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An Overview of Forensic Psychology

What do forensic psychologists do?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Peter Dazeley / Getty Images

What Is Forensic Psychology?

What do they do, distinguishing features, education and training.

Forensic psychology is a field that combines the practice of psychology and the law by utilizing psychological expertise within the justice system. Forensic psychology may encompass evaluating competency to stand trial, making sentencing recommendations, offering expert testimony, performing child custody evaluations, participating in jury selection, and providing psychotherapy to criminal offenders.

The word 'forensic' originates from the Latin word 'forensis,' which means "the forum," or the court system of Ancient Rome. The American Board of Forensic Psychology describes this field as the application of psychology to issues that involve the law and legal system.

Interest in forensic psychology has grown significantly in recent years. Increasing numbers of graduate programs offer dual degrees in psychology and law, while others provide specialization in forensic psychology.

Some psychologists hold a specialist degree in forensic psychology, but most are licensed psychologists with either a PhD. or PsyD. These professionals may work in both criminal and civil law areas.

While forensic psychology is considered a rather new specialty area within psychology, the field dates back to the earliest days in psychology's history. Philosophers and scientists have long sought to understand what makes people commit crimes, behave aggressively, or engage in antisocial behaviors.

Forensic psychology is a relatively new specialty area. In fact, forensic psychology was just officially recognized as a specialty area by the  American Psychological Association  in 2001.   Despite this, the field of forensic psychology has roots that date back to  Wilhelm Wundt's   first psychology lab  in Leipzig, German.

Learn more about some of the major events and key figures in the  history of forensic psychology .

Today, forensic psychologists are not only interested in understanding why such behaviors occur, but also in helping minimize and prevent such actions.

The field has experienced dramatic growth in recent years as more and more students become interested in this applied branch of psychology.   Popular movies, television programs, and books have helped popularize the field, often depicting brilliant heroes who solve vicious crimes or track down killers using psychology.

While depictions of forensic psychology in popular media are certainly dramatic and attention-grabbing, these portrayals are not necessarily accurate. That said, forensic psychologists do play an important role in the criminal justice system. It can be an exciting career for students interested in applying psychological principles to the legal system.

If you enjoy learning about the science of human behavior and the law, then forensic psychology will probably interest you quite a bit. The field has witnessed dramatic growth in recent years, as more and more students become interested in this applied branch of psychology. However, forensic psychology is about much more than the glamorized views portrayed in television shows, movies, and books.

Common Job Roles

Some of the functions typically performed within forensic psychology include:

• Competency evaluations
• Sentencing recommendations
• Evaluations of the risk of reoffending
• Testimony as an expert witness
• Child custody evaluations
• Academic research on criminality
• Consult with law enforcement
• Treatment of criminal offenders
• Provide psychological services to inmates and offenders
• Trial consultants who help with jury selection, witness preparation, or legal strategies
• Design correctional programs

Forensic psychology is defined as the intersection of psychology and the law, but forensic psychologists can perform many roles, so this definition can vary.

In many cases, people working in forensic psychology are not necessarily "forensic psychologists." These individuals might be clinical psychologists , school psychologists , neurologists, or counselors who lend their psychological expertise to provide testimony, analysis, or recommendations in legal or criminal cases.

For example, a clinical psychologist might provide mental health services such as assessment, diagnosis, and treatment to individuals who have come into contact with the criminal justice system. Clinicians might be asked to determine if a suspected criminal has a mental illness , or they may be asked to provide treatment to individuals who have substance abuse and addiction issues.

Another example is that of a school psychologist . While people in this profession typically work with children in school settings, a school psychologist working in forensic psychology might evaluate children in suspected abuse cases, help prepare children to give testimony in court, or offer testimony in child custody disputes.

So what exactly makes forensic psychology different from another specialty area such as clinical psychology? Typically, the duties of a forensic psychologist are fairly limited in terms of scope and duration. A forensic psychologist is asked to perform a very specific duty in each individual case, such as determining if a suspect is mentally competent to face charges.

Unlike the typical clinical setting where a client has voluntarily sought out assistance or evaluation, a forensic psychologist usually deals with clients who are not there of their own free will. This can make assessment, diagnosis, and treatment much more difficult since some clients willfully resist attempts at help.

Forensic psychology is not a common degree option, yet more and more schools are offering it as a specialty. If you are interested in becoming a forensic psychologist, you should take courses that focus on topics such as:

• Criminal psychology
• Social behavior
• Abnormal behavior
• Cognitive psychology
• Drugs and psychopharmacology
• Criminal justice

If your school does offer coursework or a degree option in forensic psychology, you can expect to tackle topics that include deviant behavior, the psychology of criminal behavior, criminal risk assessment, domestic violence , mental health social policy, juvenile criminal justice, and adult offender treatment.

The growing popularity of the field has also led to an increase in the number of master's level forensic psychology degrees. Many experts suggest that such programs, while popular and appealing, have a disadvantage over clinical, doctoral-level training. 

Doctoral-level study in forensic psychology typically focuses on topics including research methods, personality analysis, cognitive science, psychology and the law, ethical and legal issues, assessment, and treatment.

While there is no certification requirement for forensic psychologists, becoming a licensed psychologist has professional advantages in terms of establishing credibility and expertise.

While forensic psychology may not be all about solving crimes and getting inside the minds of criminals, there are still plenty of challenges for forensic psychologists. There are a number of different job options within the field of forensic psychology.

For example, some forensic psychologists work directly in the criminal justice system to assess, evaluate, and treat individuals who have committed crimes or have been the victims of crimes. Other forensic psychologists investigate cases of alleged child abuse, work with child witnesses, evaluate individuals involved in child custody disputes, and assess mental competency.

If you are interested in a field such as forensic or criminal psychology, you might want to spend some time researching some of the exciting career options in forensic psychology . 

The degree you choose to pursue may depend somewhat on what you want to do as a forensic psychologist, so figuring this out early on can be helpful in planning your educational path.

A Word From Verywell

Forensic psychology can be an exciting and challenging career choice. Skills that you might need if you choose to pursue a career in this field include the ability to communicate well, research problems, and think critically.

American Board of Forensic Psychology. About .

American Psychology Association. Speciality Guidelines for Forensic Psychology.

American Psychological Association.  What is forensic psychology?

Davies GM, Beech AR (eds). Forensic Psychology: Crime, Justice, Law Interventions. 3rd ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2017.

Fulero SM, Wrightsman LS. Forensic Psychology . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; 2009.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Forensic Psychology Revision Notes

Deb Gajic, CPsychol

Team Leader Examiner (A-Level Psychology)

B.A. (Hons), Social Sciences, Msc, Psychology

Deb Gajic is an experienced educational consultant with a robust history in the education and training field. She brings expertise in Psychology, Training, CPD Provision, Writing, Examining, Tutoring, Coaching, Lecturing, Educational Technology, and Curriculum Development. She holds a Master of Science (MSc) in Psychology from The Open University, a PGCE from Leicester University, and a BA (Hons) 2:1 from Warwick University. She is a Chartered Psychologist (CPsychol) and an Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society (AFBPsS).

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

On This Page:

What do the examiners look for?

• Accurate and detailed knowledge
• Clear, coherent, and focused answers
• Effective use of terminology (use the “technical terms”)

In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario,” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear.

If there is more than one individual in the scenario, you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.

Difference between AS and A level answers

The descriptions follow the same criteria; however, you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.

Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.

Exam Advice:

You MUST revise everything – because the exam board could choose any question. However, it does make sense to spend more time on those topics which have not appeared for a while.

With these particular questions, there is a sizeable risk that people don’t understand the difference between the questions and then write about the wrong thing.

Make sure you know which is which; for example, do you understand the difference between “Genetic explanations” and “Neural and hormonal explanations,” and do you have a model essay for each?

Problems in Defining Crime

• Deviance involves breaking society’s norms and values

• Crime involves breaking a law

What is considered a crime and how that act is dealt with varies considerably from culture to culture?

Almost all research in forensic psychology can be considered ethnocentric as it is only relevant to the culture where the research was carried out.

For example, bigamy is illegal in the UK but not in all cultures. The age of criminal responsibility is 10 in England & Wales, but 8 in Scotland (being raised to 12) and 14 in most other European countries.

Definitions of crime change over time. For example, a parent’s right to smack their own child was outlawed in 2004. Homosexuality became legal in Britain in 1967.

A02 Scenario Question

In the UK, it is against the law to have more than one wife or husband at the same time. Smacking children was not illegal before 2004 in the UK, but now it can be a criminal offense.

1) Referring to the statements above, explain two problems in defining crime. [4 marks]

It is difficult to define crime because definitions of crime are culturally specific. Whilst it is illegal to practice polygamy in the UK, it is not illegal in some other countries.

A further issue is that definitions of crime change over time, for example, it was perfectly legal to smack your child in the UK before 2004, but now it is against the law, and public attitudes and perceptions have also changed.

Ways of Measuring Crime: Official Statistics

• Official Statistics are government records of all recorded crime in the previous year, based on police reports. They are published by the Home Office annually.

Official statistics lack validity as not all crime is reported or recorded by the police. For example, domestic violence against men is an under-reported crime.

They may also lack reliability as there are differences between police forces about which crimes are recorded, for example, some police forces do not record theft if the value is less than £10.

Also, they only count the number of criminal acts rather than the number of criminals, so the overall picture might be misleading. It could be that relatively few criminals are responsible for the majority of crime in an area.

Ways of Measuring Crime: Victim Surveys

Victim Surveys such as the Crime Survey for England and Wales selects 50,000 households randomly and asks them to document any crimes they have been a victim of in the past year.

Respondents may get years mixed up and report a crime happening in that year when in fact, it was the year before. This is known as telescoping.

Furthermore, some people may be unaware that they have been a victim of crime, e.g., thefts of garden sheds may only be discovered months later or assumed that the item is misplaced, not stolen.

However, victim surveys could be higher in validity than official statistics as victims are more likely to report trivial offenses in these surveys, things they wouldn’t go to the police with, as they might think it a waste of time.

Ways of Measuring Crime: Offender Surveys

• Offender Surveys involve Individuals volunteering the number and types of crimes they have committed.

• These tend to target groups of likely offenders based on ‘risk’ factors such as previous convictions, age, social background, etc.

• The Offender Crime and Justice Survey was the first self-report survey of its kind in England and Wales.

These obviously lack validity as offenders are unlikely to be truthful about the real extent of their own criminality. It may also be that they can’t accurately remember how many crimes they have committed and exactly when they took place.

All methods to measure crime are hampered by what is known as the dark figure of crime. As all the methods used to measure crime have issues with reliability and validity, a better approach might be to take a multidisciplinary approach and combine all three methods to get the best possible picture of the extent of crime in England & Wales in any year.

General Criticisms of Measuring Crime

Essay question.

Describe & evaluate ways of measuring crime. Refer to evidence and/or published examples in your answer (16 Marks)

Plan (16 marks – 20 minutes – 400-500 words)

• A01: – Official Statistics
• A03: – Police don’t record all crimes (Why?)
• All crimes are not reported (Why?)
• A01: – Victim Surveys
• A03: – Issues with memory (was it this year!) Victims might not report a crime (Why?)
• A01: – Offender Surveys
• A03: – Validity, social desirability, demand characteristics. Why wouldn’t offenders tell the truth?
• Conclusion: – Dark figure of crime. True picture through triangulation of all ways of measuring crime

Offender Profiling

When police have very little evidence to go on, they will sometimes enlist the help of a forensic psychologist. The forensic psychologist will use prior knowledge, and evidence gathered from the scene to build an offender profile.

An offender profile outlines the type of person likely to have committed the crime. It is based on prior experiences and uses computer databases to analyze what is already known. Offender profiles are only as good as the information provided to the profiler.

They should be regarded as one tool amongst many to be used by the police.

Top Down – The FBI Approach

• The phrase top-down refers to an approach that starts with the big picture and then fills in the details. The Top Down FBI approach relies on previous experiences of crimes.

• In the 1970s, the FBIs Behavioral Science Unit gathered data from 36 sexually motivated serial killers, including Charles Manson & Ted Bundy, to develop this approach to Offender Profiling.

