proceeding through its final phases.

Upon completion of the dossier review, the student submits a signed Dossier Review form to the Associate Director for PhD Programs in the HBS Doctoral Programs Office.

Students should be mindful from the beginning of their studies that they must present a dossier consisting of at least three papers for this review by the end of their third year of study.

Organizational Behavior Examination

This examination completes the student's preparation for work on the doctoral dissertation. It is usually taken after all doctoral coursework requirements have been completed; and may be completed at the end of the first or second year. Sociology track students often opt to complete as part of general examination. Students who fail the OB examination requirement may retake the exam one time; the exam must be satisfied no later than the end of the student’s third year of study in the program. The organizational behavior examination requires students to demonstrate conceptual skill and knowledge of existing empirical findings and the ability to move back and forth between theory and practice. 

Written General Examination Students on the Sociology track take the written examination offered by the Department of Sociology, following procedures and on the schedule set by the Department, as specified by its Committee of Higher Degrees (CHD) - see the  Committee on Higher Degrees Procedural Handbook .  The exam takes place in August after the first year. In place of one of the two optional areas of the exam, students are required to take the micro organizational behavior section.         

Students submit a dossier consisting of their CV, qualifying paper, at least two other research papers prepared during their graduate studies at Harvard, and a brief (4-page maximum) statement indicating their plans for future research, including thoughts about their dissertation topic. The additional papers in the dossier may be term papers prepared in connection with coursework, or papers based on independent research (e.g. prepared in conjunction with the research apprenticeship requirement or other work with faculty). Papers submitted for the dossier review may be coauthored, but the student should be the sole or first author of at least two of the papers submitted for the review.

After the committee reviews the dossier, its members meet with the student to discuss the papers submitted, the student’s future academic plans, plans for the dissertation, or any other matters pertinent to the student’s professional development. The review is intended as a constructive stock-taking of the work the student has conducted in the Program to that point, and an occasion to discuss their progress toward meeting the Program’s aspirations, as well as plans for proceeding through its final phases.

Research Seminar and Presentation

Starting in the second year, Organizational Behavior students are required to attend a weekly research seminar, where students present their ideas, such as the Work, Organizations and Markets (WOM) seminar or the OB Lab.

Teaching Requirement

Students are required to complete a teaching engagement of one full academic term that includes at least 8 hours, or 3 class sessions, of front-of-class teaching experience and at least 16 hours of teaching preparation time. 

The Dissertation

The doctoral dissertation is the culminating event in the program through which the student develops a substantial original contribution to knowledge in the field of Organizational Behavior. Dissertations may take the form of an extended study of one topic, or a set of three or more related research papers. Students should consult with their advisors and with the PAC about the format of their dissertation. Dissertation requirements are identical for students on the Micro-Organizational Behavior and Sociology tracks of the program.

Prospectus and Dissertation Committee

The dissertation committees consist of a minimum of three faculty members, but larger committees are common.  

Micro-Organizational Behavior track committees are ordinarily chaired by a member of the HBS or FAS faculty, and students should consult the chair of their committee while choosing other members. Committees must include at least two Harvard faculty having ladder appointments, at least one of whom must be from HBS. Ideally dissertation committees will include both HBS and FAS faculty. 

Appointments of non-ladder faculty or scholars outside Harvard as additional committee members require the approval of the chair of the PAC. Any subsequent changes in committee composition also must be approved by the chair of the PAC.

Sociology track committees must include at least one member from the HBS faculty and at least one from the FAS faculty. They are typically chaired by a member of either the HBS or the Sociology faculty, but in unusual circumstances, other Harvard faculty members may chair them with the approval of the chair of the PAC.

Students should consult the chair of their committee while choosing other members. Membership of dissertation committees must be approved by the chair of the PAC. The prospectus committee continues as the student’s dissertation committee after the prospectus is approved. Any changes in committee composition that may be requested by the student or by a committee member must be approved by the chair of the PAC.

Once the prospectus is approved, the student should submit the prospectus approval form, countersigned by all committee members, to the Associate Director for PhD Programs of HBS Doctoral Programs at Wyss Hall. This provides protection for the candidate: if the work outlined in the prospectus is satisfactorily completed, the dissertation will be acceptable—even if the membership on the dissertation committee changes between the prospectus defense and the dissertation defense, e.g., because one or more members leaves the University.

The student then conducts the dissertation research. During this process, they should keep all committee members abreast of developments, especially if they lead to substantial adjustments in the direction or scope of the dissertation work; such adjustments are relatively common. In some instances, interim meetings of the dissertation committee to discuss the progress and direction of the research may be held.

The Dissertation Defense

The dissertation defense is the culmination of the student’s work in the program and should be a celebration of the scholarly achievement and original contribution of the dissertation. The defense takes place before the candidate's dissertation committee and is open to all interested faculty and students.

Students who wish to receive their doctoral degrees at a given November, March, or May graduation must submit a complete draft of the dissertation to all members of their dissertation committee no later than six weeks prior to the Harvard Griffin GSAS filing deadline for that graduation. Students will be informed annually of these program deadlines.

After submitting the draft dissertation, the student must ascertain from members of the dissertation committee that the student may schedule the final defense. The committee may require that students make revisions to the draft, either prior to scheduling a defense or after the defense but before filing the approved dissertation with Harvard Griffin GSAS.

The student must arrange a mutually agreeable date, time, and location for the defense, allowing at least two hours for presentation, discussion, evaluation by the committee, and feedback to the student. It is the student’s responsibility that the dissertation defense be advertised widely and well in advance of the defense so that interested students and faculty will have the opportunity to arrange for their participation. The chair of the PAC and the Doctoral Programs Office at HBS must be informed of the scheduled time for the meeting, at least two weeks in advance.

The defense is chaired by the chair of the dissertation committee. It consists of a brief (roughly 20 minute) presentation of the dissertation by the candidate, followed by a period of questioning by the dissertation committee, and then general discussion and questions from all in attendance. The defense ends with an appropriate celebration of the candidate’s accomplishment.

The student must file appropriate forms, countersigned by all members of the dissertation committee, certifying the successful completion of the dissertation defense with the Associate Director for PhD Programs of HBS Doctoral Programs, and with the Harvard Kenneth C. Griffin Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

Contact Info 

Organizational Behavior Website

Harvard Business School Doctoral Programs Office [email protected] 617-495-6101

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PhD Course Descriptions

Mgmt9000 - sem strat mgmt (course syllabus).

This course examines some of the central questions in management with economic approaches as a starting point, but with an eye to links to behavioral perspectives on these same questions. Economics concerns itself with goal directed behavior of individuals interacting in a competitive context. We adopt that general orientation but recognize that goal directed action need not take the form of maximizing behavior, particularly for organizations comprised of individuals with possibly divergent interests and distinct sub-goals. Further, we treat competitive processes as playing out over meaningful periods of calendar time and, in general, not equilibrating instantaneously. A central property of firms, as with any organization, is the interdependent nature of activity within them. Thus, understanding firms as "systems" is quite important, a perspective which has important implications for understanding processes of organizational adaptation. Among the sorts of questions we explore are the following: What underlies a firm's capabilities? How does individual knowledge aggregate to form collective capabilities? What do these perspectives on firms say about the scope of a firm's activities, both horizontally (diversification) and vertically (buy-supply relationships)? As a "foundations" course, readings will cover key conceptual foundations, but also provide an arc to current work --- an "arc" that will be developed more fully in our in-class discussions.

MGMT9180 - Personnel Economics A (Course Syllabus)

This is a half-semester PhD course in the Management Department that is also open to any current PhD students at Wharton. The canonical model in economics views an agent as a fully rational, atomistic individual making optimal choices under scarcity. This approach has been very powerful theoretically and empirically to explain and to predict behavior in the workplace. This model has also been enriched to accommodate other phenomena arguably affecting behavior in the workplace like the social context (e.g. peer effects, altruism, or social comparison), non-standard time preferences, loss aversion, and cognitive costs. Incorporating these ideas into the standard model can be accomplished in various ways but the real stress test for these theories is whether they predict behavior more generally (i.e. we don't just use theory to explain one choice but choices more generally) and to generate empirical predictions that can be tested using experiments. In this mini-course we start-off with a tour de force of the fundamental principal-agent model and the various behavioral extensions. The core of the course is, however, not theoretical but a practical course on how to design field experiments to test these ideas.

MGMT9190 - Personnel Economics B (Course Syllabus)

This is a half-semester PhD course in the Management Department that is also open to any current PhD students at Wharton. It is a continuation and builds on MGMT 918 - please see the course description for MGMT 918. As in MGMT 918 we expand on the canonical model in economics and introduce views from behavioral economics and introduce views from behavioral economics to derive novel theories with empirically testable implications on workplace behavior and individual performance in labor markets and health. In this mini-course the focus is on continuing our review of the literature but the primary aim is to work towards a project description and paper that can be developed into a PhD chapter or journal article.

MGMT9200 - Sem in Hum Res Research (Course Syllabus)

The class is organized around understanding labor and work. For management students trained in social science disciplines, there is a considerable gap between what we can learn about the workplace from economics, which relies on markets and incentives for its explanations, and psychology, which relies on dispositional attributes and social interactions. Managing people is arguably the biggest topic in the social sciences each with its own subgroups: labor economists in economics, I/O and personnel psychologists in psychology and organizational behavior researches use the work place as their central research context, work and occupations and career students in sociology. For the most part, these fields talk past each other and are largely unaware of what the others are doing. We try to bridge that gap a bit in this class, although by no means do we attempt to span the range of topics represented across these quite different fields. In most contexts, the employer has considerable discretion as to the arrangements that are chosen for influencing the behavior of workers and, in turn, their outcomes and subsequent attitudes. The management practices they choose are our main focus. They drive many of the most important outcomes in society - who gets access to the most important and powerful jobs, how much income will people have and how it is distributed, whether and to what extent we have control over our lives at work, and so forth. Most of the attention still goes to employment, but it is not the only arrangement for doing work, though. We consider others, especially various forms of contracting and the gig work organized around electronic platforms. To the extent that there is a common conceptual orientation across the class, it is analysis at the organization-level, typically used for independent variables although often for outcomes and dependent variables as well, and power as a mechanism. Many of the most important and exciting topics in public discourse are in our focus, from remote work to gig work to the influence of artificial intelligence. The range of new issues to explore is enormous. A caveat: the phrase "human resources" is a contemporary business term that began as a description of the set of management practices coming out of the "great corporations" and the lifetime employment model for managing non-union employees. Many of these are within the domain of I/O and personnel psychology, such as employee selection tests, succession planning exercises, and so forth. The use of these practices has declined dramatically and are now only one approach to addressing the practical problems that lie

MGMT9250 - Sem Corp Strategy (Course Syllabus)

This course explores current research on corporate strategy. Over the past two decades, research in the area of corporate strategy has evolved considerably. The fundamental focus of the field has been on sources of competitive advantage at the of the firm, and the process of building and maintaining competitive advantage. In this class, we explore current research articles that best represent the development of rent-generating resources at the level of the firm. Topics addressed include the concept of strategy, research on the evolution of firm capabilities, competitive interaction, top management teams and strategy formation, and changes in firm scope through acquisitions, divestitures and alliances.

MGMT9260 - Sem Strat & Org Des (Course Syllabus)

This half-semester course examines one of the foundational questions in strategy: the role of organizational structure in both supporting and shaping strategy. As Winston Churchill famously said: "We shape our buildings, and afterwards our buildings shape us." This course examines this proposition from two traditions, the "institutional economics" and "information processing" schools of organizational design. We will examine foundational works from both schools, such as Coase, Williamson, Simon, March, and others, and then proceed to recent work in the area. Some of the questions that we will explore in the class are: why do firms exist? What determines their boundaries? What determines formal and informal structures within firms? How does the strategic context shape the answers to these questions? How might the nature of the firm and its boundaries relate to innovation, human capital, and knowledge creation? The aim of this class is to provide students with a grounding in the fundamental questions and contributions in this area, and to spark ideas for research in their own graduate work.

MGMT9270 - Tech & Innov Strategy (Course Syllabus)

This quarter-length doctoral seminar deals with major streams of management research in technology strategy and innovation. We will focus on both classical topics such as incumbents' management of technological change and industry evolution, and new emergent topics such as ecosystems and platforms. The emphasis will be on understanding the link between technologies and firms in terms of both strategy choices and performance outcomes.

