essay on ethics and culture

SUGGESTED TOPICS
The Magazine
Newsletters
Managing Yourself
Managing Teams
Work-life Balance
The Big Idea
Data & Visuals
Reading Lists
Case Selections
HBR Learning
Topic Feeds
Account Settings
Email Preferences

Talking About Ethics Across Cultures

Mary C. Gentile

Five ways to help people act on their values, no matter the context.

A few years ago, I was teaching a two-day program about ethics in India for entrepreneurs and business faculty who taught entrepreneurship. It was a program that I had spent years honing, building upon research that suggests rehearsing — pre-scripting, practicing voice, and peer coaching — is an effective way to build the moral muscle memory, competence, confidence, and habit to act ethically. Rather than simply preaching and pretending, we wanted to address the day-to-day realities that create pressure to act unethically even when employees know and want to do better.

MG Mary C. Gentile is the creator and director of the Giving Voice to Values pedagogy for values-driven leadership and formerly the Richard M. Waitzer Bicentennial Professor of Ethics at the University of Virginia’s Darden School of Business.

Partner Center

Cultural Diversity and Universal Ethics in a Global World

Introduction.

Published: 07 August 2013
Volume 116 , pages 681–687, ( 2013 )

Cite this article

Domènec Melé 1 &
Carlos Sánchez-Runde 1

65k Accesses

33 Citations

10 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Cultural diversity and globalization bring about a tension between universal ethics and local values and norms. Simultaneously, the current globalization and the existence of an increasingly interconnected world seem to require a common ground to promote dialog, peace, and a more humane world. This article is the introduction to a special issue of the Journal of Business Ethics regarding these problems. We highlight five topics, which intertwine the eight papers of this issue. The first is whether moral diversity in different cultures is a plausible argument for moral relativism. The second focuses on the possibility of finding shared values and virtues worldwide. The third topic deals with convectional universalistic ethical theories in a global world and the problems they present. Fourth, we consider the traditional natural moral law approach in the context of a global world. The last topic is about human rights, as a practical proposal for introducing universal standards in business.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Differences in race, sex, language, ethnicity, values systems, religion, and local practices are important aspects of the business environment in both domestic and international business. Cultural diversity not only matters to business management, but also to policy makers and international organizations. It is, of course, relevant for business ethics, too. Organizing corporations so that people from different cultures live and work together peacefully is a challenge for management that we cannot ignore.

The last few decades have witnessed the development of cross-cultural management, which focuses on cultural differences and their effect on organizational and managerial decision-making. Cross-cultural management is not only a question of techniques. It involves human and ethical considerations, as does every other aspect of management (Melé 2012 ). Beyond cultural diversity, management is about people and so it entails ethical dimension.

Cultural diversity entails an ethical challenge, for different reasons. One is that there are differences on moral perceptions and moral judgments among cultures, and consequently a tension appears between moral universalism (universal ethical principles or standards) and moral cultural relativism (local or cultural ethical norms as the exclusive source for ethical standards) (Donaldson 1996 ; Jhingran 2001 ; Frederick 2002 ; Vendemiati 2008 ; among others). Some may defend that the old chestnut, “when in Rome do as Romans do,” still has currency. This saying does not offer ethical difficulties if you apply it with regard to certain customs, but it is problematic if you apply it to ethical matters—then it leads to moral relativism. At the other extreme we find those who defend acting in accordance with one’s home cultural values and norms, which often merits the accusation of “cultural imperialism.” Others, to avoid both cultural relativism and imperialism, prefer to say “when in Rome do as the best Romans do.” This improves the former by introducing a sense of discernment, but no-one can be sure that even the best Romans always acted in accordance with high standards of morality. We should remember, for instance, that for a long time slavery was acceptable even for the best Romans, and in certain countries or places corruption was so extensive that it would have been very difficult to find a virtuous person abstaining from corrupting practices. Apart from this, acritically accepting other people’s behavior, or the values of the majority, as one’s moral standard means ignoring personal conscience and thus the first personal moral obligation of sincerely seeking the virtuous and right thing to do in each situation.

In spite of these and other objections, some ethicists are in favor of moral relativism, while others insist on the shortcomings of this position and defend moral universalism (Krausz 1989 ). A third group holds a balanced position between universalism, expressed through a set of basic ethical values or principles, and particular cultural norms (Donaldson 1996 ; Gowans 2012 ) or are looking for empirical or philosophical bases to promote global ethics (e.g., Küng 1998 and ITC 2009 , respectively).

The debate on ethical relativism and universal ethics, which is still open, has important consequences for both business ethics and cross-cultural management. Some opt for accepting ethical relativism, while others offer strong arguments against this. In addition, some events, such as corporate scandals and corruption, violation of certain basic human rights and environmental issues question ethical relativism at least in some matters.

Apart from this debate, there is a pragmatic reason to seek and promote universalism and common values: the current globalization and the existence of an increasingly interconnected world. According to Bok, “the need to pursue the inquiry about which basic values can be shared across cultural boundaries is urgent, if societies are to have some common ground for cross-cultural dialog and for debate about how best to cope with military, environmental, and other hazards that, themselves, do not stop at such boundaries.” ( 2002 , p. 13).

The Parliament of the World’s Religions ( 1993 ), seeking consensus on common ethical values, stated that there will be no better global order without a global ethic, which cannot be created or enforced by laws, prescriptions, or conventions alone. On its part, the International Theological Commission (ITC) praised those who work in seeking common ethical values, assessing that “only the recognition and promotion of these ethical values can contribute to the construction of a more human world.” But, at the same time, stresses the necessity of achieving a sound foundation by affirming: “these efforts cannot succeed unless good intentions rest on a solid foundational agreement regarding the goods and values that represent the most profound aspirations of man, both as an individual and as member of a community.” (ITC 2009 , n. 2).

These and other related topics were discussed in the 17th IESE International Symposium on “Ethics, Business and Society,” in Barcelona, Spain, on May 14–15, 2012 under the theme “Universal Ethics, Cultural Diversity and Globalization.” This issue of the Journal of Business Ethics publishes a collection of papers presented at this Symposium. Our aim is to introduce the articles selected within a framework on cultural diversity and universal ethics intertwining the contributions included in this issue. We structure this presentation by focusing on five relevant aspects treated in the Symposium. Firstly, we ask whether or not moral diversity of different cultures is a good argument for moral relativism. Secondly, we consider the existence of shared values and virtues worldwide, and some managerial inferences. Thirdly, we wonder if universalistic ethical theories are appropriate in a global world facing development problems. Fourthly, we deal with the traditional proposal of natural moral law in the context of a global world. In the fifth part, we focus on human rights, as a practical proposal for introducing universal standards in business.

Is Moral Diversity a Good Argument for Moral Relativism?

Moral diversity among cultures is not a novelty. Among the ancient Greek philosophers, moral diversity was widely acknowledged (Gowans 2012 ), as it was with Medieval thinkers, like Thomas Aquinas (das Neves and Melé 2013 ). Modern cultural anthropologists have also empirically shown that moral diversity is a matter of fact (e.g., Benedict 1934 ). A fundamental question is whether the existence of moral diversity is a good argument to support moral relativism. While the former is peacefully accepted by almost all, many reject ‘moral relativism, or more precisely “normative moral relativism.” Moral relativists defend the position that there are neither objective ethics nor universal ethics; the only source of truth for morality is each cultural context. According to Gowans ( 2012 ), moral relativists state that “the truth or falsity of moral judgments, or their justification, is not absolute or universal, but is relative to the traditions, convictions, or practices of a group of persons.” He terms this philosophical position “Metaethical Moral Relativism.” This author explains this approach through the statement “Polygamy is morally wrong,” which may be true relative to one society, but false relative to another. Similar examples could include cutting off a hand when someone is caught stealing, the mutilation of female genitals, or in a business context, tolerating bribery and harming the environment. Obviously, one can claim that these actions are assumed as right in reference to norms shared in certain societies that endorse them, but this does itself not probe by itself the truth of a moral judgment, especially when colliding with solid trans-cultural ethical referents, such as respect of human dignity or the Golden Rule. A moral judgment may be passed in one society, but not in another, this being a matter for sociological verification. But this is not the same as justifying and legitimating a given moral judgment as good or right.

Two papers here deal with moral relativism, although this is not their central topic. From different perspectives, both agree that moral diversity is not a good argument for moral relativism. The first paper is authored by Carlos J. Sanchez-Runde, Luciara Nardon, and Richard M. Steers, all with expertise in cross-cultural management. They describe and discuss the cultural roots of ethical conflicts in the global business environment. They emphasize the importance of understanding moral diversity along with ethical conflicts in multiple levels within the same organization or industry, and the meaning of universal values and the relationship between values and practices. These authors state that values are universal but their universalism can only be accessed incrementally. They bring a text on the effects of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima from the literature Nobel laureate Kenzaburo Oé to illustrate the point that the richness of the concept of human dignity is beyond words, that no human language will ever fully make it justice, and that one can improve its understanding through time and space. They argue that people and cultures evolve over time and space, and so do their ethical beliefs and values. At times, these values run somewhat in tandem across cultures to give the impression of a universal form of access—understanding and application—to those values. This can be seen very clearly in many commonly espoused beliefs (respect your neighbors, protect the defenseless…) that can be found in various religions. At other times, however, this convergence seems to disappear. Their conclusion is that from a descriptive viewpoint, ethical values are not universal over time and space but they do become universal through time and space. We then make progress in accessing ethical values.

The second paper, by Daryl Koehn, devotes a part of its discussion to clarifying some mistaken notions that lead to cultural ethical relativism. One is that moral relativists often begin by pointing to the wide variety of human experience, and no one contests the existence of such variety. This happens because of focusing too much on the details and failing to search for overarching ethic good and/or virtues underpinning diverse human practices. Another objection against some moral relativists is that they consider cultures as static and monolithic, when actually they are not. Some members of a culture may be more practically wise than others, and each culture contains resources and concepts for interpreting a universal virtue such as justice in a variety of ways in light of new conditions and circumstances. Over time –she affirms–, “these intra-cultural manifestations may converge as agents refine their judgments in light of experience interpreted by reason and in light of arguments advanced by especially thoughtful members of the community.” A third argument given by Koehn is that moral relativists wrongly assume that issues can only be successfully addressed in one way within another culture. This assumption leads them to conclude wrongly that this other culture operates with an ethical compass different from our own. This has a significant application in business when some affirm that it is morally acceptable to pay bribes when doing transactions in Asia. Many Scandinavian companies, for instance, do business in Asia without paying bribes.

Common Values Worldwide and Universal Virtues

While moral diversity is a matter of fact, as noted, some add that disagreements across different societies are much more significant than whatever agreements there may be—this is called “Descriptive Moral Relativism” (Gowans 2012 ). Authors in disagreement with this proposition point that there is a universal minimal morality, whatever other moral differences there may be (e.g., Bowie 1990 ; Walzer 1994 ; Bok 2002 ). According to this latter scholar, “certain basic values necessary for collective survival have had to be formulated in every society. A minimalist set of such values can be recognized across societal and other boundaries.” (Bok 2002 , p. 12).

Several empirical research works show that beyond specific moral judgments there can be found basic values or principles underlying those judgments, and these common values and principles appear in the major religions and wisdom traditions worldwide. Thus, Lewis ( 1987 ) and Moses ( 2001 ) identified a number of foundational principles shared by all religions, the Golden Rule (Wattles 1996 ) among others (Terry 2011 ; Tullberg 2011 ). Other findings recognize the more or less latent presence of common values in when surveying the world’s major religious traditions (Kidder 1994 ; Dalla Costa 1998 ; Küng 1996 ; 1998 ). Hengda ( 2010 ), for instance, traced within Chinese traditional ethics (Confucius, Mencius, MoTzu…) the universal values of humanity and reciprocity included in the Declaration toward a Global Ethics of Humanity. This Declaration was formulated by the Second Parliament of the World’s Religions, which 6,500 delegates from all over the world attended in Chicago in 1993.

If we look at the great diversity of character traits presented as virtues throughout history and societies, Dahlsgaard et al. ( 2005 ) found a set of core virtues across religions and cultures (Confucianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Athenian, Judeo-Christian, Islamic, among others). Their findings show that there is convergence across time, place and intellectual tradition about certain core virtues: wisdom, justice, courage, temperance, humanity, and transcendence. These core virtues are “ubiquitous, if not universal” (Peterson and Seligman 2004 , p. 33), and they are not too far from the four traditional “cardinal virtues” proposed firstly by Plato (Finance 1991 , p. 485) and then on by many other authors: prudence (practical wisdom), justice, fortitude (courage), and temperance (moderation or self-control).

Two papers of this issue focus on universal virtues. Daryl Koehn, apart from the above-mentioned discussion on moral relativism, also shows how Aristotle’s virtue ethic strongly resembles that of Confucius. This similarity derives from what they each take to be objective facts about human nature and developmental aspects of virtue. This similarity suggests that a universal virtue ethic may already exist in the form of a powerful shared strand of moral thinking. Morales and Cabello focus on the traditional cardinal virtues, which they consider universal and essential moral competencies for managerial decision-making. They discuss the influence of these virtues on moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character. Prudence will influence moral sensitivity, moral judgment, and moral motivation. Justice will influence the component of the ethical decision-making process mainly related with human will: moral motivation and moral character. Temperance will help to create moral motivation to develop ethical behavior. Finally, fortitude will reinforce the moral character to engage the ethical behavior.

Moral Universalism

In opposition to moral relativism, moral universalism —also called moral objectivism —holds that there are objective right or wrong actions, independently of the social or personal values or opinions. There are well-known approaches in business ethics which fall within the domain of moral universalism, such as Kantian deontology, Natural Rights Theory, Utilitarianism, and several forms of Contractualism. Moral universalism can be, or not, moral absolutism. This latter, as in Kantian Ethics (Bowie 1999 ), defends the position that the morality of some actions is independent of context or consequences. Non-absolutist moral universalism, such as Consequentialism and its more popular form, Utilitarianism (Snoeyenbos and Humber 2002 ), or Integrative Social Contracts Theory (Donaldson and Dunfee 1999 ) consider both universal norms and local norms to evaluate the morality of an action.

Universalist theories like these mentioned provide sound ethical standards or criteria for conducting business, but they also present some problems. Some of them are based on different aprioristic rational principles (the Categorical Imperative in Kant, the Utilitarian principle in Utilitarianism, and so on). Thus, various ethical theories compete. In addition, Neo-Aristotelians criticize agent-neutral theories for not considering individual character in making moral judgments.

Moral universalism is indirectly considered in the article by Prabhir Vishnu Poruthiyil, included in this issue, from a critical position. He argues that business ethicists—many of whom propose universal theories—state obligations for multinationals which could contribute to the well-being of individuals in developing countries. In addition, some of them have offered strategies to achieve this goal. However, their results are limited. Despite the good intentions, business ethics theories aiming at fulfilling social goals can be rendered ineffectual when economic goals are prioritized. He then postulates a “developmental ethics” approach calling on multinational companies to change their primary focus from profit generation to social justice. He argues that this approach, opposed to mere economism, offers more nuanced approaches than those now available in business ethics literature.

