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5 Engaging British Culture ESL Lesson Plans

By adding some culture into your British English lessons, you can go beyond the language and create an immersive learning experience.

In this post, you’ll get 5 British culture lesson plans with 12 different activities that will help your students to understand more about Britain!

1. ESL Lesson Plan on British Dining 

Discuss british food, teach british table etiquette, do a restaurant role play, 2. esl lesson plan on being polite, practice making polite requests, teach polite language.

• Have a “Requests and Responses” Treasure Hunt

3. ESL Lesson Plan on Making Complaints

Brainstorm topics for complaints, discuss and write complaints and responses, 4. esl lesson plan on rules of the road, guess the meanings of road signs, give a mock british driving theory test, 5. esl lesson plan on the “dos” and “don’ts” of british culture, review the grammar of modal verbs, write the “dos” and “don’ts” of british culture, make an instructional video on british etiquette , why are cultural lessons important.

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Table manners vary from country to country . From the way you eat to how you pay the bill, what’s polite in one country may be extremely rude in another. Avoid awkward situations by teaching your students proper British table etiquette.

When teaching about these topics, remember to  be culturally sensitive . There’s always a chance that you could unintentionally cause offense, so make sure you’re mindful of what you say and keep students’ conversations in check.

Start with a simple discussion of British food. Provide pictures and descriptions of different British dishes, asking students what they imagine them to taste like. You can use pre-made worksheets from a site like iSLCollective or ESL Printables . 

You could even turn this into a vocabulary game . If you’re willing to put in the time and effort, you could make a traditional British food and bring it to class for your students to try (just make sure there are no food allergy issues first). 

Explain the basics of British table manners to your students. Make sure you include the following points:

• How to order
• If you should share your food
• How to use your cutlery
• Who should pay the bill
• If you should leave a tip

Have your students demonstrate both the “dos” and the “don’ts” of dining in the UK, letting them have some fun with it. You can also show an engaging video like this one:

You can put the previous two exercises together in a restaurant role-play . In pairs or small groups, ask your students to create their own British menus. Then, have them role-play as customers, waiters and waitresses. This should be a relatively free activity, with minimal monitoring and feedback from the teacher.

Politeness and manners are important to many British people. A “please,” “thank you”   or even subtle body language can go a long way. If your students know the importance and use of this social etiquette, it will help improve their confidence in conversation.

Give your students a situation where they have to ask for something. For example, a boss asking an employee to finish a report, or a child asking their parents what’s for dinner.

Have students brainstorm different ways to ask for these things , from the least polite to the most. They can start with the most basic, direct demand and gradually move up to extremely polite requests. This will encourage them to be more creative with their language.

If you’re working with a lower-level group, try giving them the sentences yourself. Then, ask them to rank each request in order of politeness.

The first activity will give you an idea of what your students already know. You can build on this knowledge by giving students more vocabulary and phrases to use when they want to be polite .

Some language you could use includes:

Would you mind….?

Is it OK if I …..?

Could you….?

You can teach more polite language and behavior with a video like this one from Keystone English:

In addition to British manners, it includes some British English words like “trolley” for shopping cart and “garden” for yard. It also exposes viewers to a person speaking with a British accent, but slow enough to be more easily understood. 

Have a “ Requests and Responses” Treasure Hunt

Your students can put what they’ve learned to use in this fun treasure hunt game:

• Split students into groups and give each group a list of common belongings or classroom tools (for example: a pencil, a hair clip, etc.).
• Each group must work together to obtain the items on their list by finding someone who has each item and politely asking to borrow it. This can include other students in the class, as well as any staff who might be around to help.
• Prime everyone involved , letting them know that they should only hand the item over if they’re asked politely. Also, make sure the students keep a note of who every item belongs to so they can return it at the end of the class.

To add some excitement, make it a race . The group that successfully collects all of the items on their list first wins the activity.

Whether it’s about the weather, customer service or just plain old gossip, complaints tend to pop up frequently in conversation in Britain.

Giving your students the tools to complain and the freedom to do it without consequence can be really fun (just make sure to monitor conversations and make sure no one takes it too far).

In pairs or small groups, have your students list people or situations that could be cause for complaints . These could include hotels, traffic, siblings, an overbearing boss or anything they’d like.

Then, they can add specific annoyances to complain about for each one (like poor customer service, misunderstandings, unrealistic requests, etc.). Monitor this activity to make sure students remain respectful!