• In 1980, Hazelwood and Douglas published their account of the ‘lust murderer.’ They advanced a theory that lust murderers are mainly categorized into two types: – Organised and disorganized. This is an example of a top-down typology.

• An organized  offender leads an ordered life and kills after some sort of critical life event. Their actions are premeditated and planned, they are likely to bring weapons and restraints to the scene. They are likely to be of average to high intelligence and employed.

• A disorganized  offender is more likely to have committed the crime in a moment of passion. There will be no evidence of premeditation, and they are more likely to leave evidence, such as blood, semen, murder weapon, etc., behind. This type of offender is thought to be less socially competent and more likely to be unemployed.

Top-down profiling is reductionist, as the classification system (organized/disorganized) is too simple. Offenders are not simply either disorganized or organized. It may be that there are both organized and disorganized features to all their crimes. An offender may start off being disorganized and become more organized as they develop their modus operandi.

Top Down typology can only be applied to sexually motivated serial killers; because of the limitations of the original sample that they interviewed: – sexually motivated serial killers!).

Alison et al. (2002) argue that this approach is based on outdated theories of personality being stable. External, situational factors can be a major influence on offending, and they are constantly changing.

Bottom-up – The British Approach

• A bottom-up approach that starts with small details and creates the big picture. No initial assumptions are made about the offender, and the approach relies heavily on computer databases. It can be the little details that are often overlooked that can be crucial to the success of a case.

• Canter (1990) is the UK’s foremost profiling expert; his bottom-up approach looks for consistencies in offenders’ behavior during the crime. Canter’s most famous case is that of the ‘Railway Rapist’ John Duffy.

• John Duffy carried out 24 sexual attacks and 3 murders of women near railway stations in North London in the 1980s. David Canter analyzed the geographical details and the evidence and drew up a surprisingly accurate profile. However, it should be noted that the profile didn’t directly lead to John Duffy’s arrest.

Bottom-up has wider applications; it can be applied to other crimes, not just sexually motivated serial killers like top-down.

Profiles can be useful, but police must be careful not to be blinded to other possibilities by them. Occasionally criminals do not fit the profile. Overuse could lead to miscarriages of justice. E.g., Paul Britton’s misleading profile in the hunt for the killer of Rachel Nickell.

Investigative Psychology

• Using computer databases and a program called Smallest Space Analysis, patterns are identified, and it is possible to see if a series of offenses are linked.

• Central to this approach is the concept of interpersonal coherence. This means the behavior of the offender at the time of the crime will be comparable to what they’re like in everyday life. Degrees of violence used in serious crimes, especially rape, may reflect how the criminal treats other women in his non-criminal life.

Evidence supports investigative psychology. Canter & Heritage (1990) analyzed 66 sexual assault cases using Smallest Space Analysis and identified clear common patterns of behavior.

The use of computer databases and Smallest Space Analysis makes this approach much more scientific than top-down typologies.

Geographical Profiling

• Geographical Profiling is used to make inferences about where an offender is likely to live. This is also known as crime mapping.

• Canter’s Circle theory (1993) proposed two models of offender behavior. Offenders are classified as either marauders (who commit crimes close to home) or commuters (who travel away from home to offend).

• It is called circle theory as most offenders (marauders) do operate in an area they are familiar with, and their crimes form a circle around their usual residence.

• It is more difficult to geographically profile commuters, although when investigators were looking at the disappearance and murder of 4 young girls from different and seemingly unrelated areas of Britain in the 1980s, the dumping of the bodies in laybys next to major A roads (including Twycross, just up the road) led to a breakthrough. It was realized that his likely occupation was delivery driver, giving him access to a van/lorry for easy transportation and leading to him ‘commuting’ all over the country, traveling along A roads.

Evidence supports geographical profiling. Lundrigan & Canter (2001) collated evidence from 120 murder cases and found that the offender’s home base was invariably located in the center of the crime scene pattern.

Essay Questions

Discuss the top-down approach to offender profiling. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks).

Discuss the bottom-up approach to offender profiling. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks)

Discuss investigative psychology and/or geographical offender profiling. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks)

Biological explanations of crime

Atavistic form.

• Lombroso’s (1876) theory of Criminology suggests that criminality is inherited and that someone “born criminal” could be identified by the way they look.

• He suggested that there was a distinct biological class of people that were prone to criminality. These people exhibited ‘atavistic’ (i.e., primitive) features.

• Lombroso suggested that they were ‘throwbacks’ who had biological characteristics from an earlier stage of human development that manifested as a tendency to commit crimes. Lombroso claimed that criminal types were distinguishable from the general population because they looked different.

• In a study of 383 dead Italian criminals and 3839 living ones, he found 40% of them had atavistic characteristics.

• These features include: – large jaw, forward projection of jaw, low sloping foreheads, high cheekbones, flattened or upturned nose, handle-shaped ears, large chins, very prominent in appearance, hawk-like noses or fleshy lips, hard shifty eyes, scanty beard or baldness, insensitivity to pain, long arms and tattoos!

These early theories seem ridiculous to us now, but they did represent the beginning of offender profiling and modern forensic science. Lombroso did also champion the use of the scientific method by using an evidence-based approach to research, doing hundreds of observations and measurements.

However, Lombroso did not have a control group of non-criminals, so it could just have been that those characteristics are common in the general population.

Lombroso has been accused of scientific racism; some of the characteristics he identified are more prevalent in certain racial groups.

However, this is still an issue today. Eberhardt found that stereotypically ‘black’ looking men were much more likely to get the death penalty in the USA than those who were less stereotypically black looking, even if they had committed very similar offenses!

The physical differences Lombroso discovered were much more likely to be the result of other factors such as poverty, poor diet, illness, and disease.

Goring (1913) did find evidence that criminals tended to have lower-than-average intelligence. But, this may mean crime is due to a lack of education rather than any biological factors.

Lombroso’s theory lacks temporal validity. It is a child of its time when eugenic theories were very popular.

Neural Explanations of Offending behavior

• Adrian Raine of the University of Southern California has conducted research using PET scanning and found abnormalities in some parts of the brain in violent criminals.

• Most of the criminals in these studies have been diagnosed with Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD). Raine has discovered that these individuals have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex of the brain, the part of the brain that regulates emotional behavior. Put simply, they find it difficult to control their impulses and do not suffer from guilt or remorse.

• Raine studied 41 violent offenders and compared the activity in their prefrontal cortex to 41 non-criminals (including six schizophrenics) using PET scans. The violent offenders showed significantly less activity in the prefrontal lobe than the other participants suggesting less control over impulsive behavior.

• The prefrontal lobe develops relatively late, sometimes not fully developed until the early 20s and later in males. This may explain the peak in antisocial behavior by male teenagers!

Not every criminal has APD or an abnormal brain structure. These theories can only explain a small minority of extreme cases. Everybody has free will. We choose whether or not to break the law.

+ Use of scientific method and scientific equipment, e.g., PET scans.

Explaining crime simply through brain structure is very reductionist. Crime is complex, and the reasons for people turning to crime are many and varied.

A good example of these criticisms is the case of Jim Fallon: – Professor of Psychiatry at the University of California, Irvine. Jim Fallon has the brain of a serial killer – Low activity prefrontal cortex and the defective version of the MAOA gene.

BUT he is not a serial killer! Something he attributes to his fabulous childhood and supportive family. A case of nurture triumphing over nature.

Genetic explanations of Offender behavior

• Price (1966) suggested that males with an extra Y chromosome XYY ‘supermale’ were predisposed towards violent crime. Individuals with XYY are above-average height and below-average intelligence. It might be the latter characteristic (Low intelligence) that accounts for their over-representation in prison populations.
• Christiansen (1977) looked at 3586 twin pairs in Denmark. A 52% concordance rate for criminality was found for monozygotic (identical) twins, compared to just 22% for dizygotic (non-identical) twins.
• However, we must remember the effects of shared upbringing, and if crime really was genetic, we would expect a 100% concordance rate for monozygotic twins as they share 100% of their genes.
• Brunner studied a genetic abnormality commonly known as the ‘warrior gene’ as it is associated with excessively violent and aggressive behavior, which may lead to crime. This mutation/abnormality on the X chromosome leads to increased levels of MAOA. As MAOA removes the neurotransmitters serotonin , dopamine , and noradrenaline, this leads to lower levels of these neurotransmitters, which can then lead to behavioral problems.
• Reduced levels of dopamine and noradrenaline cause problems with inappropriate violent and sexual behavior. The impaired metabolism of serotonin is also likely to be responsible for mental issues, and this could be linked to aggressive behavior.

There is support for the diathesis-stress model of crime. Someone may have biological tendencies towards crime, but they will need some sort of environmental trigger in order to actually become a criminal. (Nature and Nurture)

We must avoid biological determinism; genes are not destiny. Criminals have free will.

Explaining crime simply through genes is very reductionist. Crime is complex, and the reasons for people turning to crime are many and varied.

Discuss the atavistic form as an explanation for criminal behavior. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks).

Discuss genetic and/or neural explanations of offending. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks)

Psychological Explanations of Crime

The central idea of this topic is that for aggression to be an adaptive feature, it has to serve a purpose.

Eysenck’s Theory of Personality

• According to Eysenck, our personality is innate and has a biological basis. There is a personality type known as the criminal personality. Individuals with a criminal personality will score highly on measures of extraversion, neuroticism , and psychoticism.

• These people are seen as difficult to condition (train) and cold and unfeeling, and it is these traits which may explain their criminality.

Evidence to support this theory comes from Eysenck’s study of 2070 male prisoners and 2422 male controls. The prisoners scored higher on extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism than the non-criminal controls.

However, Farrington reviewed several studies and only found evidence of prisoners scoring higher on measures of psychoticism.

The idea of one personality type explaining all offending behavior is not very plausible; there are many different types of both crimes and offenders. All criminals are not the same.

This research can be seen as culturally biased. Holanchock studied Black and Hispanic criminals in America and found them to be less extroverted than non-criminal control groups.

The validity of measuring personality through a psychometric test is also questionable, as is the notion that personality is a stable entity. Most people would argue that personality changes over the years and as a person matures.

Eysenck’s theory is similar to other biological explanations of offending, such as Anti-social personality disorder (APD). However, whilst Raine explains this through neural differences, Eysenck attributes it to the functioning of the nervous system.

Therefore, although Eysenck’s theory is seen as a psychological theory as it focuses on personality, it could also be accused of biological determinism as it sees personality as innate and unchanging.

Cognitive Explanations – Cognitive Distortions

Please see article on Kohlberg’s theory of moral development .

Differential Association Hypothesis

• This explanation for offending suggests that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motivation for criminal behavior.

• We often hear the phrase “Got in with a bad crowd”; our friendship groups can profoundly affect criminality, especially during adolescence.

• Differential associations (number of contacts with criminals over non-criminals) may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.

• The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. (behaviorism: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning theory).

• The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.

This theory does not account for individual differences. Some people are much more susceptible (easily led) to the influence of others. Therefore the theory neglects to consider the role of temperament and personality.

This theory shifted the emphasis away from biology and eugenics arguments for criminality.

It can also account for white-collar crime, and indeed it was Sutherland who coined the term. Differential association can explain crime for all races, gender, and social groups.

This theory is impossible to test. How do you count up someone’s associations and influences accurately?

– Farrington found that the family is a large influence on offending. Crime can be seen as inter-generational.

Psychodynamic Theories

• The psychodynamic explanation of offending behavior sees the Superego, the moral component of the personality, as crucial in explaining criminality.
• Blackburn (1993) argues that if the superego (the moral part of the personality) is deficient, then criminality is inevitable as the Id (pleasure principle) is not properly controlled, and we are going to give in to our urges and impulses.
• Weak Superego may develop if the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage of psycho-sexual development. This would mean that we would fail to internalize the moral values of same-sex parents.
• Deviant Superego may develop if the child internalizes the morals of a criminal or deviant same-sex parent.
• Overharsh Superego may develop if the same-sex parent is overly harsh. This may mean an individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety and commits a crime in order to satisfy the superego’s need for punishment.
• • Another psychodynamic theory is Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis. This predicts that if an infant is deprived of a mother or mother figure during the critical period of attachment in the first few years, then there will be serious and permanent consequences. These consequences included mental abnormalities, delinquency, depression, affectionless psychopathology, and even dwarfism!