Universal Ethics through the Natural Moral Law

A different perspective on universal ethics come from the natural moral law tradition (Murphy 2011 ), with roots in several authors of ancient Greece and Rome including Cicero, and medieval thought, particularly Thomas Aquinas’. Natural law is mentioned in the Bible ( 1966 ), as rationally accessible for unbelievers. St. Paul writes: “When Gentiles, who do not have the law, do by nature things required by the law, they are a law for themselves, even though they do not have the law. They show that the requirements of the law are written on their hearts, their consciences also bearing witness, and their thoughts sometimes accusing them and at other times even defending them.” ( Rom 2: 14-15).

Cicero suggested the existence of a Reason ( mens , in Latin) that rules the whole world, which he describes as a fully superior and divine, not mediated, “nature law” ( lex naturae ) that is universal, absolutely primal, invariable and eternal, which humans should try to know and apply in their lives (Corso de Estrada 2008 ). Cicero is aligned with the Stoic moral philosophy view of the natural law when he synthesized that “living according to nature consists in living according to the dictates of right reason, which is quite clearly thought of as the common or universal law” (Horsley 1978 , p. 40).

Similarly, although with some differences to Cicero, Aquinas accepted human beings are endowed with certain capacity (practical reason) that allows us to distinguish good from evil—what is truly good for human flourishing from what is not—at least in some minimalistic aspects. Thus, humans can know natural law, which “is nothing else than the rational creature’s participation of the eternal law.” (Aquinas 1981 , I-II 91, 2) Aquinas focused on the rational nature of the human being and consequently his natural law theory is directly founded on the basic elements of humanity. It is a universal ethics which also accounts for diversity. In addition, Cicero held that natural law obliges us to contribute to the general good of the larger society (Barham 1841 -42, Introduction). Aquinas also included moral responsibilities toward the common good of the society (Finnis 1998 , pp. 234ff).

After a period of certain decadence and criticism (George 1999 ), natural law theory has experienced a revival since the middle of the last century (Maritain 1971 , 2001 ; Finnis 1980 ; Rhonheimer 2000 ; Murphy 2001 , among others), and some recently suggest a new look at natural law (ITC 2009 ), including Pope Benedict XVI ( 2008 ) in his speech to the General Assembly of the United Nations. He related the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 to natural law by affirming that “the rights recognized and expounded in the Declaration apply to everyone by virtue of the common origin of the person, who remains the high-point of God’s creative design for the world and for history. They are based on the natural law inscribed on human hearts and present in different cultures and civilizations.” (our Italics).

In this issue, two papers refer to natural law, one focused on Cicero and another on Aquinas. Cicero’s natural law and his ideas on virtuous behavior are taken into consideration by Michael Aßländer in his contribution. He focuses on Cicero by arguing that this Roman Stoic philosopher presented important concepts and approaches from which we can learn for business ethics. After summarizing the specific Ciceronian understanding of natural law and virtuous behavior, he analyzes honorableness and beneficialness, two key distinct qualities according to Cicero. This Roman thinker had the conviction that honorableness depends on respecting universal ethical principles. Wise people, following their true nature, fulfill their natural duties toward fellow-citizens and do no harm others. For Cicero, Aßländer affirms, what is honorable is always useful, because the honorable person strives for the common good, and therefore serves the community and benefits all. He argues that, from a Ciceronian perspective, what is honorable may not necessarily be profitable; honorable behavior and profitable behavior may conflict. Aßländer argues that reputation must be seen as an independent issue which might influence financial opportunities but, first of all, derives from the fulfillment of duties that go beyond purely economic considerations. Reputation derives solely from honorable behavior and the orientation toward the common good. Consequently, corporate reputation will only be achieved if it is based primarily on “honorableness,” and that reputation will be lost if financial interests override the honest intentions of a company.

Human Rights as Universal Standards for Business

One important step in applying universal ethics is through human rights, and more specifically the international declarations of human rights, beginning with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948), and followed by other UN human rights covenants and ILO Conventions, including the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1966, along with an optional protocol added in 2008, which presents an exhaustive list of rights in the labor context, and the UN Global Compact with its ten ethical principles for business.

Article 1 of the UDHR begins with the well-known statement that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.” This is a significant ethical statement addressed to humankind. However, the proposal presents two important issues to be debated, one theoretical and the other practical. The theoretical regards the foundation of human rights. As the Declaration of the Parliament of the World’s Religions ( 1993 ) pointed out, rights without morality cannot long endure. Without a solid foundation, any claim supported by strong lobbies can eventually be presented as a human right. The practical problem refers to the implementation of human rights and the role that business should play in this matter. At this point, it is worth noting the recent idea that protecting and promoting human rights is not only a task of states but also of civil society and business. We can point to, John Ruggie’s recent reports (Ruggie 2008 , 2011 , 2013 ) which former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan commissioned in 2005. The last of those reports, significantly entitled: “Protect, Respect, and Remedy: A Framework for Business and Human Rights” (Ruggie 2011 ) is particularly relevant for our purposes, as so are the “Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights” to implement the Framework.

Two papers included in this special issue focus on Ruggie’s reports and the Guiding Principles. One is authored by Matthew Murphy and Jordi Vives. Drawing from several celebrated scholars, they hold that the equal treatment of all people as humans— conditio humana —is the constitutive, defining characteristic of universal human rights. Even accepting that ethical values may differ among cultures, seemingly divergent values converge at key points, such as respect for human dignity, respect for basic rights and good citizenship. In addition, human rights are the most important and fundamental category of moral rights that protect those freedoms which are most essential for a dignified and self-determined human life. Their main aim is, however, not to discuss this, but some problems related to Ruggie’s Framework. They apply concepts from the field of ‘organizational justice’ to the arena of business and human rights for the purpose of operationalizing this Framework. They argue that there could be a gap between perceptions of justice held by stakeholders versus businesses and/or the State. Through theoretical considerations and by analyzing a case study—the Goldcorp’s Marlin Mine in Guatemala—they show the potential for complicity of businesses in human rights abuses and expose a fundamental weakness in a UN Framework, that draws too sharp a distinction between duties of States and responsibilities of businesses.

The other paper, by Björn Fasterling and Geert Demuijnck analyses UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. The authors identify tensions for corporations between respecting human rights as “perfect moral duty” admitting no exceptions and “human rights due diligence” to which companies should morally commit. They argue that the due diligence approach falls short of the requirements implied by the respect of human rights as perfect moral duty, inasmuch as the Guiding Principles leave room for an instrumental or strategic implementation of due diligence. This can then result in a depreciation of the fundamental norms the UN seeks to promote. They suggest that to make further progress in international and extraterritorial human rights law we also need a more forceful discussion on the moral foundations of human rights duties for corporations.

To conclude, we hope that this special issue may make a contribution to the current debate on cultural diversity and universal ethics, particularly in a global world, further discussion and research. Apart from academic research, ethics in culturally diverse and global environments may require the opening of closed attitudes too strongly secluded in technical and economics viewpoints, for they display certain disregard for what we have in common as humans. Benedict XVI once wrote that “as society becomes ever more globalized, it makes us neighbors but does not make us brothers.” ( 2009 , n. 16). Indeed, global and local processes, along with tensions of interconnectedness and separation do impact on the content and structure of human relationships. In our view, these relationships only become truly human by advancing in the current rebuilding of our common human family.

Aquinas, T. (1981)[1273]. Summa theologiae. London: Burns Oates and Washbourne, Ltd.

Barham, F. (1841–1842). Introduction to the political works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his treatise on the commonwealth; and his treatise on the laws. Translated from the original, with dissertations and notes (Vol. 2). London: Edmund Spettigue. Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=747&Itemid=284 .

Benedict, R. (1934). Patterns of culture . New York: Penguin.

Google Scholar

Benedict XVI. (2008). Address to General Assembly of the United Nations Organization , April, 18 . Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/speeches/2008/april/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20080418_un-visit_en.html .

Benedict XVI. (2009). Encyclical Letter ‘Caritas in veritate’ . Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20090629_caritas-in-veritate_en.html .

Bible, The Holy. (1966). New revised standard version . Princeton, NJ: Scepter.

Bok, S. (2002). Common values . Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.

Bowie, N. E. (1990). Business ethics and cultural relativism. In P. Madsen & J. M. Shafritz (Eds.), Essentials of business ethics (pp. 366–382). New York: Meridian.

Bowie, N. E. (1999). Business ethics: A kantian perspective . Oxford: Blackwell.

Corso de Estrada, L. E. (2008). Marcus Tullius Cicero and the role of nature in the knowledge of moral good. In A. N. García, M. Šilar, & J. M. Torralba (Eds.), Natural law: Historical, systematic and juridical approaches (pp. 9–21). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Dahlsgaard, K., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Shared virtue: The convergence of valued human strengths across culture and history. Review of general psychology, 9 (3), 203–213.

Article Google Scholar

Dalla Costa, J. (1998). The ethical imperative: Why moral leadership is good business . Toronto: HarperCollins Publishers.

das Neves, J. C. and Melé D. (2013). Managing ethically cultural diversity: learning from Thomas Aquinas, Journal of Business Ethics. This issue.

Donaldson, T. (1996). Values in tension: Ethics away from home. Harvard Business Review, 74 (5), 48–57.

Donaldson, T., & Dunfee, T. (1999). Ties that bind: A social contracts approach to business ethics . Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Finance, J. D. (1991). An ethical inquiry . Roma: Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana.

Finnis, J. (1980). Natural law and natural rights . Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Finnis, J. (1998). Aquinas: Moral, political, and legal theory (founders of modern political and social thought) . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Frederick, R. E. (2002). An outline of ethical relativism and ethical absolutism. In R. E. Frederick (Ed.), A companion to business ethics (pp. 65–80). Oxford: Blackwell.

Chapter Google Scholar

George, R. P. (1999). Defense of natural law . Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Book Google Scholar

Gowans, C. (2012). Moral relativism. In E. N. Zalta (Eds.) The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy ( http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/moralrelativism/ . Firstly published February 2004 and with a substantive revision in December 2009, and a minor correction in 2012.

Hengda, Y. (2010). Universal values and Chinese traditional ethics. Journal of International Business Ethics, 3 (1), 81–90.

Horsley, R. A. (1978). The law of nature in philo and cicero. Harvard Theological Review, 71 (1–2), 35–59.

ITC (International Theological Commission). (2009). In search of a universal ethic: A new look at the natural law. Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20090520_legge-naturale_en.html ).

Jhingran, S. (2001). Ethical relativism and universalism . New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

Kidder, R. M. (1994). Universal human values. Futurist, 28 (4), 8–13.

Krausz, M. (Ed.). (1989). Relativism. Interpretation and confrontation . Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame University Press.

Küng, H. (Ed.). (1996). Yes to a global ethic: Voices from religion and politics . New York, NY: Continuum.

Küng, H. (1998). A global ethics for global politics and economics . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lewis, C. S. (1987). The abolition of man . London: Curtis Brown.

Maritain, J. (1971) [1943]. The rights of man and natural law . New York : Gordian Press.

Maritain, J. (2001). Natural law: Reflections on theory and practice . South Bend, IN: St. Augustine’s Press.

Melé, D. (2012). Management ethics: Placing ethics at the core of good management . New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan.

Moses, J. (2001). Oneness: Great principles shared by all religions . New York, NY: Ballantine Books.

Murphy, M. C. (2001). Natural law and practical rationality . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Murphy, M. (2011). The natural law tradition in ethics. In E. N. Zalta (Eds.) The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy . Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/natural-law-ethics/ .

Parliament of the World’s Religions (1993) Declaration toward a global ethics —Chicago. Retrieved February 25, 2013 from www.weltethos.org/data-en/c-10-stiftung/13-deklaration.php .

Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Rhonheimer, M. (2000). Natural law and practical reason: A Thomist view of moral autonomy . New York, NY: Fordham University Press.

Ruggie, J. G. (2008). Protect, respect and remedy: A framework for business and human rights. UN Doc A/HRC/8/5. Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://198.170.85.29/Ruggie-report-7-Apr-2008.pdf .

Ruggie, J. G. (2011). Guiding principles on business and human rights: Implementing the United Nations “protect, respect and remedy” framework . UN Doc A/HRC/17/31. Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Business/A-HRC-17-31_AEV.pdf .

Ruggie, J. (2013). Just business: Multinational corporations and human rights . London: WW Norton & Company.

Snoeyenbos, M., & Humber, J. (2002). Utilitarianism and business ethics. In R. E. Frederick (Ed.), A companion to business ethics (pp. 17–29). Oxford: Blackwell.

Terry, H. (2011). Golden rules and silver rules of humanity . Concord, MA: Infinite Publishing.

Tullberg, J. (2011). The golden rule of benevolence versus the silver rule of reciprocity, Journal of Religion and Business Ethics 3 (1). Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://via.library.depaul.edu/jrbe/vol3/iss1/2 .

United Nations: 1948, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml .

Vendemiati, A. (2008). Universalismo e relativismo nell’etica contemporanea . Milano: Marietti.

Walzer, M. (1994). Thick and thin: Moral argument at home and abroad . Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

Wattles, J. (1996). The golden rule . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

IESE Business School , Barcelona , Spain

Domènec Melé & Carlos Sánchez-Runde

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Domènec Melé .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Melé, D., Sánchez-Runde, C. Cultural Diversity and Universal Ethics in a Global World. J Bus Ethics 116 , 681–687 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1814-z

Download citation

Received : 03 March 2013

Accepted : 01 July 2013

Published : 07 August 2013

Issue Date : September 2013

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1814-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Cultural diversity
Universal ethics
Globalization
Natural law
Human rights
Find a journal
Publish with us
Track your research

5.1 The Relationship between Business Ethics and Culture

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the processes of acculturation and enculturation
Explain the interaction of business and culture from an ethical perspective
Analyze how consumerism and the global marketplace might challenge the belief system of an organization

It has been said that English is the language of money and, for that reason, has become the language of business, finance, trade, communication, and travel. As such, English carries with it the values and assumptions of its native speakers around the world. But not all cultures share these assumptions, at least not implicitly. The sick leave or vacation policies of a British investment bank, for instance, may vary greatly from those of a shoe manufacturer in Laos. Because business and capitalism as conducted today have evolved primarily from European origins and profits are measured against Western standards like the U.S. dollar, the ethics that emerges from them is also beholden primarily (but not exclusively) to Western conceptions of behavior. The challenge for business leaders everywhere is to draw out the values of local cultures and integrate the best of those into their management models. The opportunities for doing so are enormous given the growing impact of China, India, Russia, and Brazil in global commerce. The cultures of these countries will affect the dominant business model, possibly even defining new ethical standards.

Business Encounters Culture

To understand the influence of culture on business ethics, it is essential to understand the concepts of enculturation and acculturation. In its most basic anthropological sense, enculturation refers to the process by which humans learn the rules, customs, skills, and values to participate in a society. In other words, no one is born with culture; all humans, regardless of their origin, have to learn what is considered appropriate behavior in their surrounding cultures. Whereas enculturation is the acquisition of any society’s norms and values, acculturation refers specifically to the cultural transmission and socialization process that stems from cultural exchange. The effects of this blending of cultures appear in both the native (original) culture and the host (adopted) culture. Historically, acculturation has often been the result of military or political conquest. Today, it also comes about through economic development and the worldwide reach of the media.