Next, your students can brainstorm ways of tackling the situations they’ve listed. Have them write sentences or short conversations about how to make and respond to these complaints.

An instructional video can also work well here. Make it interactive by pausing it to have your students repeat the key words and phrases.

If you have an advanced group, you could turn this into a formal letter-writing activity . Each group can write a letter of complaint, then switch and write responses to each other. This activity requires feedback and grammar checking from you.

Driving in a different country can be daunting. Even if you’re driving on the same side of the road as you do at home, the rules can be completely different.

If your students travel to England, this knowledge will help them navigate the roads when they rent a car, use public transportation and even be knowledgeable pedestrians.

They don’t have to go to England to benefit, though: Through these activities, students can practice giving instructions, following directions and talking about obligations.

Present your students with a variety of British road signs . Some of them may be familiar, while others will be completely new. In pairs, ask students to infer the meanings and write a sentence for each one . You could do this either with a worksheet or a PowerPoint presentation.

Once students finish writing, compare their answers to the true meanings and see how many they guessed correctly.

To wrap up your lesson, give your students a quiz on what they’ve learned. You could use a mock version of the British driving theory test  or pluck your questions straight from the highway code .

To get the most out of this activity, make sure students answer using complete sentences. Questions could include:

If a driver flashes their headlights at you, what should you do?

At a roundabout, who has the right of way? 

You could even use a video quiz and have your students share their answers verbally:

This is a fun way to test their knowledge and make sure they remember the information from the previous activities. If you want to make it competitive, you could offer a small prize to the person with the most correct answers.

The following activities will solidify some ideas about British culture for your students, as well as give them a chance to pick up some new grammar.

Lots of students struggle with modal verbs , and a cultural lesson is the perfect opportunity to elicit them and learn how to use them. To begin with, give a grammatical rundown so they can make sentences using verbs like “should” and “must.” 

Once your students are comfortable with the grammar, they can use it to write examples in relation to British culture. In groups or individually, have students write a list of rules for British etiquette using modal verbs wherever possible.

The lists could include sentences like the following:

You don’t have to shake someone’s hand every time you meet them.

You must wait patiently in a queue.

You should always say ‘sorry’ when you bump into someone.

If you have time, you could also ask students to write a similar list for their own culture. This forms a great basis for a discussion, in which you could make comparisons between all the different cultures represented in your class.

If you have the time and resources, have your students write and perform their own skits or even record a video of the “dos” and “don’ts” of British culture. 

Here’s an example of a simple video created by the teachers and students at the Communicate School of English in Manchester: 

Lessons on different cultures can be hugely beneficial to ESL students. Giving your students a chance to learn about British culture can help prepare them for many different experiences.

• If they plan to travel to the UK or study abroad , it will help to reduce the culture shock . They’ll feel more comfortable interacting with strangers as well as their host families and foreign friends.
• If they happen to work with any Brits, they’ll be able to talk to their co-workers while avoiding any social faux pas .
• As well as day-to-day life, cultural knowledge can be especially useful for citizenship tests . If any of your students plan to take the British citizenship test , cultural knowledge from your classes could help to get them through it.

Of course, not everyone has the luxury of being able to travel abroad or the opportunity to work with foreigners. For some, the only chance they get to talk to a native English speaker could be in their classes.

Knowing the culture behind the language can give English learners a valuable understanding of the situations and social norms where certain words, phrases and styles of speaking should be used.

Adjusting to different cultures can be difficult, especially when a second language is involved.

Lessons like these will help make it easier for your students, exposing them to glimpses of British culture in the classroom.

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Introduction to British Culture/heritage

Subject: History

Age range: 11-14

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

12 January 2015

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I found this very useful as an introduction to A levels for international students. Easy to grasp and interactive.

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Good lesson, promotes good discussions.

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How to Talk about Your Culture in English

Many non-native English speakers from different cultures around the world live in English-speaking countries like the USA, UK, Canada, etc. Today, the world has become a global village, and people are interested in knowing and sharing one’s culture with others.

Therefore, talking about one’s culture can be a great way to open a conversation. If you are wondering how to talk about your culture in English, this post is for you.    

You can focus on different aspects of your culture, including language, family structure, social beliefs and practices, religion, arts and literature, food habits, education,  politics, economic system, and the way of life as a whole, while talking about your culture in English.

