case selection research

Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options

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Case Selection for Case‐Study Analysis: Qualitative and Quantitative Techniques

This article presents some guidance by cataloging nine different techniques for case selection: typical, diverse, extreme, deviant, influential, crucial, pathway, most similar, and most different. It also indicates that if the researcher is starting from a quantitative database, then methods for finding influential outliers can be used. In particular, the article clarifies the general principles that might guide the process of case selection in case-study research. Cases are more or less representative of some broader phenomenon and, on that score, may be considered better or worse subjects for intensive analysis. The article then draws attention to two ambiguities in case-selection strategies in case-study research. The first concerns the admixture of several case-selection strategies. The second concerns the changing status of a case as a study proceeds. Some case studies follow only one strategy of case selection.

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This chapter discusses quantitative and qualitative practices of case-study selection when the goal of the analysis is to evaluate causal hypotheses. More specifically, it considers how the different causal models used in the qualitative and quantitative research cultures shape the kind of cases that provide the most leverage for hypothesis testing. The chapter examines whether one should select cases based on their value on the dependent variable. It also evaluates the kinds of cases that provide the most leverage for causal inference when conducting case-study research. It shows that differences in research goals between quantitative and qualitative scholars yield distinct ideas about best strategies of case selection. Qualitative research places emphasis on explaining particular cases; quantitative research does not.

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Public administration scholarship needs to strike a better balance between large sample studies and in-depth case studies. The availability of large data sets has led us to engage in empirical research that is broad in scope but is frequently devoid of rich context. In-depth case studies can help to explain why we observe particular relationships and can help us to clarify gaps and inconsistencies in theory. Our argument for more case studies aims to encourage researchers to bridge insights from qualitative and quantitative research through triangulation. We describe the value of case study research, and qualitative and quantitative design options. We then propose opportunities for case study research in public personnel scholarship on patronage pressures, performance management, and diversity management.

Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research

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In this article, we present the benefits of blending the methodological characteristics of the focused ethnographic method (FEM) and case study research (CSR) for a study on auxiliary work processes in a hospital in Barcelona, Spain. We argue that incorporating CSR logic and principles in the FEM produces a better form of inquiry, as this combination improves the quality of data and the ability to make comparisons in addition to enhancing the transferability of findings. These better outcomes are achieved because the characteristics of the case study methodological design reinforce many of the strengths of the FEM, such as its thematic concreteness and its targeted data collection. The role played by the theoretical framework of the study thus makes it easier to focus on the key variables of the initial theoretical model and to introduce a logic of multiple case comparison.

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Qualitative case study research can be a valuable tool for answering complex, real-world questions. This method is often misunderstood or neglected due to a lack of understanding by researchers and reviewers. This tutorial defines the characteristics of qualitative case study research and its application to a broader understanding of stuttering that cannot be defined through other methodologies. This article will describe ways that data can be collected and analyzed.

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Robert k. yin. (2014). case study research design and methods (5th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. 282 pages., cooperative banks & local government units - areas of collaboration (poland case study - research results), from the ‘frying-pan’ into the ‘fire’ antidotes to confirmatory bias in case-study research, export citation format, share document.

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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case selection and the comparative method: introducing the case selector

• Published: 14 August 2017
• Volume 17 , pages 422–436, ( 2018 )

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• timothy prescott 1 &
• brian r. urlacher 1  

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We introduce a web application, the Case Selector ( http://und.edu/faculty/brian.urlacher ), that facilitates comparative case study research designs by creating an exhaustive comparison of cases from a dataset on the dependent, independent, and control variables specified by the user. This application was created to aid in systematic and transparent case selection so that researchers can better address the charge that cases are ‘cherry picked.’ An examination of case selection in a prominent study of rebel behaviour in civil war is then used to illustrate different applications of the Case Selector.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and feedback over the course of the review processes. This project has been significantly improved by their suggestions. The authors have also agreed to provide access to the Case Selector through their faculty webpages at their affiliated institutions.

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prescott, t., urlacher, b.r. case selection and the comparative method: introducing the case selector. Eur Polit Sci 17 , 422–436 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-017-0128-5

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Article contents

Case selection in small-n research.