One of the earliest real estate deals in the New World exemplifies the complexity that results when different cultures, experiences, and ethical codes come into contact. No deed of sale remains, so it is difficult to tell exactly what happened in May 1626 in what is now Manhattan , but historians agree that some kind of transaction took place between the Dutch West India Company, represented by Pieter Minuit, the newly appointed director-general of the New Netherland colony, and the Lenape, a Native American tribe ( Figure 5.2 ). Which exact Lenape tribe is unknown; its members may have been simply passing through Manhattan and could have been the Canarsee, who lived in what is today southern Brooklyn. 1 Legend has it that the Dutch bought Manhattan island for $24 worth of beads and trinkets, but some historians believe the natives granted the Dutch only fishing and hunting rights and not outright ownership. Furthermore, the price, acknowledged as “sixty guilders” (about $1000 today), could actually represent the value of items such as farming tools, muskets, gun powder, kettles, axes, knives, and clothing offered by the Dutch. Clearly, the reality was more nuanced than the legend. 2

The “purchase” of Manhattan is an excellent case study of an encounter between two vastly different cultures, worldviews, histories, and experiences of reality, all within a single geographic area. Although it is a misconception that the native peoples of what would become the United States did not own property or value individual possession, it is nevertheless true that their approach to property was more fluid than that of the Dutch and of later settlers like the English, who regarded property as a fixed commodity that could be owned and transferred to others. These differences, as well as enforced taxation, eventually led to war between the Dutch and several Native American tribes. 3 European colonization only exacerbated hostilities and misunderstandings, not merely about how to conduct business but also about how to live together in harmony.

Link to Learning

For more information, read this article about the Manhattan purchase and the encounter between European and Native American cultures and also this article about Peter Minuit and his involvement. What unexamined assumptions by both parties led to problems between them?

Two major conditions affect the relationship between business and culture . The first is that business is not culturally neutral. Today, it typically displays a mindset that is Western and primarily English-speaking and is reinforced by the enculturation process of Western nations, which tends to emphasize individualism and competition. In this tradition, business is defined as the exchange of goods and services in a dedicated market for the purpose of commerce and creating value for its owners and investors. Thus, business is not open ended but rather directed toward a specific goal and supported by beliefs about labor, ownership, property, and rights.

In the West, we typically think of these beliefs in Western terms. This worldview explains the misunderstanding between Minuit, who assumed he was buying Manhattan, and the tribal leaders, who may have had in mind nothing of the sort but instead believed they were granting some use rights. The point is that a particular understanding of and approach to business are already givens in any particular culture. Businesspeople who work across cultures in effect have entered the theater in the middle of the movie, and often they must perform the translation work of business to put their understanding and approach into local cultural idioms. One example of this is the fact that you might find sambal chili sauce in an Indonesian McDonald’s in place of Heinz ketchup, but the restaurant, nevertheless, is a McDonald’s.

The second condition that affects the relationship between business and culture is more complex because it reflects an evolving view of business in which the purpose is not solely generating wealth but also balancing profitability and responsibility to the public interest and the planet. In this view, which has developed as a result of political change and economic globalization , organizations comply with legal and economic regulations but then go beyond them to effect social change and sometimes even social justice. 4 The dominant manufacture-production-marketing-consumption model is changing to meet the demands of an increasing global population and finite resources. No longer can an organization maintain a purely bottom-line mentality; now it must consider ethics, and, therefore, social responsibility and sustainability, throughout its entire operation. As a result, local cultures are assuming a more aggressive role in defining their relationship with business prevalent in their regions.

Had this change taken place four centuries ago, that transaction in Manhattan might have gone a little differently. However, working across cultures can also create challenging ethical dilemmas, especially in regions where corruption is commonplace. A number of companies have experienced this problem, and globalization will likely only increase its incidence.

Cases from the Real World

If you were to do a top-ten list of the world’s greatest corruption scandals, the problems of Petrobras ( Petróleo Brasileiro ) in Brazil surely would make the list. The majority state-owned petroleum conglomerate was a party to a multibillion-dollar scandal in which company executives received bribes and kickbacks from contractors in exchange for lucrative construction and drilling contracts. The contractors paid Petrobras executives upward of five percent of the contract amount, which was funneled back into slush funds. The slush funds, in turn, paid for the election campaigns of certain members of the ruling political party, Partido dos Trabalhadores , or Workers Party, as well as for luxury items like race cars, jewelry, Rolex watches, yachts, wine, and art. 5

The original investigation, known as Operation Car Wash ( Lava Jato) , began in 2014 at a gas station and car wash in Brasília, where money was being laundered. It has since expanded to include scrutiny of senators, government officials, and the former president of the republic, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. The probe also contributed to the impeachment and removal of Lula’s successor, Dilma Rousseff. Lula and Rousseff are members of the Workers Party. The case is complex, revealing Chinese suppliers, Swiss bank accounts where money was hidden from Brazilian authorities, and wire transfers that went through New York City and caught the eye of the U.S. Department of Justice. In early 2017, the Brazilian Supreme Court justice in charge of the investigation and prosecution was mysteriously killed in a plane crash.

It is hard to imagine a more tragic example of systemic breakdown and individual vice. The loss of trust in government and the economy still affects ordinary Brazilians. Meanwhile, the investigation continues.

Critical Thinking

Is there any aspect of the case where you think preventive measures could have been taken either by management or government? How would they have worked?
Do you think this case represents an example of a culture with different business ethics than those practiced in the United States? Why or why not? How might corporations with international locations adjust for this type of issue?

Read this article about the Petrobras case to learn more.

Balancing Beliefs

What about the ethical dimensions of a business in a developed country engaging in commerce in an environment where corruption might be more rampant than at home? How can an organization remain true to its mission and what it believes about itself while honoring local customs and ethical standards? The question is significant because it goes to the heart of the organization’s values, its operations, and its internal culture. What must a business do to engage with local culture while still fulfilling its purpose, whether managers see that purpose as profitability, social responsibility, or a balance between the two?

Most business organizations hold three kinds of beliefs about themselves. The first identifies the purpose of business itself. In recent years, this purpose has come to be the creation not just of shareholder wealth but also of economic or personal value for workers, communities, and investors. 6 The second belief defines the organization’s mission , which encapsulates its purpose. Most organizations maintain some form of mission statement. For instance, although IBM did away with its formal mission statement in 2003, its underlying beliefs about itself have remained intact since its founding in 1911. These are (1) dedication to client success, (2) innovation that matters (for IBM and the world), and (3) trust and personal responsibility in all relationships. 7 President and chief executive officer (CEO) Ginni Rometty stated the company “remain[s] dedicated to leading the world into a more prosperous and progressive future; to creating a world that is fairer, more diverse, more tolerant, more just.” 8

Johnson & Johnson was one of the first companies to write a formal mission statement, and it is one that continues to earn praise. This statement has been embraced by several succeeding CEOs at the company, illustrating that a firm’s mission statement can have a value that extends beyond its authors to serve many generations of managers and workers. Read Johnson & Johnson’s mission statement and social commitment to learn more.

Finally, businesses also go through the process of enculturation ; as a result, they have certain beliefs about themselves, drawn from the customs, language, history, religion, and ethics of the culture in which they are formed. One example of a company whose ethics and ethical practices are deeply embedded in its culture is Merck & Co., one of the world’s largest pharmaceutical companies and known for its strong ethical values and leadership. As its founder George W. Merck (1894–1957) once stated, “We try to remember that medicine is for the patient. We try never to forget that medicine is for the people. It is not for the profits. The profits follow, and if we have remembered that, they have never failed to appear. The better we have remembered it, the larger they have been.” 9 Culture is deeply rooted, but businesses may make their own interpretations of its accepted norms.

Merck & Co. is justly lauded for its involvement in the fight to control the spread of river blindness in Africa. For more information, watch this World Bank video about Merck & Co.’s efforts to treat river blindness and its partnership with international organizations and African governments.

Our beliefs are also challenged when a clash occurs between a legal framework and cultural norms, such as when a company feels compelled to engage in dubious and even illegal activities to generate business. For example, the German technology company Siemens has paid billions of dollars in fines and judgments for bribing government officials in several countries. Although some local officials may have expected to receive bribes to grant government contracts, Siemens was still bound by national and international regulations forbidding the practice, as well as by its own code of ethics. How can a company remain true to its mission and code of ethics in a highly competitive international environment ( Figure 5.3 )?

Business performance is a reflection of what an organization believes about itself, as in the IBM and Merck examples. 10 Those beliefs, in turn, spring from what the individuals in the organization believe about it and themselves, based on their communities, families, personal biographies, religious beliefs, and educational backgrounds. Unless key leaders have a vision for the organization and themselves, and a path to achieving it, there can be no balance of beliefs about profitability and responsibility, or integration of business with culture. The Manhattan purchase was successful to the degree that Minuit and the tribal leaders were willing to engage in an exchange of mutual benefit. Yet this revealed a transaction between two very different commercial cultures. Did each group truly understand the other’s perception of an exchange of goods and services? Furthermore, did the parties balance personal and collective beliefs for the greater good? Given the distinctions between these two cultures, would that even have been possible?

Consumerism and the Global Marketplace

To paraphrase the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus (c. 535–475 BCE), the one constant in life is change. Traditional norms and customs have changed as the world’s population has grown more diverse and urbanized, and as the Internet has made news and other resources readily available. The growing emphasis on consumerism —a lifestyle characterized by the acquisition of goods and services—has meant that people have become defined as “consumers” as opposed to citizens or human beings. Unfortunately, this emphasis eventually leads to the problem of diminishing marginal utility, with the consumer having to buy an ever-increasing amount to reach the same level of satisfaction.

At the same time, markets have become more diverse and interconnected. For example, South Korean companies like LG and Samsung employ 52,000 workers in the United States, 11 and many U.S. companies now manufacture their products abroad. Such globalization of their domestic markets has allowed U.S. consumers to enjoy products from around the world, but it also presents ethical challenges. The individual consumer, for instance, may benefit from lower prices and a greater selection of goods, but only by supporting a company that might be engaged in unethical practices in its overseas supply or distribution chains. Producers’ choices about wages, working conditions, environmental impact, child labor, taxation, and plant safety feature in the creation of each product brought to market. Becoming aware of these factors requires consumers to engage in an investigation of the business practices of those parties they will patronize and exercise a certain amount of cultural and ethical sensitivity.

Overseas Manufacturing

How can the purchase of a pair of sneakers be seen as an ethical act? Throughout the 1990s, the U.S. shoe and sportswear manufacturer Nike was widely criticized for subcontracting with factories in China and Southeast Asia that were little more than sweatshops with deplorable working conditions. After responding to the criticisms and demanding that its suppliers improve their workplaces, the company began to redeem itself in the eyes of many and has become a model of business ethics and sustainability. However, questions remain about the relationship between business and government.

For instance, should a company advocate for labor rights, a minimum wage, and unionization in developing countries where it has operations? What responsibility does it have for the welfare of a contractor’s workers in a culture with differing customs? What right does any Western company have to insist that its foreign contractors observe in their factories the protocols required in the West? What, for example, is sacred about an eight-hour workday? When Nike demands that foreign manufacturers observe Western laws and customs about the workplace, arguably this is capitalist imperialism. Not only that, but Western firms will be charged more for concessions regarding factory conditions. Perhaps this is as it should be, but Western consumers must then be prepared to pay more for material goods than in the past.

Some argue that demanding that companies accept these responsibilities imposes cultural standards on another culture through economic pressure. Others insist there should be universal standards of humane employee treatment, and that they must be met regardless of where they come from or who imposes them. But should the market dictate such standards, or should the government?

The rise of artificial intelligence and robotics will complicate this challenge because, in time, they may make offshoring the manufacture and distribution of goods unnecessary. It may be cheaper and more efficient to bring these operations back to developed countries and use robotic systems instead. What would that mean for local cultures and their economies? In Nike’s case, automation is already a concern, particularly as competition from its German rival, Adidas, heats up again. 12

What ethical responsibilities do individual consumers have when dealing with companies that rely on overseas labor?
Should businesses adopt universal workplace standards about working conditions and employee protections? Why or why not?
What would be required for consumers to have the necessary knowledge about a product and how it was made so that they could make an informed and ethical decision? The media? Commercial watchdog groups? Social-issues campaigns? Something else?

Read this report, “A Race to the Bottom: Trans-Pacific Partnership and Nike in Vietnam,” to learn more about this issue.

In considering the ethical challenges presented by the outsourcing of production to lower costs and increase profits, let us return to the example of IBM. IBM has a responsibility to provide technology products of high quality at affordable prices in line with its beliefs about client success, innovation, and trust. If it achieved these ends in a fraudulent or otherwise illegal way, it would be acting irresponsibly and in violation of both U.S. and host country laws and as well as the company’s own code of ethics. These constraints appear to leave little room for unethical behavior, yet in a globalized world of intense competition, the temptation to do anything possible to carve out an advantage can be overpowering. This choice between ends and means is reminiscent of the philosophers Aristotle and Kant, both of whom believed it impossible to achieve just ends through unjust means.

But what about consumer responsibility and the impact on the global community? Western consumers tend to perceive globalization as a phenomenon intended to benefit them specifically. In general, they have few compunctions about Western businesses offshoring their manufacturing operations as long as it ultimately benefits them as consumers. However, even in business, ethics is not about consumption but rather about human morality, a greater end. Considering an expansion of domestic markets, what feature of this process enables us to become more humane rather than simply pickier consumers or wasteful spenders? It is the opportunity to encounter other cultures and people, increasing our ethical awareness and sensitivity. Seen in this way, globalization affects the human condition. It raises no less a question than what kind of world we want to leave to our children and grandchildren.

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/business-ethics/pages/1-introduction

Authors: Stephen M. Byars, Kurt Stanberry
Publisher/website: OpenStax
Book title: Business Ethics
Publication date: Sep 24, 2018
Location: Houston, Texas
Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/business-ethics/pages/1-introduction
Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/business-ethics/pages/5-1-the-relationship-between-business-ethics-and-culture

© Mar 31, 2023 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

Essay Guides
Other Essays
How to Write an Ethics Paper: Guide & Ethical Essay Examples
Speech Topics
Basics of Essay Writing
Essay Topics
Main Academic Essays
Research Paper Topics
Basics of Research Paper Writing
Miscellaneous
Chicago/ Turabian
Data & Statistics
Methodology
Admission Writing Tips
Admission Advice
Other Guides
Student Life
Studying Tips
Understanding Plagiarism
Academic Writing Tips
Basics of Dissertation & Thesis Writing

Research Paper Guides
Formatting Guides
Basics of Research Process
Admission Guides
Dissertation & Thesis Guides

How to Write an Ethics Paper: Guide & Ethical Essay Examples

Table of contents

Use our free Readability checker

An ethics essay is a type of academic writing that explores ethical issues and dilemmas. Students should evaluates them in terms of moral principles and values. The purpose of an ethics essay is to examine the moral implications of a particular issue, and provide a reasoned argument in support of an ethical perspective.