MGMT9320 - Prosem in Mgmt (Course Syllabus)

This course is designed to provide students with an understanding of the methodological approaches we commonly think of as qualitative, with special emphasis on ethnography, semi- structured interviews, case studies, content analysis, and mixed-methods research. The course will cover the basic techniques for collecting, interpreting, and analyzing qualitative (i.e. non-numerical) data. In the spring quarter, the course will operate on two interrelated dimensions, one focused on the theoretical approaches to various types of qualitative research, the other focused on the practical techniques of data collection, such as identifying key informants, selecting respondents, collecting field notes and conducting interviews. In the fall semester, the course will operate on two interrelated dimensions, one focused on the theoretical approaches on building arguments and theory from qualitative data, the other focused on the practical techniques of data collection, such as analyzing data, writing, and presenting findings. Note: This class is part of a two-part sequence which focuses on qualitative data collection and analysis. The first of this course, offered in the Spring, focuses on data collection and the second half of the course, offered the following Fall, will focus on qualitative data analysis. Each course is seven weeks long. Students may take either class independently or consecutively.

MGMT9330 - Psych Found MGMT (Course Syllabus)

This seminar-based course, with active discussion and analysis, is required of all first-year doctoral students in Management and open to other Penn students with instructor permission. The purpose of this course is to examine and understand basics in the theory and empirical research in the field of micro organizational behavior and to build an understanding of people's behavior in organizations and across organizations. The course covers a blend of classic and contemporary literature so that we can appreciate the prevailing theories and findings in various areas of organizational behavior. This course covers micro-organizational behavior, focused on topics such as influence/status, virtual teams, job design, organizational culture and socialization, identity in organizations and overall look on where the field of micro-organizational behavior is going.

MGMT9340 - Soci Foundations of MGMT (Course Syllabus)

This seminar-based course, with active discussion and analysis, is required of all first-year doctoral students in Management and open to other Penn students with instructor permission. The purpose of this course is to examine and understand basics in the theory and empirical research in the field of macro organizational behavior and to build an understanding of people's behavior in organizations and across organizations. The course covers a blend of classic and contemporary literature so that we can appreciate the prevailing theories and findings in various areas of organizational behavior. This course covers macro-organizational behavior, covering the topics of organizational ecology, institutional theory, organizational status and reputation, impression management, social networks and social movements.

MGMT9350 - Netwrk Theory & Applicat (Course Syllabus)

This course explores network models and their applications to organizational phenomena. By examining the structure of relations among actors, network approaches seek to explain variations in beliefs, behaviors, and outcomes. The beauty of network analysis is its underlying mathematical nature - network ideas and measures, in some cases, apply equally well at micro and macro levels of analysis. Therefore, we read and discuss articles both at the micro level (where the network actors are individuals within organizations) and at the macro level (where the network actors are organizations within larger communities) that utilize antecedents or consequences of network constructs such as small worlds, cohesion, structural equivalence, centrality, and autonomy. We begin by examining the classic problem of contagion of information and behaviors across networks, and follow by considering the various underlying models of network structure that might underlie contagion and other processes The next two sessions address a variety of mechanisms by which an actor's position in a network affects its behavior or performance. Then, the following two sessions address antecedents of network ties via the topics of network evolution and network activation. We close with a "grab bag" session of articles chosen to match class interests.

MGMT9370 - Entrep Research Seminar (Course Syllabus)

The seminar seeks to expose students to theoretical and empirical perspectives on entrepreneurship research. We will focus on the main questions that define the field and attempt to critically examine how, using a range of methodologies, researchers have approached these questions. As we review the literature, we will seek to identify promising research areas, which may be of interest to you in the context of your dissertation research. In addition to addressing the content of the received literature, we will examine the process of crafting research papers and getting them published in top tier journals. Towards that end we will characterize the key elements of high impact papers and review the development process of such studies. Students are expected to come fully prepared to discuss and critique the readings that are assigned to each class meeting (see details below). Each student will serve as the discussion leader for one or more of the class sessions. Discussion leaders are expected to critically review several articles, identify new insights in the research that is being reviewed and evaluate its contribution to the literature, position the articles within the literature on the subject matter, raise discussion question, and act as the discussion moderator for the class session. Each discussion leader is asked to prepare a one or two page summary of the assigned papers which includes a statement of the main research question(s), the methodology, data set if any, summary of findings, a commentary with your thoughts on the reading, and proposed discussion questions. Prior to each class, the discussion leader will meet the instructor to help plan the class meeting. Towards the end of each class meeting, each student will be asked to articulate a research question that emerged from the session and describe the research design used to investigate the issue.

MGMT9380 - Seminar in Social Entrep (Course Syllabus)

This half-semester course examines how social enterprise organizations emerge, attract resources, and affect society. The course will bridge micro and macro theoretical perspectives to provide insight into the unique challenges faced by social enterprises, while also showing how the study of such organizations can help to advance mainstream entrepreneurship research. Individual sessions will focus on defining social entrepreneurship, the tensions and tradeoffs that emerge in organizations that pursue social and financial goals, impact investing and other sources of finance, and the role of incubators/accelerators in supporting the development of these organizations. This is a seminar-based course with active discussion and analysis.

MGMT9390 - Ent Innov Research (Course Syllabus)

This quarter-length course explores key topics at the intersection of entrepreneurship and innovation. While the course primarily draws from established theory and empirics from management and economics, it will also include discussions of emerging phenomena in this rapidly evolving field. We will begin by reviewing the basic properties of ideas that uniquely shape the sources and dynamics of entrepreneurship and innovation. Subsequently, we will explore innovation-related challenges and opportunities for startups. Special focus will be placed on research application in which students design and present their own research proposal broadly in the area of entrepreneurship and innovation. Students are highly encouraged to take this course in sequence with MGMT 937.

MGMT9510 - Ob: Theories and Methods (Course Syllabus)

The purpose of this half-semester course is to examine and understand theory and empirical research in the field of micro-organizational behavior and to build an understanding of people's behavior in organizations. The course covers a blend of classic and contemporary literature to appreciate the prevailing theories and findings in various areas of micro-organizational behavior. We will cover topics such as identity, diversity/inclusion, work design/proactivity, extra-role behaviors, behavioral ethics/organizational justice, and an overall look at where the field of micro-organizational behavior is heading. This is a seminar-based course with active discussion and analysis.

MGMT9520 - Sem Macro Org Behav (Course Syllabus)

Organizations are ubiquitous, and so is organization. This half-semester course explores organization theory (OT) from the 1960s through the end of the 20th century. We will examine the proliferation of organizational theories during this time period (such as contingency theory, resource dependence theory, ecological theory, and institutional theory) and understand how each theory attempts to relate structure and action over varying levels of analysis. We will determine one or two additional schools to add once we discuss your exposure in other management classes to other potential topics such as behavioral decision theory, sense-making and cognition, organizational economics, corporate governance, social networks, and the like.

MGMT9530 - Sem Research Design (Course Syllabus)

This is an introductory doctoral seminar on research methods in management. The course is designed to help you define your research interests, to strengthen your grasp of research design choices and standards, and to move you further along on the path to becoming a skilled, accomplished, engaged, and independent research scholar. We will read about, discuss, and in some cases practice: framing of research questions, writing for publication, defining and meeting research standards, and conducting experimental, archival, survey-based, and qualitative research suitable for publication in top-tier management journals.

MGMT9550 - Foundations Mult Mgmt. (Course Syllabus)

The goal of the course is to provide you with a foundation in some of the major research areas that underpin the study of Multinational Management. International Business (and the study of MNCs) is an interdisciplinary field. As such, our survey of the seminal articles in the field will span a number of different theoretical and empirical approaches (i.e., economic, managerial, organizational and institutional). Much of our seminar discussions will focus on identifying and developing interesting research questions raised by this interdisciplinary literature, which offers many opportunities for systematic empirical study.

MGMT9570 - Applied Research Methods Org B (Course Syllabus)

This is a half semester course where we review and apply fundamental lessons related to empirical research (both methods and analyses) in organizational behavior. The course will focus primarily on quantitative research. We will begin by covering the link between theory and empirics as well as core concepts in methods and statistics, including causality, validity, reliability, and statistical power. We will then shift to research methods, including design, sampling, pre-registration, and data collection. A key focus will be on maximizing different forms of validity, with an emphasis on multi-method research designs. Finally, we will consider a variety of the most important analytical approaches in organizational behavior, including regression, structural equation modeling, and multi-level analyses. This is an applied methods course, which means that we will be applying the lessons directly by using statistical software to compile and analyze datasets. The course will introduce you to the broad array of methods and analyses that OB scholars are expected to master in order to consistently publish in the field’s top journals.

MGMT9600 - Non-Market Strategy (Course Syllabus)

This course builds on the foundational material presented in MGMT 955 with a deeper focus on current research examining institutional influences on multinational management. These include regulative supports (e.g., laws, regulations, contracts and their enforcement through litigation, arbitration of incentive compatible self-regulation) but also normative (e.g., socially shared expectations of appropriate behavior, and social exchange processes) and cognitive (e.g., creating shared identity to bridge differences in values, beliefs and framing) elements of the institutional environment. We will examine not only strategic responses in the market environment but also influence strategies of multinational and domestic firms that seek to alter the institutional environment in which they operate. We will draw not only upon the international business literature but also related literatures including political economy, sociology, law, finance, communications, institutional theory, strategic corporate social responsibility, social movements, network theory and the management of extractive industries.

MGMT9610 - Special Topics in Ob (Course Syllabus)

This is a complement course to MGMT 951, and it has the same purpose to examine and understand basics in the theory and empirical research in the field of micro-organizational behavior and to increase our understanding of people's behavior in organizations. To do so, we will cover a blend of classic and contemporary literature so that we can appreciate the prevailing theories and findings in various areas of micro-organizational behavior. In addition, for each topic we will then try to go beyond the existing literature. We will work to increase our understanding by re-framing the research variables, altering the perspective, bringing in new theory, and comparing levels of analysis. The purpose of this course is not meant to be exhaustive, rather it covers approximately half of the organizational behavior literature. For a more complete understanding of the basics of organizational behavior it is mandatory for organizational behavior students to have taken MGMT 951 which covers the remaining topics in basic organizational behavior. However, it is not mandatory to have taken MGMT 951 before MGMT 961 as they cover different sets of topics.

MGMT9620 - Mult Firms Glob Econ (A) (Course Syllabus)

This is a graduate course focusing on the empirical aspects of multinational firms and international trade. The goal of the course is to familiarize graduate students with empirical work on multinational firms in the global economy, by reviewing the recent as well as older literature on this topic. Econometrics and statistical techniques for doing empirical work in international trade will also be discussed. We will focus on a variety of issues that are related to the multinational firm, beginning with trends in multinational activity, then moving to both horizontal and vertical theories of the multinational firm. Topics over the course of the semester will include patterns in the expansion of multinational firms, horizontal and vertical multinationals; the linkages between openness to trade and investment and growth; trade orientation and firm performance; technology transfer and spillovers; innovation and productivity; immigration; labor markets and multinational firms; and global value chains. This course has a mandatory attendance policy.

MGMT9630 - Mult Firms Glob Econ (B) (Course Syllabus)

This is continuation of Multinational Firms in Global Economies (A). It is a graduate course focusing on the empirical aspects of multinational firms and international trade. The goal of the course is to familiarize graduate students with empirical work on multinational firms in the global economy, by reviewing the recent as well as older literature on this topic. Econometrics and statistical techniques for doing empirical work in international trade will also be discussed. We will focus on a variety of issues that are related to the multinational firm, beginning with trends in multinational activity, then moving to both horizontal and vertical theories of the multinational firm. Topics over the course of the semester will include patterns in the expansion of multinational firms, horizontal and vertical multinationals; the linkages between openness to trade and investment and growth; trade orientation and firm performance; technology transfer and spillovers; innovation and productivity; immigration; labor markets and multinational firms; and global value chains. This course has a mandatory attendance policy.

MGMT9700 - Research Methods in Mgmt (Course Syllabus)

Students taking the course will be introduced to the seminal readings on a given method, have a hands-on discussion regarding their application often using a paper and dataset of the faculty member leading the discussion. The goal of the course is to make participants more informed users and reviewers of a wide variety of methodological approaches to Management research including Ordinary Least Squares, Discrete Choice, Count Models, Panel Data, Dealing with Endogeneity, Survival/failure/event history and event studies, experiments, factor analysis and structural equation modeling, hierarchical linear modeling, networks, comparative qualitative methods, coding of non-quantitative data, unstructured text and big data simulations.