Are you looking for a book or a guide to help you learn and improve your English? You may try  English Made Easy Volume One: A New ESL Approach: Learning English Through Pictures (Amazon Link) .

Culture is someone’s core identity representing their collective way of life. Whatever you do and how you see different things is your culture. So, while talking about culture, you can bring up many things. Here, I will share some expressions you can use to talk about your culture in English.

Talking about Your Native Language

Language is the fundamental element of culture. It is an essential characteristic of one’s cultural identity. Therefore, whenever someone talks about their culture, language comes first, then the other elements of culture. Here are some example sentences you can use to share your linguistic identity while talking about your culture.

• I was born in Bangladesh, and we speak Bengali there.
• I am Indian. I speak Hindi.
• Spanish is my mother tongue.
• I am from Brazil. Portuguese is our official language.
• Bengali is my mother tongue. We sacrificed lives for our language.
• Today is 21 February, the International Mother Language Day. I am proud to be a speaker of Bengali.
• I speak German as my 1 st language.
• Though I can speak English, my mother tongue is French.
• I speak Mandarin as my first language, and English is my second.
• Russian is my first language, but I am learning English as a second language.
• I am a native speaker of Arabic.
• My mother tongue is Turkish, but I studied English in school.

Talking about Family Structure in Your Culture

Family structure is the combination of relatives who live together as a single entity. Family structure is fundamental to understanding a culture. From the beginning of humankind, there were two kinds of families: patriarchal and matriarchal.  

In a patriarchal family, the father or the male elder is the ultimate decision maker, whereas, in a matriarchal family mother or woman is the key decision maker. However, nowadays, both male and female members are given equal importance in families in the developed world.

Family structures significantly depend on the number of members and their relationships. For example, in the USA, there are different kinds of family structures, such as:

• Extended family—consists of father, mother, and their children, aunts, uncles, grandparents, and cousins
• Grandparent family—consists of grandchildren and no parents present in the intervening generation
• Nuclear family—consists of parents and children
• Same-sex family—consists of children raised by two mothers or two fathers
• Single-parent family—consists of a parent and one or more dependent children
• Step-family—consists of at least one parent having children without any biological relation to their spouse

The above structures are also common in other countries, especially nuclear and extended ones. Here are some example sentences showing the use of those family types.

• I was raised in an extended family.
• As I live in a grandparent family, I usually need to take care of my Grandparents.
• The nuclear family is the typical family type in my country.
• In Bangladesh, we usually don’t have a same-sex family.
• My step-brother is my best friend as I was raised in a step-family.

Talking about Beliefs and Practices in Your Culture

Social beliefs and practices are usually unwritten rules that people of a specific culture follow. Such traditions help create a comfortable atmosphere in society. Those beliefs and practices vary from culture to culture.

For example, in modern developed countries like the USA, marriage as a cultural practice is determined by choice of a man and woman. All the family members are not necessarily exclusively involved.

However, in India, marriage is a relationship between two families. Therefore, it is done through negotiations on different issues rather than merely on love between a man and woman.   

Let us see another example. In European countries, you will find that men and women are traveling on the same bus. Maybe one is sitting beside another even if the other seats are vacant.

Think about Bangladesh now. Even a few years back, besides combined buses, there were individual buses for men and women. Even in combined buses, there are reserved seats for women. In addition, if there are vacant seats, a woman in Bangladesh usually doesn’t sit next to a man.

The examples I have mentioned are not rules written in the constitution, but they are believed to be rules practiced by the majority.

Well! Let me share some expressions you can use while talking about cultural beliefs and practices in English.

• In our country, we don’t believe in individualism. We live hand in hand.
• In my culture, men and women get equal rights.
• Depending on the relationship, we maintain the formality in our culture.
• We celebrate most of the local festivals grandly.
•  We live with our parents even after our adulthood.

Talking about Religions in Your Culture

Religion is a determining factor of culture. Many cultures are structured with religious beliefs and practices. For example, Arab countries are governed by Islamic laws. If the majority of a society believes in the same religion, the culture naturally adopts different practices of that religion.    

Religion is a very sensitive and powerful force in our lives. Therefore, we should be respectful of everyone’s beliefs or faith. So, while discussing religion, ensure you don’t hurt anyone’s religious ego.