Writing an essay about ethics is a tough task for most students. The process involves creating an outline to guide your arguments about a topic and planning your ideas to convince the reader of your feelings about a difficult issue. If you still need assistance putting together your thoughts in composing a good paper, you have come to the right place. We have provided a series of steps and tips to show how you can achieve success in writing. This guide will tell you how to write an ethics paper using ethical essay examples to understand every step it takes to be proficient. In case you don’t have time for writing, get in touch with our professional essay writers for hire . Our experts work hard to supply students with excellent essays.

What Is an Ethics Essay?

An ethics essay uses moral theories to build arguments on an issue. You describe a controversial problem and examine it to determine how it affects individuals or society. Ethics papers analyze arguments on both sides of a possible dilemma, focusing on right and wrong. The analysis gained can be used to solve real-life cases. Before embarking on writing an ethical essay, keep in mind that most individuals follow moral principles. From a social context perspective, these rules define how a human behaves or acts towards another. Therefore, your theme essay on ethics needs to demonstrate how a person feels about these moral principles. More specifically, your task is to show how significant that issue is and discuss if you value or discredit it.

Purpose of an Essay on Ethics

The primary purpose of an ethics essay is to initiate an argument on a moral issue using reasoning and critical evidence. Instead of providing general information about a problem, you present solid arguments about how you view the moral concern and how it affects you or society. When writing an ethical paper, you demonstrate philosophical competence, using appropriate moral perspectives and principles.

Things to Write an Essay About Ethics On

Before you start to write ethics essays, consider a topic you can easily address. In most cases, an ethical issues essay analyzes right and wrong. This includes discussing ethics and morals and how they contribute to the right behaviors. You can also talk about work ethic, code of conduct, and how employees promote or disregard the need for change. However, you can explore other areas by asking yourself what ethics mean to you. Think about how a recent game you watched with friends started a controversial argument. Or maybe a newspaper that highlighted a story you felt was misunderstood or blown out of proportion. This way, you can come up with an excellent topic that resonates with your personal ethics and beliefs.

Ethics Paper Outline

Sometimes, you will be asked to submit an outline before writing an ethics paper. Creating an outline for an ethics paper is an essential step in creating a good essay. You can use it to arrange your points and supporting evidence before writing. It also helps organize your thoughts, enabling you to fill any gaps in your ideas. The outline for an essay should contain short and numbered sentences to cover the format and outline. Each section is structured to enable you to plan your work and include all sources in writing an ethics paper. An ethics essay outline is as follows:

Background information
Thesis statement
Restate thesis statement
Summarize key points
Final thoughts on the topic

Using this outline will improve clarity and focus throughout your writing process.

Ethical Essay Structure

Ethics essays are similar to other essays based on their format, outline, and structure. An ethical essay should have a well-defined introduction, body, and conclusion section as its structure. When planning your ideas, make sure that the introduction and conclusion are around 20 percent of the paper, leaving the rest to the body. We will take a detailed look at what each part entails and give examples that are going to help you understand them better. Refer to our essay structure examples to find a fitting way of organizing your writing.

Ethics Paper Introduction

An ethics essay introduction gives a synopsis of your main argument. One step on how to write an introduction for an ethics paper is telling about the topic and describing its background information. This paragraph should be brief and straight to the point. It informs readers what your position is on that issue. Start with an essay hook to generate interest from your audience. It can be a question you will address or a misunderstanding that leads up to your main argument. You can also add more perspectives to be discussed; this will inform readers on what to expect in the paper.

Ethics Essay Introduction Example

You can find many ethics essay introduction examples on the internet. In this guide, we have written an excellent extract to demonstrate how it should be structured. As you read, examine how it begins with a hook and then provides background information on an issue.

Imagine living in a world where people only lie, and honesty is becoming a scarce commodity. Indeed, modern society is facing this reality as truth and deception can no longer be separated. Technology has facilitated a quick transmission of voluminous information, whereas it's hard separating facts from opinions.

In this example, the first sentence of the introduction makes a claim or uses a question to hook the reader.

Ethics Essay Thesis Statement

An ethics paper must contain a thesis statement in the first paragraph. Learning how to write a thesis statement for an ethics paper is necessary as readers often look at it to gauge whether the essay is worth their time.

When you deviate away from the thesis, your whole paper loses meaning. In ethics essays, your thesis statement is a roadmap in writing, stressing your position on the problem and giving reasons for taking that stance. It should focus on a specific element of the issue being discussed. When writing a thesis statement, ensure that you can easily make arguments for or against its stance.

Ethical Paper Thesis Example

Look at this example of an ethics paper thesis statement and examine how well it has been written to state a position and provide reasons for doing so:

The moral implications of dishonesty are far-reaching as they undermine trust, integrity, and other foundations of society, damaging personal and professional relationships.

The above thesis statement example is clear and concise, indicating that this paper will highlight the effects of dishonesty in society. Moreover, it focuses on aspects of personal and professional relationships.

Ethics Essay Body

The body section is the heart of an ethics paper as it presents the author's main points. In an ethical essay, each body paragraph has several elements that should explain your main idea. These include:

A topic sentence that is precise and reiterates your stance on the issue.
Evidence supporting it.
Examples that illustrate your argument.
A thorough analysis showing how the evidence and examples relate to that issue.
A transition sentence that connects one paragraph to another with the help of essay transitions .

When you write an ethics essay, adding relevant examples strengthens your main point and makes it easy for others to understand and comprehend your argument.

Body Paragraph for Ethics Paper Example

A good body paragraph must have a well-defined topic sentence that makes a claim and includes evidence and examples to support it. Look at part of an example of ethics essay body paragraph below and see how its idea has been developed:

Honesty is an essential component of professional integrity. In many fields, trust and credibility are crucial for professionals to build relationships and success. For example, a doctor who is dishonest about a potential side effect of a medication is not only acting unethically but also putting the health and well-being of their patients at risk. Similarly, a dishonest businessman could achieve short-term benefits but will lose their client’s trust.

Ethics Essay Conclusion

A concluding paragraph shares the summary and overview of the author's main arguments. Many students need clarification on what should be included in the essay conclusion and how best to get a reader's attention. When writing an ethics paper conclusion, consider the following:

Restate the thesis statement to emphasize your position.
Summarize its main points and evidence.
Final thoughts on the issue and any other considerations.

You can also reflect on the topic or acknowledge any possible challenges or questions that have not been answered. A closing statement should present a call to action on the problem based on your position.

Sample Ethics Paper Conclusion

The conclusion paragraph restates the thesis statement and summarizes the arguments presented in that paper. The sample conclusion for an ethical essay example below demonstrates how you should write a concluding statement.

In conclusion, the implications of dishonesty and the importance of honesty in our lives cannot be overstated. Honesty builds solid relationships, effective communication, and better decision-making. This essay has explored how dishonesty impacts people and that we should value honesty. We hope this essay will help readers assess their behavior and work towards being more honest in their lives.

In the above extract, the writer gives final thoughts on the topic, urging readers to adopt honest behavior.

How to Write an Ethics Paper?

As you learn how to write an ethics essay, it is not advised to immediately choose a topic and begin writing. When you follow this method, you will get stuck or fail to present concrete ideas. A good writer understands the importance of planning. As a fact, you should organize your work and ensure it captures key elements that shed more light on your arguments. Hence, following the essay structure and creating an outline to guide your writing process is the best approach. In the following segment, we have highlighted step-by-step techniques on how to write a good ethics paper.

1. Pick a Topic

Before writing ethical papers, brainstorm to find ideal topics that can be easily debated. For starters, make a list, then select a title that presents a moral issue that may be explained and addressed from opposing sides. Make sure you choose one that interests you. Here are a few ideas to help you search for topics:

Review current trends affecting people.
Think about your personal experiences.
Study different moral theories and principles.
Examine classical moral dilemmas.

Once you find a suitable topic and are ready, start to write your ethics essay, conduct preliminary research, and ascertain that there are enough sources to support it.

2. Conduct In-Depth Research

Once you choose a topic for your essay, the next step is gathering sufficient information about it. Conducting in-depth research entails looking through scholarly journals to find credible material. Ensure you note down all sources you found helpful to assist you on how to write your ethics paper. Use the following steps to help you conduct your research:

Clearly state and define a problem you want to discuss.
This will guide your research process.
Develop keywords that match the topic.
Begin searching from a wide perspective. This will allow you to collect more information, then narrow it down by using the identified words above.

3. Develop an Ethics Essay Outline

An outline will ease up your writing process when developing an ethic essay. As you develop a paper on ethics, jot down factual ideas that will build your paragraphs for each section. Include the following steps in your process:

Review the topic and information gathered to write a thesis statement.
Identify the main arguments you want to discuss and include their evidence.
Group them into sections, each presenting a new idea that supports the thesis.
Write an outline.
Review and refine it.

Examples can also be included to support your main arguments. The structure should be sequential, coherent, and with a good flow from beginning to end. When you follow all steps, you can create an engaging and organized outline that will help you write a good essay.

4. Write an Ethics Essay

Once you have selected a topic, conducted research, and outlined your main points, you can begin writing an essay . Ensure you adhere to the ethics paper format you have chosen. Start an ethics paper with an overview of your topic to capture the readers' attention. Build upon your paper by avoiding ambiguous arguments and using the outline to help you write your essay on ethics. Finish the introduction paragraph with a thesis statement that explains your main position. Expand on your thesis statement in all essay paragraphs. Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence and provide evidence plus an example to solidify your argument, strengthen the main point, and let readers see the reasoning behind your stance. Finally, conclude the essay by restating your thesis statement and summarizing all key ideas. Your conclusion should engage the reader, posing questions or urging them to reflect on the issue and how it will impact them.

5. Proofread Your Ethics Essay

Proofreading your essay is the last step as you countercheck any grammatical or structural errors in your essay. When writing your ethic paper, typical mistakes you could encounter include the following:

Spelling errors: e.g., there, they’re, their.
Homophone words: such as new vs. knew.
Inconsistencies: like mixing British and American words, e.g., color vs. color.
Formatting issues: e.g., double spacing, different font types.

While proofreading your ethical issue essay, read it aloud to detect lexical errors or ambiguous phrases that distort its meaning. Verify your information and ensure it is relevant and up-to-date. You can ask your fellow student to read the essay and give feedback on its structure and quality.

Ethics Essay Examples

Writing an essay is challenging without the right steps. There are so many ethics paper examples on the internet, however, we have provided a list of free ethics essay examples below that are well-structured and have a solid argument to help you write your paper. Click on them and see how each writing step has been integrated. Ethics essay example 1

Ethics essay example 2

Ethics essay example 3

Ethics essay example 4

College ethics essay example 5

Ethics Essay Writing Tips

When writing papers on ethics, here are several tips to help you complete an excellent essay:

Choose a narrow topic and avoid broad subjects, as it is easy to cover the topic in detail.
Ensure you have background information. A good understanding of a topic can make it easy to apply all necessary moral theories and principles in writing your paper.
State your position clearly. It is important to be sure about your stance as it will allow you to draft your arguments accordingly.
When writing ethics essays, be mindful of your audience. Provide arguments that they can understand.
Integrate solid examples into your essay. Morality can be hard to understand; therefore, using them will help a reader grasp these concepts.

Bottom Line on Writing an Ethics Paper

Creating this essay is a common exercise in academics that allows students to build critical skills. When you begin writing, state your stance on an issue and provide arguments to support your position. This guide gives information on how to write an ethics essay as well as examples of ethics papers. Remember to follow these points in your writing:

Create an outline highlighting your main points.
Write an effective introduction and provide background information on an issue.
Include a thesis statement.
Develop concrete arguments and their counterarguments, and use examples.
Sum up all your key points in your conclusion and restate your thesis statement.

Contact our academic writing platform and have your challenge solved. Here, you can order essays and papers on any topic and enjoy top quality.

Daniel Howard is an Essay Writing guru. He helps students create essays that will strike a chord with the readers.

International Management: Ethics and Culture

Introduction.

Ethics is a discipline that is concerned with evaluating an individuals’ or a society’s moral standards. As a result, ethics determines what is acceptable or non-acceptable in a society (Weiss, 2009, p.1). In the business environment, it is vital for the parties involved to appreciate ethical issues because the existence of ethical congruence is vital for there to be a successful relationship between the various stakeholders.

For example, adherence to ethics enables a firm to develop an environment conducive for working. However, there are no universally accepted standards that define ethical conducts practiced around the world. Therefore, managers are required to develop ethics which will aid their firm to succeed.

According to Ralston, Egri, Casado, Fu and Wangenheim (2009, p. 374), dealing with ethical issues is challenging especially in the international business environment. This is due to existence of cross cultural issues. Corrupt societies are not effective in developing relationships. This has the effect or reducing foreign direct investment.

In an effort to understand how life stage and societal culture impact subordinates influence on ethics, the researcher undertaken by Ralston et al (2009, p. 374) evaluates the on ethics in the workplace. This is achieved by evaluating how the various ethical perspectives are integrated by organizations subordinates in an effort to influence top management or the seniors.

The researchers’ core emphasis is on how life stage and societal culture influence subordinates.’ This is attained by taking into account the existing cultural diversity which is revealed by existence of differences in moral standards and ethics within a society across countries. The study has also taken into consideration both experiential and conceptual objective in an effort to evaluate the various multi-level and multi-country aspects related to life stage theory and societal culture.

Hierarchy of ethics

Studies conducted on the three dimensions which form the hierarchy of ethics reveal that they are evident in different countries. The 3 hierarchy of ethics evaluated include the following behaviors;

Organizationally beneficial
Self-indulgent
Destructive

The study considers organizationally beneficial behaviors to be the most important in the operation of an organization. These behaviors relate to the code of conduct which employees are required to integrate in executing their duties. These behaviors are beneficial in the performance of a firm.

For example, employees are required to portray expertise in their executing their duties. This significantly contributes towards the organization operating effectively and efficiently. Additionally, employees are required to develop a good working relationship with the employees. This will play a vital role in creating an environment conducive for working.

For example, emphasizing on development of organizationally beneficial behaviors by managers can lead into development of an environment conducive for creation of teamwork within the firm. The resultant effect is that the firm will be able to executive its projects more effectively and efficiently.

Self indulgent behaviors

Self indulgent behaviors occur when employees are concerned with their own self interest. This means that the employees are not concerned with the attainment of the organization goal but their own interests. In addition, the employees are not sensitive of the interest of the other employees the firm. This leads to development of ‘me first’ attitude.

According to the study, these behaviors can harm the organization. For example, due to existence of such behaviors, the employees may conflict with each other especially if they perceive that they are standing in their path towards attainment of their personal goals. The resultant effect is that employee productivity is adversely affected.

Additionally, they may negatively influence the managers in their decision making process so as to achieve their personal interest. Therefore, it is vital for firms’ managers to manage such behaviors effectively to ensure that they do not negatively affect the firms operation.

One of the ways through which the managers can instill ethics amongst the employees is by ensuring that they understand that their personal success is dependent on the success of the firm. As a result, all their efforts should be geared towards attainment of the firm’s goals. In addition, managers should ensure that they are efficient in organizational conflict resolution.