MGMT9701 - Quant Research Methods in MGMT (Course Syllabus)

This PhD course exposes students to a range of methodologies and techniques in applied econometrics as seen in latest research papers. The approach is to take a detailed look at 1-2 papers per week for a thorough understanding of each topic. Students are required to carefully read and prepare the readings for each week with an emphasis on “how it was done” rather than the results of the paper. A provisional list of topics are: Field Experiments with Firms; Replication with confidential and non-confidential data; Difference in Difference Estimation & Linear Panel Event Studies; Instrumental Variable Regressions; Synthetic Controls & Natural Experiments; Regression Discontinuity Design

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• PhD Programmes

Organisation Theory

The goal of this course is to provide students with a working knowledge of the most important theoretical frameworks in organization theory. This is a precious gift, as insights from organization theory are at the heart of many sub-disciplines in management, including strategic management, corporate governance, innovation studies, stakeholder management, international business, and entrepreneurship. Upon completion of this course, students should be able to trace and understand the intellectual history of these theoretical frameworks, and recognize how their own work relates and may contribute to these overarching theoretical frameworks. As an additional ‘bonus’, the instructors will engage in a non-technical discussion of the major research designs used by organizational scholars–such as event history analysis, meta-analysis, fs/QCA, matching-based regressions, and ethnography–to arrive at a deeper understanding of how the ‘affordances’ of these designs are shaping the research questions organization theorists pursue. In particular, upon taking the course students should be ready to answer questions such as: Why do firms exist? Why are firms structured as they are? What is the role of myth and ceremony in organizational life? Why and how do organizations ally with other organizations and how does that matter? How can organizations manage their external dependencies? How does our perspective change when we switch from the organizational to the population level of analysis? How do coalitions, power, and reference points matter to organizational decision-making? In every class, we start with a discussion of these broad theoretical frameworks, followed by a discussion of how the methods employed by organizational scholars are pushing our theoretical frontiers.

Information

The following topics are covered in this course:

(1) Bureaucracy Theory (Class 1)

(2) Institutional Theories of Organization (Class 2)

(2) Transaction Cost Theory and the Theory of the Firm (Class 3). 

(3) Ownership, Agency theory, and Corporate Governance (Class 4).

(5) Stakeholder Theory and Resource Dependence Theory (Class 5).

(6) Behavioural Theory of the Firm, Power, and Coalitions (Class 6)

(7) Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (Class 7)

(8) Field Evolution, Ecology, and Transformation (Class 8)

The course is organized as a seminar, implying that your cooperation and willingness to actively participate in the sessions will ensure that we jointly create the best possible learning environment. 

The grading of this course reflects this culture and pedagogy: (a) class participation (25%); (b) article presentation (25%); and concluding written assignment (50%).

The literature for this course will consist of carefully selected research articles and book chapters. The materials will include seminal contributions, more recent exemplary articles, and empirical illustrations. In addition to the mandatory readings, each class also comes with a longer list of background readings, to facilitate participants with a special interest in a particular topic. The materials are made available via a dedicated Canvas site.

Additional info

(This course was previously offered under the title "Strategy, Organization & Governance".)

The timetable for this course can be found  here . (The linked timetable might not show all the sessions at one glance. Please scroll per month to see the schedule of the entire course.)

ERIM PhD candidates (Fulltime & Part-time) can register for this course via  Osiris Student .

External (non-ERIM) participants are welcome to this course. To register, please fill in the  registration form  and e-mail it to the  ERIM Doctoral Office  by four weeks prior to the start of the course. For external participants, the course fee is 1300 euro.

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Program overview.

Businesses large and small increasingly recognize the critical distinction between a manager and a leader-between someone who merely assigns tasks, and someone who paints a vision and then inspires employees to work effectively toward achieving it. Organizational leadership professionals work in both for-profit and nonprofit settings, helping to clearly define and communicate organizational objectives and strategy. They ensure that business processes are as effective and efficient as possible, build trust, bolster morale, and help each employee grow professionally and contribute meaningfully to advancing an organization’s mission. Curriculum includes coursework in leadership, research, ethics, interpersonal dynamics, and a range of electives to support each student’s unique career goals-preparing graduates to apply the principles of psychology and leadership theory in a broad range of settings, to more effectively lead individuals and organizations to success.  Graduates are able to select, implement, and manage appropriate leadership methodologies to meet individual, group and organizational needs in non-profit and for-profit settings. 

Program Philosophy 

The Chicago School offers a PhD degree in Organizational Leadership. This program examines field of psychology from an organizational leadership perspective.  It is intended to develop professionals who can apply knowledge about principles of psychology and leadership to work more effectively with specific populations.  The program includes coursework in leadership, research, ethics, interpersonal dynamics, and a range of electives to support each student’s unique career goals preparing graduates to apply the principles of psychology and leadership theory in a broad range of settings, to more effectively lead individuals and organizations to success.  Graduates are able to select, implement, and manage appropriate leadership methodologies to meet individual, group and organizational needs in non-profit and for-profit settings.

Program Learning Outcomes

Upon successful completion of this program students will be able to:

Professional Practice

• Produce written documents that are well researched, cited, and organized for easy reading and understanding. Students will be able to deliver presentations targeted to business and academic audiences.
• Describe and apply effective practices within the field of Business Psychology or Organizational Leadership. 
• Explain and build upon the role that individual and group differences play in the workplace (e.g., race, gender, age, national culture, cognitive style, socio-economic status, job title/power and etc.). Students will be able to demonstrate cross-cultural competence and operate within a framework of global diversity.

Professional Behavior

• Demonstrate personal integrity and ethical behavior in professional practice.
• Form effective professional relationships based on attitudes and communication skills that foster trust, open dialogue, and collaboration, regardless of differences in background, education, position in the organization, points of view or other personal characteristics

Scholarship

• Cite the theoretical knowledge and research integral to their fields of study. Students will be able to describe the philosophies of science underpinning their field’s theoretical knowledge and research. Students will be able to apply published research to the development of new areas for scholarly study. Students will be able to design and conduct research studies. Students will be able to analyze and interpret the data produced by research.
• Analyze and evaluate the work of others, including probing for more information, searching for logic flaws, and creating alternative solutions to problems.

Admission Requirements

For information on where The Chicago School is currently authorized, licensed, registered, exempt or not subject to approval, please visit   https://www.thechicagoschool.edu/why-us/state-authorization/

Application to The Chicago School’s Organizational Leadership doctoral program is open to any person who has earned a master’s degree from a regionally accredited institution within the behavioral sciences, organizational discipline or other related field, and who meets other entrance requirements. Applicants will be judged on their overall ability to do graduate work. 

Factors and materials to be considered for admission will include: 

• Completed application and $50 application fee.  
• Generally, a graduate GPA 3.2 or higher on a 4.0 scale. 
• Official Transcripts  
• Students must submit official transcripts from all schools where a degree was earned.  
• It is recommended that transcripts are submitted from all schools where credit was received to enhance their applications. 
• Resume/CV or Work History (e.g. employer letter, LinkedIn profile, or other document that reflects your work history)  
• Two Letters of Recommendation  
• Essay (between 500-750 words) 
• Please write a personal statement of your desire to become an organizational leadership consultant or practitioner at the doctoral level, what experiences or insights have led you to pursue a doctoral degree in this program, and how this program will support your efforts in working with richly diverse colleagues and clients. 
• Statement of Research Interests (up to 500 words) 
• Please share your research interests (regarding business psychology/organizational leadership), and why you believe this is worth studying?   
• Preferred 3 or more years of work experience prior to admission. 
• Completion of two courses below with C or better (contingent) 
• Undergraduate level Statistics course 
• Upper level undergraduate or master’s level organizational behavior or psychology 

PhD Organizational Leadership Progression Requirements

This program requires applicants to have successfully completed at least one (1) foundational course in statistics, and one (1) foundational course in psychology or organizational behavior with a grade earned of ‘C’ or better by the end of their first semester (second online term) of study.  Students who have not done so through previous coursework must successfully meet this progression requirement through one of the following options:

• A grade of “C” or higher in TCS 390 Introduction to Statistics and TCS 380 Introduction to Psychology
• A grade of “C” or higher in a comparable course at The Chicago School
• A grade of “C” or higher in a comparable course at another regionally accredited institution

Applicants accepted who have not successfully completed one (1) foundational course in statistics and one (1) course in psychology or organizational behavior will be required to register for applicable TCS courses in their first ground semester or online term. All students must meet this progression requirement by the end of their first semester (second online term) of study. Students who do not successfully fulfill this requirement will not be allowed to register in any future coursework in the program of study until this requirement is met. Extensions can be granted by the Program Chair or designee when extenuating circumstances prevent completion of the requirement in the specified timeframe.  Requests for an extension must be submitted in writing to the Program Chair for consideration.

Applicant Notification

The Chicago School reviews applications on a rolling basis. Once review begins, complete applications will be considered by the Admission Committee and applicants will be notified regarding the admission decision. The Chicago School does not share information or provide any feedback regarding admission decisions.

If a student is offered admission and in order to secure a place in the incoming class, a non-refundable tuition deposit of $250 will be required by the deposit deadline indicated in the offer of admission. The non-refundable deposit will be applied in full toward the student’s tuition upon enrollment.

Articulation Agreements

The Chicago School has established agreements between The MA Psychology and the PhD Organizational Leadership program to allow qualified students to enroll in doctoral level courses while completing thier master’s degree that will then count toward the doctoral degree.  Click on this link    for details.

Degree Completion Requirements

• Successful completion of 60 credit hours of coursework
• Successful completion of dissertation
• Successful completion of Competency Examination
• Attendance at two residences that are three and a half day each (online students only)

The following policies are located under  Academic Policies and Procedures   : Academic Calendar, Admissions Requirements, Attendance, Satisfactory Academic Progress, Service Learning, and Transfer Credit/Course Waiver. Click the link above for detailed information.

Residency Requirements (Online Students Only)

Online students are engaged in two brief residencies (roughly three and a half days each) at one of our campuses-providing an opportunity for face-to-face interaction and networking with fellow students from around the globe who bring a wealth of diverse leadership experiences and perspectives.  At the first residency, students meet with their cohorts and faculty members and engage in focused seminars.  At the second residency, students participate in their competency exam.

Field Experience Requirements 

Students must have access to an organizational environment that will be available for use in research and reference for course work. 

Ethical Guidelines

Students are expected to engage in all graduate work, including but not limited to course work, research, and scholarship, with a high degree of integrity and professionalism. It is essential that students approach professional working relationships, collegial relationships, and client/partner-contact with respect. Further, students are expected to adhere to the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct as well as the “evolving universal code of ethics” (Gauthier, 2005).  Students who choose to seek employment in the field of psychology shall not work beyond their level of competence and shall not use titles governed by credentialing statutes and/or regulations unless authorized by the relevant jurisdictional authority. Students who fail to comply with ethical and professional behavior guidelines are subject to department remediation and/or referral to Student Community Standards for disciplinary action and possible dismissal.

Competency Examination

Every student is required to pass a Competency Examination (CE). The aim of this assessment exercise is to evaluate the student’s knowledge of theory, research, and practice. This is also an opportunity to assess the student’s ability to demonstrate this knowledge and skill in simulations in order to judge his or her abilities as a future organizational leader. The Comprehensive Examination is taken at the end of the student’s second year in the doctoral program

Dissertation

Completion of the dissertation is an essential aspect of a students’ academic experience and professional education. It provides the school the opportunity to evaluate the student’s ability to apply Organizational Leadership theory and research and to think critically and creatively about an issue in the field.

The dissertation should clearly and concisely demonstrate the student’s command of the research in a specific area of Organizational Leadership. In the dissertation, the student will critically evaluate and synthesize relevant research and theory in the topic chosen for study. The student’s dissertation Committee is responsible for determining the appropriateness and acceptability of the dissertation proposal and for final approval of the dissertation.