However, this theory has been heavily criticized. Freud’s theory is seen as sexist as he focuses on the Oedipus Complex and adds the Electra complex as an afterthought.

In fact, Freud argued that females were less moral than males. This is because males fear castration by their fathers for moral transgressions, whereas females only fear losing their mother’s love!

However, the vast majority of criminals are male, not female. Males outnumber females in prisons throughout the world.

There is little evidence to back up this theory, many children grow up without a same-sex parent, and the vast majority do not turn to crime. Although family influence is undeniably a factor in criminality, individuals with delinquent parents or siblings are much more likely to turn to crime.

The idea of the over-harsh superego and wanting to be punished does not stand up to scrutiny; most criminals go to great lengths not to be caught and punished!

Discuss Eysenck’s theory of the criminal personality. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks).

Describe and discuss cognitive explanations of offending. Refer to at least one other explanation of offending in your answer (16 marks)

Discuss the differential association theory of offending. Refer to at least one other explanation of offending in your answer (16 marks)

Discuss two or more psychodynamic explanations of offending. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks)

Dealing with Offender behavior

In 2016 the UK prison population was 86,000, despite having an official capacity of only 78,000, leading to serious overcrowding. (Howard League).

What are the implications of this?

In order for the prison to work, prisoners must be educated and made more employable to ensure they are more likely to remain out of prison and instead contribute to society. Otherwise, prisons become simply ‘Universities of crime.’

Research has shown (Prison Reform Trust 2007) that many prisoners have not reached the levels of literacy and numeracy expected of an average 11-year-old; 50% in writing, 66% in numeracy, and 80% in reading. 50% do not have the skills required by 96% of all jobs, and 50% have been excluded from school.

These statistics make prisoners, along with their criminal records, virtually unemployable without successful educational intervention within the prison system.

Many people are critical of the parole system (the fact that prisoners are often released early and rarely serve their full sentence); however, this is an important incentive crucial to the smooth operation of the prison system. Applications for parole are allowed after a minimum term (set by the judge) has been served.

Success will depend on the nature of the offense, the judge’s comments on sentencing, and, crucially, the inmate’s behavior in prison. This gives the prisoner an incentive to behave and comply with prison rules. Without this incentive, many inmates would be unmanageable.

Aims of Custodial Sentencing and its Effects

Aims of Custodial Sentencing

1) Deterrence – Prison should be an unpleasant experience. So someone who serves a prison sentence should never wish to serve another. The thought of prison should act as a deterrent to others and prevent them from committing crimes.

2) Incapacitation – Taking a criminal out of circulation means they are unable to commit further crimes, keeping society safe.

3) Retribution – Society is taking revenge on the criminal. They are paying for their crimes by having their freedom taken from them.

4) Rehabilitation – Prison can be used to reform criminals through training, education, and therapy so they leave prison a changed person.

Psychological Effects of Custodial Sentencing

1) Stress and Depression – Suicide rates are higher in prison than in the general population, as are cases of self-harm. If a prisoner suffers from mental health issues before their sentence, this is likely to worsen in prison.

2) Institutionalisation – Having adapted to the norms and values of prison life, some prisoners find it impossible to cope in the real world on their release. Some even commit crimes with the intention of being arrested and returned back to the comfort of what they know – prison.

3) Prisonisation – Similar to institutionalization, some behaviors that are unacceptable in the outside world are encouraged and rewarded inside the walls of a prison. Prisoners learn to accept the prisoner code in order to survive, for example, the unofficial hierarchy of prisoners.

The study you learned about last year is useful here. Zimbardo’s main conclusions were that situational factors were more useful for explaining the behavior of prisoners and guards than individual ones. Zimbardo’s participants conformed to their ideas of how prisoners and guards should behave.

Prisons are very regimented, and prisoners have to conform to strict rules and regulations. They are told when to sleep, wake, eat, exercise, etc. They have no autonomy. The problem arises when prisoners have served long sentences and become very accustomed to the prison way of life. This means they find it very hard to adapt to life on the outside.

In order to combat the problems of institutionalization and prisonisation, prisoners need to be well prepared for their release. This might mean a move to an open prison or lessons in life skills. Without these skills, they will be unable to cope and will soon find themselves back in prison.

Curt Bartol (1995) has suggested that prison is ‘brutal, demeaning and generally devastating.’ Suicide rates are generally 15 times higher than in society in general. Most at risk are young, single men in the first 24 hours of incarceration. Around 25% of female and 15% of male prisoners have symptoms of psychosis (severe mental illness)

Individual differences – Not all prisoners react in the same way to incarceration. Some punishment should fit the individual, not necessarily the crime!

Rehabilitation – Cuts to prison budgets mean that education, training, and therapy are not always available or effectively delivered. So opportunities for rehabilitation are limited.

University of Crime – Putting young, inexperienced criminals into a prison environment with older, more experienced criminals may mean that the type of education these youngsters get is not necessarily the type we would want!

• The aim of prison is to punish and rehabilitate offenders in the hope that they will not re-offend. Re-offending is known as recidivism . The prison has a poor record for reducing reoffending – 57% of offenders will re-offend within a year of release (2013).

• Over two-thirds (67%) of under 18-year-olds are reconvicted within a year of release offending by all recent ex-prisoners in 2007-08 cost the economy between £9.5 and £13 billion.

In order to reduce recidivism (i.e., re-offending), punishment needs to fit the individual as well as the crime and more research is needed into reducing the negative psychological effects of imprisonment.

The aim should be for offenders to leave prison fully reformed and ready to take on the role of productive and law-abiding citizens.

Alternatives to imprisonment – Given that we know prison doesn’t work, we need alternatives. Some alternatives include probation and restorative justice.

However, the government is reluctant to invest in prisoners due to economic restraints and public opinion. But, this is a short-sighted approach; in order to cut crime and recidivism rates, investment is needed (Economic implication).

Behavior Modification

• Therapies based on the principles of operant conditioning aim to bring about specific changes in behavior. This is known as behavior modification. It involves rewarding ‘appropriate’ behavior and withholding rewards for ‘inappropriate’ behavior.

• This approach usually works best with children or in institutions such as mental hospitals, schools, and prisons. For example, children can be observed and supervised by parents and teachers working with therapists. As a result, their behavior can be consistently and systematically reinforced.

• Token economies illustrate the application of operant conditioning principles to adults in institutional settings. They were introduced into mental hospitals in the USA in the 1960s. Tokens, such as plastic discs, are given as rewards for ‘desirable’ behavior. The tokens can then be exchanged for privileges. In theory, tokens reinforce ‘appropriate’ behavior. House credits are used in the same way in schools.

• Hobbs and Holt (1976) introduced a token economy program with young delinquents in three behavioral units, and a fourth acted as a control. They observed a significant improvement in a positive behavior as a result of the introduction of the token economy. Allyon (1979) found similar effects in an adult prison.

Token economies are easy to implement and do not require specialist training or expense, like other therapies such as Anger Management. But, all staff must implement them consistently if they are to work.

The effects they appear to produce may not be primarily due to the token economy. Patients may be responding to increased attention, a planned system of activities, and improved monitoring rather than a desire to get tokens.

Token economies may not really change behavior – people may simply mimic or fake ‘desirable’ behavior in order to get tokens. On release, prisoners revert back to previous criminal behaviors.

Token economies raise ethical issues. Is it ethical to withhold ‘privileges’ such as watching TV because a severely disordered person does not do what a nurse thinks is desirable? Are people’s human rights threatened when staff can control their access to food and their freedom of movement?

Clinton Field (2004) found that for maximum effect, the rewards and frequency of them needed to be individually tailored to the inmate. Think about house credits; whilst they work well with Year 7 students, a school mug or pen is hardly going to motivate a Year 11 student!

Anger Management

• Anger Management programs are a form of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT); they aim to change the way a prisoner thinks and, therefore the way they act.

• There are three stages in Anger Management: –

1) Cognitive Preparation: – The offender is encouraged to reflect on their past behaviors and what makes them angry. The therapist works with them to show them that their response is irrational and helps them to redefine the situations as non-threatening. They are taught to recognize their own triggers for anger.

2) Skill Acquisition: – The offenders are taught a range of techniques and skills to enable them to avoid triggers and deal with anger-provoking situations more rationally. They might require training in assertiveness and effective communication. They are taught how to control their own emotions rather than being ruled by them.

3) Application practice: – Offenders practice their new skills through role-play. The therapist will deliberately provoke them to see how they react. The therapist will positively reinforce successful strategies.

• Ireland (2000) Investigation of whether anger management courses work. A natural experiment compared a group of 50 prisoners who had completed CALM and a group of 37 who were assessed as suitable but had not actually taken the course. Prisoners who had completed CALM rated themselves lower on the anger questionnaire and were rated lower by the prison officers than the control group. 92% showed improvements on at least one measure of aggression and anger. Conclusions: – In the short term, the treatment seemed effective, but there is no re-offending data.

Anger management is an eclectic approach. It uses a cognitive approach in stage 1, a behavioral in stage 2, and a social in stage 3. This recognizes that offending behavior is the complex interaction between social and psychological factors.

Anger management is more likely to lead to a permanent change in behavior than behavior modification programs (token economies), as it focuses on changing the way an offender both thinks and behaves.

Although Anger Management works in the short term, the lack of re-offending data means we don’t know if the effects last. It is very different from role-playing controlling anger to controlling anger once outside of prison.

Anger management is limited in its application as not all crime is motivated by anger. Crimes for financial gain, for example, would not benefit from any form of CBT, as they are logical!

Anger Management is very expensive and time-consuming as it requires highly skilled therapists. Also, the prisoner must be motivated and want to change. (How many Psychiatrists does it take to change a light bulb? One – but the light bulb must really want to change!)

Restorative Justice Programmes

• Restorative justice usually involves a supervised mediation meeting between the victim and the offender with a trained mediator. The victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain the impact the crime has had on their life. The offender has to face up to the consequences of their actions, and this starts the rehabilitation process.

• Restorative justice has to be voluntary for all parties and seeks a positive outcome. It is respectful and not degrading for either offender or victim.

Aims of Restorative Justice

• Rehabilitation of Offenders – Being punished is a passive process; restorative justice requires the offender to be an active participant in the process. It is tough for the offender they have to listen to the impact of their crimes on the victim and take full responsibility for their actions. The experience should reduce the likelihood of them reoffending.

• Atonement for Wrongdoing – Offenders may offer concrete compensation (money or unpaid work) or atone by showing genuine feelings of guilt and remorse.

• Victim’s Perspective – Restorative justice restores power to the victim. Their voice is heard in the legal process, and they feel that their feelings have been taken into account. Many who have been through the process report that it has reduced their feeling of being a ‘victim’ and helped them to feel safe again.

Restorative justice is tough both for victims and offenders. For offenders, they have to face up to the consequences of their actions, but for victims, they may be forced to relive frightening and upsetting experiences.

The UK Restorative Justice Council (2015) reported 85% satisfaction from victims who had taken part in face-to-face restorative justice meetings.

Sherman & Strang (2007) reviewed 20 studies involving 142 men convicted of violence and property offenses, who had taken part in restorative justice, only 11% reoffended, compared to 37% of a matched control group. So it does work!

Cost – Shapland (2007) concluded that every £1 spent on restorative justice would save the government £8 through reduced reoffending. However, there are costs involved in training mediators and high dropout rates from offenders unable to face their victims, so it may not always be cost-effective.

Remorse – Offenders must feel genuine remorse. Therefore, restorative justice is not suitable for all criminals or, indeed, all crimes. It only works where there is an obvious victim.

Soft Option – Public opinion may be against restorative justice, as it may be seen as ‘getting off lightly.’

Feminist critique – Women’s Aid have called for a ban on the use of restorative justice in cases of domestic abuse, as they believe it is inappropriate.