To talk about religions in your culture, you can share whether people are religious, spiritual, atheist, agnostic, etc. You can also talk about places like mosques, churches, temples, etc., where people go to pray or worship. In addition, you can talk about religious leaders like imams, priests, pastors, etc.

The following part of the post shows some common words related to the most common religions. Considering your culture, you can use those words while talking about faith or belief in English.

Different Types of People Based on Their Religious Beliefs

Agnostic – People who believe that nothing is known or can be known of the existence or nature of God.

Atheists – People who don’t believe in the existence of God or gods.

Omnist – People who believe in all religions.

Religious – People who believe in a specific religion.

Spiritual – People who believe in the human spirit or soul instead of material or physical things.

Some Places for Different Religious Practices

Church – A Christian place of worship

Mosque – A Muslim place of worship

Pagoda – A Buddhist place of worship

Temple – A place of worship commonly used by Hindus in the east

Synagogue – A Jewish place of worship

Prayer Leaders of Some Common Religions

Buddhism – Lama

Christianity – Pastor

Hinduism – Pujari/purohit

Islam – Imam

Judaism – Hazzan

Name of the Most Popular Religions

Buddism – One of the world’s prevalent religions that believes meditation, spirituality, labor, and good behavior are the ways to get rid of suffering and achieve enlightenment.

Christianity – The most popular religion in the world that believes in the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.

Hinduism – The world’s oldest and third most popular religion that worships a single deity—Brahman, but still recognizes other gods and goddesses.

Islam – The second most popular religion in the world that believes in the submission to the will of God—Allah. 

Judaism – The world’s oldest monotheistic religion that believes in one God who revealed himself through ancient prophets.

Let’s consider some example sentences while discussing religions in your culture.

• I am a Muslim, and almost 90% of the people of my country are Muslim.
• I came from a Christian family. Christianity is the most popular religion in my culture.
• Everyone in my culture believes in spirituality and considers it the only way to achieve nirvana.
• As a jew, I fast and pray every year on Yom Kippur.
• Durga puja is my county’s most celebrated religious festival as most of the population is Hindu.

Talking about Arts and Literature in Your Culture

Talking about your Arts and Literature allows you to represent your culture’s history and aesthetic value. In addition, it will help you give people a better understanding of your culture as they are all about your cultural history in the forms of painting, drama, music, poetry, photography, novels, etc.

Talk about the prominent and popular literary and artistic pieces and any genres of art and literature that are common to your culture but not others. You can also talk about famous artists, writers, poets, and painters of your culture and their works.    

Here are some example sentences you can use while discussing arts and literature in your culture.

• I am from the home of Pablo Picasso & Salvador Dali.
• Haiko is a popular form of poetry in my culture.
• Classical music is very popular in my country.
• Poetry is the oldest form of literature in my culture.
• Our Greek literature is enriched with different genres of literature.

Talking about Food Habits in Your Culture

Food habits are one of the vital elements of one’s culture. It includes the attitudes, beliefs, and practices surrounding food production and consumption.

While discussing food habits, you can mention everyday items, the unique items popular worldwide, and other standard practices while consuming food. For example, Indians eat with their hands, whereas European people usually eat with spoons.  

Here are some example sentences you can consider while discussing your culinary culture.

• In Bangladesh, rice is the staple food.
• In India, we eat most of our food with our hands.
• Pizza originated in my country—Italy.
• In China, our favorite soup is Wonton Soup.
• I would love to invite you all to japan to try authentic sushi.

Talking about Politics in Your Culture

Talking about politics is vital to describe your culture in English to someone as the politics of a country determine the way of people’s life. However, while talking about politics, be mindful that you don’t say anything that may hurt the political ego of the person you are talking to.

You can talk about what the political system was in your country in the past and what it is now. For example, you may have had communism earlier. Now, it’s democracy. However, rather than saying what political system is good or bad, try to mention the existing system rather than judging the system.

You can also talk about the parliamentary and voting systems as well as the rights and duties of the citizens. Here are some example sentences showing how you can talk about politics while talking about your culture in English.

• We are the largest democratic country in the world.
• Communism is the political system in our country.
• The people elect their representatives every after five years through votes.
• We have a semi-presidential government system in France.
• The European Union dominates our political culture like most other European countries.

Talking about the Economic System in Your Culture

There are different types of economic systems—traditional, capitalist, or mixed. Some countries’ economies may depend on agriculture, industries, tourism, fishing, shipping, export, etc.