The Curriculum

Intensive course work that balances theory and practice culminates in completion of the competency exam and the dissertation. Students entering post-master’s must complete 60 graduate semester hours of study:

Required Core: 54 credit hours

Electives: 6 credit hours

Program Total

Ph.D. Organizational Leadership: 60 credit hours

Required Core

• IO 519 - Statistics and Lab (4 credit hours)
• PB 400 - Professional Development Seminar (3 credit hours)
• PB 455 - Research Methods (3 credit hours)
• OL 539 - Personality and Life Span in the Workplace (3 credit hours)
• OL 549 - Systems Theory (3 credit hours)
• OL 551 - Group and Team Leadership (3 credit hours)
• OL 554 - Management Philosophy and Practice (3 credit hours)
• OL 556 - Emerging Theories of Leadership (3 credit hours)
• OL 560 - Ethical and Cultural Considerations (3 credit hours)
• OL 573 - Organizational Diagnosis and Cultural Dynamics (3 credit hours)
• OL 576 - Strategic Change Management (3 credit hours)
• OL 580 - Residency I (auto half time) (0 credit hours)
• OL 620 - Competency Examination (3 credit hours)(course fee $12)
• OL 621 - Qualitative Research Methods (3 credit hours)
• OL 631 - Dissertation Maintenance I (3 credit hours)(auto full time)
• OL 632 - Dissertation Maintenance II (3 credit hours)(auto full time)
• OL 633 - Dissertation Maintenance III (3 credit hours)(auto full time)
• OL 705 - Leadership Self-Development (2 credit hours)(course fee $177)

Students choose one of the following:

• OL 623 - Advanced Qualitative Research Methods (3 credit hours)
• PB 528 - Advanced Statistics (3 credit hours)

Choose six hours of elective courses:

• OL 634 - Virtual and Global Leadership (3 credit hours)
• OL 637 - Team Interventions (3 credit hours)
• OL 640 - Governance in Non-profit (3 credit hours)
• OL 641 - Supervising and Coaching Employees (3 credit hours)
• OL 642 - Strategic Human Resources Effectiveness (3 credit hours)
• OL 643 - Social Entrepreneurship (3 credit hours)
• OL 644 - Leadership Ethics (3 credit hours)
• OL 645 - Diversity (3 credit hours)
• OL 646 - The Role of Technology in Organizations (3 credit hours)
• OL 647 - Public Policy Leadership (3 credit hours)
• OL 650 - Envisioning the New Health and Human Service Organization (3 credit hours)
• OL 651 - Community Building and Social Transformation in Health and Human Service Organization (3 credit hours)
• OL 652 - Ethical, Practical, and Economic Challenges in Health and Human Service Organization (3 credit hours)
• OL 653 - Advanced Consulting Skills (3 credit hours)
• OL 654 - Business Development for Consulting Psychologists (3 credit hours)
• OL 655 - Large Group Methods (3 credit hours)
• OL 657 - Professional Coaching (3 credit hours)
• OL 658 - Group Facilitation (3 credit hours)
• OL 670 - Special Topics I (1 credit hour)
• OL 671 - Special Topics II (2 credit hours)
• OL 672 - Special Topics III (3 credit hours)(course fee)
• OL 675 - Independent Study I (1 credit hour)
• OL 676 - Independent Study II (2 credit hours)
• OL 677 - Independent Study III (3 credit hours)

Students may also select elective courses from the Ph.D. Business Psychology    elective pool.

Extension Courses

• OL 953 - Manuscript Preparation (MP) Extension (0 credit hours) - auto full-time
• OL 954 - Manuscript Preparation (MP) Extension (0 credit hours) - auto half-time
• OL 958A - Manuscript Preparation (MP) Extension (0 credit hours) - auto half-time
• OL 958B - Manuscript Preparation (MP) Extension (0 credit hours) - auto half-time
• OL 959A - Manuscript Preparation (MP) Extension (0 credit hours) - auto full-time
• OL 959B - Manuscript Preparation (MP) Extension (0 credit hours) - auto full-time

Research Project Extension Courses - Semester Based Program Versions (Doctoral Level)

These courses are used in accordance with the Research Project Courses policy.  Students in Semester Based doctoral programs may use only these courses as extensions for dissertations, theses, advanced applied projects, advanced research projects, and applied research projects. RPX courses may not be repeated, substituted, or combined with term-based research project extension courses.

• RPX 501 - Research Project Extension 1 (3 credit hours) (Auto full-time)
• RPX 502 - Research Project Extension 2 (3 credit hours) (Auto full-time)
• RPX 5031 - Research Project Extension 3 (Summer 1) (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 5032 - Research Project Extension 3 (Summer 2) (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 504 - Research Project Extension 4 (3 credit hours) (Auto full-time)
• RPX 505 - Research Project Extension 5 (3 credit hours) (Auto full-time)
• RPX 5061 - Research Project Extension 6 (Summer 1) (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 5062 - Research Project Extension 6 (Summer 2) (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)

Research Project Extension 7, 8, 9, and External IRB require the written approval of the department prior to enrollment.

• RPX 507 - Research Project Extension 7 (3 credit hours) (Auto full-time)
• RPX 508 - Research Project Extension 8 (3 credit hours) (Auto full-time)
• RPX 5091 - Research Project Extension 9 (Summer 1) (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 5092 - Research Project Extension 9 (Summer 2) (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 510 - Research Project Extension External IRB (1 credit hour) (auto full-time)

Research Project Extension Courses - Term Based Program Versions (Doctoral Level)

These courses are used in accordance with the Research Project Courses policy.  Students in Term Based doctoral programs may use only these courses as extensions for dissertations, theses, advanced applied projects, advanced research projects, and applied research projects. RPX courses may not be repeated, substituted, or combined with semester based research project extension courses.

• RPX 551 - Research Project Extension 1 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 552 - Research Project Extension 2 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 553 - Research Project Extension 3 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 554 - Research Project Extension 4 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 555 - Research Project Extension 5 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 556 - Research Project Extension 6 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 557 - Research Project Extension 7 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 558 - Research Project Extension 8 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 559 - Research Project Extension 9 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 560 - Research Project Extension 10 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 561 - Research Project Extension 11 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 562 - Research Project Extension 12 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)

Research Project Extension 13 through 18, and External IRB A and B require the written approval of the department prior to enrollment.

• RPX 563 - Research Project Extension 13 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 564 - Research Project Extension 14 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 565 - Research Project Extension 15 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 566 - Research Project Extension 16 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 567 - Research Project Extension 17 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 568 - Research Project Extension 18 (1.5 credit hours) (auto full-time)
• RPX 569 - Research Project Extension External IRB A (0.5 credit hour) (auto full-time)
• RPX 570 - Research Project Extension External IRB B (0.5 credit hour) (auto full-time)

Organizational Transformation: A Management Research Perspective

• Open Access
• First Online: 14 May 2024

Cite this chapter

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• Ester Christou 16 &
• Frank Piller 16  

30 Accesses

Organizational transformation is a complex and multifaceted process that involves a fundamental change in the way an organization operates and delivers value to its stakeholders. It can be triggered by a variety of internal and external forces, such as technological change, shifts in the competitive landscape, or changes in market demand. To successfully manage organizational change, organizations must be able to adapt and respond to changing circumstances in a proactive and strategic manner. This chapter reviews important concepts and theories of organizational change from the perspective of management research and examines selected theories and frameworks that have been developed to understand and manage organizational change. Overall, this chapter provides insights and lessons for practitioners and researchers alike. It aims to help readers understand the complexities and challenges of organizational transformation, but also to provide an overview of strategies and approaches to successfully navigate a transformation process.

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• Organizational transformation
• Effectuation
• Institutional theory
• Change management
• Digital transformation

1 Organizational Change and Transformation

Organizational transformation refers to the process of fundamentally changing the way an organization operates and delivers value to its stakeholders, and may require major changes in the way work is done. It may involve changes to the organization’s structure, culture, business processes, governance, and/or external relationships. There are many reasons why an organization may undergo a transformation. For example, it may seek to respond to a rapidly changing market, new technological opportunities, changing regulatory requirements, or changing norms and expectations in the society in which the organization operates. Consider, for example, the current rise of Generative Artificial Intelligence. Transformer language models (BART, ChatGPT), AI that generates software code (Copilot), or AI that generates images of all kinds (Midjourney, Dall-E) require profound changes not only in higher education institutions, but also in companies of all kinds, for example, in the way marketing copy is written (Peres et al. 2023 ), in the way innovation processes are organized (Piller et al. 2023 ), but also in the way job applications are processed. More generally, the rapid growth of available data combined with better machine learning algorithms is changing the way management decisions are made, how operational processes can be automated, and leading to the emergence of entirely new business models. Generative AI thus contributes to the overall demand for digital transformation—the process of using digital technologies to fundamentally change the way an organization operates and delivers value to its stakeholders (Vial 2019 ; Nambisan et al. 2019 ). At the same time, digitization is also enabling new ways of working that address individuals’ changing preferences for their workplace and work processes. In parallel with this ongoing digital transformation, organizations need to sustainably transform all aspects of their current business models into new, future-proof approaches. As discussed in more detail in other chapters of this book, the mandate for companies to respond to the threat of climate change and related sustainability challenges is probably the biggest driver of organizational transformation today. Overall, we are truly living in “transformational times” (Gruber 2023 ).

Regardless of its trigger, organizational transformation seeks to make an organization better able to compete effectively in a changing competitive environment (Newman 2000 ). A related but often distinct concept is organizational change , which refers to any change in an organization’s structure, processes, or practices (Hage 1999 ; Weick and Quinn 1999 ). It can range from small, incremental changes to more significant shifts in the way the organization operates. In general, the term organizational transformation is used to refer to a broader and more far-reaching process than organizational change. Organizational transformation typically involves a deeper level of change and has a greater impact on the organization and its stakeholders. Organizational change, on the other hand, may be more focused and limited in scope and may have a more modest impact on the organization.

Previous research has addressed this difference by distinguishing between first-order and second-order change (Newman 2000 ). According to Meyer et al. ( 1993 ), first-order change refers to changes that involve incremental adjustments to an organization’s existing structures, processes, and practices, but do not involve fundamental changes in strategy, core values, or corporate identity (Dutton and Dukerich 1991 ; Fox-Wolfgramm et al. 1998 ). These changes are often modest in scope and impact and do not fundamentally alter the way the organization operates. Examples of first-order change include the implementation of new technologies or processes, or the reorganization of existing work teams. First-order change is most likely to occur during periods of relative environmental stability and is likely to occur over extended periods of time (e.g., Tushman and Romanelli 1985 ). It improves the fit and consistency between an organization and its competitive and institutional contexts, but does not produce fundamental change.

Second-order change, on the other hand, refers to more fundamental and transformative changes that involve a significant shift in the way the organization operates. These changes are often broader and more far-reaching in their impact. Examples of second-order change include the introduction of new business models, the adoption of new technologies that fundamentally change the way the organization operates, or the introduction of new governance structures. Second-order change “takes organizations out of their familiar domains and alters the bases of power” (William 1983 : 99). It is a strategic reorientation, an organizational metamorphosis (Meyer et al. 1993 ), or a change in organizational templates or archetypes (Greenwood and Hinings 1996 ). Paradoxically, the more adapted firms are to their competitive and institutional context, i.e., the better they are at implementing first-order change, the more difficult it is for them to achieve second-order change (Granovetter 1985 ; Greenwood and Hinings 1996 ). Strategies for balancing these two poles have thus become a central topic in contemporary management research (for example, the extensive literature on organizational ambidexterity, e.g., O’Reilly and Tushman 2008 ; Raisch and Birkinshaw 2008 , but also the recent emphasis on paradox theory, e.g., Carmine and Smith 2020 ; Lewis 2000 ; Moschko et al. 2023 ).

In the management literature, three theoretical perspectives for studying organizational transformation (second-order change) can be distinguished (Newman 2000 ): institutional theory, organizational change theory, and organizational learning theory. We will briefly review these broad schools in Sect.  2 . This prepares Sect.  3 , where we review selected concepts that have been widely used in previous management research to explain and manage organizational change. In Sect.  4 , we then provide a deep dive into a transformation domain that has received a lot of attention in management research over the last decade, namely digital transformation. This focus may serve as an illustration of the theories and approaches described before. We conclude with a brief reflection and outlook in Sect.  5 .

2 Three Classic Theories to Study Organizational Transformation

Newman ( 2000 ) highlights three theoretical perspectives for studying organizational transformation (second-order change): institutional theory, organizational change theory, and organizational learning theory. These three theories are closely related and overlapping. Their level of analysis can serve as a simplified distinction (Fig.  1 ): While institutional theory argues at the level of a society (industry), work using organizational change theory is predominantly located at the level of the organization (business unit). Organizational learning emphasizes the role of individuals in an organization where learning ultimately takes place.