First-time offenders – Restorative justice is most effective with young, first-time offenders. It provides a short, sharp shock and forces them to face up to the consequences of their actions.

Discuss the psychological effects of custodial sentencing. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks)

Discuss behavior modification in custody. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks)

Discuss the use of anger management as a treatment for offenders. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks)

Discuss restorative justice as a way of dealing with offenders (16 marks)

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Forensic Psychology: what is it and what is it for?

“Criminal Minds” was the serial that popularized Forensic Psychology and made the work of these professionals visible. Focused on the day-to-day life of a Behavioral Sciences unit, it delved into the psychological profiles of the murderers. Although it could not escape the shocks that usually accompany this type of production, the truth is that it generated an interest in one of the least known, but also most exciting and important branches of psychology for society.

What is Forensic Psychology?

Forensic Psychology is a  branch of psychology  that applies the concepts, theories, principles and general research of this discipline to the legal field.  Analyzes human behavior and motivations in relation to the law to provide valuable information in judicial processes .

Forensic psychologists analyze the profile of the people involved, both criminals and victims, to extract data and prepare psychological reports that help judges and courts to issue the corresponding sentences. Consequently, they are invaluable support when administering civil, criminal or social justice.

How to study Forensic Psychology?

If you want to be a forensic psychologist, you will have to follow a specific training path. The first step is to  take the Degree in Psychology . In fact, in Spain this qualification is an essential requirement by law to specialize in the legal branch.

When you have finished your degree, you will have to  enroll in a master’s degree in Forensic Psychology . Make sure that it is an official master’s degree and that it guarantees external internships since this way you will not only obtain the necessary knowledge but also the skills to work as a forensic psychologist. This program, in particular, qualifies you to advise and prepare psychological expert reports in any jurisdictional area.

Finally,  it is advisable that you obtain accreditation from the Official College of Psychologists (COP) , which has developed a system of certified accreditations, among which is precisely the Accreditation in Forensic Psychology. In that case, you will have to accredit 500 theoretical-practical hours in the field of Forensic Psychology, with supervised practices of at least 150 hours carried out in recognized institutions, universities or official psychology colleges.

What does a forensic psychologist do on a daily basis?

The forensic psychologist’s day varies depending on where they work and their specialization since they often focus only on civil, family or criminal cases. However, they generally have to interact with lawyers, judges, crime victims and criminals.

Unless they are dedicated to research or teaching, these professionals usually act as technical experts who provide advice in cases that demand deeper psychic analysis. Therefore, the most common functions of the forensic psychologist in his or her practice are:

• Evaluate the emotional problems and behavioral disorders  that the people involved in the case may have by conducting interviews, observations or applying psychological tests.
• Write psychological reports and expert opinions  on the mental state and possible social conditions and mitigating factors of the people involved, with special emphasis on criminal profiles and criminal responsibility.
• Provide expert testimony in trials and tribunals  based on their academic training and first-hand knowledge of the case. Forensic psychologists testify and make recommendations about the most appropriate treatment or future risk of criminal behavior, so their opinion is highly valued at sentencing.
• Counsel crime victims  to help them overcome the traumatic experience. The forensic psychologist not only evaluates the psychological damage and emotional consequences that these people usually suffer, but also guides lawyers, judges or prosecutors who work with them to minimize the secondary victimization that usually occurs during their passage through the judicial system.
• Provide forensic therapy to prevent recidivism . This professional also works with offenders and their families to understand the reasons for their behavior, help them take responsibility for the consequences of their actions, and prevent them from committing them again. In fact, they are also involved in developing targeted social programs to prevent crime.

On the other hand,  the forensic psychologist is a key element in clarifying the veracity of the facts and the credibility of the testimonies . This work is particularly important if we take into account that half of people remember events that never happened. Researchers at the University of California found that it is relatively easy to implant false memories in between 20 and 40% of people.

Just as important as analyzing the psychological profile of the offender is ensuring that the testimonies are not influenced by third parties or are not due to errors of interpretation or false memories. For this reason, it can be stated that  Forensic Psychology pursues the humanization of the law within the framework of what is called therapeutic justice . 

Beyond analyzing criminal minds: The areas of action of the forensic psychologist

The fields of application of Forensic Psychology are quite broad, extending to practically all areas of Law in which psychological knowledge and the opinion of an expert on the human mind and behavior are necessary. The main areas in which these professionals operate are:

• Criminal law.  The forensic psychologist evaluates possible psychopathological disorders in the aggressor and assesses the psychological impact on the victim. He also analyzes dangerousness and the possibility of recidivism so that judges can reach a fair verdict.
• Civil law.  The forensic psychologist contributes to ensuring the rights and duties of people with the rest of society, which is why they evaluate their mental state and provide the necessary information to carry out assessments on people with disabilities or in cases that may require hospitalization.
• Labor law.  In this area, forensic psychology determines whether a person has the mental capabilities to be able to work, which is why it helps determine cases of disability, incapacity or even fraud attempts. It can also intervene in cases of  mobbing  or sexual harassment at work.
• Family right.  Forensic psychologists evaluate the ability of parents to meet the needs of their children and ensure their correct psychosocial development. In fact, they are essential in custody cases, as well as in the approval of adoptions.
• Rights of minors.  The psychological assessment of children also corresponds to the field of Forensic Psychology, especially when they suffer bullying, child abuse or other situations that affect their well-being and require the preparation of expert reports.

In recent years, the demand for forensic psychologists has increased, largely due to greater social awareness about the importance of preventing situations such as interpersonal and gender violence, but also due to the need to implement programs to reduce crime or problems derived from addictions.

Therefore, it is a specialization that, although relatively young, is gaining popularity and prestige. However, it is essential to have advanced theoretical, technical and procedural training to be able to prepare objective psychological expert reports and correctly advise lawyers and judges in the decision-making process.

References:

(2020) Acreditación nacional de psicólogo/a experto/a en psicología jurídica y/o psicología forense. En: COP.

Hyman, I. E. & Pentland, J. (1996) The role of mental imagery in the creation of false childhood memories. Journal of Memory and Language, 35: 101-117.

Loftus, E. F. (1993) The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist; 48: 518-537.

Loftus, E. F. & Pickrell, J. E. (1995) The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25: 720-725.

Jennifer Delgado

I am a psychologist and I spent several years writing articles for scientific journals specialized in Health and Psychology. I want to help you create great experiences. Learn more about me .

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Forensic Psychology

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Forensic psychology is a subset of applied psychology broadly defined as psychology pertaining to the legal system. Because the legal system and criminal motivation are both complex, forensic psychologists can be found across a wide set of activities, from analyzing crime scenes to administering treatment to incarcerated offenders.

• Understanding Forensic Psychology
• Forensic Psychology Careers
• Understanding the Criminal Mind

Forensic psychology is a broad term and forensic psychologists take on a wide variety of roles. Some forensic psychologists, for instance, may engage in criminal profiling, in which they try to identify likely suspects using information collected from crime scenes. Others try to assess the possibility of a known or alleged offender committing additional crimes in the future. In addition, many forensic psychologists act as advisors and consultants to law enforcement throughout an investigation.

Perhaps the most significant role of forensic psychologists is what's known as forensic therapy . In this discipline, a psychologist may be called upon to try to ascertain whether or not an alleged offender suffers from a psychological disorder; such experts often testify in court for either the defense or the prosecution. After a conviction, forensic psychologists may also participate in the assessment and rehabilitation of offenders, determining what type of treatment can be recommended, and often supervising or performing it as well.

A career in forensic psychology can manifest in many different ways, including: researching social science topics related to law and crime; conducting examinations of criminal defendants; assisting with jury selection; consulting with police departments and other law enforcement agencies; assessing the risk of violence in a community; and more.

Forensic psychologists can play a significant role in almost any level of the legal system. They may consult with legal professionals on mental health, criminal motivation , or risk assessment; they may assess or treat accused criminals or prison inmates for mental health disorders. They may also work in jury selection, legal research, or crisis management .

Forensic psychopathology is a sub-discipline of forensic psychology that examines psychopathology’s relationship to the legal system. Forensic psychopathologists psychologically assess, diagnose, and treat those accused of committing a crime and relay pertinent information to the court. They determine whether an individual should be held criminally liable for their actions or whether they can be declared incompetent.

Forensic psychology is a broad term that encompasses a wide variety of disciplines related to the legal system, including some that are not crime-related. Criminal psychology , by contrast, focuses specifically on criminal behavior. A criminal psychologist may research why crimes happen, help police assess crime scenes, or gauge the probability that specific crimes will occur.

“Insanity” is a legal term, not a psychological one, and depends where the crime took place. Some jurisdictions, for example, require that defendants be unaware that a crime was “wrong.” Others simply require that it be a product of mental illness. Forensic psychologists, therefore, evaluate defendants based on the laws of their jurisdiction.

There are multiple paths to becoming a practicing forensic psychologist. An individual likely needs to obtain a Ph.D. or Psy.D, most often with a clinical focus. Some individuals concurrently pursue a legal degree. Coursework may focus on criminology, abnormal psychology, the legal system, and related areas. After obtaining a doctoral degree, additional postdoctoral training will likely be required to obtain a license to practice independently.

Interest in the field has grown significantly in recent years, a development sometimes credited to the popularity of TV shows spotlighting the disparate ways in which forensic psychologists work within the legal system. While these programs don’t always portray the field accurately, they underscore the important role forensic psychologists play, as well as the wide variety of career paths available to aspiring forensic experts.

The majority of forensic psychologists have doctorate degrees—either a Ph.D. or a Psy.D.—and most experts continue to recommend such degrees for aspiring students. However, there are some Master’s programs that purport to train students for a career in criminal psychology , though the programs’ efficacy has been questioned by some in the field.

Forensic psychologists are, above all, scientists—thus, they should be skilled at gathering and interpreting data, designing experiments, and/or researching complexities in the law. Because forensic psychologists regularly deal with law enforcement and criminals, however, they should also be strong clinicians, excel at public speaking , and have the ability to maintain composure under stress .

Most forensic psychology doctoral programs take at least 6 years to complete. Master’s programs may take less time—one to two years, generally—but many career paths in forensic psychology continue to require a doctoral degree.

Someone considering a career in forensic psychology should determine whether its unique combination of clinical work, public speaking, and research syncs with their personality and skill set. They should also assess whether pursuing years of graduate education is feasible, as well as whether they will need to relocate to find work in the field.

Some forensic psychologists spend their careers researching various aspects of criminal behavior. Areas of interest include: why some people are motivated to commit crimes while others aren’t; whether criminals—particularly violent or chronic criminals—have diagnosable mental illnesses or personality disorders ; and whether it is possible to accurately identify suspects based on behavioral patterns or clues left at crime scenes.

Many laypeople are themselves fascinated with the psychology of criminal behavior—indeed, hundreds of books, television shows, and podcasts examine horrific crimes and try to understand why they occurred. Because of this media attention , many people assume that all forensic psychologists assess criminal behavior; however, while criminal psychology is an important area of the field, it is not the only career path a forensic psychologist can take.

Rage , fear , or a sense of entitlement can all motivate criminal behavior. Some criminals are under the influence of drugs and thus behave irrationally; others have mental illnesses that distort their worldview, triggering illegal acts. Some violent, serial criminals may be driven by a lack of empathy, trauma or abandonment, and/or a thirst for revenge .

Criminal profiling relies on a combination of crime scene analysis and behavioral psychology. Using physical clues from a crime scene, interviews with victims or witnesses, and information about psychopathology, similar past crimes, and human behavioral patterns, profilers offer an educated guess on who may have committed the crime and where they may be located.

The vast majority of people with mental illnesses do not commit crimes. However, the mentally ill make up 40 percent of the prison population. Untreated mental illness can motivate some individuals to commit crimes or create life circumstances that push them toward illegal behavior. Many experts argue that treatment, rather than incarceration, could improve both public safety and quality of life for the mentally ill.

Interest in crime is similar to the inability to look away from a car crash—the brutal, often inexplicable behavior can trigger, for some, intense curiosity and a desire to understand aberrant behavior. Serial killers, in particular, may draw fascination because they kill seemingly randomly; studying them may provide a sense of psychological safety and the hope that such knowledge may help someone avoid being victimized.