• Jason Seawright Jason Seawright Department of Political Science, Northwestern University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.169
• Published online: 05 August 2016

Recent methodological work on systematic case selection techniques offers ways of choosing cases for in-depth analysis such that the probability of learning from the cases is enhanced. This research has undermined several long-standing ideas about case selection. In particular, random selection of cases, paired or grouped selection of cases for purposes of controlled comparison, typical cases, and extreme cases on the outcome variable all appear to be much less useful than their reputations have suggested. Instead, it appears that scholars gain the most in terms of making new discoveries about causal relationships when they study extreme cases on the causal variable or deviant cases.

• case selection
• case studies
• multi-method research
• comparative method
• qualitative methods

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date: 07 May 2024

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Case selection techniques in case study research

Abstract How can scholars select cases from a large universe for in-depth case study analysis? Random sampling is not typically a viable approach when the total number of cases to be selected is small. Hence attention to purposive modes of sampling is needed. Yet, while the existing qualitative literature on case selection offers a wide range of suggestions for case selection, most techniques discussed require in-depth familiarity of each case.

Related Papers

David Collier

For scholars concerned with causal inference, how should cases be selected? The statistician David Freedman evaluates case selection strategies proposed by political scientists. He dissents from Fearon and Laitin, who suggest that when case studies are used to deepen findings derived from regression analysis, cases should be selected at random. Freedman also urges caution regarding Gerring’s approach, as he claims Gerring inappropriately proposes to identify cases as typical, diverse, extreme, etc. on the basis of criteria associated with large-N and experimental methods. Freedman likewise disagrees with Goertz’s recommendation about case-selection within the 2 x 2 matrix formed by dichotomous independent and dependent variables. Goertz suggests that analysts should ignore the 'null cell,' in which both the purported cause and the effect are absent, but Freedman argues against this practice, contending that all cells in the matrix can potentially be important. Through this discussion, these authors come to agree on the importance of grasping the strengths and limitations of alternative case-selection strategies.

Matthijs Bogaards

Empirical research on democratization is dominated by case studies and small-N comparisons. This article is a first attempt to take stock of qualitative case-based research on democratization. It finds that most articles use methods implicitly rather than explicitly and are disconnected from the burgeoning literature on case-based methodology. This makes it difficult to summarize the substantive findings or to evaluate the contributions of the various approaches to our knowledge of democratic transition and consolidation. There is much to gain from a closer collaboration between methods experts and empirical researchers of democratization.

Rafael Mesquita

This article seeks to present, in a pedagogical and introductory way, central issues concerning research design, inference and causality in Political Science and International Relations. It is aims, therefore, at familiarizing students of this field with the common tools of this scientific endeavor, as well as introducing them to the main debates that cut across the discipline. In order to do so, we review the guidelines presented in the book Designing Social Inquiry and in the publications that answered it, either endorsing or contesting its conceptions on the best scientific practices. The objective of this contribution is to better equip Political Science and International Relations students to think critically about the choices involved in the elaboration and execution of a research design.

Joachim Blatter

Qualitative Methods – Newsletter of the American Political Science Association Organized Section for Qualitative + Multi-Method Research, 6,1,29-34.

Colin J Beck

Formalization of comparative case methodology has given the appearance of growing consensus and cross-disciplinary acceptance around a set of best practices. Yet how researchers actually use a method may differ widely from what methodologists believe, which is the crux of institutionalization of a method. This study examines whether comparative methodology has, in fact, institutionalized within the social sciences using evidence from the entire corpus of comparative studies of revolution published from 1970 to 2009. Content analysis of methods of case selection within the revolution subfield reveals a wide diversity of strategies with only modest methodological awareness by practitioners, a lack of consensus among which case selection strategies to use, and little convergence over time. Thus, the comparative method has not yet institutionalized in its practice. Methodological practice has implications for the coverage of cases of revolution and what is substantively known about the phenomenon.

TASSIANY DA SILVA PEREIRA

Resumo O artigo apresenta uma introdução didática sobre desenhos de pesquisa, inferência e causalidade em Ciência Política e Relações Internacionais. Destina-se, portanto, a familiarizar estudantes do campo com o ferramental desta atividade científica, bem como introduzi-los aos principais debates que perpassam a disciplina. Para tanto, revisamos os ele-mentos centrais do livro Designing Social Inquiry e as publicações que responderam a ele, endossando ou contestando as suas concepções sobre as melhores práticas científicas. Com este artigo esperamos equipar os alunos de Ciência Política e Relações Internacionais para o pensamento crítico sobre as escolhas envolvidas na elaboração e execução de um desenho de pesquisa. Abstract This article seeks to present, in a pedagogical and introductory way, central issues concerning research design, inference and causality in Political Science and International Relations. It is aims, therefore, at familiarizing students of this field with the common tools of this scientific endeavor, as well as introducing them to the main debates that cut across the discipline. In order to do so, we review the guidelines presented in the book Designing Social Inquiry and in the publications that answered it, either endorsing or contesting its conceptions on the best scientific practices. The objective of this contribution is to better equip Political Science and International Relations students to think critically about the choices involved in the elaboration and execution of a research design.