Theoretical lenses to analyze organizational transformation

Institutional theory is a framework for understanding how organizations conform to societal norms and expectations (DiMaggio and Powell 1983 ; Greenwood and Hinings 1996 ; Meyer and Rowan 1977 ; Zucker 1987 ). It is based on the idea that organizations are influenced by a set of institutional forces arising from the social, political, and economic context in which they operate, and that they adopt certain practices and behaviors in order to gain legitimacy and fit into the broader institutional environment. When these societal norms, which include laws, regulations, professional standards, and cultural norms, change (suddenly), organizations must change as well. Thus, institutional theory is often used to understand how organizations adapt to and shape the institutional environment in which they operate, and how they navigate the tensions and trade-offs that can arise between competing institutional logics. This term refers to the underlying values and assumptions that guide organizational behavior and shape the way organizations understand and interact with their environment (Alford and Friedland 1985 ). Finally, institutional work refers to the actions that organizations take to align their practices and behaviors with institutional expectations and norms (Zietsma and Lawrence 2010 ). This may involve conforming to existing norms or creating new ones in order to gain acceptance and legitimacy.

Organizational change theory examines the process of change within organizations, which in the context of this chapter can be understood as a process of institutional work to achieve second-order change (Armenakis and Bedeian 1999 ; Beer and Walton 1987 ). It is concerned with understanding how and why organizations change, as well as the factors that influence the change process (Meyer et al. 1993 ; Tushman and Romanelli 1985 ). Some of the key issues commonly addressed in organizational change theory include leadership, resistance to change, communication, power dynamics, and the role of culture in the change process. Accordingly, a number of frameworks have been developed to explain and understand the process of organizational change. While taking different perspectives, most of these frameworks build on the same few key ideas. Change is seen as a continuous process, a constant and ongoing process rather than a one-time event. This means that organizations must be able to adapt and respond to changing circumstances in order to remain relevant and successful—a perspective that refers to first-order change rather than transformation (Tushman and Romanelli 1985 ). Organizational change can involve both technical and social aspects. Technical change may involve the adoption of new technologies or processes, while social change may involve changes in the way people work together or interact with each other. Much of the change literature emphasizes the importance of considering these aspects together when implementing change (Hanelt et al. 2021 ). Effective change often requires strong leadership to guide and direct the process. This may include providing a clear vision for the change, communicating the benefits of the change to stakeholders, and building support for the change (Konopik et al. 2021 ; Eisenbach et al. 1999 ). Leadership is also needed because change can be difficult. Changing the way an organization operates can be a challenging process, and it is not uncommon for people to resist or be resistant to change. Understanding and managing this resistance is an important aspect of the change process (Kotter 1995 ).

Finally, organizational learning theory focuses on how organizations acquire, process, and apply new knowledge and information to adapt and improve. It is based on the idea that organizations are open systems that interact with their environment and can learn from their experiences (Levitt and March 1988 ; Schulz 2002 ). Organizational learning refers to the process by which organizations, and especially the individuals who make up that organization, acquire, process, and apply new knowledge and information in order to adapt and improve (Schulz 2002 ). Organizational learning can take many forms, such as learning from past experiences, learning from the experiences of others (e.g., through collaboration or benchmarking), or learning from new technologies or processes. It involves the integration and application of new knowledge and information in ways that help the organization adapt and improve. Organizational learning is an ongoing process that takes place throughout the life of the organization, continuously adapting and improving based on new information and experience. As a broad field of study, there are a variety of different approaches to organizational learning, each with its own unique perspective on how organizations learn and how that learning can be facilitated. But again, most approaches share some key ideas, including the perspective of learning as a social process. Organizational learning involves the interaction and communication of individuals within the organization. It is not just an individual process, but rather a collective process involving the sharing and integration of knowledge and ideas (Levitt and March 1988 ). Therefore, learning is influenced by the culture of the organization: An organization’s culture plays a significant role in shaping its capacity to learn. A culture that values learning and encourages experimentation and risk-taking is more likely to facilitate learning than a culture that is resistant to change (Cook and Yanow 2011 ). At the same time, learning is contextual. The specific context in which learning takes place can have a significant impact on the process and outcomes of learning. Finally, organizational learning requires reflective practices, i.e., the deliberate and systematic examination of one’s own experiences and actions. It allows organizations to critically evaluate their experiences and identify opportunities for improvement.

Overall, institutional theory, organizational change theory, and organizational learning theory are complementary perspectives that try to explain how firms respond to change: Institutional theory focuses on the influence of external change and pressures on organizations. Organizational change theory then explains how organizations react to external influences by adapting their existing structures. Lastly, organizational learning describes how organizations learn from past failure and success and thus have the ability to apply this knowledge on upcoming situations, in which organizations need to rethink their existing structures and strategies in order to successfully perform change.

3 Selected Concepts and Frameworks Supporting Organizational Transformation

In this section, we complement the general theoretical overview from the last section by reviewing three streams of literature that we believe provide representative insights into different theoretical approaches in management research to studying change at the organizational level: dynamic capabilities, effective decision making, and transformational leadership. As noted in the introduction, the prior literature often does not distinguish between first-order and second-order change. However, we are confident that the following selection of concrete approaches can contribute to a holistic understanding of transformation research.

The three concepts selected for review in this section have been widely used in previous management research to explain and manage organizational change. We acknowledge that our choice of these concepts is our own and rather subjective. We have tried to cover different aspects of management research that can provide the readers of this interdisciplinary book—which is primarily aimed at an audience beyond the field of management and economics—with a “representative” introduction to how previous research in our field (management research) has investigated the broad field of “transformation.” We have tried to select three complementary perspectives: Dynamic capabilities added the notion of second-order change to the strategic management literature. Their level of analysis is the firm or business unit. Effectuation , on the other hand, is a relatively new concept that originated in the entrepreneurship literature to explain change and transformation in start-ups. It has only recently been transferred to the context of managing change in established organizations. Its level of analysis is the way entrepreneurs and managers (teams) deal with uncertainty and use transformations in their environment as a driver for change. Transformational leadership , finally, recognizes the importance of leadership behavior as a facilitator of organizational change and transformation and takes an individual-level perspective of a company’s top leaders.

3.1 Dynamic Capabilities

Firms are constantly in the process of adapting, reconfiguring, and recreating their organizational resources and capabilities in order to remain competitive (Wang and Ahmed 2007 ). In this context, the notion of dynamic capabilities has been widely explored in the strategic management literature. Dynamic capabilities refer to “organizational and strategic routines by which firms achieve new resource configurations as markets emerge, collide, divide, evolve, and die” (Eisenhardt and Martin 2000 : 1107). Conceptually, they extend the established resource-based view (RBV) of the firm, a theoretical framework that explains how competitive advantage is achieved within a firm and sustained over time (Eisenhardt and Martin 2000 ). The RBV views an organization as a set of resources. These resources are heterogeneously distributed across firms. Resource differences between firms persist over time and can explain differences in competitive advantage across firms (Amit and Schoemaker 1993 ). While the RBV has been seen as a key addition to the previously dominant market-based view of the firm (Porter 1980 ) and has received much general agreement and attention in the management literature, a key criticism of the RBV has been that it is based on the assumption that the market is static and does not address dynamic developments (Teece et al. 1997 ; Eisenhardt and Martin 2000 ). The traditional set of resources captured by the RBV explains when and why a firm can gain competitive advantage due to its unique set of capabilities among a set of given competitors in a market. But the traditional RBV could not explain how firms compete in dynamic markets, how and why certain firms have competitive advantage in unstable environments and situations of unpredictable change. In the seminal paper introducing the idea of dynamic capabilities, Teece et al. ( 1997 ) argue that in dynamic markets where the competitive landscape is changing, a different set of resources and capabilities forms the source of sustainable competitive advantage, dynamic capabilities.

Conceptually, dynamic capabilities are organizational and strategic routines that allow firms to effectively sense and shape their environment in order to pursue new opportunities and respond to changing circumstances (Eisenhardt and Martin 2000 ). These capabilities include the ability to continuously learn, adapt, and innovate to create and exploit new sources of value (Grant 1996 ; Teece and Pisano 1994 ). Dynamic capabilities include both the creation and use of resources, such as knowledge, skills and organizational structures, and the processes by which these resources are managed and mobilized (Teece et al. 1997 ). They include the ability to reconfigure and redeploy resources in response to changing environments and opportunities, and to build new capabilities as needed. Teece ( 2007 ) describes the development of dynamic capabilities as an unfolding process of sensing, harnessing, and reconfiguring firm resources. This conceptualization of dynamic capabilities suggests that firms should have the capacity for the process to first sense and shape opportunities and threats, second seize opportunities, and third maintain competitiveness by enhancing, combining, protecting, and, when necessary, reconfiguring the firm’s intangible and tangible assets (Teece 2007 ).

The sensing mechanism identifies customers with unmet needs and develops technological opportunities. The capabilities required are therefore threefold. Before directing innovation efforts, organizations must identify target market segments and customer needs, and they must be able to assess developments in the business ecosystem. Organizations also need to harness internal innovation and manage internal innovation processes. Accordingly, external sources of innovation must also be tapped, which are suppliers and complements, exogenous science, and customer engagement in open innovation (Teece 2007 ; Schoemaker et al. 2018 ).

Seizing capabilities refer to the ability to mobilize resources, address needs, and exploit business opportunities to create value and mitigate risk for the organization. Seizing capabilities pay special attention to the value of partnerships, realigning the boundaries of the firm and integrating these concepts into the business model (Teece 2007 , 2014 ). With the integration of external partners and information sources, the need for decision-making protocols emerges. The organization must also determine the boundaries within which it operates. This includes decisions about the design of alliances to develop capabilities, as well as the management of integration, in- and outsourcing, and the value of co-specialization within the value network, all while protecting intellectual property and designing an organizational culture for innovation (Teece 2007 , 2014 ).

The final building block, transforming or reconfiguring capabilities , refers to the continuous recombination and reconfiguration of resources and structures under changing environments to support business models (Teece 2007 ). This mechanism highlights the need for organizations to continuously renew their resource base. Effective management of internal and external resources, as well as knowledge management, enables effective and continuous realignment of resources (Teece 2007 , 2014 ). To be successful, top management teams must possess entrepreneurial skills to adapt to and influence an ever-changing business environment. Effective decision making and transformational leadership, which will be explored in the next sections of this chapter, can be seen as constituting such entrepreneurial capabilities.

Overall, dynamic capabilities are a key factor in a firm’s ability to compete and succeed in today’s rapidly changing business environment. Empirical research on dynamic capabilities has mostly examined the relationship between a firm’s dynamic capabilities and firm performance. It is generally supported that all three mechanisms of dynamic capabilities, namely sensing, seizing, and transforming, have an effect on the firm’s long-term success (Rindova and Kotha 2001 ; Torres et al. 2018 ). They enable firms to continuously learn, adapt, and innovate to create and exploit new sources of value. We believe that the core idea of dynamic capabilities can also be applied to the higher level of transformation research as conceptualized in this book. Future interdisciplinary research needs to apply the concept of dynamic capabilities to higher level domains where transformation takes place: an industry, a region, a society—or the world.

3.2 Effectual Decision Making

While dynamic capabilities is a theory that developed in the context of strategic management in established organizations, another theory that can contribute to the study and management of organizational change is effectuation (Sarasvathy 2001 , 2008 ; Fisher 2012 ). The term describes a decision-making approach that is particularly relevant in contexts where the future is uncertain and available resources are limited. It involves focusing on the resources and capabilities that are already available and using these resources to actively shape and create opportunities, rather than simply reacting to them. Effectuation involves taking calculated risks, being flexible and adaptable, and building a network of relationships and collaborations (Fisher 2012 ). Effectuation logic can be applied at different times in a firm’s development depending on what type of change the firm is going through (Ko et al. 2021 ).

Effectuation is often explained in contrast to causation, the typical decision-making approach traditionally taught in management schools. Causation involves identifying a clear goal or objective and then developing a plan to achieve that goal based on a clear understanding of the causal relationships between different variables (Sarasvathy 2008 ). Competitive advantage in these models is conceptualized as largely determined by competencies related to the exploitation of opportunities and resources controlled by the organization (Chandler and Jansen 1992 ).