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Criminal Justice

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Forensic psychology research topics.

Criminal Competencies Research Topics

Adjudicative Competence of Youth Capacity to Waive Rights Capacity to Waive Miranda Rights Checklist for Competency for Execution Evaluations Competence Assessment for Standing Trial for Defendants With Mental Retardation (CAST*MR) Competency, Foundational and Decisional Competency Restoration Competency Assessment Instrument (CAI) Competency for Execution Competency Screening Test (CST) Competency to Be Sentenced Competency to Confess Competency to Stand Trial Competency to Waive Appeals Competency to Waive Counsel (Proceed Pro Se) Delusions Evaluation of Competence to Stand Trial–Revised (ECST–R) Fitness Interview Test–Revised (FIT–R) Georgia Court Competence Test (GCCT) Grisso’s Instruments for Assessing Understanding and Appreciation of Miranda Rights Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales Hallucinations Interdisciplinary Fitness Interview (IFI) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT–CA) Psychotic Disorders

Criminal Responsibility Research Topics

Evaluation of Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances in Capital Cases American Bar Association Resolution on Mental Disability and the Death Penalty Automatism Battered Woman Syndrome Battered Woman Syndrome Testimony Criminal Responsibility Assessment Criminal Responsibility Defenses and Standards Delusions Diminished Capacity Dissociative Identity Disorder Extreme Emotional Disturbance Guilty but Mentally Ill Verdict Hallucinations Insanity Defense Reform Act (IDRA) Mens Rea and Actus Reus Mental Illness and the Death Penalty Mental Retardation and the Death Penalty M’Naghten Standard Psychotic Disorders Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R–CRAS)

Death Penalty Research Topics

Evaluation of Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances in Capital Cases Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances Effects of on Jurors in Capital Trials American Bar Association Resolution on Mental Disability and the Death Penalty Capital Mitigation Checklist for Competency for Execution Evaluations Competency for Execution Death Penalty Death Qualification of Juries Jury Understanding of Judges’ Instructions in Capital Cases Juvenile Death Penalty Mental Illness and the Death Penalty Mental Retardation and the Death Penalty Moral Disengagement and Execution Religion and the Death Penalty Victim Impact Statements

Divorce and Child Custody Research Topics

Ackerman-Schoendorf Parent Evaluation of Custody Test (ASPECT) Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory Child Custody Evaluations Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) Divorce and Child Custody Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) Parenting Satisfaction Scale (PSS) Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Tender Years Doctrine Termination of Parental Rights Uniform Child Custody Evaluation System (UCCES)

Education and Professional Development Research Topics

Diplomates in Forensic Psychology Doctoral Programs in Forensic Psychology Ethical Guidelines and Principles Master’s Programs in Forensic Psychology Postdoctoral Residencies in Forensic Psychology Trial Consultant Training

Eyewitness Memory Research Topics

Alcohol Intoxication Impact on Eyewitness Memory Appearance-Change Instruction in Lineups Clothing Bias in Identification Procedures Cognitive Interview Computer-Assisted Lineups Confidence in Identifications Confidence in Identifications Malleability Conformity in Eyewitness Reports Cross-Race Effect in Eyewitness Identification Double-Blind Lineups Elderly Eyewitnesses Estimator and System Variables in Eyewitness Identification Expert Psychological Testimony on Eyewitness Identification Accuracy of Eyewitness Descriptions Eyewitness Identification: Effect of Disguises and Appearance Changes Eyewitness Identification: Field Studies Eyewitness Identification: General Acceptance in the Scientific Community Eyewitness Memory Lay Beliefs About Eyewitness Memory Facial Composites False Memories Forced Confabulation Hypnosis and Eyewitness Memory Best Practices in Identification Tests Instructions to the Witness Juries and Eyewitnesses Lineup Fillers Lineup Size and Bias Motions to Suppress Eyewitness Identification Mug Shots Neil v. Biggers Criteria for Evaluating Eyewitness Identification Optimality Hypothesis in Eyewitness Identification Police Eyewitnesses Popout Effect in Eyewitness Identification Postevent Information and Eyewitness Memory Presence of Counsel Safeguard and Eyewitness Identification Reconstructive Memory Repeated Recall Repressed and Recovered Memories Response Latency in Eyewitness Identification Retention Interval and Eyewitness Memory Showups Simultaneous and Sequential Lineup Presentations Source Monitoring and Eyewitness Memory Stress and Eyewitness Memory Training of Eyewitnesses Unconscious Transference Verbal Overshadowing Voice Recognition Weapon Focus Effect

Forensic Assessment Research Topics

Ackerman-Schoendorf Parent Evaluation of Custody Test (ASPECT) Adjudicative Competence of Youth Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) Evaluation of Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances  in Capital Cases American Bar Association Resolution on Mental Disability and the Death Penalty Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Antisocial Personality Disorder Automatism Battered Woman Syndrome Capacity to Consent to Treatment Instrument (CCTI) Capacity to Waive Miranda Rights Capacity to Waive Rights Checklist for Competency for Execution Evaluations Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory Child Custody Evaluations Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Civil Commitment Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) Competence Assessment for Standing Trial for Defendants With Mental Retardation (CAST*MR) Competency Foundational and Decisional Competency Restoration Competency Assessment Instrument (CAI) Competency for Execution Competency Screening Test (CST) Competency to Be Sentenced Competency to Confess Competency to Stand Trial Competency to Waive Appeals Competency to Waive Counsel (Proceed Pro Se) Conduct Disorder Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) Consent to Clinical Research Criminal Responsibility Assessment Criminal Responsibility, Defenses and Standards Danger Assessment Instrument (DA) Delusions Diminished Capacity Assessment of Disability and Workers’ Compensation Claims Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact Evaluations Dissociative Identity Disorder Divorce and Child Custody Domestic Violence Screening Instrument (DVSI) Ethical Guidelines and Principles Ethnic Differences in Psychopathy Evaluation of Competence to Stand Trial–Revised (ECST–R) Extreme Emotional Disturbance Financial Capacity Financial Capacity Instrument (FCI) Fitness-for-Duty Evaluations Fitness Interview Test–Revised (FIT–R) Forensic Assessment Georgia Court Competence Test (GCCT) Grisso’s Instruments for Assessing Understanding and Appreciation of Miranda Rights Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales Guilty but Mentally Ill Verdict Hallucinations Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (2nd edition) (PCL–R) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) HCR–20 for Violence Risk Assessment Hopkins Competency Assessment Test (HCAT) Insanity Defense Reform Act (IDRA) Interdisciplinary Fitness Interview (IFI) Jail Screening Assessment Tool (JSAT) Litigation Stress MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT–CA) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Treatment (MacCAT–T) MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study Malingering Probability Scale Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument–Version 2 (MAYSI–2) Mens Rea and Actus Reus Mental Illness and the Death Penalty Mental Retardation and the Death Penalty Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Assessment Miller Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test (M–FAST) Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory–III (MCMI–III) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Validity Scales Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised (MnSOST–R) M’Naghten Standard Mood Disorders Novaco Anger Scale Parens Patriae Doctrine Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) Parenting Satisfaction Scale (PSS) Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Pedophilia Personal Injury and Emotional Distress Personality Disorders Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Presentence Evaluations Psychological Autopsies Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) Psychopathy Psychopathy Treatment Psychotic Disorders Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism (RRASOR) Return-to-Work Evaluations Risk Assessment Approaches Risk-Sophistication-Treatment Inventory (RSTI) Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R–CRAS) Sex Offender Assessment Sex Offender Civil Commitment Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR) Sex Offender Recidivism Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG) Sexual Harassment Sexual Violence Risk–20 (SVR–20) Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START) Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA) STABLE–2007 and ACUTE–2007 Instruments STATIC–99 and STATIC–2002 Instruments Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) Substance Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence Substance Use Disorder Suicide Assessment and Prevention in Prisons Suicide Assessment Manual for Inmates (SAMI) Testamentary Capacity Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) Uniform Child Custody Evaluation System (UCCES) Validity Indicator Profile (VIP) Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG) Violence Risk Assessment Waiver to Criminal Court

Juvenile Offenders Research Topics

Adjudicative Competence of Youth Capacity to Waive Miranda Rights Juvenile Offenders Juvenile Offenders Risk Factors Juvenile Psychopathy Juvenile Death Penalty Legal Socialization Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument–Version 2 (MAYSI–2) Mental Health Needs of Juvenile Offenders Risk-Sophistication-Treatment Inventory (RSTI) Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Victim-Offender Mediation Waiver to Criminal Court

Mental Health Law Research Topics

Capacity to Consent to Treatment Civil Commitment Consent to Clinical Research End-of-Life Issues Forcible Medication Guardianship Institutionalization and Deinstitutionalization Mandated Community Treatment Mental Health Courts Mental Health Law Mental Health Needs of Juvenile Offenders Involuntary Outpatient Commitment Patient’s Rights Proxy Decision Making Psychiatric Advance Directives Substance Abuse Treatment Therapeutic Jurisprudence

Psychological Assessment Instruments Research Topics

Ackerman-Schoendorf Parent Evaluation of Custody Test (ASPECT) Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) Capacity to Consent to Treatment Instrument (CCTI) Checklist for Competency for Execution Evaluations Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) Competency Assessment Instrument (CAI) Competency Screening Test (CST) Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) Danger Assessment Instrument (DA) Domestic Violence Screening Instrument (DVSI) Evaluation of Competence to Stand Trial–Revised (ECST–R) Financial Capacity Instrument (FCI) Fitness Interview Test–Revised (FIT–R) Georgia Court Competence Test (GCCT) Grisso’s Instruments for Assessing Understanding and Appreciation of Miranda Rights Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (2nd edition) (PCL–R) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) HCR–20 for Violence Risk Assessment Hopkins Competency Assessment Test (HCAT) Interdisciplinary Fitness Interview (IFI) Jail Screening Assessment Tool (JSAT) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Clinical Research (MacCAT–CR) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT–CA) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Treatment (MacCat–T) Malingering Probability Scale Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument–Version 2 (MAYSI–2) Miller Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test (M–FAST) Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory–III (MCMI–III) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Validity Scales Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised (MnSOST–R) Novaco Anger Scale Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) Parenting Satisfaction Scale (PSS) Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism (RRASOR) Risk-Sophistication-Treatment Inventory (RSTI) Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R–CRAS) Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR) Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG) Sexual Violence Risk–20 (SVR–20) Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START) Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA) STABLE–2007 and ACUTE–2007 Instruments STATIC–99 and STATIC–2002 Instruments Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) Suicide Assessment Manual for Inmates (SAMI) Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) Uniform Child Custody Evaluation System (UCCES) Validity Indicator Profile (VIP) Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG)

Psychology of Crime Research Topics

AMBER Alert System Battered Woman Syndrome Battered Woman Syndrome, Testimony on Bias Crimes Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) Criminal Behavior, Theories of Criminal Responsibility, Assessment of Criminal Responsibility, Defenses and Standards Cybercrime Domestic Violence Screening Instrument (DVSI) Elder Abuse Elderly Defendants Homicide, Psychology of Intimate Partner Violence MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study Media Violence and Behavior Obscenity Pedophilia Pornography, Effects of Exposure to Psychological Autopsies Public Opinion About Crime Serial Killers Sex Offender Civil Commitment Sex Offender Community Notification (Megan’s Laws) Sex Offender Treatment Sex Offender Typologies Stalking Substance Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence Suicide by Cop Terrorism Therapeutic Communities for Treatment of Substance Abuse Treatment and Release of Insanity Acquittees Victim-Offender Mediation With Juvenile Offenders

Psychology of Policing Research Topics

Behavior Analysis Interview Competency to Confess Confession Evidence Crisis and Hostage Negotiation Critical Incidents Detection of Deception: Cognitive Load Detection of Deception: Event-Related Potentials Detection of Deception: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Detection of Deception: Nonverbal Cues Detection of Deception: Reality Monitoring Detection of Deception: Use of Evidence in Detection of Deception by Detection “Wizards” Detection of Deception in Adults Detection of Deception in Children Detection of Deception in High-Stakes Liars False Confessions Fitness-for-Duty Evaluations Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales Interrogation of Suspects Police as Eyewitnesses Police Decision Making Police Decision Making and Domestic Violence Police Interaction With Mentally Ill Individuals Police Occupational Socialization Police Psychologists Police Psychology Police Selection Police Stress Police Training and Evaluation Police Use of Force Polygraph and Polygraph Techniques Profiling Public Opinion About the Polygraph Reid Technique for Interrogations Return-to-Work Evaluations Statement Validity Assessment (SVA) Suicide by Cop Videotaping Confessions