Destructive behavior

These behaviors are similar to self-indulgent behavior in that they may harm the operation of a firm. However, destructive behaviors are extremely self-serving in that they are directly aimed at harming others. Some examples of destructive behaviors include sexual harassment.

Issuing threats of giving outsiders such as the competitors’ sensitive customer information if one’s demand is not met, and offering sexual favors to individuals in senior positions. Such behaviors should be discouraged by ensuring that the employees understand the legal consequences associated with such behaviors.

How of life stage and societal culture impact subordinate influence on ethics

The study explores two main issues which influence ethics. These include life stage and societal culture. The study has conducted a comprehensive analysis of how life stage influences subordinate influence ethics. To achieve this, various demographic variables are taken into consideration in the study.

One of the demographic variables used in evaluating the effect of life stage on ethics at the micro level is age. Findings of various studies conducted by a number of scholars revealed that age difference is a key predictor of existence of behavior differences amongst various individuals (Mellahi & Guermatt, 2004, p.199). According to life stage model, human development is composed of four stages whereby every stage is characterized by distinctive values and behaviors.

This means that individuals in different age group possess different values and behaviors from those of other groups (Khosrowpour, 2006, p.11). The study reveals that age has a significant influence on the behaviors portrayed and values held by employees in the work environment. According to this theory, the age of an individual is one of the factors determining the value and moral standards he or she forms at the micro-level.

This is inline with the macro-level argument which asserts that there are different levels (micro, macro and meso level) that lead into emergence of similar values and behaviors amongst individuals. This forms the basis for the argument that it is possible to advance crossvergence theory thus making it to be a multi-level model.

According to the life stage theory, there is a clear difference with regard to employees’ preference. For example, in their early adulthood, individuals are characterized by a high degree of self interest and more individualistic. In addition, they are mostly concerned with ascending the corporate ladder compared to individuals in their middle adulthood who are more collective.

This means that individuals in their middle adulthood are likely to portray organizationally beneficial ethics. On the other hand, individuals in early adulthood tend to portray self indulgent ethics which might be destructive. Some of the components of societal culture relate to ethnicity, religion, race, country and the culture existing in the society. These aspects have an influence on the moral and ethical standards (Eden, 2008, p. 1).

The study also evaluates societal differences as one of the macro-level components that can be used to predict subordinate influence ethics. The research argues that numerous researches have been conducted to determine societal influences on work values. This led to development of two theories which include the convergence and divergence theory.

Societal divergence theory postulates that individual-level values are primarily determined by socio-cultural influence. The study asserts that the two main value dimensions that are universally accepted as the ones which differentiate societal values include individualism and collectivism. Individualism and collectivism is one of the dimensions that can be used to explain existence of cultural differences.

It defines the extent to which individuals within an organization or society are integrated (Bellou, 2003, p. 496). Societal-convergence theory postulates that business principles and social-cultural aspects are the ‘primary determinants of a society’s values’. On the other hand, crossvergence theory argues that it is paramount to take into consideration both socio-cultural and business principles in the process of determining how individual-level values are developed ( Kelly, Macnab & Worthley, 2006, p. 67).

The study reveals that there is a difference that exists across countries with regard to economic development. For example, Brazil has a relatively moderate rate of economic development and individualism. China has a moderate of economic growth rate but low level of individualism. Germany has a low rate of individualism and a high rate of economic growth.

According to the convergence theory, there is a high probability of the US and Germany to have the same social-cultural dimensions. Similarly, China and Brazil will also have similar characteristics. On the other hand, divergence theory forecasts that China and Germany will have similar characteristics.

Additionally, the study also illustrates that it is possible to determine the subordinate influence of ethics in a multi-cultural context. Ralston et al also asserts that it is possible to determine the influence of societal culture and life stage theory on subordinate influence ethics behavior more substantially compared to individually.

The research illustrates that cultural value systems have a significant influence on an individual’s ethics and moral standards. It further evaluates the subordinate influence on ethics in a multi-cultural context. In an effort to appraise the subordinate influence on ethics in the business environment, the study has underscored the importance of undertaking multi-level crossvergence study.

The study asserts that it is paramount to take into consideration both societal culture effects and life stage. Crossvergence aids in developing a comprehensive understanding on the subordinate influence ethics. This arises from the fact that both societal differences and micro-level differences are taken into consideration.

Differences in culture within organizations

According to Aluko (2003, p. 168), organizations do not operate in a vacuum. They are affected by social-cultural environment in a number of ways. For example, firms source their human resource from the society in which they operate. Therefore, an organization is composed of employees who possess different characteristics such as profession, nationality, ethnicity, and organizational culture.

Additionally, the employees have diverse values, beliefs, and attitudes which form the organizational culture (Bono, Heijden & Jones, 2008, p. 242). By appreciating the fact that culture differs across societies, Hofstede developed five dimensions which can be used to evaluate cultural diversity across countries.

According to Hofstede, an organization’s culture is dependent on a number of internal and external factors. Additionally, these factors influence an individual’s ethics and moral standards. Some of the external dimensions that influence an individual relate to personal habits, religion, educational qualification, work experience, geographic location, income, marital status, and parental status and recreation habits.

Internal dimensions relate to race, ethnicity, physical ability, age and sexual orientation. These are the distinguishable features of an individual. On the other hand, organizational dimensions relate to management stature, work field/content, seniority, union affiliation, management status functional level and group. Both organizational dimension and external dimensions are acquired over time.

These dimensions have a significant influence on an individual’s values and behaviors which means that they have an influence on an individual’s ethics and moral standards. According to Stonehouse and Campbell (2004, p.67), the culture of an organization is determined by a number of factors. These include national culture, industry culture, nature of employees, management style, size of organization, and history of organization.

The cultures of the home or host country play a vital role in determining the culture to be developed within the organization. Similarly, firms in a particular industry are required to develop a certain culture. The size of and organization also has an impact on the culture developed within an organization.

For example, large organizations tend to have a more formalized and complex culture compared to small firms. According to Stonehouse and Campbell, individuals at the senior management level play a vital role in developing a certain ‘feel’ in the organization. On the other hand, the employees’ background, educational level and training play a significant role in shaping an organizational culture.

Cultural diversity play a vital role in shaping the employees ethics, values and moral standards which consequently affect their work habits either individually or as a team. For example, some of the aspects which can be influenced by cultural diversity relate to employee relationship and time consciousness (Moran, Harris & Moran, 2007, p.1).

This attests to the fact that an individual ethics and moral standards are influenced by both life stage and the society (Moran, Harris & Moran, 2007, p.1). The Hofstedes cultural dimension is used to illustrate the degree to which individuals accept the existing differences with regard to either intellectual or physical capabilities which culminate into inequalities with regard to wellbeing (Bono, Heijden &Jones, 2008, p.243).

In an organizational setting, cultural diversity depicts the existing power distance. Within an organization, there is a significant degree of power distance. Power distance is affected by the nature of the organization structure which a firm has adopted. For example, if an organization has adopted a rigid organization structure such as hierarchical organizational structure depicts high power distance.

This is due to the fact that there is no free communication within the firm whereby employees have an opportunity to share their views and opinions with the management team. On the other hand, an organization that has adopted a flexible organization structure is characterized by low power distance. Employees have an opportunity to participate in the decision making process by sharing their views and opinions.

Therefore, cultural diversity which is determined by both the society and life stage has an effect on the moral standards and ethics developed by employees in the workplace (Ralston & Hallinger, 2005, 337). This is inline with the cultural ethical relativism which states that ‘what is right or wrong, good or bad, is dependent on one’s culture.’

Analysis of Hofstede model

In an effort to evaluate the existence of cultural differences in an organization, Hofstede asserts that it is not possible for an individual to think globally. As a result, managers are culturally constrained (Ward, Bochner & Furnham, 2001, p. 170). This presents a challenge to managers of multinational firms.

Managers are required to develop uniform corporate-wide practices to ensure that the firm succeeds and in order to achieve this, they have to consider the existing cultural differences. However, this may adversely affect the corporate culture of the firm. Additionally, expatriate managers have to deal with differences in the workforce with regard to demographics.

Due to the high rate of globalization, various groups in organizations are increasingly becoming culturally diverse (Ward, Bochner & Furnham, 2001, p.171). This is due to the existence of differences with regard societal culture. Societal cultural diversity illustrates the various differences existing in a society as a result of nationality, gender, culture and organization.

Differences in culture are evident in such aspects as behavior, beliefs, and social norms, religious or social groups (Niishi & Ozbigin, 2007, p.1883). Culture can also be defined as a set of social lessons which are learnt over time. For multinational firms to succeed, it is paramount for managers to ensure that a strong organizational culture is developed (Elias, 1999, p. 84).

One of the ways through which this can be achieved is by understanding and appreciating the existing cultural diversity. As a result, it will be possible for the management team to develop effective management practices which are inline with the existing cultural beliefs and ethics. In order to understand the existing cultural diversity, mangers should incorporate the Hofstedes model.

The model has a number of dimensions which include power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-femininity, individualism-collectivism, and long term orientation. By determining power distance index, it will be possible to evaluate the differences in power distribution and decision making.

On the other hand, individualism-collectivism will aid in determining how the various groups in the organization are integrated. Masculinity-feminism will aid in determining value preference within the organization. On the other hand, long term orientation is concerned with defining ethics such preferred in the organisation such as persistence, relationships and traditions.

From the study, it is evident that subordinate influences on ethics depend on such factors as life stage and societal culture. The study has substantiated this claim by taking into consideration a number of theories which include diverse theory, congruence theory, and crossvergence theory. Additionally, the research has also revealed that an individual’s behaviour varies depending on his life stage.

The resultant effect is that one moral and ethical standard is influenced culminating into a direct influence in his or her productivity in the work environment. By taking into account a number of countries such as the US, China and Brazil, the findings of the research indicate that culture varies across countries. In their operations, multinational companies are faced with numerous challenges arising from existence of cultural differences.

Reference List

Aluko, M., 2003. The impact of culture on organizational performance in selected textile firms in Nigeria. Nordic Journal of African Studies . Vol. 12, issue 2, pp. 164-179.

Bellou, V., 2003. Identifying organizational culture and subcultures within Greek public hospitals. Journal of Health Organization and Management . Vol, 22, issue 5, pp. 496-509.

Bono, S., Heijdenm A. & Jones, E., 2008. Managing cultural diversity . Northam: Roundhouse.

Eden, L., 2008. Letter from the editor in chief. Journal of International Business Studies . Vol. 39, issue 5, pp. 1-7.

Elias, R., 1999. The impact of corporate ethical values on perceptions of earning management. Managerial Auditing Journal . Vol. 19, issue 1, pp. 84-98.

Kelly, l., Macnab, B. & Worthley, R. 2006. Crossvergence and cultural tendencies: longitudinal test of the Hong Kong, Taiwan, and United States banking sectors. Journal of International management . Vol. 12, issue 4, pp. 67-64.

Khosrowpour, M., 2006. Cases on information technology; lessons learned. Hershey: Idea Group.

Mellahi, K. & Guermatt, C., 2004. Does age matter? An empirical examination of the effect of age on managerial values and practices in India. Journal of World Business . Vol. 39, pp. 199-216.

Moran, R., Harris, P. & Moran, S., 2007. Managing cultural differences; global leadership strategies for the 21 st century . Amsterdam, Boston: Butterworth Heinemann.

Niishi, L. & Ozbilgin, M., 2007. Global diversity management: towards a conceptual framework. International Journal of Human Resource Management. Vol. 18, issue 11, pp. 1883-1894.

Ralston, D.A., Egri, C. P., Casado, T., Fu, P. P. & Wangenheim, F. 2009. The impact of life stage and societal culture on subordinate influence ethics: A study of Brazil, China, Germany, and the U.S. Journal of International Management. Vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 374-368.

Ralston, D.A. & Hallinger, P., 2005. The effect of culture and life stage on workplace strategies of upward influence: a comparison of Thailand and the United States. Journal of World Business. Vol. 30, issue 3, pp. 321-337.

Stonehouse, G. & Campbell, E., 2004. Global transnational business: strategy and management . Chichester: Wiley.

Ward, C., Bochner, S. & Furnham, A., 2001. The psychology of culture shock . New York: Routledge.

Weiss, J., 2009. Business ethics; a stakeholders and issues management approach. Australia: South Western Cengage Learning.

Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, November 22). International Management: Ethics and Culture. https://ivypanda.com/essays/international-management-ethics-and-culture/

"International Management: Ethics and Culture." IvyPanda , 22 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/international-management-ethics-and-culture/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'International Management: Ethics and Culture'. 22 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "International Management: Ethics and Culture." November 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/international-management-ethics-and-culture/.

1. IvyPanda . "International Management: Ethics and Culture." November 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/international-management-ethics-and-culture/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "International Management: Ethics and Culture." November 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/international-management-ethics-and-culture/.

Individualism in the Current World
Achievement, Success and Individualism
Essential Skills of Subordinate
Supply Chain Management: Walmart Stores
Management Research Paradigm
Operational Management Problem Faced by Chick-fil-A
Coffee Planet Strategic Management
Supply Chain Management of NPW

Share full article

Supported by

Guest Essay

Gardens of Good and Evil

A photo illustration of a row of carrots standing on end surrounding a few artificial flowers.

By Olivia Laing

Ms. Laing is the author of the forthcoming book “The Garden Against Time.”

I’ve always thought of gardens as benign, even virtuous places. It wasn’t until the lockdowns of 2020 that gardens began to take on a more sinister aspect in my mind, as havens of sunny privilege to which the fortunate could retreat while the less fortunate were trapped indoors.

That unsettling feeling was powerfully reinforced in Jonathan Glazer’s Oscar-winning British film “The Zone of Interest,” set in a lovely walled garden belonging to the commander of Auschwitz and his family. On the far side of the wall, audible but unseen, are all the horrors of the concentration camp. Inside, life is pleasant and calm. “It’s a paradise garden,” a visitor exclaims.

The film is a painful exposure of how easy it is to turn a blind eye to cruelty and injustice. So much for that most famous of moral injunctions: Voltaire’s “We must cultivate our own garden.”

The Auschwitz garden is an extreme example, but a startling number of great gardens were founded on regimes of brutality and cruelty that remain concealed from view. While researching their complicated history, I investigated the Anglo-American Middleton family, who used the grotesque profits from their slave plantations in South Carolina in the 18th century to fund exceptionally grand gardens, including Middleton Place, believed to be the oldest surviving landscape garden in America, and Shrubland Hall in England, visited by Queen Victoria’s husband, Prince Albert, in 1851. The Middletons’ obsessive garden-making was apparently a way to cleanse their money and climb the class ladder, similar to how the Sackler family used art to launder their reputations.

The idea of the garden as a place of sinister seclusion has found its way to the world of high fashion. The theme of the 2024 Met Gala on Monday will be “The Garden of Time,” a reference to a short story by J.G. Ballard. In Mr. Ballard’s characteristically bleak tale, a desperate mob advances on an elegant garden, where Count Axel and his wife are living out a civilized, secluded existence. The count plucks mysterious “time flowers” to stave off the inevitable incursion, knowing the horde spells ruin to their cultivated life. Perhaps Anna Wintour, the editor in chief of Vogue and long-term co-chair of the Gala, was thinking about time and loss, but for me the story articulated the most dangerous aspect of the garden, as a place to hide from reality in a private paradise.