Sociological Methods & Research

Derek Beach

The last decade has witnessed resurgence in the interest in studying the causal mechanisms linking causes and effects. This article games through the methodological consequences that adopting a systems understanding of mechanisms has for what types of cases we should select when using in-depth case study methods like process tracing. The article proceeds in three steps. We first expose the assumptions that underpin the study of causal mechanisms as systems that have methodological implications for case selection. In particular, we take as our point of departure the case-based position, where: causation is viewed in deterministic and asym-metric terms, the focus is ensuring causal homogeneity in case-based research to enable cross-case inferences to be made, and finally where mechanisms are understood as more than just intervening variables but instead a system of interacting parts that transfers causal forces from causes to outcomes. We then develop a set of case selection guidelines that are in methodological alignment with these underlying assumptions. We then develop guidelines for research where the mechanism is the primary focus, contending that only typical cases where both X, Y, and the requisite contextual conditions are present should be selected. We compare our guidelines with the existing, finding that practices like selecting most/least-likely cases are not compatible with the underlying assumptions of tracing mechanisms. We then present guidelines for deviant cases, focusing on

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Politics latest: MoD contractor hacked by China 'has contracts across Whitehall'

The defence secretary has given a statement about a hacking attack on the UK's Ministry of Defence, which Sky News understands China was behind. The government has been criticised for not naming the perpetrator, and concern is mounting over the contractor that was targeted.

Tuesday 7 May 2024 23:09, UK

• China hacked Ministry of Defence, Sky News learns
• Contractor behind system named in House of Commons
• Sam Coates:  This could get quite sticky
• Scotland's new first minister voted in
• Labour rejects PM's election prediction
• Jon Craig: MPs hold most heated Gaza debate since war began
• Live reporting by Ben Bloch and (earlier)   Faith Ridler

Thank you for joining us on the Politics Hub for a busy day in Westminster.

Here's what happened:

• The defence secretary, Grant Shapps, gave a statement to the Commons confirming that a hack had hit the Ministry of Defence's payroll system, run by an external contractor, with personal details of British service people targeted;
• But he did not confirm Sky's revelation that China is behind the hack because it is a months-long process for such a formal designation to be made by ministers (China firmly denies it is behind the cyber attack);
• The refusal to blame China provoked fury from many MPs who want stronger action from the government against China - but Rishi Sunak defended his policy as "robust";
• The defence secretary did state in the Commons that contractor SSCL was responsible, with the government launching an investigation into all SSCL work with government;
• The deputy foreign secretary told the Commons that the government is firmly opposed to an Israeli offensive in the Rafah area of Gaza, with the PM saying he is "deeply concerned" by the prospect;
• Shadow chancellor Rachel Reeves gave a speech in which she blasted Tory "economic fiction", saying ministers arguing the economy is turning a corner is not reflecting "reality";
• New SNP leader John Swinney was formally elected the new first minister of Scotland, with him expected to formally take the role as soon as tomorrow.

Join us again from 6am for the very latest political news - and the first PMQs since the local elections at noon.

The Garrick Club, a central London gentlemen's club, has voted to accept women into the ranks of its membership for the first time in its near two-century history.

Founded in 1831, it is one of the oldest members' clubs in the world, and its membership is drawn from across the British establishment.

Among its ranks are said to be 1,500 members including at least 160 senior legal professionals, at least 10 serving MPs, dozens of Lords, heads of public institutions, actors, artists and businessmen.

King Charles is even said to be a member, along with around 150 men with knighthoods who cough up the around £1,000 a year to get access to its dining rooms, luxury lounges and exclusive bedrooms.

Women have been effectively banned from becoming members, and until 2010 were barred from even visiting the club as the guest or spouse of a member.

But in a vote this evening, the membership changed the rules to allow women to become full members.

One member told Sky News that 944 members attended a meeting tonight, either in person or remotely, and said: "It was fairly clear the majority was in favour of admitting women."

The club had been at the centre of a controversy after the UK's chief civil servant, Simon Case, came under heavy criticism for his membership, which he eventually resigned in March ( more here ).