Sentencing and Incarceration Research Topics

Community Corrections Competency to Be Sentenced Conditional Release Programs Death Penalty Domestic Violence Courts Drug Courts Juvenile Boot Camps Parole Decisions Presentence Evaluations Prison Overcrowding Probation Decisions Public Opinion About Sentencing and Incarceration Sentencing Decisions Sentencing Diversion Programs Stanford Prison Experiment Substance Abuse Treatment Suicide Assessment and Prevention in Prisons Suicide Assessment Manual for Inmates (SAMI) Supermax Prisons Therapeutic Communities for Treatment of Substance Abuse Treatment and Release of Insanity Acquittees

Symptoms and Disorders Research Topics

Antisocial Personality Disorder Automatism Battered Woman Syndrome Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Conduct Disorder Delusions Dissociative Identity Disorder Hallucinations Malingering Mild Traumatic Brain Injury, Assessment of Mood Disorders Pedophilia Personality Disorders Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Psychopathy Psychotic Disorders Substance Use Disorders

Trial Processes Research Topics

Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances in Capital Trials, Effects on Jurors Alibi Witnesses Alternative Dispute Resolution Amicus Curiae Briefs Bail-Setting Decisions Battered Woman Syndrome, Testimony on Chicago Jury Project Children’s Testimony Children’s Testimony, Evaluation by Juries Complex Evidence in Litigation Confession Evidence CSI Effect Damage Awards Death Qualification of Juries Domestic Violence Courts Drug Courts “Dynamite Charge” Elderly Defendants Expert Psychological Testimony Expert Psychological Testimony, Admissibility Standards Expert Psychological Testimony, Forms of Expert Psychological Testimony on Eyewitness Identification Expert Testimony, Qualifications of Experts Fingerprint Evidence, Evaluation of Hearsay Testimony Inadmissible Evidence, Impact on Juries Insanity Defense, Juries and Judges’ Nonverbal Behavior Juries and Eyewitnesses Juries and Joined Trials Juries and Judges’ Instructions Jury Administration Reforms Jury Competence Jury Decisions Versus Judges’ Decisions Jury Deliberation Jury Nullification Jury Questionnaires Jury Reforms Jury Selection Jury Size and Decision Rule Jury Understanding of Judges’ Instructions in Capital Cases Legal Authoritarianism Legal Negotiation Legal Socialization Leniency Bias Litigation Stress Mental Health Courts Parole Decisions Plea Bargaining Pretrial Publicity, Impact on Juries Probation Decisions Procedural Justice Prosecutorial Misconduct Public Opinion About Crime Public Opinion About the Courts Public Opinion About the Polygraph Race, Impact on Juries Racial Bias and the Death Penalty Religion and the Death Penalty Scientific Jury Selection Sexual Harassment, Jury Evaluation of Statistical Information, Impact on Juries “Stealing Thunder” Story Model for Juror Decision Making Translated Testimony Trial Consulting U.S. Supreme Court Victim Impact Statements Voir Dire Witness Preparation Wrongful Conviction

Victim Reactions to Crime Research Topics

Battered Woman Syndrome Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Coping Strategies of Adult Sexual Assault Victims Danger Assessment Instrument (DA) Elder Abuse Intimate Partner Violence Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Rape Trauma Syndrome Reporting Crimes and Victimization Sexual Harassment Stalking Victimization Victim-Offender Mediation With Juvenile Offenders Victim Participation in the Criminal Justice System

Violence Risk Assessment Research Topics

Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) Danger Assessment Instrument (DA) Domestic Violence Screening Instrument (DVSI) Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (2nd edition) (PCL–R) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) HCR–20 for Violence Risk Assessment Jail Screening Assessment Tool (JSAT) MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument–Version 2 (MAYSI–2) Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised (MnSOST–R) Novaco Anger Scale Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) Psychopathy Psychopathy, Treatment of Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism (RRASOR) Risk Assessment Approaches Sex Offender Assessment Sex Offender Civil Commitment Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR) Sex Offender Recidivism Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG) Sexual Violence Risk–20 (SVR–20) Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START) Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA) STABLE–2007 and ACUTE–2007 Instruments STATIC–99 and STATIC–2002 Instruments Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Substance Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence Substance Use Disorders Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG) Violence Risk Assessment

Psychology and law play a significant role in postgraduate education and professional development. Forensic psychology courses are increasingly common in undergraduate psychology programs, and many such offerings are filled to capacity with undergraduate students weaned on justice- and crime-themed media and literature. Attracted by the compelling application of psychology to real-world criminal investigations and trials, undergraduate students frequently volunteer as research assistants in forensic psychology laboratories. Master’s and doctoral programs focusing on various aspects of forensic psychology have been developed and provide the research and service industries with additional intellectual capital. Postdoctoral training and professional certification options in forensic psychology support the development of a profession that is uniquely qualified to address mental health issues in a wide variety of legal contexts.

Read more about Forensic Psychology:

• Forensic Psychology (Main article)
• Psychology and Law
• What is Forensic Psychology?
• History of Forensic Psychology
• Clinical Forensic Psychology
• Forensic Psychology Ethics
• Forensic Psychology Education

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What is Forensic Psychology?

Forensic psychology definition.

Tensions Between Psychology and Law

Despite the variations in how forensic psychology is defined, there is a unanimous agreement that it entails the application of psychological knowledge and expertise within the context of the legal system. In this capacity, forensic psychologists operate at the intersection of psychology and the law. As they collaborate with legal professionals, including attorneys and judges, several inherent tensions become apparent. These tensions have been characterized in various ways by commentators (e.g., Brockman & Rose, 2011; Haney, 1980; Melton et al., 2007), but they often revolve around common themes. Drawing upon the framework outlined by Haney (1980), we can identify eight fundamental distinctions between psychology and law that may contribute to these tensions between the two disciplines.

The field of forensic psychology exists at the intersection of law and psychology, where inherent tensions arise due to fundamental differences between the two disciplines. These distinctions, outlined by scholars such as Haney (1980) and elaborated upon below, provide insight into the intricate dynamics at play when psychologists engage with the legal system:

• Emphasis on Precedent vs. Creativity : The legal system places a significant emphasis on stare decisis, or legal precedent, wherein past cases and constitutional interpretation serve as the foundation for legal arguments. Creativity and innovation are not typically encouraged within the legal context. Conversely, psychology fosters a model of innovation, urging psychologists, both in research and applied work, to explore novel ideas and methodologies (Haney, 1980).
• Hierarchy vs. Empiricism : In law, decisions are hierarchical and authoritative, with lower courts bound by the rulings of higher courts. Legal arguments rely heavily on the established hierarchy and the authority of prior judgments. In contrast, psychology operates on an empirical model where the validity of a position or claim is established through the accumulation of a body of consistent and supporting empirical data, rather than authoritative declarations (Haney, 1980).

These foundational differences underscore the challenges and complexities faced by forensic psychologists as they navigate the interface between psychology and the legal system. While the legal system prioritizes precedent and hierarchical decision-making, psychology values creativity, empirical evidence, and a commitment to exploring new avenues of understanding. The successful integration of these diverse perspectives is essential for the effective functioning of forensic psychology within the legal arena. It requires psychologists to strike a delicate balance between respecting legal traditions and norms while leveraging psychological expertise to inform and enhance the legal process.

The interface between law and psychology is marked by stark differences in their respective methodologies and objectives, as articulated by scholars like Haney (1980). These distinctions provide a foundational understanding of the contrasting dynamics at play when these two disciplines intersect:

3. Adversarial vs. Experimental Methods :

• Law’s Adversarial Approach : The legal system relies on the adversarial method, wherein opposing parties vigorously advocate their positions within the structured parameters of a trial or appellate hearing. Bias, self-interest, and zealous advocacy are not only permitted but celebrated as essential elements of the legal process. The primary goal in law is often victory, as lawyers strive to secure favorable outcomes for their clients.
• Psychology’s Experimental Method : Psychology, in contrast, employs the experimental method, aiming to arrive at a deeper understanding of phenomena through diverse data-gathering techniques. Central to these methods is the systematic collection of data, utilizing procedures designed to minimize bias, error, and distortion in observation and inferences. While bias may still influence the research process, the psychologist’s objective is to attain an “objective” understanding of the phenomena, rather than securing a victory for a particular viewpoint (Haney, 1980).

4. Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Orientation :

• Law’s Prescriptive Nature : The legal field is primarily prescriptive, delineating how individuals should behave according to established rules, statutes, and legal precedents. It prescribes standards of conduct and imposes consequences for non-compliance, emphasizing normative behavior.
• Psychology’s Descriptive Approach : Psychology adopts a predominantly descriptive orientation, seeking to observe and understand behavior as it naturally occurs. It strives to describe and explain human behavior without a normative judgment, focusing on the empirical examination of phenomena as they manifest in real-life contexts (Haney, 1980).

These fundamental distinctions illustrate the contrasting values, methods, and objectives of law and psychology. While the legal system emphasizes adversarial advocacy, procedural fairness, and prescriptive norms, psychology prioritizes empirical investigation, objective understanding, and the descriptive analysis of human behavior. Navigating these differences is a complex endeavor for forensic psychologists as they engage with the legal system, requiring a careful balance between these contrasting approaches to address the complexities of legal cases.

The distinctions between law and psychology extend to their respective approaches and principles, as highlighted by scholars like Haney (1980):

5. Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Orientation :

• Law’s Idiographic Approach : Law operates in an idiographic manner, addressing each case individually based on its unique set of facts and circumstances. Legal decisions are made with careful consideration of the specific details and context surrounding the case. The focus is on rendering justice in the context of a particular case.
• Psychology’s Nomothetic Perspective : Psychology, in contrast, adopts a nomothetic perspective, aiming to uncover general principles, relationships, and patterns that govern human behavior. Rather than focusing on the particulars of a single instance, psychology seeks to identify overarching trends and principles that transcend individual cases, contributing to a broader understanding of human behavior.

6. Certainty vs. Probabilistic Evidence :

• Law’s Certainty-Based Decision Making : Legal decision-making tends to prioritize the appearance of certainty, resulting in dichotomous outcomes where individuals are either declared guilty or not guilty (in criminal cases) or liable or not liable (in civil cases). Legal decisions are often categorical and final in nature.
• Psychology’s Probabilistic Approach : Psychology operates on the basis of probabilistic evidence. Psychologists draw conclusions and make claims based on evidence associated with a certain probability level, often expressed as a level of statistical significance. As a result, conclusions in psychology are typically qualified and probabilistic rather than categorical (Haney, 1980).

These fundamental differences in approach and decision-making underscore the unique paradigms of law and psychology. While the legal system focuses on individual cases and strives for categorical outcomes, psychology seeks generalizable insights and emphasizes probabilistic evidence to explain and predict human behavior. These distinctions are pivotal for forensic psychologists as they navigate the interface between these two disciplines, bridging the gap between the legal system’s demand for certainty and psychology’s reliance on empirical probabilities.

The differences between law and psychology are underscored by their distinct orientations and principles, as articulated by Haney (1980):

7. Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Orientation :

• Law’s Idiographic Approach : Law operates in an idiographic manner, addressing each case individually based on its specific set of facts and circumstances. Legal decisions are made with a strong focus on the unique details and context surrounding the case. The primary goal is to ensure justice in the context of the specific case at hand.
• Psychology’s Nomothetic Perspective : Psychology adopts a nomothetic perspective, aiming to uncover general principles, relationships, and patterns that govern human behavior across various contexts. Rather than concentrating on the particulars of a single instance, psychology seeks to identify overarching trends and principles that transcend individual cases, contributing to a broader understanding of human behavior.