In a now famous example, Sarasvathy ( 2008 ) further explained the dichotomous concepts of effectuation and causation. She suggests the metaphors of a jigsaw puzzle for the causation approach and a patchwork quilt for the effectuation approach. In the puzzle, an entrepreneur’s task is to take an existing market opportunity and use resources to create a competitive advantage. In the puzzle builder’s view, all the pieces are there, but they need to be put together in the right way. In the patchwork quilt approach, the entrepreneur is asked to develop an opportunity by experimenting and incorporating new information as it becomes available. The patchwork quilter sees the world as a changing state shaped by human action (Sarasvathy 2008 ). Overall, the key difference between effectuation and causation is the level of uncertainty and predictability in the context in which they are used. Causation is more relevant to predictable and stable contexts, while effectuation is more relevant to uncertain and unpredictable contexts-such as those typical of organizational change and transformation. Effectuation assumes that an overall strategic goal is not clear from the outset. Decision-makers use a logic of non-predictive control and focus on “choosing between possible effects that can be created with given means” (Sarasvathy 2008 ).

Originally developed as a theory to explain the success of serial entrepreneurs, effectuation has received considerable scholarly attention in recent decades (Perry et al. 2012 ). Its application has been extended far beyond entrepreneurship circles to fields such as creativity and innovation (Blauth et al. 2014 ), marketing (Coviello and Joseph 2012 ), and operations and project management (Midler and Silberzahn 2008 ). Effectuation has also received attention in the field of research and development processes. Brettel et al. ( 2012 ) suggest that mobilizing an effectual mode of decision making can positively affect R&D performance, especially when innovativeness is high. Based on this study, Blauth et al. ( 2014 ) find that the use of an effectual decision-making logic has a positive impact on practiced creativity, while the use of a causal logic seems to have a negative impact on creativity. These relationships become stronger as the level of uncertainty increases. Nevertheless, recent research suggests that effectuation and causation even complement each other in the pursuit of highly innovative projects (Yusuf and Sloan 2015 ).

Future research has yet to establish a formal link between effectuation and organizational change. However, both concepts involve the process of adapting and responding to change in order to create value. Organizational transformation often involves significant changes in the way an organization operates, which can be difficult and uncertain. In these situations, an effectuation-based approach can be useful to help the organization focus on the resources and capabilities it already has, and to use those resources to actively shape and create new opportunities in the face of uncertainty. We see great potential for establishing effectual decision making as a core concept for transformation management as understood in the context of this book. However, future research needs to establish the links between these concepts in greater detail.

3.3 Transformational Leadership

While dynamic capabilities explain how a specific set of resources can enable organizations to implement second-order change, and the establishment of an effectual decision-making logic can enable an incumbent organization to cope with the uncertainty typical of organizational change, the final concept discussed in this section as a potentially fruitful framework from management research to establish an interdisciplinary transformation framework is transformational leadership . In recent decades, an increasing number of researchers have recognized the importance of leadership behavior as a facilitator of organizational change and transformation (Higgs and Rowland 2008 ; Oreg et al. 2011 ). Our brief review of key concepts in the three foundational theories of managing organizational change, as described in the introduction to this chapter, also pointed to the role of leadership. A wide range of expectations have been proposed for the role of a leader in an organization undergoing change: For example, leaders should act as visionaries, advisors, change agents, or consultants (Felfe 2006 ). Thus, there is no clear definition of the concept of leadership in past and current research, but rather a variety of definitions. These definitions differ not only in terms of the leader’s role within the organization, but also in terms of various factors such as the characteristics of leadership behavior, the leader’s influence on organizational goals, organizational success, culture, and employee performance and satisfaction (Yukl 1989 ).

Past research has been consistent in assigning organizational leaders the primary responsibility of directing followers toward the achievement of organizational goals (Zaccaro and Klimoski 2002 ). A pragmatic definition by Northouse ( 2021 : 24) builds on a core assumption, a leader’s significant influence on followers, and defines leadership as “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goals.” Leaders are considered to have a broad ability to influence employee performance and well-being (Lok and Crawford 2004 ). In this regard, studies have shown a relationship between organizational outcomes and different leadership styles (Waldman et al. 2001 ). This research proposes that leaders exhibit a specific (leadership) style, which is a combination of personal characteristics and behaviors of leaders when interacting with their team members. For example, Bommer et al. ( 2005 ) suggest that leaders’ values are reflected in employees’ attitudes toward change. The authors find that leaders’ openness values are negatively related to followers’ intentions to resist organizational change. Higgs and Rowland ( 2008 ) argue that group-focused leadership practices and behaviors have a positive impact on change success. Berson and Avolio ( 2004 ) find a link between a leader’s style and communication skills and his or her ability to raise the organization’s awareness of organizational change. Thus, there is growing evidence that leadership traits and behaviors influence the success or failure of organizational change (Higgs and Rowland 2008 ).

Within the literature on leadership styles, the theoretical concept of Bass ( 1985 ), which distinguishes between transactional and transformational leadership, deserves recognition in the context of this chapter. Bass’ theoretical model groups the behavioral patterns of supervisors toward their employees into two different dimensions. According to Bass ( 1985 ), leadership behavior can first be described by comparing two leadership styles, transformational leadership and transactional leadership. Transformational leadership is characterized by the adaptability of the leader. The leader is able to identify current challenges and respond to them in a timely manner (Bass et al. 2003 ). It is also characterized by the “transformation” of the values and attitudes of employees and the resulting increase in employee motivation and performance (Felfe 2006 ; Waldman et al. 2001 ). Thus, transformational leadership focuses on inspiring and motivating followers to not only achieve their goals, but also to strive for personal and professional growth. Transformational leaders seek to engage followers in a shared vision and empower them to take responsibility for their work and development.

Transformational leadership involves four key components—the “four Is”: idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, intellectual input, and individualized consideration. Idealized influence describes the behavior of transformational leaders who serve as role models and inspire their followers to strive for excellence. They demonstrate integrity, honesty, and authenticity and are able to earn the respect and trust of their followers. This component describes leaders as both professional and moral role models (Felfe 2006 ). Inspirational motivation proposes that transformational leaders are able to inspire and motivate their followers by articulating a compelling vision and helping them see the purpose and meaning behind their work and the change required. Leaders motivate followers by instilling optimism and enthusiasm for achieving set goals and the organization’s mission and values (Bass et al. 2003 ). Intellectual stimulation means that leaders encourage their followers to question established tasks, think critically, challenge assumptions, and seek new and creative solutions to problems. Transformational leaders encourage creativity and innovation in their followers (Bass et al. 2003 ). Finally, individualized consideration suggests that transformational leaders provide individualized support and development to their followers, encouraging them to identify and develop their strengths and potential in a targeted manner. Leaders take on the role of a mentor (Bass et al. 2003 ). Research has shown that transformational leadership can be effective in a variety of settings and can lead to improved performance, job satisfaction, and commitment among employees (Liu et al. 2010 ). However, transformational leaders must be authentic and genuine in their interactions with followers, as insincere or manipulative behavior can undermine trust and effectiveness (Felfe 2006 ).

Transactional leadership , on the other hand, is a leadership style that focuses on establishing clear expectations and rewards for achieving specific goals and objectives. Transactional leaders use a system of rewards and punishments to motivate and direct their followers and provide feedback and guidance to help them achieve their goals. Thus, transactional leadership is characterized by a clearly regulated exchange relationship between leaders and followers (Felfe et al. 2004 ; Felfe 2006 ). Transactional leadership has two key components. First, transactional leaders use contingent rewards such as praise, recognition, and tangible incentives to motivate and reward followers for achieving specific goals and objectives (Felfe 2006 ). Second, transactional leaders engage in management by exception. That is, they use a system of monitoring and feedback to identify and correct deviations from expected standards and performance (Bass et al. 2003 ).

Transactional leadership can be effective in situations where there is a clear and defined set of goals and tasks, and where there is a need for stability and predictability. However, it may be less effective in situations where there is a need for creativity, innovation, or adaptability. However, when comparing transformational and transactional leadership styles, transformational and transactional leadership should not be seen as opposing behaviors, but can be used simultaneously by leaders depending on the situation (Felfe et al. 2004 ). Transformational leaders promote a common understanding of strategic goals that align with the organization’s vision. In addition, they create a learning environment that encourages employees to question ways of working in order to translate specific goals into actions. The effectiveness of strategic goal implementation depends on how well leaders in an organization perceive and clarify the goals, translate them into more specific goals tied to the respective units, and then foster an open learning environment to facilitate the pursuit and successful completion of the goals (Felfe et al. 2004 ). Transactional leaders, on the other hand, as a more instrumental leadership style, provide a concrete platform from which leaders can actively engage with followers in implementing change. The reinforcing and rewarding nature of transactional leadership would underpin specific engagement behaviors, such as providing information that emphasizes personal impact. Thus, transformational and transactional leadership styles are thought to be complementary, albeit situational, during organizational change (Tushman and Nadler 1986 ).

Overall, the theoretical concepts of transformational leadership and organizational transformation are strongly related. Transformational leaders are able to inspire and motivate their followers to embrace change and strive for excellence, and to build the skills and resources needed to successfully manage organizational transformation. As a result, they play a critical role in driving and managing organizational transformation efforts.

4 Digital Transformation

Digital transformation is challenging executives across industries (Correani et al. 2020 ). Most recently, COVID-19 urged leaders to rethink existing internal systems and move toward digital transformation, recognizing the strategic importance of technology in their organizations. Current research has not reached a consensus on what exactly digital transformation is (Warner and Wäger 2019 ). Despite the lack of an explicit definition, digital transformation is always associated with organizational change: Organizations need to adapt to the general expansion of digital technologies—defined as the combination and interconnection of myriad, distributed information, communication, and computing technologies (Bharadwaj et al. 2013 ). Thus, digital transformation can be linked to the organizational change initiated by the proliferation of digital technologies (Hanelt et al. 2021 ).

Digital transformation refers to the process of using digital technologies to fundamentally change the way an organization operates and delivers value to its stakeholders (Vial 2019 ; Nambisan et al. 2019 ). It involves the integration of digital technologies into all areas of the organization, including its business models, processes, and operations, to enable new forms of value creation and improve performance (Hanelt et al. 2021 ). The core proposition is that digital technologies enable new forms of value creation. Digital technologies, such as the Internet, mobile devices, and artificial intelligence, enable organizations to create new forms of value that were not previously possible. For example, they can be used to improve customer experiences, create new products and services, or streamline operations. These technologies also have the potential to disrupt traditional business models and create new opportunities for organizations (Hinings et al. 2018 ). They can enable organizations to reach new markets, create new revenue streams, and challenge established players in their industry. In this section, we use the domain of digital transformation as an example to review the state of research in the management discipline on organizational transformation.

Prior research has established that digital transformation requires a holistic approach (e.g., Appio et al. 2021 ; Hanelt et al. 2021 ; Vial 2019 ). Digital transformation is not just about implementing new technologies, but rather about fundamentally rethinking and changing the way an organization operates. It requires a holistic approach that considers the impact of digital technologies on all aspects of the organization. This often involves a change in the culture of the organization, as it requires a different way of thinking and working. It also requires new skills, new ways of collaborating and communicating, and a willingness to embrace change and take risks. Accordingly, the concept of dynamic capabilities has been specified for digitalization, as we will review in the next subsection. Previous research has also derived a number of process models for digital transformation that capture the need for a holistic process. Finally, at the end of this section, we discuss how the state of transformation can be measured by introducing the idea of a digital maturity model—which can be seen as prototypical examples to inspire future research on organizational transformation.

4.1 (Dynamic) Capabilities for Digital Transformation

The emergence of new technologies, and thus new opportunities for organizations, has reshaped business models across industries (Liu et al. 2011 ). Hence, digital transformation is more complex than just integrating new digital technologies into the existing organizational structure and processes. In this context, the idea of dynamic capabilities has been adapted to the field of digitalization (Konopik et al. 2021 ), building on the notion in previous research in strategic management that the existence of dynamic capabilities has a positive impact on competitive advantage in dynamic environments (Drnevich and Kriauciunas 2011 ; Li and Liu 2014 ). For digital transformation, Warner and Wäger ( 2019 ), for example, found that firms need to build a system of dynamic capabilities to be successful in digital transformation. Hanelt et al. ( 2021 ) proposed that firms with high levels of dynamic capabilities have higher levels of digital maturity than firms with low levels of dynamic capabilities. In addition, Konopik et al. ( 2021 ) state that organizational capabilities relevant to digital transformation are equivalent to the dynamic capability approach of three mechanisms: sensing, seizing, and transforming. Companies rely on a specific set of dynamic capabilities along their digital transformation process, namely strategy and ecosystem formation, innovation thinking, technology management, data management, organizational design, and leadership. We briefly review these aspects in the following.