For a gardener like myself, these stories are hard to confront. While very few of us create gardens on a robber-baron scale, the experience of the pandemic made it clear that they can still be a privileged and exclusionary zone. According to a 2021 study , white Americans are nearly twice as likely to live in a home with access to a garden as Black or Asian Americans. The selfish gardener of the 21st century creates idyllic vistas that rely on fertilizers and pesticides that poison the wider ecosystem or demand water in a time of drought.

Gardens don’t have to be like this: sealed, exclusive and defended. Mr. Ballard’s story reminded me of Iris Origo, an Anglo-American aristocrat who made the exquisite gardens of La Foce in Tuscany in the 1920s and ’30s. In her gripping memoir of World War II, “War in Val d’Orcia,” she describes a similar tide of desperate humanity approaching her garden gate. Unlike Mr. Ballard’s Count Axel, she didn’t seek to repel them, retiring to the library to dust her statues. Instead, she converted her grand house and garden into a haven for refugees, partisans and escaping soldiers, despite the risk of imprisonment or death.

One of the most exciting things I discovered in my research was a study carried out at Great Dixter, a well-known garden in the south of England, established by the horticulturist and writer Christopher Lloyd and cultivated after his death by Fergus Garrett. In 2017, Mr. Garrett and his team commissioned a full biodiversity audit of the estate. To the amazement of the participating scientists, the greatest diversity wasn’t in the woods, meadows or ponds that surround the house, but in the formal garden itself.

This garden hadn’t been rewilded, or left to its devices. On the contrary, it was the human intervention that made it so biologically rich. Mr. Garrett had phased out pesticides and fertilizers, and had a relaxed attitude to rotting logs and weeds, which provided a habitat for a diverse array of species. But it was the sheer density of the ornamental planting, its aesthetic exuberance and abundance, that was the key. The borders, with their plumes of giant fennel, their riots of poppies and mullein, provided a constant supply of nourishment, while the regular disturbance by the gardeners created a rich habitat for insects and mammals.

It was the antithesis of the selfish garden, hospitable to many types of life. As Mr. Garrett observed in Gardens Illustrated , environmentalists had previously thought that gardens contributed to habitat and species loss, sterile spaces created solely for human pleasure. The Great Dixter experiment demonstrated that gardening could be both aesthetically satisfying and environmentally beneficial.

This February, a study led by the University of Surrey analyzed how green spaces in cities can have a cooling effect in heat waves. While street trees, parks and wetlands all had an effect, the most pronounced results came from botanical gardens, which lowered temperatures in adjacent city streets by an average of nine degrees Fahrenheit.

This is the kind of visionary garden state I want to see flourish everywhere. You can glimpse its potential in projects like the landscape architect Nigel Dunnett’s Grey to Green, which transformed a rundown, traffic-heavy area in the English city of Sheffield into a series of interconnected rain gardens and bioswales . These capture extreme rainfall, reducing the risk of catastrophic flooding. That area is now a luminous patchwork of foxtail lilies, alliums and yarrow, interspersed with trees and grasses. The garden helps cool the city in heat waves, provides a corridor for wildlife and gives sheer pleasure to a mass of people, whether they can afford to own a garden or not.

Olivia Laing is the author of the forthcoming book “ The Garden Against Time .”

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , WhatsApp , X and Threads .

Find anything you save across the site in your account

The Hidden-Pregnancy Experiment

By Jia Tolentino

An illustration of a pregnant woman looking at her iPhone as it connects to the data points around her.

Shortly after I became pregnant with my second child, in the fall of 2022, I decided to try a modest experiment. I wanted to see whether I could hide my pregnancy from my phone. After spending my twenties eagerly surveilling and sharing the details of my life online, I had already begun trying to erect some walls of technological privacy: I’d deleted most apps on my phone and turned off camera, location, and microphone access for nearly all of the ones that I did have; I had disabled Siri—I just found it annoying—and I didn’t have any smart devices. For the experiment, I would abide by some additional restrictions. I wouldn’t Google anything about pregnancy nor shop for baby stuff either online or using a credit card, and neither would my husband, because our I.P. addresses—and thus the vast, matrixed fatbergs of personal data assembled by unseen corporations to pinpoint our consumer and political identities—were linked. I wouldn’t look at pregnancy accounts on Instagram or pregnancy forums on Reddit. I wouldn’t update my period tracker or use a pregnancy app.

Nearly every time we load new content on an app or a Web site, ad-exchange companies—Google being the largest among them—broadcast data about our interests, finances, and vulnerabilities to determine exactly what we’ll see; more than a billion of these transactions take place in the U.S. every hour. Each of us, the data-privacy expert Wolfie Christl told me, has “dozens or even hundreds” of digital identifiers attached to our person; there’s an estimated eighteen-billion-dollar industry for location data alone. In August, 2022, Mozilla reviewed twenty pregnancy and period-tracking apps and found that fifteen of them made a “buffet” of personal data available to third parties, including addresses, I.P. numbers, sexual histories, and medical details. In most cases, the apps used vague language about when and how this data could be shared with law enforcement. (A 2020 FOIA lawsuit filed by the A.C.L.U. revealed that the Department of Homeland Security had purchased access to location data for millions of people in order to track them without a warrant. ICE and C.B.P. subsequently said they would stop using such data.) The scholar Shoshana Zuboff has called this surveillance capitalism , “a new economic order that claims human experience as free raw material for hidden commercial practices of extraction, prediction, and sales.” Through our phones, we are under perpetual surveillance by companies that buy and sell data about what kind of person we are, whom we might vote for, what we might purchase, and what we might be nudged into doing.

A decade ago, the sociology professor Janet Vertesi conducted a more rigorous form of the hidden-pregnancy experiment. Using an elaborate system of code words and the anonymous browser Tor, she managed to digitally hide her pregnancy all the way up to the birth of her child. In an article about the experience, for Time , she pointed to a Financial Times report, which found that identifying a single pregnant woman is as valuable to data brokers as knowing the age, gender, and location of more than two hundred nonpregnant people, because of how much stuff new parents tend to buy. She also noted that simply attempting to evade market detection—by, for example, purchasing stacks of gift cards in order to buy a stroller—made her and her husband look as though they were trying to commit fraud.

I wasn’t going to do anything so strict or elaborate. I’d allow myself to text and send e-mails about my pregnancy, and to talk about it with my phone nearby. I assumed that, eventually, it would notice; I’d just wait and see when a diaper ad popped up on Instagram. I liked the idea of establishing a buffer zone between my psyche and the object that most closely monitors it. I found it almost shocking to remember that this was possible.

Pregnancy tends to erode both your freedom and your privacy. Past a certain point in your second trimester, strangers will begin reaching toward your stomach and telling you about the real difference between boys and girls. But I had eluded this during my first pregnancy, because COVID hit before I started showing. In the months that followed, I began to feel the difference between witnessing something and surveilling it, and to recognize that the most pleasurable moments in my life had occurred out of the reach of any oversight. I had felt then an almost psychedelic sense of autonomy; time was dilating, and the slow bloom inside me was beyond anyone’s reach. I wanted to see if I could feel anything like that again.

During pregnancy, and in the early days of parenthood, one is both the object and the conductor of intense surveillance. Last year, the artist and filmmaker Sophie Hamacher co-edited an anthology of writing on the subject, called “ Supervision ,” which was published by M.I.T. Press. “As I became absorbed with tracking and monitoring my child,” Hamacher writes in the preface, “I was increasingly aware that I was a subject of tracking and monitoring by others: advertisers, medical professionals, government entities, people on the street. I began to wonder about the relationship between the way I watched her and the ways we were being watched.” Surveillance encompasses both policing and caretaking, Hamacher notes. In practice, its polarized qualities—“beneficial and harmful, intimate and distanced”—intertwine. Baby monitors use technology developed for the military. Many contemporary models run on CCTV.

Most American households with young children use baby monitors or trackers; two recent surveys put market penetration at seventy-five and eighty-three per cent, respectively. (Both surveys were conducted by companies that make these devices.) And there are now countless other ways that technology will help you to observe and scrutinize your child: nanny-cam Teddy bears, G.P.S. stroller accessories, scales that track your baby’s weight over time, disks that can be affixed to diapers and which will notify you if your baby rolls onto his stomach while he’s asleep. Increasingly, such products use A.I. to detect signs of distress. “The need to know whether a child is safe and well is perfectly natural, which makes the nature of such surveillance appear innocent,” the writer and scholar Hannah Zeavin notes in “Family Scanning,” one of the essays in “Supervision.” But, she adds, “these technologies conceal the possibility of false positives, disrupted emergency services, and of collaboration with state forces—wittingly or unwittingly—all in the name of keeping children safe.” As a general rule, these devices don’t lead to better outcomes for the babies they monitor. More often—like social media, which promises connection as a salve for the loneliness created by social media—parenting tech exacerbates, even calls into existence, the parental anxieties that it pledges to soothe.

This has become a common pattern in contemporary life. Nearly a fifth of U.S. households are estimated to use doorbell cameras, many of them from Ring, the Amazon-owned company that has expanded its reach through police partnerships and a dedicated app that encourages users to post footage of strangers. Ring cameras haven’t made neighborhoods measurably safer, but they have made users measurably more paranoid, and placed more people, sometimes with grave outcomes, in contact with the police. Until recently, police could readily access surveillance footage from the Ring network without a warrant by posting requests on the app. It also gave its own employees and third-party contractors “ ‘ free range ’ access” to view and download videos from users’ homes.

In 2015, the company Owlet started selling a two-hundred-and-fifty-dollar Smart Sock, which monitored babies’ heart rates and oxygen levels, and alerted parents if these figures were abnormal. Although the company insists that it has made clear that the product is not intended to “treat or diagnose” sudden infant death syndrome—and there is no evidence that it reduces the risk of SIDS occurring—such devices are sometimes referred to as “ SIDS monitors.” But, in 2017, an opinion piece in the Journal of the American Medical Association cautioned physicians against recommending the product. “There are no medical indications for monitoring healthy infants at home,” the authors wrote. The device, they noted, could “stimulate unnecessary fear, uncertainty, and self-doubt in parents about their abilities to keep their infants safe.” The following year, a study in the same journal found “concerning” inaccuracies in oxygen readings. When Owlet went public, in February, 2021, the company had a valuation of more than a billion dollars; later that year, the F.D.A. issued a warning letter that the Smart Sock wasn’t an authorized medical device, and the company pulled it off the market. A million units had already been sold. The following year, Owlet launched a new version, called the Dream Sock, which would receive F.D.A. approval. Most of the reviews for the Dream Sock exude profound gratitude. Parents write about the peace of mind that comes from knowing the baby is being constantly monitored, about not knowing what they would do if the device didn’t exist.

Surveillance capitalism, Zuboff writes, “aims to impose a new collective order based on total certainty.” But little is certain when it comes to babies. The control that we feel when we’re engaged in surveillance almost always proves illusory, though the control, or at least the influence, that others exert on us through surveillance is real.

It is not a coincidence that Roe v. Wade, a ruling grounded in the right to privacy, was overturned at a time when privacy in the U.S was on its conceptual deathbed. There are other legal principles that might have served as a stronger foundation for abortion rights: the right to equal protection, or the right to bodily integrity. As Christyne Neff wrote, in 1991, the physical effects of an ordinary pregnancy and delivery resemble those of a severe beating—flesh lacerated, organs rearranged, half a quart of blood lost. Can the state, she asked, rightfully compel a person to undergo this?

Since Roe fell, two years ago, fourteen states have claimed that power in absolute terms, banning abortion almost completely. Two states have successfully passed abortion-vigilante laws, which confer the power of carceral supervision on the public. Indiana’s attorney general has argued that abortion records should be publicly available, like death records; Kansas recently passed a law that would require abortion providers to collect details about the personal lives of their patients and make that information available to the government. Birth control and sex itself may be up next for criminal surveillance: the Heritage Foundation , last year, insisted, on Twitter, that “conservatives have to lead the way in restoring sex to its true purpose, & ending recreational sex & senseless use of birth control pills.”

For many women in America, pregnancy was a conduit to state surveillance long before the end of Roe. Poor women, especially poor nonwhite women, are often drug-tested during pregnancy, and sometimes during labor and delivery, without their informed consent. Women who take drugs during pregnancy have been charged with child abuse or neglect, including in cases in which the drugs were legal; women who have miscarried after taking drugs have been charged with manslaughter, even homicide, even when no causal link was proved. Sometimes this happens because the woman in question had responded to billboards and service announcements promising to help pregnant people who are struggling with substance use. In multiple states, women have been taken into custody when the safety of the fetus was called into question. “To be pregnant and poor in the United States is to play a game of roulette with one’s privacy, presumed confidential relationship with medical providers, and basic constitutional and medical rights,” the law professor Michele Goodwin writes in “ Policing the Womb ,” from 2020.

Goodwin describes the case of a woman in Iowa named Christine Taylor, who, in 2010, as a twenty-two-year-old mother of two, was accused of attempted feticide after she fell down the stairs while pregnant. Part of the evidence cited by the police was that she reportedly told a nurse that she hadn’t wanted the baby. (Ultimately, prosecutors decided not to press charges.) The carceral surveillance of pregnancy entails the criminalization of ambivalence, the inspection of these innermost desires. But the deepest truths about motherhood seem to me to be rooted in conflicting, coexisting emotions: nightmare and rapture in the same moment during labor, the love and despair that box each other at night in the weeks that follow, the joy of cuddling my nine-month-old undergirded by the horror of knowing that other babies are starving and dying in rubble. Before I had my first child, I had badly wanted to get pregnant. I had planned for it, prepared for it, hoped for it. Still, when I saw the positive test result, I cried.

My modest experiment went surprisingly smoothly. Because I’d had my first child not long before, this time I didn’t need to buy anything, and I didn’t want to learn anything. I smooth-brained my way to three months, four months, five; no diaper ads. I called up a lawyer and data-privacy specialist named Dominique Shelton Leipzig to get her perspective. Globally, she told me, we generate 2.5 quintillion bytes—that’s eighteen zeroes—of data per day. “The short answer is, you probably haven’t hidden what you think you have,” she said. I told her about the rules I’d set for myself, that I didn’t have many apps and had bought nothing but prenatal vitamins, and that Instagram did not appear to have identified me as pregnant. She paused. “I’m amazed,” she told me. “If you didn’t see any ads, I think you might have succeeded.” I congratulated myself by instantly dropping the experiment and buying maternity pants; ads for baby carriers popped up on my Instagram within minutes.

I had felt little satisfaction hiding from the ad trackers—if anything, I’d only become more conscious of how much surveillance I was engaged in, as both subject and object, and how much more insidious the problem was becoming. We rarely have a clear understanding of what we’re doing when we engage in surveillance of ourselves or others. Life360, an app that’s used by more than sixty million people and is marketed as an easy way to track your child’s location via their smartphone, was found in 2021 to be selling raw location information to data brokers. (The company said it now sells only aggregate data.) In a Pew survey from 2023, seventy-seven per cent of Americans said they had very little to no trust in how social-media executives handle user data, and seventy-one per cent were concerned about how the government uses it. In another survey, ninety-three per cent of Americans said they wouldn’t buy a doorbell camera if it sold data about their family. People just want to be safer. I had wanted security, too, and affirmation—and I had wanted to be a writer. I had disclosed so much of my life to people I’ll never know.