8. Certainty vs. Probabilistic Evidence :

• Law’s Certainty-Based Decision Making : Legal decision-making often prioritizes the appearance of certainty, resulting in dichotomous outcomes where individuals are declared guilty or not guilty (in criminal cases) or liable or not liable (in civil cases). Legal decisions tend to be categorical and definitive in nature.
• Psychology’s Probabilistic Approach : Psychology operates on the basis of probabilistic evidence. Psychologists draw conclusions and make claims based on evidence associated with a certain probability level, often expressed as a level of statistical significance. Consequently, conclusions in psychology are typically qualified and probabilistic rather than absolute or categorical (Haney, 1980).

These fundamental distinctions in approach and decision-making reflect the unique paradigms of law and psychology. While the legal system focuses on individual cases and strives for decisive outcomes, psychology seeks generalizable insights and emphasizes probabilistic evidence to understand and predict human behavior. These differences are critical for forensic psychologists as they navigate the interplay between these two disciplines, bridging the gap between the legal system’s demand for certainty and psychology’s reliance on empirical probabilities.

The differences between law and psychology extend to their reactive and proactive orientations, as well as their operational and academic natures, as discussed by Haney (1980):

9. Reactive vs. Proactive Orientation :

• Law’s Reactive Approach : Law tends to be reactive, with issues arising from external sources, such as cases brought to the attention of lawyers. Legal professionals respond to specific situations and disputes presented to them, addressing real-world legal problems as they emerge.
• Psychology’s Proactive Stance : Psychology, despite external pressures like funding availability and the imperative to publish, provides psychologists with considerable control over the issues they choose to study. Psychologists often take a proactive approach by initiating research and exploration into various phenomena, guided by their quest for knowledge and a desire to advance understanding, even beyond purely pragmatic reasons.

10. Operational vs. Academic Orientation :

• Law’s Operational Focus : Law is fundamentally an applied discipline designed to address real-world problems and provide practical solutions. Legal professionals, such as lawyers and parole officers, have well-defined roles that dictate their focus on specific issues within the legal system.
• Psychology’s Academic Emphasis : Psychology leans more toward an academic orientation, with psychologists having a significant say in the topics they investigate. The driving force behind much of psychological research tends to be a pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, driven by a quest to contribute to academic understanding, often extending beyond purely pragmatic considerations (Haney, 1980).

These distinctions highlight the contrasting characteristics of law and psychology. While the legal system primarily reacts to external legal issues and emphasizes practical solutions, psychology often takes a proactive stance, allowing psychologists the freedom to explore a wide range of issues driven by academic curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge. Navigating these differences is crucial for forensic psychologists as they engage with both the practical demands of the legal system and the academic exploration of psychological phenomena.

With these eight tensions in mind, included in what follows is an expansive survey of what can be characterized as forensic psychology. At a macro level, forensic psychologists can assist the legal system in four ways:

• Assisting the legal system .
• Assisting legal actors .
• Assisting litigants .
• Researching psychological matters .

In summary, forensic psychology is a multifaceted field that lacks a uniform or consensus-driven definition. Psychologists have made substantial contributions to the legal system in various capacities, echoing the visionary insights of early proponents like Hugo Munsterberg over a century ago. Munsterberg’s 1908 treatise, “On the Witness Stand,” explored numerous ways in which psychology could benefit legal proceedings, from lie detection to eyewitness memory and crime prevention, despite facing criticism at the time.

In the century since Munsterberg’s pioneering work, psychologists have engaged with the legal process in diverse ways. They have supported the courts in decision-making, conducted research on topics relevant to the legal system, and provided services to individuals involved in legal matters. As demonstrated in this research paper, the roles played by forensic psychologists are wide-ranging and encompass both well-established areas (e.g., the treatment of criminal offenders) and less-developed domains (e.g., the treatment of crime victims).

The field’s breadth and diversity reflect the expansive nature of the law itself. As a result, forensic psychology is poised to continue expanding its contributions to various legal topics, spanning individual-level interventions to systemic-level changes. The evolution and growth of forensic psychology over the past century underscore its enduring relevance and potential for further development in the future.

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30+ Forensic Psychology Dissertation Topics

Published by Owen Ingram at January 2nd, 2023 , Revised On May 3, 2024

As the field of forensic psychology is still relatively new, there are numerous research issues to address. if you want to write a strong paper on forensic psychology, first, you have to look for convincing and well-researched forensic psychology dissertation topics and choose one of them.

Here’s a list of some fascinating areas of study in forensic psychology and some forensic psychology dissertation topics for you:

Forensic Psychology Dissertation Topics & ideas

• How forensic psychologists influence decisions about child custody
• Adolescent Antisocial Behavior and Childhood Trauma
• The Consequences of Being a Juvenile Offender in the Future
• Interviewing Children as Eyewitnesses: Ethical Challenges
• Instances of Child Abuse, Mental Illness, and the Death Penalty: Forensic Psychology
• Schizophrenia and Criminal Behavior Are Associated
• Are criminal acts more likely to be committed by those with particular mental illnesses?
• How do forensic assessments alter when considering conjecture and bias?
• Can forensic psychologists anticipate potential danger in the future?
• What guidelines should psychologists adhere to when speaking with criminals in court?
• Explain why the testimony of a mentally ill eyewitness is credible
• How trustworthy and legitimate is an eyewitness’ memory?
• What standards of conduct should forensic psychologists adhere to when testifying in court?
• Discuss how a person’s upbringing can prevent them from becoming a serial killer
• Define internet policing and discuss some effective tactics for it
• What part do video games, movies, and the internet play in encouraging criminal copycats?
• Explain why domestic violence against men is often overlooked by society
• What causes mass murder, and why is it so common in the United States?
• Are there enough safeguards in place to lessen the chances that students in special education may wind up in jail or prison?
• What effects does a job in law enforcement have on a person’s personal life?
• Murders of minors: List the elements that affect regions with high child murders
• Are the criminal justice system and prisons effective at rehabilitation?
• Describe the elements that led to the formation of domestic terrorism
• The rise in vulnerability has made more domestic terrorists appear
• The efficiency of rehabilitation within the criminal justice system and in prisons
• What influences regions where there are more child killings by children? Juvenile murder
• Is enough being done to reduce the likelihood that special education students will end up in jail or prison?
• What leads to mass murders in the United States?
• Is domestic violence directed against men being overlooked by society?
• The Impact of Childhood Trauma on Criminal Behavior
• The Effectiveness of Rehabilitation Programs in Reducing Recidivism Rates
• A Forensic Perspective on the Relationship Between Mental Illness and Criminality
• The Role of Forensic Psychology in Investigating and Prosecuting Cybercrimes
• Understanding the Psychological Profiles of Serial Killers: Case Studies and Analysis
• Investigating the Influence of Media on Jury Decision Making in High-Profile Criminal Cases
• The Use of Forensic Psychology in Child Custody Evaluations and Family Court Proceedings
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of Risk Assessment Tools in Predicting Future Violence
• Forensic Psychological Analysis of Hate Crimes
• The Role of Forensic Psychology in Investigating White-Collar Crimes and Corporate Misconduct
• Investigating the Role of Psychopathy in Violent and Nonviolent Offending Behaviors
• The Use of Forensic Psychology in Child Abuse Investigations and Legal Proceedings
• Psychological Factors Influencing Criminal Rehabilitation and Reintegration into Society
• Investigating the Relationship Between Mental Health Disorders and Fire Setting Behavior
• Forensic Assessment of Malingering and Exaggeration in Personal Injury Cases
• The Role of Forensic Psychology in Preventing and Responding to Domestic Violence
• Assessing the Impact of Pretrial Publicity on Juror Bias and Decision Making
• Investigating the Role of Forensic Psychology in Child Exploitation and Human Trafficking Cases
• The Use of Forensic Psychology in Evaluating Witness Credibility and Reliability
• The Effectiveness of Sex Offender Treatment Programs in Reducing Recidivism
• The Use of Forensic Psychology in Identifying and Rehabilitating Psychopathic Offenders

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Further Subject-Related Topics: Business Psychology Dissertation Topics , Cognitive Psychology Topics , Development Psychology Dissertation Topics

Your ability to conduct in-depth research may limit the subject matter you can explore in a forensic psychology dissertation. Having a qualified writer assist you as you complete your dissertation can alleviate some stress. Hopefully, these forensic psychology dissertation topics will help you with the dissertation writing process .

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How to find forensic psychology dissertation topics.

To find forensic psychology dissertation topics:

• Explore crime and psychology intersections.
• Research recent legal cases.
• Examine forensic assessment methods.
• Investigate offender behaviors.
• Consider ethical dilemmas.
• Choose a niche that captivates your interest.

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What Is Forensic Psychology? Plus Top Career Paths

Forensic psychology is the intersection of psychology and law, applying psychological principles within legal contexts. This field plays a crucial role in contributing to legal processes and outcomes, as well as influencing public policy and criminal justice reform. In this blog, we will explore forensic psychology careers and opportunities for those interested in pursuing a career in this fascinating field.

Understanding Forensic Psychology

Tracing the historical background of forensic psychology, one can find early influences and pioneers who shaped the field. Over time, forensic psychology evolved, adapting to societal changes and advancements in research. Today, it is a well-established discipline that plays a crucial role in the legal system.

Several key concepts and principles form the foundation of forensic psychology. Psychological assessment and evaluation are essential tools for forensic psychologists, providing insight into the mental states and behaviors of individuals involved in legal proceedings. Expert witness testimony is another vital component, as forensic psychologists often testify in court, sharing their expertise and helping judges and juries make informed decisions. Additionally, psychological profiling is an investigative technique used to identify and predict the characteristics of offenders, particularly in cases of serial crimes.

Forensic psychologists must navigate various legal and ethical considerations throughout their work. Confidentiality and privilege are crucial concerns in legal settings, with forensic psychologists balancing the need to protect sensitive information while fulfilling their professional responsibilities. Ethical guidelines, such as those provided by the American Psychological Association, offer direction on how to navigate these complex situations and ensure the highest standards of professional conduct.

Forensic Psychology Careers

Forensic psychology offers a diverse range of career opportunities, including clinical forensic psychology, forensic neuropsychology, forensic counseling and therapy, and research and academia. These roles often focus on different aspects of the field, allowing professionals to find their niche based on their interests and skills.

Work settings for forensic psychologists vary, with some working in courts and legal systems, providing expert testimony, and assisting with legal proceedings. Others may work in correctional facilities, offering rehabilitation services and assessments for inmates. Hospitals and mental health centers also employ forensic psychologists to provide care and evaluation for patients involved in legal matters. Additionally, some forensic psychologists choose to operate in private practice, offering specialized services and consultations.

Clinical Forensic Psychologist

Clinical forensic psychologists work directly with individuals involved in the legal system, such as defendants, victims, and witnesses. They assess mental health, provide therapy, and offer expert testimony in court. They may work in various settings, including private practice, government agencies, or correctional facilities. To become a clinical forensic psychologist, one must typically complete a doctoral degree and obtain a license to practice psychology.

Forensic Neuropsychologist

Forensic neuropsychologists specialize in the relationship between brain function and behavior. They often assess individuals for cognitive impairments, brain injuries, or neurological disorders that may be relevant to legal cases. These professionals may work in medical or rehabilitation centers, research institutions, or legal settings. A doctoral degree in neuropsychology or a related field is usually required.

Police and Public Safety Psychologist

These psychologists work with law enforcement agencies, providing support and guidance in various areas, such as officer training, stress management, and crisis intervention. They may also assist with criminal profiling and hostage negotiation. A master’s or doctoral degree in forensic psychology or a related field is typically needed for this career path.

Forensic Consultant

Forensic consultants offer expert advice and services to legal professionals, law enforcement agencies, and other organizations involved in the criminal justice system. They may specialize in specific areas, such as eyewitness memory, jury selection, or crime scene analysis. A master’s or doctoral degree in forensic psychology or a related field is usually required, along with experience in the specific area of expertise.

Research and Academia

Forensic psychologists working in research and academia contribute to the advancement of the field through teaching, conducting studies, and publishing their findings. They typically hold positions at colleges, universities, or research institutions. A doctoral degree in forensic psychology or a related field is generally required for these roles, along with a strong track record of research and publications.