Here are some examples to talk about the economic system in your culture in English.

• Like so many other countries, we have a mixed economy in India.
• My country’s private and public sectors work together and ensure international trade.
• Bangladesh’s economy is considered as developing market economy.
• Our economy primarily depends on agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, and tourism.
• We are one of the largest exporters globally.
• The economy of my country is agriculture based.
• We have a free-market economy in Turkey.
• Major industrial sectors in Indonesia are petroleum, natural gas, textiles, apparel, etc.
• Our economy is the most advanced and diversified among all African countries.
• In South Korea, we have a highly developed mixed economic structure.

In Conclusion

Getting questions about your culture while talking about someone from a different culture is common in everyday conversation. Learning about various cultures and new cultural practices is always interesting.

However, suppose you don’t know how to talk about your culture appropriately in English. In that case, you may miscommunicate while sharing your cultural position.

I hope the above discussion will help you to understand how to talk about your culture in English.

Thanks for reading.

Happy learning.

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Niaj A A Khan

Niaj A A Khan is an ESL Instructor with over 8 years of experience in teaching & developing resources at different universities and institutes. Mr. Khan is also a passionate writer working on his first book, "Learn English at Ease."

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• Countries and Their Cultures
• Culture of England

Culture Name

Alternative names.

British, Britannic

Orientation

Identification. The name of the country and the term "English" derive from the Old English word for one of the three Germanic peoples that invaded the British Isles in the fifth century C . E ., the Angles. "Britain" and "British" derive from a Roman term for the inhabitants' language of the British Isles, called "Brythonic" or p-Celtic.

Englishness is highly regionalized. The most important regional divide is between the south and the north. The south, chiefly represented by the regions of the southeast, southwest, East Anglia, and the Midlands, now contains the economically most dynamic sectors of the country, including the City (the chief financial center of the United Kingdom) and the seat of the national government, both in London. The north, the cradle of industrialization and the site of traditional smokestack industries, includes Yorkshire, Lancashire, Northumberland, Cumbria, Durham, Merseyside, and Cheshire. Especially in the last decades of the twentieth century, the north has experienced deindustrialization, severe economic hardship, and cultural balkanization. England is also a culture of many smaller regionalisms, still centered on the old governmental unit of the county and the local villages and towns. Local products, such as ale, and regional rituals and art forms, such as Morris dancing and folk music, many of which date back to the preindustrial era, allow people to shape their attachments to their communities and the nation. Merged with the north–south divide and regionalism are notions of working class, middle class, and upper class as well as rich versus poor.

England's role as a destination for migration also has influenced conceptions of Englishness. Historically, the most prominent immigrant group has been the Irish, who came in two major waves in the modern era: 1847 and 1848 after the potato famine, and during and after World War II. Scots were present in England by the 1700s and settled in England in large numbers during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, often for economic reasons. Welsh in-migration came to prominence when deindustrialization began in Wales in the 1920s. This inmigration has brought the so-called Celtic fringe into English culture in a host of ways. There has also been the impact of Jewish, Flemish, Dutch, French Huguenot, German, Italian, Polish, Turkish, Cypriot, and Chinese cultures since the twelfth century. The loss of Britain's colonies has brought Afro-Caribbeans, Bangladeshis, Pakistanis, Indians, and migrants from northwestern and eastern Africa in significant numbers. Judgments of whether England's newcomers feel themselves to be "English" vary by group and even by individual.

Demography. The population was 49.5 million in 1998. The estimated nonwhite proportion of the population for that year was 7.3 percent, with the officially designated ethnic groups being black Caribbean, black African, black other, Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Chinese.

Celtic in-migrations continues to be a major influence. These migrations are often urban in focus and tend to cluster in particular districts like London and Merseyside. The second important shift in demography from an ethnic standpoint is related to the end of the British Empire. Beginning in the 1950s, peoples from the Indian subcontinent and the Caribbean began to immigrate to England, taking advantage of the 1948 British Nationality Act, which established that all Commonwealth citizens enjoyed British citizenship. Most of these immigrants have settled in London, the West Midlands, Yorkshire and Merseyside. Between 1984 and 1996, the number of nonwhites in England, Scotland, and Wales rose from 2.3 million to 3.39 million (the majority of whom lived in England) for a total increase of 47 percent. In that same period Great Britain grew by just 5.8 percent and England by even less. European, Mediterranean, and East Asian immigrants have been part of the cultural landscape since the Middle Ages, when the Jewish community came to prominence and Flemish clothworkers began arriving. Immigrants to England in particular have been drawn there by the creation of a Common Market in Western Europe and the ending of restrictions on the movement of eastern Europeans.