A list of members of the club was recently published by The Guardian newspaper, which included the King, Deputy Prime Minister Oliver Dowden and Sir Richard Moore, the head of MI6.

Read more about the club from our political reporter Tim Baker  here:

An early release prison measure, used to relieve capacity problems in jails across England and Wales, has been extended for a second time since its introduction in October.

As of 23 May, some male prisoners will now be freed up to 70 days before the end of their sentence in order to free up space, under the End of Custody Supervised License scheme.

Originally - it was 18 days, later extended to between 35 and 60 days.

In an email sent to prison and probation officers informing them of the extension, seen by Sky News, staff were told that "despite the push" and efforts of the scheme in previous months, that "pressures continue" in male prisons, and so further extensions to this emergency scheme are necessary.

Sex offenders, terrorists and category A prisoners, plus those serving four years or more, are excluded and aren't eligible for release.

However, sources close to the service have expressed concern about the extent to which the scheme is being amended, at pace, and often with little warning.

Read the full story from our news correspondent Mollie Malone here:

By Jenness Mitchell, Scotland reporter

John Swinney will become Scotland's new first minister after being backed by a majority of MSPs.

Following his victory in the SNP leadership race on Monday, the 60-year-old faced a vote at Holyrood to confirm him as Humza Yousaf's successor.

The Scottish Greens abstained from the vote, with Mr Swinney able to fend off challenges from Scottish Tory leader Douglas Ross, Scottish Labour leader Anas Sarwar, and Scottish Liberal Democrats leader Alex Cole-Hamilton.

His name will now be submitted to the King, with an official swearing-in ceremony expected to take place at the Court of Session in Edinburgh as early as Wednesday.

Mr Swinney will then be able to appoint his cabinet.

Read the full story here:

We've just had a statement from the Home Office amid chaos at UK airports due to a nationwide issue with the border system.

A spokesperson said: "We are aware of a technical issue affecting eGates across the country.

"We are working closely with Border Force and affected airports to resolve the issue as soon as possible and apologise to all passengers for the inconvenience caused."

Queues are building at airports across the country as flights land, but passengers are unable to be processed.

Follow live updates on the outage affecting the UK border on our dedicated live page here:

Are you affected? Send us a message on WhatsApp . Check our contact us page for more information.

By Tim Baker , political reporter

The government is "gaslighting" the public about the state of the economy, the shadow chancellor has said.

Rachel Reeves attacked the Conservatives in a speech in the City of London, as the opposition takes the fight to the government on their own turf ahead of the general election.

Running a strong economy has long been the focus of Conservative election campaigns.

And with a raft of economic data coming out this week, Ms Reeves is looking to get ahead of the government's messaging - saying Chancellor Jeremy Hunt and Prime Minister Rishi Sunak claiming the economy is improving is "deluded".

Over a year ago, Rishi Sunak made five pledges for voters to judge him on.

The prime minister met his promise to halve inflation by the end of 2023.

But with the general election approaching, how is Mr Sunak doing on delivering his other promises?

You can see the progress for yourself below:

Chaos has been reported at airports across the UK - as two airports have confirmed a nationwide border issue.

A Heathrow spokesperson said: "Border Force is currently experiencing a nationwide issue which is impacting passengers being processed through the border.

"Our teams are supporting Border Force with their contingency plans to help resolve the problem as quickly as possible and are on hand to provide passenger welfare. We apologise for any impact this is having to passenger journeys."

Manchester Airport also confirmed that the UK Border System is down as part of a nationwide outage.

It said its teams are working to assist passengers in the airport.

Sky News has contacted the Home Office for comment and further details:

The Sky News live poll tracker - collated and updated by our Data and Forensics team - aggregates various surveys to indicate how voters feel about the different political parties.

With the local elections complete, Labour is still sitting comfortably ahead, with the Tories trailing behind.

See the latest update below - and you can read more about the methodology behind the tracker  here .

Two of Westminster's best-connected journalists, Sky News's Sam Coates and Politico's Jack Blanchard, guide you through their top predictions for the next seven days in British politics. 

Following the local and mayoral elections, Jack and Sam discuss how Rishi Sunak will try to get back onto the front foot and whether the Conservative rebels will continue to plot against him.     

They also predict that the country will come out of recession and look forward to a new SNP leader in Scotland following the resignation of Humza Yousaf. 

 Email with your thoughts and rate how their predictions play out:  [email protected]  or  [email protected]          

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