Educational Pathways for Aspiring Forensic Psychologists

Pursuing a career in forensic psychology requires a solid educational foundation, typically beginning with an undergraduate degree in psychology or a related field. This initial step provides a broad understanding of psychological concepts and research methodologies, which can then be applied to the specialized field of forensic psychology. Continuing your education with a master’s degree in forensic psychology or a related field is the next step. This advanced degree will focus on the specific knowledge and skills required for a career in forensic psychology, such as understanding criminal behavior, legal procedures, and the ethical considerations involved in working within the criminal justice system.

For certain career paths, particularly those involving clinical work or academic positions, a doctoral degree may be necessary. Earning a Ph.D. or Psy.D. in forensic psychology or a related field will provide the highest level of expertise and open doors to more advanced career opportunities. In addition to formal education, aspiring forensic psychologists must obtain a license to practice psychology in their jurisdiction. This often involves completing a specific number of supervised practice hours and passing a licensing exam. Licensing requirements vary by state or country, so it is essential to research the specific guidelines for your location. You also have the option of becoming board certified . 

Finally, the field of forensic psychology is continually evolving, making continuing education and professional development opportunities crucial for staying current with the latest theories, practices, and research findings. By participating in workshops, conferences, and other educational events, forensic psychologists can ensure they remain at the forefront of their profession and provide the most effective services within the criminal justice system.

Pros and Cons of a Career in Forensic Psychology

As with any career, there are both advantages and disadvantages to consider when pursuing a career in forensic psychology. It is essential to weigh these factors to determine if this field is the right fit for you.

Advantages of a Career in Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology offers rewarding and meaningful work, as professionals in this field play a critical role in the criminal justice system. They contribute to a better understanding of criminal behavior, assist in resolving legal disputes, and support offender rehabilitation. The field also provides varied work settings and opportunities, allowing forensic psychologists to explore different areas of interest and expertise. This variety can lead to a dynamic and fulfilling career. Additionally, the potential for professional growth and advancement in forensic psychology is substantial, as the field continues to evolve and expand.

Disadvantages of a Career in Forensic Psychology

Despite its many benefits, a career in forensic psychology can also present emotional and psychological challenges. Professionals in this field often work with individuals who have experienced trauma or engaged in criminal behavior, which can be emotionally taxing. Furthermore, the education and training process for becoming a forensic psychologist can be time-consuming and competitive, requiring a significant investment of time, effort, and resources. Lastly, ethical considerations and dilemmas are an inherent part of working in forensic psychology. Professionals must navigate complex and sensitive situations, balancing the best interests of their clients, the legal system, and society as a whole.

A career in forensic psychology presents both advantages and challenges. It is crucial for individuals interested in this field to carefully consider these factors and determine if forensic psychology aligns with their personal and professional goals .

Job Market and Salary Expectations for Forensic Psychologists

The job market for forensic psychologists is promising, with growth and demand driven by increasing recognition of the field’s contributions to the legal system and criminal justice reform. Technology and research advancements also contribute to expanding career opportunities, as new methods and tools are developed to enhance forensic psychological practice.

Salaries and compensation for forensic psychologists can be influenced by various factors, such as education, experience, location, and specialization. Compared to other psychology careers, forensic psychology is often competitive in terms of earning potential, particularly for those with advanced credentials and expertise.

To succeed in a career in forensic psychology, networking and professional affiliations are essential for building relationships, learning about job opportunities, and staying connected to the field. Gaining experience through internships and volunteer work can provide a solid foundation for developing skills and making valuable connections. Finally, staying current with research and best practices is crucial for maintaining expertise and ensuring that forensic psychologists provide the highest quality services in their work.

Embracing a Future in Forensic Psychology

Throughout this guide, we have explored the importance of forensic psychology in the criminal justice system and the various career paths available within the field. As you consider embarking on this journey, it is crucial to research and understand the different roles, educational requirements, and potential challenges associated with a career in forensic psychology. Despite the emotional and psychological challenges, forensic psychology offers a rewarding and meaningful career, with numerous opportunities for professional growth and development across various settings. 

By carefully weighing the pros and cons and committing to the necessary education and training, you can successfully enter this dynamic and impactful profession. For further guidance on your educational and career journey, explore the resources and services provided by Pathways to Advancement and take the first step towards a fulfilling career in forensic psychology.

Resources for Forensic Psychology

Northwest Forensic Institute: https://www.nwforensic.org/resources

John Jay College of Criminal Justice – Forensic Psychology Major Resources

George Washington University – Forensic Psychology Library

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Forensic Psychology Essay

Forensic Psychology 1). Forensic Psychology is the application of the theories of psychology to law and the legal system. Issues of violence and its impact on individuals and/or groups delineate the main and central concerns in Forensics within the adult, juvenile, civil, and family domains. Forensic psychologists provide advice to legislators, judges, correctional officers, lawyers, and the police . They are called upon, for example, to serve as an expert witness, diagnose and treat incarcerated and probationed offenders, and screen and evaluate personnel in the law enforcement and judicial systems. Forensics encompasses a wide range of academic orientation. Synonyms for Forensic psychologists include criminal psychologist, …show more content…

Fromm describes Hitler's life and says, "there are hundreds of Hitlers among us who would come forth if their historical hour arrived." In other cases, there is an underlying feeling of powerlessness that produces a need to be in complete control over a helpless person. Sadists and rapists are like this. Joseph Stalin, dictator of Russia, was a famous example; he enjoyed torturing political prisoners; he killed millions of his own people (when they opposed his policies); he had wives of his own loyal aides sent to prison (the aides didn't protest); he enjoyed being deceptive and totally unpredictable. In milder forms, chauvinists may also be hostile, e.g. the male who puts down his wife and demands she attend to his every need; the angry, threatening, autocratic boss or teacher who enjoys seeing the worker or student break into a cold sweat. Boredom is another source of hostility, according to Fromm. When life loses its meaning because we are only a cog in a wheel, our reaction to the senselessness and helplessness is anger. We feel cheated; we had hoped for more in life; the powerlessness hurts. Hurting others or making them mad is ways of proving one still has power, a means of showing "I'm somebody." Fromm rejected the instinctivist thesis of Freud, which states that human capacities for aggression and for love are strictly biological potentials. The idea of one's fear for freedom has already been discussed. Fromm also postulated that when an

Forensic Psychology Application Essay

Throughout my educational journey, my interest and attention was always captivated by classes which had even the slightest tendency towards Forensic Psychology. Yet, my passion remained unconscious until I took a class of Criminal Law in Business, class which seemed to hold the answer for the consuming question “What am I going to study at University?” From there, I began putting the puzzle pieces together, determined to find the source of the spark- Law, Criminology, Forensic Science all seemed to bring me closer to the right one for me: Forensic Psychology. Reading the first few lines of the field description was enough to assure me that there is no other subject could fascinate, intrigue and motivate me to give by best to apart from this. I became infatuated with the evidence that evil in a human being can be so incandescent, transparent and mischievous that it could bring down any barrier of normality. I became absorbed by its power to grow into the mind and punish the

Essay on 2.06 Forensic Science

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Essay on Chapter Five Forensic Science

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Forensic science and law are often seen as two opposing disciplines; forensic science is often presumed to be factual and law can be interpreted in multiple ways. Science and law reach conclusions in different ways which is an issue. Due to these differences, miscommunication is often the cause for miscarriages of justice. In order to address this problem, people working in the criminal justice system should have more knowledge of forensic science. There are many factors that contribute to the lack of understanding between forensic science and the people involved in the court process. Firstly, the adversarial model will be discussed in relation to how these procedures prevent effective communication between forensic evidence and lawyers. Secondly, the role that expert witnesses play in the presentation of scientific evidence and how jurors play a role in interpreting their evidence, will be considered. Thirdly it will be argued that lawyers and judges lack adequate knowledge of forensic science that is needed to conduct accurate trials. Lastly, possible solutions to improve the communication between forensic science and the actors involved in the criminal justice system. Juries, lawyers and judges should be more educated in understanding forensic science.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Forensic Psychology

Forensic Psychology is the interaction of the practice or study of psychology and the law. This field of work is

Forensic Science Essay example

Forensic Science has contributed to our world a great deal. People often misunderstand Forensic Science and believe it is much more capable than it really is. As a matter of fact what you see on T.V. is around 80% false or over exaggerated in some way. To Start of, Criminal Investigation is the largest and most known form of Forensic Science. Some of the more known areas include; Fingerprinting, Ballistics, DNA Identification, Fiber Samples, Computer Animation, Documentation analysis, etc. To get this out of the way in the beginning, what you saw on last night’s law and order is far from the truth. Things they do in a matter of hours take months at a time, and most of the time aren’t even plausible concepts.

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The Insanity defense is mentioned as confusing to the psychiatric and legal concept. Furthermore, it is explained that the word “insane” is more of a legal word, then a medical term, and therefor to prove a person or a criminal insane, one must find the mental condition, of a criminal, severely impaired to the point of losing one’s free will. A psychiatrist may be or may not able to determine such illness, and a jury’s decision solely based on a psychiatrists’ opinion may be grounded on unreliable evidence. Retrieved from; West's Encyclopedia of American Law, edition 2 (2008).

Forensic Interview Essay

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Essay on Forensic Science

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Psychology has always had a direct impact on my life for many years for example, I myself have had counselling sessions for anxiety. Experiencing this has given me a desire to work with people in understanding their behaviour and how their minds work to be able to empower individuals to lead better lives. My own personal experience with anxiety has also intrigued me into thinking why I think the way I do and what can be put into action to improve my circumstances.

Crime Scene Investigator Essay

Some of the responsibilities of a Crime Scene Investigator include but are not limited to: closing off and securing the crime scene, taking accurate measurements, sketching and taking pictures of the scene, documenting, packaging, and labeling the evidence before it is sent to the lab, writing a report over the evidence, procedures, and conclusions, testifing your findings in a courtroom, maintaining equipment, attending autopsies, briefings, and conferences. Crime scene Investigators will spend a vast majority of their time out in the field they deal with a wide variety of crimes some of which are the following: homicides, sexual assults, armed robberies, home invasions, and burglaries.Typically the office hours of a Crime Scene Investigator

Conflict Between Therapeutic and Forensic Roles of Psychologists

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In order to understand how this may be done, allow me to define Forensic Psychology. You see forensic psychology is the practice of psychology related to the legal system. This involves relationships with federal, local, and state law enforcement agencies; attorneys and the court; corrections and treatment facilities; and working with people whose behavior or situation leads them into involvement with the courts.

Forensic Psychology : A Forensic Psychologist

By definition in the Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists, ‘psychologist’ refers to persons who, in accordance with the American Psychological Association (APA) or state registration/licensure, practice psychology in a professional capacity. A ‘forensic psychology’ is the act of working, professionally, as a ‘psychological expert’ within the court system. Finally, a ‘forensic psychologist’ is the aforementioned psychologist working in the also defined field of forensic psychology (Committee on Ethical Guidelines for Forensic Psychology, 1991, p. 657).

Why People Do Bad Things Essay

A Forensic Psychologist focuses on “why people do bad things, why they commit crimes, lie to police officers, and treat their children abusively” (AllPsychologyCareers). There is this fascination with criminals and the psychopathy behind their actions and thoughts. According to All Psychology Careers, this field of study focuses on all types of research in psychology including clinical, developmental, social, clinical, behavioral and neuropsychological to blend together ideas and studies to apply to criminal action. The major focus of forensic psychologist is criminology and law because there needs to be a broad understanding of how the judicial system works and what statutes apply in what states. This type of work can be applied in many different settings such as prisons, correctional facilities, court systems, government agencies, parole boards and research.

Related Topics

• Law enforcement agency

Home / Essay Samples / Philosophy / Forensic Psychology / The Role Of Forensic Psychology In Criminal Investigation

The Role Of Forensic Psychology In Criminal Investigation

• Category: Crime , Philosophy
• Topic: Criminal Behavior , Forensic Psychology , Forensic Science

Pages: 3 (1286 words)

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