Capabilities related to strategy and ecosystem formation refer to the adaptation of existing business models during the digital transformation process (Warner and Wäger 2019 ). They also include the formation and management of ecosystems that span multiple organizations, functions, and industries initiated by digital transformation (Berman and Marshall 2014 ; Hanelt et al. 2021 ). The formation and management of digital ecosystems requires the ability to identify the key stakeholders and partners involved in the ecosystem and to establish clear roles, responsibilities, and expectations. This may involve creating governance structures and mechanisms to facilitate collaboration and coordination among stakeholders. Second, it is important to establish the technical infrastructure and platforms that will support the ecosystem, such as cloud computing, data analytics, and API management. Finally, companies need the ability to design business models and revenue streams to support the ecosystem and ensure that the ecosystem’s value proposition creates value for all stakeholders (Matt et al. 2015 ).

Innovation thinking refers to organizational capabilities that enable the emergence of innovations from within or outside the organization (open innovation). Innovation thinking enables organizations to identify and explore new possibilities, challenge assumptions and existing ways of doing things, and experiment with new ideas. It also involves the ability to think creatively and see problems and challenges from multiple perspectives, which can help generate novel solutions (Hinings et al. 2018 ). Involving the customer in the innovation processes (co-creation) is a key element here, especially by focusing efforts on improving the customer experience (Elmquist et al. 2009 ). This also includes the development capacity to enhance products with digital technologies (Warner and Wägner 2019 ).

Digital Technology Management. Intuitively, digital technologies play a critical role in the digital transformation process. Technology management as a digital transformation capability therefore involves the strategic planning, acquisition, and deployment of technology resources, as well as the ongoing management and optimization of these resources to deliver maximum value. This includes activities such as technology roadmap development, vendor management, and technology portfolio management (Konopik et al. 2021 ). Effective technology management is a critical capability for digital transformation because it enables organizations to identify and adopt the most appropriate technologies for their needs, integrate these technologies into their operations, and continuously optimize and evolve their technology stack in response to changing business needs and the evolving digital landscape (Besson and Rowe 2012 ).

Data management refers to organizational capabilities related to the handling, security, and capitalization of data. It is critical to digital transformation because it enables organizations to collect and analyze data from a variety of sources, including internal systems, customer interactions, and external sources. This data can be used to optimize business processes, improve decision making, and identify new opportunities (Haffke et al. 2016 ). Data management also includes ensuring the quality, integrity, and security of data, as well as the governance and compliance of data-related activities. This is important because organizations rely on accurate and reliable data to make decisions and maintain the trust of their stakeholders. A specific capability discussed in this context is managing the tension between sharing data with third parties, enabling better decisions at the system level, and maintaining competitive advantage at the firm level (Konopik et al. 2021 ).

Organizational design. The structural and procedural organization must adapt to support digital transformation strategies. Changes may be triggered by new or adapted business models or new technologies (Hess et al. 2016 ). Effective organizational design is critical to digital transformation because it enables organizations to align their structure, processes, and systems with their strategic goals and objectives and create the conditions for innovation and agility. This may involve redesigning roles and responsibilities, implementing new processes and systems, or introducing new governance structures (Hinings et al. 2018 ).

Leadership finally involves creating a culture and leadership style that supports digital transformation and encourages collaboration, creativity, and continuous learning. This is important because digital transformation often requires significant changes in the way work is done, and a supportive culture and leadership style can help facilitate these changes (Eisenhardt and Martin 2010 ; Matt et al. 2015 ). Interestingly, the leadership construct has been largely neglected in the general dynamic capabilities literature (Schilke et al. 2018 ). However, an appropriate leadership style is a key requirement for the successful transformation of organizations (Nadkarni and Prügl 2021 ) and for overcoming internal resistance from various stakeholders during the transformation processes (Matt et al. 2015 ).

In conclusion, dynamic capabilities are an important consideration for organizations seeking to undertake digital transformation. Dynamic capabilities refer to an organization’s ability to continuously adapt and evolve in response to changing circumstances and opportunities. They include the ability to sense and respond to change, to learn and innovate, and to recombine and leverage resources and capabilities in new ways. Dynamic capabilities help organizations navigate the uncertainty and complexity of digital transformation and continuously adapt and evolve in response to changing circumstances and opportunities. However, developing dynamic capabilities is not easy and requires a significant investment of time and resources. It also requires a culture and leadership style that supports change and continuous learning, and encourages collaboration, creativity, and experimentation.

4.2 Digital Transformation Process Models

A second stream of research has focused on providing frameworks and process models to address the question of how organizations can successfully undertake digital transformation. It is widely recognized that digital transformation is a process consisting of various stages (Hess et al. 2016 ; von Leipzig et al. 2017 ; Sebastian et al. 2017 ). Process models for digital transformation refer to frameworks or approaches that organizations can use to guide their digital transformation efforts. These models typically provide a structured approach for identifying and prioritizing digital opportunities, implementing new technologies and processes, and measuring and tracking progress. This process model perspective is consistent with earlier change management literature, which suggests that transformation is a process that evolves through stages, rather than a short-term response to external events. Among these well-established models, four are particularly noteworthy:

Kotter’s eight-step change model outlines a process for leading organizational change that includes creating a sense of urgency, forming a guiding coalition, creating a vision, communicating the vision, empowering others to act on the vision, creating short-term wins, consolidating gains, and embedding new approaches in the organizational culture (Kotter 1995 , 1996 ).

Lewin’s change management model is based on the idea that change involves moving from one state (the “unfreeze” stage) to another (the “refreeze” stage) and involves three steps: unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. Unfreezing involves breaking down the existing state and creating a willingness to change. Changing involves implementing the new ideas or processes. Refreezing involves reinforcing the changes and making them the new norm (Lewin 1947 ).

The ADKAR model , developed by Jeff Hiatt ( 2006 ), is a goal-oriented change management model that focuses on the individual and helps organizations understand and manage the change process from the individual’s perspective. The model consists of five elements that form the acronym of its name: Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, and Reinforcement.

According to the six-step change management model (Beer et al. 1990 ), change is realized by solving concrete business problems. The first step is to diagnose the specific problem. The definition of the problem situation then helps to create commitment to change. Then, a vision of change is developed that defines new roles and responsibilities. Next, the vision should be properly communicated to stakeholders to gain support and consensus. The change is now implemented and, in a next step, institutionalized with formal systems. Finally, the progress of the change process is monitored and adjustments are made if necessary.

Most change models proposed for digital transformation combine elements of these classic models. For example, Hess et al. ( 2016 ) identify four dimensions of a digital transformation framework. These four dimensions are the use of technology, changes in value creation, structural changes, and financing digital transformation. First, the firm should determine a strategy for the use of technology: Companies can either create their own technology standards and become market leaders, or serve and adapt to already established standards. Then, using new technologies means changing the value proposition of the company. Structural changes, i.e., “variations in a firm’s organizational setup” (Hess et al. 2016 , p. 341), have to be considered, as digitizing products or services requires a recalculation of the existing business scope, as potentially new customer segments are taken into account. Subsequently, an assessment of whether products, processes, or capabilities are primarily affected by the changes will further determine the scope of the restructuring. Substantial changes may require the creation of a separate division within the company, while limited changes are more likely to require the integration of new activities into the existing company structure. Finally, taking into account these three dimensions of the transformation process, the financial aspects, which are both drivers and constraints of the transformation, are analyzed (Hess et al. 2016 ). An assessment of all these four dimensions helps companies to formulate a company-specific strategy for digital transformation.

The model proposed by von Leipzig et al. ( 2017 ) also focuses on the initial phase of developing a digital strategy as a starting point for digital transformation. Following Deming’s Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle (Deming 1982 ), it postulates an iterative rather than a linear process for initiating digital transformation. To successfully overcome the challenges of digital transformation, in the first stage, managers should be aware of the need to change their existing business plan by analyzing customers, the market, competitors, as well as other industries, as customers may expect the same level of digital services regardless of the industry (von Leipzig et al. 2017 ). In the second stage, benchmarks should be used to compare their position with other companies and analyze strengths and weaknesses. In the third stage, an assessment of the costs resulting from selected changes in the business model will then prepare the implementation of the digital strategy. In the fourth stage, feedback mechanisms include customer and employee perceptions and comparisons with peers. With each subsequent iteration, the company should elaborate on the feedback and adjust its capabilities.

Sebastian et al. ( 2017 ) propose a process model of digital transformation for large incumbents based on two distinct strategic priorities: a customer engagement strategy and a digital solutions strategy. A customer engagement strategy aims to deliver a superior, innovative, personalized, and integrated customer experience through an omnichannel experience that allows customers to order, inquire, pay, and receive support in a consistent manner from any channel. A digital solutions strategy, on the other hand, is appropriate when the company’s value proposition is reimagined through the integration of products, services, and data. The core of this digital strategy is anticipating customer needs rather than reacting to them. In the first phase of a digital transformation process, companies must therefore make the right assumption about their future by choosing one of the two strategic priorities. The second stage is to build an appropriate operational digital backbone, such as a customer database to access customer data and/or a supply chain management system to provide transactional visibility. The third step is to build a digital services platform, which means setting up APIs to access the necessary data. With the help of IT partners, companies can then build the infrastructure to analyze and support the digital services. In Phase IV, the digital services platform is further deployed, integrating the needs of customers and stakeholders. Finally, in Phase V, a service culture should be instilled from the top down. It is crucial that business and IT teams work together to create and deliver business services, as “designing around business services will become the way most companies do business” (Sebastian et al. 2017 ).

In summary, process models are an important consideration for organizations seeking to undertake digital transformation. Process models provide a structured approach to guide digital transformation efforts and can help organizations identify and prioritize digital opportunities, implement and scale digital initiatives, and measure and track progress. It is important for organizations to carefully select and tailor a process model that aligns with their specific needs and goals, and to be aware of the limitations and challenges of each model. Process models should also be flexible and adaptable in the face of changing circumstances in order to continuously learn and improve the model as needed.

However, even when following a specific process model for digital transformation, established organizations can fail (Brenk et al. 2019 ). In a recent study, Moschko et al. ( 2023 ) investigate why organizations fail to achieve their initial ambitions for a digital transformation process. They build on the observation that managers often perceive tensions when engaged in a transformation process (Appio et al. 2021 ; Brenk et al. 2019 ; Moschko et al. 2013). To examine these tensions, Moschko et al. ( 2023 ) turn to paradox theory (Hahn and Knight 2021 ; Lewis and Smith 2014 ). Paradoxes are “contradictory yet interrelated elements that exist simultaneously and persist over time” (Smith and Lewis 2011 , p. 382). These paradoxes cause actors to experience tensions, “defined as stress, anxiety, discomfort, or tightness in making choices and moving forward in organizational situations” (Putnam et al. 2016 , p. 68). For leaders, tensions are problematic trade-offs that need to be resolved or avoided during a change process. Attempts to resolve one of these tensions and paradoxes often create others, resulting in what are known as knotted paradoxes (Smith and Lewis 2022 ), which can occur at multiple levels—from the individual to the organization to society. As Moschko et al. ( 2023 ) show, the notion of (knotted) paradoxes can help managers shift their conceptual frameworks to better understand the complexity and interdependent dynamics of transformation processes. Thus, the development of a paradoxical mindset supports managers in successfully executing a digital transformation process.

4.3 Digital Maturity

A final concept from the digital transformation discourse is the idea of digital maturity assessments. The term digital maturity refers to “the ability to respond to the environment in an appropriate manner through (digital) management practices” (Bititci 2015 ). Digital maturity models are frameworks that assess an organization’s current level of digital maturity and provide a roadmap for improving digital capabilities. The models typically distinguish different levels of digital maturity, each representing an increasingly advanced level of digital capabilities. One of the most prominent models was developed by MIT’s Center for Information Systems Research (CISR), based on research into the digital practices of leading companies (Westerman et al. 2011 ). It differentiates digital maturity into two dimensions, digital intensity and transformation management intensity. Companies that are mature in the digital intensity dimension invest in technology-enabled initiatives with the goal of changing the way the company operates, i.e., customer engagement and internal operations (see Fig.  2 ). The second dimension, transformation management intensity, addresses the creation of leadership capabilities needed to successfully execute a digital transformation. Transformation intensity involves a strategic vision of the planned digitalization, the necessary governance and commitment, and the relationships with IT and business partners implementing technology-driven change (Westerman et al. 2011 ).