Linguistic Affiliation. The primary language since the sixteenth century has been some version of English. English, however, is an amalgam of languages brought to the British Isles by invasions that began before written history. The Celts made Gaelic the dominant language until the Romans invaded in 55 and 54 B.C.E. , and introduced Latin and Greek, but it was the invasion of England by Germanic tribes in the fifth century (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) that laid the basis for English. The arrival of Christianity in 597 allowed English to interact with Latin as well as with Greek, Hebrew, and languages as distant as Chinese. Viking invasions a few centuries later brought Scandinavian languages to the British Isles, while the Norman invasion in 1066 introduced French. Gradually, all levels of society adopted English, which had largely supplanted Latin and French in the second half of the fifteenth century.

Modern English comes from the East Midland dialect of Middle English. This divide between the East Midland dialect and all others emerged between the fourteenth and nineteenth centuries when those speaking with a "proper" or "posh" accent separated themselves from those speaking "Cockney" or working-class English. This division is signified by the distinction between "received pronunciation" (r.p.), Standard English, or BBC English and regional or local dialects of English. This linguistic divide has always corresponded with social rank. The elite generally spoke with an r.p. accent (also known as the Queen's or King's English), and other residents spoke a non-standard, locally mediated English. In recent decades the connection between class and accent has begun to loosen.

Except in certain urban communities, bilingualism and multilingualism continue to play a minimal role in England. As of 1980 at least twelve languages other than English had more than 100,000 speakers in Britain, including Punjabi, Urdu, Caribbean patois, Hindi, and Cantonese, which are among England's more influential second languages. In the last decade, the many varieties of spoken English have been thriving. Popular culture, especially music, radio, and television, has brought English creoles and patois; Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi English; and Celtic versions of English into the lives of the country's inhabitants. Thus, while Standard English still holds sway, it is no longer an unquestioned standard.

Symbolism. From a political standpoint, the monarchy, Parliament, and the English (or British) constitution are central symbols with both physical and ritual manifestations. Equally powerful are the rituals surrounding Parliament's routine. The monarchy expresses itself physically through the palaces and other residences of the royal family. Ritually, the monarchy permeates national life. From the social functions of the elite, which many people follow in the popular press, to the promotion of public causes, to royal weddings, the monarchy's representatives lend an almost sacral quality to public life.

Images that capture England's past have become a very important element in how people root themselves in a society that is increasingly mobile and in which the past has become a commodity. Idealizations of village and town life from bygone days are common in the speeches of politicians. Other idealizations of the past are equally popular, from the preserved industrial landscapes of the Midlands and the north, to nature walks that refer to the ancient peoples who inhabited the area long before the English arrived, to the appearance of the "English" countryside.

In recent years, popular culture has provided ways for England's immigrants to claim Englishness publicly. Before World War II the majority population insisted that newcomers assimilate and migrants were unable to lay claims to Englishness. More integrated national sports, especially soccer, and sports heroes represent the new ethnic landscape and provide symbols the young and the poor can claim. Similarly, movies, pop music, and plays have given less powerful groups ways of claiming Englishness. Popular festivals such as the Notting Hill Carnival, which is Europe's largest celebration of black identity, are also part of the mix. The New Commonwealth population also has produced widely read literary works.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. The emergence of the nation took place between 1200 and 1850. The first period when a quasi-national feeling was able to unify the people was the Hundred Years' War with France in the late Middle Ages (1337–1453). Although a dynastic conflict between successive English and French monarchs, this war became a cause in which Anglo-Saxon and Norman culture merged into a recognizably English culture.

In the sixteenth century, nationalism took on another component: anti-Catholicism. Henry VIII created the Church of England by tapping into popular sentiment against the Pope's interference in national affairs. Elizabeth I, his daughter, created a sense of national unity through the conflicts she orchestrated with Catholic Spain. Another manifestation of anti-Catholic sentiment was the Battle of the Boyne in 1689, where William III routed Catholic opposition in Ireland. William subsequently affirmed Catholicism as being contrary to English and Irish law. Beginning with Scotland and Ireland in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and continuing with competitions with the Spanish, the Dutch, and the French between 1550 and 1816, the English established a sense of expansionary patriotism. The final step in creating a national sentiment was taken in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when the middle classes defined Englishness as a positive morality to which everyone could subscribe.