My husband and I had not bought a baby monitor for our first child, a choice that satisfied his desire to not buy things and my desire to insist that certain aspects of experience are fundamentally ungovernable. But shortly after the second child was born she developed eczema, and started scratching her sweet, enormous cheeks in her sleep. One morning, my husband went to her and found that she’d clawed her face open, leaving blood smudged all over her sleep sack and smeared all over her face. “We need a video monitor!” I wailed, already Googling options. “We need to buy a video monitor today.”

We didn’t buy one, but for weeks I regretted it and second-guessed myself. And I surveilled the baby with technology in other ways all the time. In the early weeks, I relied on an app to tell me how much milk she’d drunk and how many soiled diapers she’d had that day—activities that I myself had witnessed just hours before. I felt like a Biblical angel with a thousand eyes, somehow unable to see anything. I took pictures because I knew I would have no memory of the precise contours of this exact baby in a month. When she didn’t seem hungry enough, I panicked, obsessing over every feed.

“What’s the line between pathological self-surveillance and care for a newborn? Is there one?” Sarah Blackwood, an English professor at Pace University, asks, in “Supervision.” Blackwood contrasts the “fantasy of efficiency and sterility” built into parenting tech with the “psychic state of watchfulness so many mothers find themselves in”—a state that is “metastatic, fecund, beyond.” One afternoon, my husband took the baby from me: she was sobbing, and I was incoherently frantic, trying to get her to eat. She was O.K., he told me; she’d eat when she needed to. But I know what’s good for her, and it’s my job to make her do it, I thought, furious. Around the fringes of my consciousness, I felt a flicker of understanding about how this idea that everything was controllable had become so ubiquitous, how we had confused coercion with care. ♦

New Yorker Favorites

The day the dinosaurs died .

What if you started itching— and couldn’t stop ?

How a notorious gangster was exposed by his own sister .

Woodstock was overrated .

Diana Nyad’s hundred-and-eleven-mile swim .

Photo Booth: Deana Lawson’s hyper-staged portraits of Black love .

Fiction by Roald Dahl: “The Landlady”

By signing up, you agree to our User Agreement and Privacy Policy & Cookie Statement . This site is protected by reCAPTCHA and the Google Privacy Policy and Terms of Service apply.

By Kyle Chayka

When a Pro-Free-Speech Dean Shuts Down a Student Protest

By Jay Caspian Kang

By Patricia Marx

Reasons That I, a Middle-Aged Woman, Am Late to This Meeting

By Wendi Aarons

Search Menu
Browse content in Arts and Humanities
Browse content in Archaeology
Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
Archaeology by Region
Archaeology of Religion
Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
Biblical Archaeology
Contemporary and Public Archaeology
Environmental Archaeology
Historical Archaeology
History and Theory of Archaeology
Industrial Archaeology
Landscape Archaeology
Mortuary Archaeology
Prehistoric Archaeology
Underwater Archaeology
Urban Archaeology
Zooarchaeology
Browse content in Architecture
Architectural Structure and Design
History of Architecture
Residential and Domestic Buildings
Theory of Architecture
Browse content in Art
Art Subjects and Themes
History of Art
Industrial and Commercial Art
Theory of Art
Biographical Studies
Byzantine Studies
Browse content in Classical Studies
Classical History
Classical Philosophy
Classical Mythology
Classical Literature
Classical Reception
Classical Art and Architecture
Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
Greek and Roman Papyrology
Greek and Roman Epigraphy
Greek and Roman Law
Greek and Roman Archaeology
Late Antiquity
Religion in the Ancient World
Digital Humanities
Browse content in History
Colonialism and Imperialism
Diplomatic History
Environmental History
Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
Historical Geography
History by Period
History of Emotions
History of Agriculture
History of Education
History of Gender and Sexuality
Industrial History
Intellectual History
International History
Labour History
Legal and Constitutional History
Local and Family History
Maritime History
Military History
National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
Oral History
Political History
Public History
Regional and National History
Revolutions and Rebellions
Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
Social and Cultural History
Theory, Methods, and Historiography
Urban History
World History
Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
Language Learning (Specific Skills)
Language Teaching Theory and Methods
Browse content in Linguistics
Applied Linguistics
Cognitive Linguistics
Computational Linguistics
Forensic Linguistics
Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
History of English
Language Evolution
Language Reference
Language Acquisition
Language Variation
Language Families
Lexicography
Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistic Theories
Linguistic Typology
Phonetics and Phonology
Psycholinguistics
Sociolinguistics
Translation and Interpretation
Writing Systems
Browse content in Literature
Bibliography
Children's Literature Studies
Literary Studies (Romanticism)
Literary Studies (American)
Literary Studies (Asian)
Literary Studies (European)
Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
Literary Studies (Modernism)
Literary Studies - World
Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
Literary Studies (19th Century)
Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
Literary Studies (African American Literature)
Literary Studies (British and Irish)
Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
Literary Studies (History of the Book)
Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
Literary Studies (War Literature)
Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
Mythology and Folklore
Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
Browse content in Media Studies
Browse content in Music
Applied Music
Dance and Music
Ethics in Music
Ethnomusicology
Gender and Sexuality in Music
Medicine and Music
Music Cultures
Music and Media
Music and Religion
Music and Culture
Music Education and Pedagogy
Music Theory and Analysis
Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
Musicology and Music History
Performance Practice and Studies
Race and Ethnicity in Music
Sound Studies
Browse content in Performing Arts
Browse content in Philosophy
Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
Epistemology
Feminist Philosophy
History of Western Philosophy
Metaphysics
Moral Philosophy
Non-Western Philosophy
Philosophy of Language
Philosophy of Mind
Philosophy of Perception
Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of Action
Philosophy of Law
Philosophy of Religion
Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
Practical Ethics
Social and Political Philosophy
Browse content in Religion
Biblical Studies
Christianity
East Asian Religions
History of Religion
Judaism and Jewish Studies
Qumran Studies
Religion and Education
Religion and Health
Religion and Politics
Religion and Science
Religion and Law
Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
Religious Studies
Browse content in Society and Culture
Cookery, Food, and Drink
Cultural Studies
Customs and Traditions
Ethical Issues and Debates
Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
Lifestyle, Home, and Garden
Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
Sports and Outdoor Recreation
Technology and Society
Travel and Holiday
Visual Culture
Browse content in Law
Arbitration
Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
Commercial Law
Company Law
Browse content in Comparative Law
Systems of Law
Competition Law
Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
Government Powers
Judicial Review
Local Government Law
Military and Defence Law
Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
Construction Law
Contract Law
Browse content in Criminal Law
Criminal Procedure
Criminal Evidence Law
Sentencing and Punishment
Employment and Labour Law
Environment and Energy Law
Browse content in Financial Law
Banking Law
Insolvency Law
History of Law
Human Rights and Immigration
Intellectual Property Law
Browse content in International Law
Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
Public International Law
IT and Communications Law
Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
Law and Politics
Law and Society
Browse content in Legal System and Practice
Courts and Procedure
Legal Skills and Practice
Primary Sources of Law
Regulation of Legal Profession
Medical and Healthcare Law
Browse content in Policing
Criminal Investigation and Detection
Police and Security Services
Police Procedure and Law
Police Regional Planning
Browse content in Property Law
Personal Property Law
Study and Revision
Terrorism and National Security Law
Browse content in Trusts Law
Wills and Probate or Succession
Browse content in Medicine and Health
Browse content in Allied Health Professions
Arts Therapies
Clinical Science
Dietetics and Nutrition
Occupational Therapy
Operating Department Practice
Physiotherapy
Radiography
Speech and Language Therapy
Browse content in Anaesthetics
General Anaesthesia
Neuroanaesthesia
Clinical Neuroscience
Browse content in Clinical Medicine
Acute Medicine
Cardiovascular Medicine
Clinical Genetics
Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
Dermatology
Endocrinology and Diabetes
Gastroenterology
Genito-urinary Medicine
Geriatric Medicine
Infectious Diseases
Medical Toxicology
Medical Oncology
Pain Medicine
Palliative Medicine
Rehabilitation Medicine
Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
Rheumatology
Sleep Medicine
Sports and Exercise Medicine
Community Medical Services
Critical Care
Emergency Medicine
Forensic Medicine
Haematology
History of Medicine
Browse content in Medical Skills
Clinical Skills
Communication Skills
Nursing Skills
Surgical Skills
Browse content in Medical Dentistry
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
Paediatric Dentistry
Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
Surgical Dentistry
Medical Ethics
Medical Statistics and Methodology
Browse content in Neurology
Clinical Neurophysiology
Neuropathology
Nursing Studies
Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
Gynaecology
Occupational Medicine
Ophthalmology
Otolaryngology (ENT)
Browse content in Paediatrics
Neonatology
Browse content in Pathology
Chemical Pathology
Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
Histopathology
Medical Microbiology and Virology
Patient Education and Information
Browse content in Pharmacology
Psychopharmacology
Browse content in Popular Health
Caring for Others
Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Self-help and Personal Development
Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
Cell Biology
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Reproduction, Growth and Development
Primary Care
Professional Development in Medicine
Browse content in Psychiatry
Addiction Medicine
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Forensic Psychiatry
Learning Disabilities
Old Age Psychiatry
Psychotherapy
Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
Epidemiology
Public Health
Browse content in Radiology
Clinical Radiology
Interventional Radiology
Nuclear Medicine
Radiation Oncology
Reproductive Medicine
Browse content in Surgery
Cardiothoracic Surgery
Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
General Surgery
Neurosurgery
Paediatric Surgery
Peri-operative Care
Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
Surgical Oncology
Transplant Surgery
Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
Vascular Surgery
Browse content in Science and Mathematics
Browse content in Biological Sciences
Aquatic Biology
Biochemistry
Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
Developmental Biology
Ecology and Conservation
Evolutionary Biology
Genetics and Genomics
Microbiology
Molecular and Cell Biology
Natural History
Plant Sciences and Forestry
Research Methods in Life Sciences
Structural Biology
Systems Biology
Zoology and Animal Sciences
Browse content in Chemistry
Analytical Chemistry
Computational Chemistry
Crystallography
Environmental Chemistry
Industrial Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry
Materials Chemistry
Medicinal Chemistry
Mineralogy and Gems
Organic Chemistry
Physical Chemistry
Polymer Chemistry
Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
Theoretical Chemistry
Browse content in Computer Science
Artificial Intelligence
Computer Architecture and Logic Design
Game Studies
Human-Computer Interaction
Mathematical Theory of Computation
Programming Languages
Software Engineering
Systems Analysis and Design
Virtual Reality
Browse content in Computing
Business Applications
Computer Security
Computer Games
Computer Networking and Communications
Digital Lifestyle
Graphical and Digital Media Applications
Operating Systems
Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
Atmospheric Sciences
Environmental Geography
Geology and the Lithosphere
Maps and Map-making
Meteorology and Climatology
Oceanography and Hydrology
Palaeontology
Physical Geography and Topography
Regional Geography
Soil Science
Urban Geography
Browse content in Engineering and Technology
Agriculture and Farming
Biological Engineering
Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
Electronics and Communications Engineering
Energy Technology
Engineering (General)
Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
History of Engineering and Technology
Mechanical Engineering and Materials
Technology of Industrial Chemistry
Transport Technology and Trades
Browse content in Environmental Science
Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
Environmental Sustainability
Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
History of Science and Technology
Browse content in Materials Science
Ceramics and Glasses
Composite Materials
Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
Nanotechnology
Browse content in Mathematics
Applied Mathematics
Biomathematics and Statistics
History of Mathematics
Mathematical Education
Mathematical Finance
Mathematical Analysis
Numerical and Computational Mathematics
Probability and Statistics
Pure Mathematics
Browse content in Neuroscience
Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
Development of the Nervous System
Disorders of the Nervous System
History of Neuroscience
Invertebrate Neurobiology
Molecular and Cellular Systems
Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
Neuroscientific Techniques
Sensory and Motor Systems
Browse content in Physics
Astronomy and Astrophysics
Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
Biological and Medical Physics
Classical Mechanics
Computational Physics
Condensed Matter Physics
Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
History of Physics
Mathematical and Statistical Physics
Measurement Science
Nuclear Physics
Particles and Fields
Plasma Physics
Quantum Physics
Relativity and Gravitation
Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
Browse content in Psychology
Affective Sciences
Clinical Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive Neuroscience
Criminal and Forensic Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Educational Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology
Health Psychology
History and Systems in Psychology
Music Psychology
Neuropsychology
Organizational Psychology
Psychological Assessment and Testing
Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
Psychology Professional Development and Training
Research Methods in Psychology
Social Psychology
Browse content in Social Sciences
Browse content in Anthropology
Anthropology of Religion
Human Evolution
Medical Anthropology
Physical Anthropology
Regional Anthropology
Social and Cultural Anthropology
Theory and Practice of Anthropology
Browse content in Business and Management
Business Ethics
Business Strategy
Business History
Business and Technology
Business and Government
Business and the Environment
Comparative Management
Corporate Governance
Corporate Social Responsibility
Entrepreneurship
Health Management
Human Resource Management
Industrial and Employment Relations
Industry Studies
Information and Communication Technologies
International Business
Knowledge Management
Management and Management Techniques
Operations Management
Organizational Theory and Behaviour
Pensions and Pension Management
Public and Nonprofit Management
Strategic Management
Supply Chain Management
Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
Criminal Justice
Criminology
Forms of Crime
International and Comparative Criminology
Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
Development Studies
Browse content in Economics
Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
Asian Economics
Behavioural Finance
Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
Economic History
Economic Systems
Economic Methodology
Economic Development and Growth
Financial Markets
Financial Institutions and Services
General Economics and Teaching
Health, Education, and Welfare
History of Economic Thought
International Economics
Labour and Demographic Economics
Law and Economics
Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
Microeconomics
Public Economics
Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
Welfare Economics
Browse content in Education
Adult Education and Continuous Learning
Care and Counselling of Students
Early Childhood and Elementary Education
Educational Equipment and Technology
Educational Strategies and Policy
Higher and Further Education
Organization and Management of Education
Philosophy and Theory of Education
Schools Studies
Secondary Education
Teaching of a Specific Subject
Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
Teaching Skills and Techniques
Browse content in Environment
Applied Ecology (Social Science)
Climate Change
Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
Natural Disasters (Environment)
Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
Browse content in Human Geography
Cultural Geography
Economic Geography
Political Geography
Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
Communication Studies
Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
Browse content in Politics
African Politics
Asian Politics
Chinese Politics
Comparative Politics
Conflict Politics
Elections and Electoral Studies
Environmental Politics
European Union
Foreign Policy
Gender and Politics
Human Rights and Politics
Indian Politics
International Relations
International Organization (Politics)
International Political Economy
Irish Politics
Latin American Politics
Middle Eastern Politics
Political Behaviour
Political Economy
Political Institutions
Political Methodology
Political Communication
Political Philosophy
Political Sociology
Political Theory
Politics and Law
Public Policy
Public Administration
Quantitative Political Methodology
Regional Political Studies
Russian Politics
Security Studies
State and Local Government
UK Politics
US Politics
Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
African Studies
Asian Studies
East Asian Studies
Japanese Studies
Latin American Studies
Middle Eastern Studies
Native American Studies
Scottish Studies
Browse content in Research and Information
Research Methods
Browse content in Social Work
Addictions and Substance Misuse
Adoption and Fostering
Care of the Elderly
Child and Adolescent Social Work
Couple and Family Social Work
Developmental and Physical Disabilities Social Work
Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
Emergency Services
Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
International and Global Issues in Social Work
Mental and Behavioural Health
Social Justice and Human Rights
Social Policy and Advocacy
Social Work and Crime and Justice
Social Work Macro Practice
Social Work Practice Settings
Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
Welfare and Benefit Systems
Browse content in Sociology
Childhood Studies
Community Development
Comparative and Historical Sociology
Economic Sociology
Gender and Sexuality
Gerontology and Ageing
Health, Illness, and Medicine
Marriage and the Family
Migration Studies
Occupations, Professions, and Work
Organizations
Population and Demography
Race and Ethnicity
Social Theory
Social Movements and Social Change
Social Research and Statistics
Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
Sociology of Religion
Sociology of Education
Sport and Leisure
Urban and Rural Studies
Browse content in Warfare and Defence
Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
Land Forces and Warfare
Military Administration
Military Life and Institutions
Naval Forces and Warfare
Other Warfare and Defence Issues
Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
Weapons and Equipment

< Previous
Published: November 2022
Cite Icon Cite
Permissions Icon Permissions

Signed in as

Institutional accounts.