Digital maturity dimensions (Westerman et al. 2011 )

Depending on the level of digital maturity along these two dimensions, the authors differentiate five different maturity stages, each representing a progressively more advanced level of digital capabilities:

Level 1: Digital Novice : These are organizations with only limited digital capabilities, focused on automating existing processes.

Level 2: Digital Apprentice : At this level, organizations are starting to explore new digital technologies and are beginning to integrate them into their operations.

Level 3: Digital Practitioner : These are organizations that have established a strong foundation of digital capabilities and are actively seeking out new digital opportunities.

Level 4: Digital Experts are organizations that have fully integrated digital technologies into their operations and are continuously innovating and experimenting with new digital initiatives.

Level 5: Digital Leader : At this level, organizations are a leader of digital practices in their industry (“lighthouse sites”) and are driving industry-wide digital transformation.

Organizations can use a digital maturity model to assess their current level of digital maturity, identify areas for improvement, and develop a roadmap for improving their digital capabilities. The model is particularly useful for organizations that want to understand how their digital capabilities compare to those of their peers and competitors, and to identify areas for investment and improvement. Figure  3 shows another maturity model for digital transformation, based on different dimensions of an organization that are impacted as the transformation progresses (Azhari et al. 2014 ). The authors depict eight dimensions of digitalization, namely strategy, leadership, products, operations, culture, people, governance, and technology. Organizations are assigned to one of five maturity levels, depending on the extent to which the dimensions are met. Companies classified as unaware are those with little or no digital capability. They lack awareness of the need for digital transformation. Companies at a conceptual level are typically those that offer a few digital products but do not yet have a digital strategy. Those with a defined level of digitalization are companies that have already gained experience with pilot implementations and have partially formed a digital strategy. At the point where a clear digital strategy is developed, an organization is classified as integrated. Finally, a transformed company is one that has fully implemented the digital strategy into its operations and business processes.

Digital maturity of an organization (Azhari et al. 2014 )

In the more specific context of the manufacturing sector, the term Industry 4.0 has been used to describe the digital transformation of manufacturing. Increasingly, research examines digital readiness in the context of Industry 4.0 to assess whether manufacturing firms have the necessary capabilities to undertake this transformation. The “Industry 4.0 Maturity Index” (2016), developed by the FIR Institute at RWTH Aachen University, illustrates a step-by-step approach to implementing Industry 4.0. The maturity model has already been validated in manufacturing companies. It integrates the entire value creation process within the company, including development, logistics, production, as well as service and sales. In each of these areas, a comprehensive analysis of the respective Industry 4.0 maturity level is carried out. The steps that move a company from Industry 3.0 to Industry 4.0 are based on its use of data and analytics to gain visibility into its manufacturing processes, transparency into what is happening and why, predictability of future states and events, and finally adaptability, i.e., the ability to generate data-driven prescriptions for future behavior.

Another maturity model in the context of Industry 4.0 is the “IMPLUS—Industry 4.0 Readiness” model (Lichtblau and Stich 2015 ). The authors distinguish six levels of readiness, ranging from “Level 0: Outsiders” to “Level 5: Top Performers.“ The authors developed a questionnaire as a tool to measure the structural characteristics of the companies, their knowledge about Industry 4.0, their motivations and obstacles during the Industry 4.0 journey. Furthermore, the companies are grouped into high-level categories as newcomers (level 0 and 1), learners (level 2), and leaders (level 3 and above). Newcomers consist of companies that have never initiated any projects, learners are companies that have initiated their first projects related to Industry 4.0, and leaders are companies that are compared to other advanced companies in their projects to implement Industry 4.0 initiatives. The dimensions of the questionnaire are: “smart factories,” “smart products,” “data-driven service,” “smart operations,” and “employees.” Using the model, company profiles and main barriers in the listed dimensions are identified, which serve as a basis for creating action plans for companies to improve their Industry 4.0 readiness (Lichtblau and Stich 2015 ).

Inspired by this stream of digital transformation research, future research could develop an organizational transformation maturity model to assess an organization’s current level of readiness and capability to undertake organizational transformation efforts, and to provide a roadmap for improving these capabilities. Such a model could be particularly useful for organizations seeking to understand how their transformation capabilities compare to those of their peers and competitors, and to identify areas for investment and improvement. The model would consist of different levels of maturity, each representing an increasingly advanced level of readiness and capability for organizational transformation. However, simply translating Westerman et al.’s or other digital maturity models into an organizational transformation setting is probably not enough. A more sophisticated approach would also take into account the goals of the transformation process, i.e., the realization of societal goals (e.g., sustainability goals), and the extent to which the transformation progress has enabled novel approaches to achieving these goals. In a further step, such a model could also enable an ex-ante simulation of potential transformation activities, predicting the impact of their successful implementation on these overall objectives. However, building such a model is a complex undertaking that requires a large interdisciplinary research consortium.

5 Conclusion

Organizational transformation can be a complex and challenging process, as it often involves significant changes to the way work is done and can have a major impact on employees, customers, and other stakeholders. While there is a large body of existing research, our review of selected literatures indicates a number of areas where more research could be fruitful. One important question for future research is how organizations can sustain transformational change over the long term. Many organizations initiate change programs that are successful in the short term, but fail to achieve sustained change over the long term and reach their initial higher ambitions (Moschko et al. 2023 ). It is important to understand the factors (and their antecedents) that contribute to successful long-term transformation, like leadership commitment, employee engagement, and alignment of organizational culture with the desired change.

Secondly, research is required how to effectively manage resistance to change. Resistance to change is a common phenomenon in organizations and can significantly impede the success of transformational initiatives (Antons and Piller 2015 ). Understanding the sources of resistance, as well as effective strategies for managing it, is critical for successful organizational transformation. Related to this issue is future research how to effectively measure the impact of organizational transformation in order to steer the change initiative, but also to measure the effectiveness of countermeasures against resistance to transform. Measuring the success of organizational transformation is challenging, and traditional metrics such as financial performance may not provide a complete picture of the impact of transformation on the organization. Future research should focus on developing more comprehensive measures of the impact of transformation on organizational culture, employee engagement, customer satisfaction, and other key performance indicators.

Another important question is how to effectively manage the human side of organizational change at the micro-level. Transformational change can be stressful for employees, leading to anxiety, uncertainty, and resistance. Future research should focus on identifying effective strategies for managing the human side of organizational change, including communication, training, and support for employees. Related to this is the question of how to effectively manage the cultural aspects of organizational change. Organizational culture is a critical factor in the success of transformational initiatives. Future research should focus on identifying effective strategies for managing the cultural aspects of organizational change, including leadership development, communication, and employee engagement.

Answering these and many other questions will provide management scholars and the audiences they address (academia, but especially corporate managers and stakeholders) with the insights needed to manage the complex process of organizational change and transformation. Given the need for organizations to master the current digital (AI) revolution alongside their mandatory sustainability transformation (and addressing all 17 of the United Nations’ social development goals), we believe that those organizations that strive and succeed will be those that have first acquired the skills and behaviors to master second-order change.

To conclude our chapter, we asked the institution that is perhaps most transforming our personal lives as academics these days, the ChatGPT Transformer Language Model (Bouschery et al. 2023 ), to list the top five success factors for organizational transformation. We'll end our chapter with its response—because we couldn't have summed it up better:

In summary, these are the top five success factors for organizational transformation:

Resistance to change : People are often resistant to change, especially if it involves significant disruptions to their work or lifestyle. Organizations may need to overcome this resistance by communicating the benefits of the transformation and helping employees understand how it will impact them.

Communication : Ensuring that all stakeholders are kept informed about the transformation and its progress is crucial. This can be particularly challenging in large organizations with multiple levels of management and employees working in different locations.

Managing the change process : Effective change management is key to ensuring that the transformation is successful. This includes identifying the steps needed to implement the changes, establishing a timeline for the transformation, and providing resources and support to those affected by the changes.

Maintaining momentum : It is important to keep the momentum going during the transformation process. This can be challenging, especially if there are setbacks or delays.

Measuring success : Establishing clear metrics for measuring the success of the transformation is important. This can help organizations determine whether they are achieving their goals and make necessary adjustments as needed.

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Christou, E., Piller, F. (2024). Organizational Transformation: A Management Research Perspective. In: Letmathe, P., et al. Transformation Towards Sustainability. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54700-3_11

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What Can You Do With a Master’s in Organizational Leadership?

What is organizational leadership? Organizational leadership uses an understanding of building meaningful relationships to better facilitate common goals, conflict resolution and engaging communication to bring together people of different perspectives, backgrounds and talents.

But how do you get people to trust and follow you? Whether you’re a business manager, sports coach, leading a volunteer group or something in between, a degree in organizational leadership is one way to develop those skills

We spoke with Gretchen Oltman, JD, PhD , Master of Science in Organizational Leadership program chair at Creighton University, to find out what makes a good organizational leader and what you can do with this degree.

What makes a good organizational leader?

“When people think of the word leader, they often think of someone who is just an expert in their field,” says Oltman. People may assume a leader in information technology, for example, is in that position solely due to their knowledge of and expertise in the software and applications applicable to their role. But being a great organizational leader is more than that.

“There’s a balance between being a technical expert and understanding the human element,” she says. “If you’re a technical expert but can’t raise others to follow you toward achieving a goal, it can be very difficult to succeed as a leader.”

That balance requires soft skills, which many employers are looking for, according to an article in the journal Heliyon . Those soft skills include:

• Ethical thinking and behavior
• Critical and analytical thinking
• Flexibility
• Problem solving

The Center for Creative Leadership takes this even further, listing the 12 essential leadership qualities as being:

• Self-awareness
• Communication
• Learning agility
• Collaboration

“Compassion is really important and something we teach here at Creighton,” says Oltman. “To be a good leader, you have to be caring and compassionate.”

Being a compassionate leader can help reduce your team’s stress as well as help them develop self-compassion, according to an article in Frontiers in Psychology . The authors describe self-compassion as involving “a loving, non-judgmental understanding of one’s own shortcomings, placing the perception of one’s suffering and difficulties into a larger perspective of what it means to be human.” Helping your team develop self-compassion can have a positive impact on job performance and satisfaction as well as improving team communication, according to the article.

“The more that we recognize that employees are people who have their own lives and goals, the more valued they feel and the more invested they are in the organization,” says Oltman.

Besides these soft skills, a good organizational leader also needs to believe in the idea of developing others. This means helping your team see the potential in themselves and giving them the tools and opportunities to excel in their role. It may lead to some team members either getting promoted out of their roles or leaving the company for new opportunities, but that just means you’ve done your job right.

“Sometimes we see leaders who want to keep people where they are because it's comforting, and it allows us to maintain our stability in our own lives,” Oltman says. “A good leader sees what other people are trying to do—what their hopes and dreams are, what their talents are—and really focuses on helping them hone those talents and achieve those dreams.”

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What you can do with a master’s in organizational leadership

Earning a master’s degree in organizational leadership won’t necessarily lead to a specific career. It is for individuals who wish to lead positive change in their workplace and community. This includes responsibilities such as inspiring and motivating employees or team members; anticipating and responding to internal and external challenges; and handling challenges quickly and assuredly.

“The skills that you leave with won't necessarily bucket you into one role,” says Oltman. “They can, however, open the door to opportunities beyond what you imagine.”

Earning this degree could help you move into leadership roles in a variety of organizations and businesses, including:

• Higher education
• Training and development
• Athletic departments
• Public health

“Many graduates stay in their current roles—whether that’s a public or private entity—and are promoted due to leadership capacity and a demonstrated understanding of others,” says Oltman. “Other students have found a new purpose.”

For example, one graduate worked in the trucking industry but found a passion for teaching while in the degree program. While he is still in trucking, he has started teaching as well. In another example, a graduate who worked in higher education started her own consulting firm to help communities in need. There were also former college athletes who graduated from the program and went on to become assistant coaches for college sports teams.

The bottom line: No matter what career path you’re on, a master’s in organizational leadership could help you move up or move on to new horizons.

Earn your master’s in organizational leadership

If you’re a lifelong learner, willing to be introspective and committed to professional and personal growth, you could be a great fit for a master’s in organizational leadership.

“Our students come from backgrounds of having grown up on a family farm, serving in the military or working in a variety of fields like marketing, insurance or education,” says Oltman. “Our students see a bigger purpose to their lives and that their identity is not all about a title and role. They know they can make a difference wherever they are, and they spend time in our courses learning and practicing how to do just that.”

If you’re interested in growing your leadership skills, learn more about Creighton’s online master’s in organizational leadership or reach out for more information .

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