National Identity. English cultural roots lie in a merging of Anglo-Saxon, Danish, and Norman French culture that has existed as a synthesis since the late Middle Ages. A process of negotiation was at the heart of this cultural creation.

Ethnic Relations. After stripping them of their assets, Edward I expelled the Jewish community in 1290, and Jews did not receive full rights and recognition until the twentieth century. The earliest guest workers, Flemish clothworkers, frequently found their contributions resented by "native" labor. German, French, and Low Countries Protestant refugees in the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries were confronted with ethnic prejudices. The Irish as Celts and Catholics and the Welsh and Scots as Celts also have faced resentment, especially in eras dominated by English nationalism and British imperialism.

In the British Isles and abroad, the English record in colonized areas is no better than that of other European colonizing cultures. Beginning in the 1960s with the Immigration Acts and reaching a low point with the 1981 British Nationality Act, laws have been passed to restrict the rights of foreigners to enter the country and obtain citizenship and benefits. The support of Margaret Thatcher's government for free-market capitalism contributed to the decline of the areas where most ethnic minorities lived, sparking violent protests in the 1980s, such as London's Brixton riots in 1981. Antiracism legislation and the improving economy have lessened public and official attention to the nonwhite population. However, economic migrants and political refugees, chiefly from East Asia, eastern Europe, and Africa, have taken the place of the non-white populace as objects of public concern.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

England's urbanism and notions of landscape and countryside are closely tied to the movement of people and economic sectors from major metropolitan areas into new towns, extensions of older towns, smaller towns, villages, and remote rural areas. Cities are thought of as places of decay and degeneration by many people. The central principle in definitions of urban communities is their management and containment; this has been done by designating rings of nondevelopment (green belts) around major cities and urban areas. The emphasis on areas of nondevelopment also has influenced planning within cities and towns, with space being created for private and public gardens, parks, athletic fields, and other so-called greenfield sites. There has also been an emphasis on arranging cities and towns in more livable units, with more thought to the placement of work sites, public amenities, shopping areas, and dwellings and more of a focus on how streets cater to public and private uses.

Villages and small towns that were fairly local or regional have become bedroom communities for large cities such as London or parts of larger regional urban networks. Sometimes they retain their original character, but more often affluent newcomers have changed these localities. Thus, while those in suburban, village, and small-town areas trumpet the rural nature of their lives, they have altered the rural landscape. Outside the towns and villages, two forces dominate the countryside: highly commercialized agriculture and preservation. Agribusiness has played a role in defining the countryside by destroying 95 percent of the nation's wetlands. Countering the trend toward developing the countryside to accommodate more housing are the preservationists, who want to expand parks, preserve a traditional country way of life, and keep urban dwellers out of these areas. Left out of towns, cities, villages, and rolling hills are those with no money and no political voice. Those most excluded from current visions and proposals are the poor and the urban-dwelling ethnic minority groups.

Many different types of Englishness compete in towns, cities, villages, and the countryside. Architecturally, little is left from the Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and Roman periods, although Roman town planning, roads, and walls are still evident and Anglo-Saxon churches and Celtic monuments are still standing. The Middle Ages have left Gothic and Romanesque architecture while the Tudor and Stuart periods of England's history have also left their contributions, notably not just in buildings for the elite and the state but also for the middling sort. The eighteenth century saw Georgian and neo-Gothic architecture, which continued into the nineteenth century when neo-Classical styles arose. The twentieth century has seen the rise of suburban building styles and Modernism and reactions against both in the form of conservation, community architecture, and a tendency to revive old styles such as neo-Classicism.