GoogleCrawler [DO NOT DELETE]
Google Scholar Indexing

Personal account

Sign in with email/username & password
Get email alerts
Save searches
Purchase content
Activate your purchase/trial code

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card Sign in with username/password Recommend to your librarian
Institutional account management
Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Sign in through your institution

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institutionâ€™s website and Oxford Academic.

Click Sign in through your institution.
Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institutionâ€™s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Sign in with a library card

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see â€˜Sign in through society siteâ€™ in the sign in pane within a journal:

Click Sign in through society site.
When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

About Oxford Academic
Publish journals with us
University press partners
What we publish
New features
Open access
Rights and permissions
Accessibility
Advertising
Media enquiries
Oxford University Press
Oxford Languages
University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

Cookie settings
Cookie policy
Privacy policy
Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

You are using an outdated browser. Upgrade your browser today or install Google Chrome Frame to better experience this site.

IMF at a Glance
Surveillance
Capacity Development
IMF Factsheets List
IMF Members
IMF Timeline
Senior Officials
Job Opportunities
Archives of the IMF
Climate Change
Fiscal Policies
Income Inequality

Flagship Publications

Other publications.

World Economic Outlook
Global Financial Stability Report
Fiscal Monitor
External Sector Report
Staff Discussion Notes
Working Papers
IMF Research Perspectives
Economic Review
Global Housing Watch
Commodity Prices
Commodities Data Portal
IMF Researchers
Annual Research Conference
Other IMF Events

IMF reports and publications by country

Regional offices.

IMF Resident Representative Offices
IMF Regional Reports
IMF and Europe
IMF Members' Quotas and Voting Power, and Board of Governors
IMF Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
IMF Capacity Development Office in Thailand (CDOT)
IMF Regional Office in Central America, Panama, and the Dominican Republic
Eastern Caribbean Currency Union (ECCU)
IMF Europe Office in Paris and Brussels
IMF Office in the Pacific Islands
How We Work
IMF Training
Digital Training Catalog
Online Learning
Our Partners
Country Stories
Technical Assistance Reports
High-Level Summary Technical Assistance Reports
Strategy and Policies

For Journalists

Country Focus
Chart of the Week
Communiqués
Mission Concluding Statements
Press Releases
Statements at Donor Meetings
Transcripts
Views & Commentaries
Article IV Consultations
Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP)
Seminars, Conferences, & Other Events
E-mail Notification

Press Center

The IMF Press Center is a password-protected site for working journalists.

Login or Register
Information of interest
About the IMF
Conferences
Press briefings
Special Features
Middle East and Central Asia
Economic Outlook
Annual and spring meetings
Most Recent
Most Popular
IMF Finances
Additional Data Sources
World Economic Outlook Databases
Climate Change Indicators Dashboard
IMF eLibrary-Data
International Financial Statistics
G20 Data Gaps Initiative
Public Sector Debt Statistics Online Centralized Database
Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves
Financial Access Survey
Government Finance Statistics
Publications Advanced Search
IMF eLibrary
IMF Bookstore
Publications Newsletter
Essential Reading Guides
Regional Economic Reports
Country Reports
Departmental Papers
Policy Papers
Selected Issues Papers
All Staff Notes Series
Analytical Notes
Fintech Notes
How-To Notes
Staff Climate Notes

IMF Working Papers

Intra-african migration: exploring the role of human development, institutions, and climate shocks.

Author/Editor:

Désiré Kanga ; Boileau Loko ; Gomez Agou ; Kangni R Kpodar

Publication Date:

May 10, 2024

Electronic Access:

Free Download . Use the free Adobe Acrobat Reader to view this PDF file

Disclaimer: IMF Working Papers describe research in progress by the author(s) and are published to elicit comments and to encourage debate. The views expressed in IMF Working Papers are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of the IMF, its Executive Board, or IMF management.

We examine push and pull factors, including demographic, geography, culture, economic and human development, politics and climate, and uncover the key determinants shaping migration patterns within Africa. Our findings emphasize the significance of political (instability, ethnic tensions) and socio-demographic (human development, common language, population size and structure) factors, climate shocks, along with economic motivations, in driving intra-African migration. Understanding these multifaceted factors is vital for policymakers in formulating effective strategies to leverage human capital mobility to promote sustainable development in the region.

Working Paper No. 2024/097

9798400276507/1018-5941

WPIEA2024097

Please address any questions about this title to [email protected]

IMAGES

Sample essay on ethics
Role of Ethics in Business Free Essay Example
Example Of Cultural Ethics Paper Outline
Ethics and moral character Essay Example
Example Of Cultural Ethics Paper Outline
Ethics 1

VIDEO

First Annual Ethics and Culture Lecture featuring Russell Moore
(Ethics & Culture) Destructive and Constructive Emotions! विनाशकारी एवं रचनात्मक भावनाएं
Medical Ethics
(Ethics & culture) नैतिकता परिभाषा, क्षेत्र, लक्ष्य, उपयोगिता_ Dr. Girdhari Lal Lodhi
DU VAC |ETHICS & CULTURE|UNIT-IV|STRIVING FOR A BETTER WORLD|OUTREACH ACTIVITIES|Part1|Full Concept|
(Ethics & Culture) Recognition of our common humanity! हमारी आम मानवता की पहचान

COMMENTS

Talking About Ethics Across Cultures
Talking About Ethics Across Cultures. by. Mary C. Gentile. December 23, 2016. A few years ago, I was teaching a two-day program about ethics in India for entrepreneurs and business faculty who ...
Essays on Ethics and Culture
Abstract. These essays discuss various ontological and epistemological questions in moral philosophy, drawing on ideas from Platonic-Aristotelian ethics, the later Wittgenstein, and Iris Murdoch, though without seeking to weave these into any unified system. The general approach is realist or objectivist, paying some attention to the role of ...
Communication of Ethics
Finally, the teaching and discussion of cross-cultural ethics provide practical evidence of the possibility of dialogue and mutual understanding. There is an obvious need to communicate ethics across cultural boundaries in today's globalised world. In the wake of globalisation, social practices such as politics, research, health care ...
Ethics
The term ethics may refer to the philosophical study of the concepts of moral right and wrong and moral good and bad, to any philosophical theory of what is morally right and wrong or morally good and bad, and to any system or code of moral rules, principles, or values. The last may be associated with particular religions, cultures, professions, or virtually any other group that is at least ...
(PDF) Ethical Culture in Organizations: A Review and ...
Sukanto Bhattacharya. Deakin University, Australia. We review and synthesize over two decades of research on ethical culture in. organizations, examining eighty-nine relevant scholarly works. Our ...
Introduction
Essay 5 focuses on certain theoretical anti-humanist considerations represented by Derrida's critique of J. L. Austin as the unwitting host of a questionable 'philosophy of consciousness': it reviews the stand-off, previously discussed in chapter 5 of Ethical Formation, between this line of criticism and the conception of autonomy (that ...
Cultural Diversity and Universal Ethics in a Global World
Cultural diversity and globalization bring about a tension between universal ethics and local values and norms. Simultaneously, the current globalization and the existence of an increasingly interconnected world seem to require a common ground to promote dialog, peace, and a more humane world. This article is the introduction to a special issue of the Journal of Business Ethics regarding these ...
5.1 The Relationship between Business Ethics and Culture
One example of a company whose ethics and ethical practices are deeply embedded in its culture is Merck & Co., one of the world's largest pharmaceutical companies and known for its strong ethical values and leadership. As its founder George W. Merck (1894-1957) once stated, "We try to remember that medicine is for the patient.
Ethical Culture in Organizations: A Review and Agenda for Future
UNPACKING THE DEFINITION OF ETHICAL CULTURE. There is no common, agreed-upon definition of ethical culture, with scholars often developing their own definitions, as shown in Table 1.These definitions broadly focus on how ethical issues arising in an organization are internalized and processed at either the individual or collective level and are predictive of ethical (or unethical) behavior.
Sabina Lovibond, Essays on Ethics and Culture
Abstract. These essays discuss various ontological and epistemological questions in moral philosophy, drawing on ideas from Platonic-Aristotelian ethics, the later Wittgenstein, and Iris Murdoch, though without seeking to weave these into any unified system. The general approach is realist or objectivist, paying some attention to the role of ...
Culture, Ethics, and Law: Ethical Theory and Moral Practice Essay
Culture, Ethics, and Law: Ethical Theory and Moral Practice Essay. Societies hold members accountable to moral standards agreed upon as structures for promoting responsible socialism. Behavioral expectations and value alignment differ from one community to another, hence the concept of world cultures. However, when it comes to culture, ethics ...
Essays on Ethics and Culture
Abstract. These essays discuss various ontological and epistemological questions in moral philosophy, drawing on ideas from Platonic-Aristotelian ethics, the later Wittgenstein, and Iris Murdoch ...
Cultural Relativism and Ethics
Cultural relativism theory is the view that moral and ethical structures which differ from culture to culture are similarly effective. This denotes that there is no cultural structure that is superior to the other. The theory is based on the idea that there is no decisive standard considered good or evil. Therefore, every judgment about right ...
How to Write an Ethics Essay: Guide & Paper Examples
Once you find a suitable topic and are ready, start to write your ethics essay, conduct preliminary research, and ascertain that there are enough sources to support it. 2. Conduct In-Depth Research. Once you choose a topic for your essay, the next step is gathering sufficient information about it.
Philosophy
An animator wonders: can you ever depict someone without making them a caricature? 10 minutes. Philosophy Essays from Aeon. World-leading thinkers explore life's big questions and the history of ideas from Socrates to Simone de Beauvoir, political philosophy to philosophy of mind, the Western canon and the non-Western world.
Essay on Ethics (1900 Words): A Professional Approach
Key Concepts in Ethics. Ethical Relativism: This concept posits that ethical principles are not universal but somewhat dependent on cultural norms and individual beliefs.It suggests that what is considered ethical can vary between cultures and societies. Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory emphasizing the greatest good for the most significant number.
627 Ethics Essay Topic Ideas & Examples
Start with choosing an issue you want to discuss in the paper. Some good ethics essay topics and examples we can suggest are: The aspects of utilitarianism as an ethical theory. Ethical dilemmas in the field of healthcare. Theories that explain human behavior. The significance of the personal code of ethics.
Navigating the Ethical Path: Nonmaleficence and Cultural Humility in
In this article we explore integrating diversity, equity, inclusivity (DEI), intersectionality, and cultural humility into psychotherapy, guided by the ethical principle of nonmaleficence—the commitment to do no harm. We critique the limitations of traditional Eurocentric psychotherapy and advocate for DEI principles to better address the diverse realities of clients from varied cultural ...
Ethics and Morality in Yoruba Culture
Ethics and Morality in Yoruba Culture. November 2007. DOI: 10.1002/9780470997154.ch32. In book: A Companion to African Philosophy (pp.396 - 403) Authors: John Ayotunde Isola Bewaji. The University ...
Literature and Moral Understanding: A Philosophical Essay on Ethics
The scope of this discussion encompasses literary aesthetics, ethics, and epistemology, and extensive use is made of reference to literary examples. Keywords: fiction and reality , moral involvement , moral understanding , art and morality , moral concepts
Cultural Values And Personal Ethics Essay
1051 Words. 5 Pages. 5 Works Cited. Open Document. Decisions we make everyday are influenced in part by our core values. Our cultural background, individual bias, personal ethics, and past experiences help to form the basis of our value system. "We begin sharpening our values at a very early age. Our parents, teachers, friends, religious ...
Ethics and Cultural Competence
Ethics and Culture Annotated Bibliography Ethical and Cultural Competency Vanaki, Z., Memarian, A. (2009). Professional ethics: beyond the clinical competency. Journal of Professional Nursing, 25 (5), 285 -- 291 The author found that the professional ethics are the core determinants to perform a better duty at the workplace. The behavior of a person at work place helps in making relationship ...
Morals Versus Ethics: Building An Organizational Culture Of ...
In simple terms, morals are the personal values and beliefs that guide your actions. They may be shaped by factors such as your culture, upbringing, personal experiences or religious faith. For ...
War in Gaza, Shibboleths on Campus
By Zadie Smith. May 5, 2024. Illustration by Nicholas Konrad / The New Yorker. A philosophy without a politics is common enough. Aesthetes, ethicists, novelists—all may be easily critiqued and ...
In Medicine, the Morally Unthinkable Too Easily Comes to Seem Normal
The culture of medicine is notoriously resistant to change. During the 1970s, it was thought that the solution to medical misconduct was formal education in ethics.
International Management: Ethics and Culture
Ethics is a discipline that is concerned with evaluating an individuals' or a society's moral standards. As a result, ethics determines what is acceptable or non-acceptable in a society (Weiss, 2009, p.1). In the business environment, it is vital for the parties involved to appreciate ethical issues because the existence of ethical ...
Opinion
The idea of the garden as a place of sinister seclusion has found its way to the world of high fashion. The theme of the 2024 Met Gala on Monday will be "The Garden of Time," a reference to a ...
The Hidden-Pregnancy Experiment
A decade ago, the sociology professor Janet Vertesi conducted a more rigorous form of the hidden-pregnancy experiment. Using an elaborate system of code words and the anonymous browser Tor, she ...
Index
Essay 4 Second Nature, Habitus, and the Ethical: Remarks on Wittgenstein and Bourdieu Notes Essay 5 Practical Reason and Character-Formation
IMF Working Papers
We examine push and pull factors, including demographic, geography, culture, economic and human development, politics and climate, and uncover the key determinants shaping migration patterns within Africa. Our findings emphasize the significance of political (instability, ethnic tensions) and socio-demographic (human development, common language, population size and structure) factors, climate ...