Government buildings serve a range of symbolic purposes. Monuments more often symbolize particular historical figures or events. The purposes of public spaces also vary. The pews in a typical church promote an orderly separation between congregants while emphasizing togetherness as a congregation. Piccadilly Circus and many museums encourage people to mingle. Tea rooms, coffee shops, public houses, and nightclubs provide separate seating but promote a social atmosphere. People in England prefer to live in detached, suburban dwellings, ideally with a garden. First built in large numbers in the 1920s, many suburban houses were built in twos with a garden in front and rear. Another detached style was the single-story bungalow, which also became popular in the 1920s. Although in the post-war era it became common to build large, boxy modernist apartment blocks, especially for public housing, suburban building continued in additional new towns, some of which used the uniform, modernist styles. Since the 1980s more traditional designs for housing have been popular and both detached and non-detached housing have been constructed to evoke one of England's past eras. In private dwelling spaces, the English tend to fill much of the available space.

Food and Economy

Since 1950, the English have eaten less red meat, more poultry, and about the same amount of fish. The consumption of fats is down, and that of alternatives such as margarine is up. Fresh fruits are in favor, while vegetables are not, and the focus is on salad vegetables. The main meal is now eaten in the evening and is likely to consist of frozen or ready-made food. In addition to eating out in pubs, inns, and restaurants, people consume fast food. There has been a dramatic increase in the variety of foreign cuisine, ranging from Chinese and Indian to French and Italian.

There are few food-related taboos. People avoid some foods for so-called hygienic reasons, such as onions and leeks, which can cause bad breath. There are also foods that are considered uncivilized. Traditionally, the English have never eaten dogs, horses, other carnivores, or insects. Increasingly, eating meat is looked on as uncivilized. As part of the shift away from meat toward fruit, vegetables, and fish, people have become more distanced from the production of the meat they eat and less willing to eat as wide a variety of meats.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Apart from cakes on birthdays, few special foods are eaten at major secular ceremonies, although such ceremonies involve toasting and drinking alcohol. In religious ceremonies, alcohol, usually wine, is common at most celebrations of the Eucharist in Christian churches and also is used at Jewish ceremonies. On Shrove Tuesday, which is both a secular and a religious occasion, many people eat pancakes.

Basic Economy. The economy is developed and highly specialized, and very few inhabitants produce food and other necessities for themselves. In 1998, approximately 13 percent of England's workforce was self-employed, many working in agriculture, fishing, and construction. This group and the few among the economically inactive (21 percent in 1998) who have opted out of the market economy completely are the only people in England who may produce goods for themselves. Given that the majority of both groups are part of the regular economy, the number of people who are completely self-sufficient is small, although at times they are politically and culturally prominent. A rough sense of England's dependence on the world can be gained by looking at trade figures as a proportion of GDP. In 1997 England's exports amounted to about 29 percent of GDP, as did imports.

Land Tenure and Property. The most common form of land tenure is the owner-occupied house, with personal ownership in 1998 at 68 percent and the remainder of the inhabitants renting government-owned rent-controlled or private dwellings. Most dwellings are in urban areas, which occupied about 12 percent of the total land area in 1999. In that same year, 71 percent of England's land was devoted to agriculture: 24 percent was rented and the remaining 47 percent was owned by resident farmers or farming enterprises. Legal rights to property have their origin in the period 1500–1800, when landholders enclosed land and claimed exclusive ownership of it. Their actions extinguished many customary use rights to land and established private claims to rights-of-way. In addition to this division between private and common land, many forms of public and semipublic land have developed. Roads, infrastructure, and official buildings are often public. Also subject to public control are the national parks and nature reserves. Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty are often in private hands but are under public supervision of the Countryside Agency. Public rights-of-way and common lands are often owned by individuals, but those owners may be obligated to ensure public access. The Department of the Environment, Transport, and the Regions oversees land use, working with local authorities, an arrangement in place since the 1947 Town and Country Planning Act.

Commercial Activities. In addition to manufacturing, the major sectors of the economy are financial services, wholesale and retail trade, communication technology, and education and social services.

Major Industries. The major areas of industrial output are textiles; food, beverages, and tobacco; paper, paper products, wood products; chemicals; metals and fabricated metal items; electrical and optical equipment; and transport equipment and other machinery.

Division of Labor. People with more experience still tend to hold positions with greater responsibility and rewards, but this situation has been changing since the 1970s. Increasingly, older workers are losing jobs because of business strategies to keep workforces small. This trend has hit older working class men particularly hard because the sectors in which they work are rapidly being shifted out of the economy. Ethnic prejudice, ageism, and sexism still prevent many people from advancing. Specialization, educational attainment, and status correspond fairly well, with managerial and professional groups being at the top of society, followed by white-collar workers and then skilled blue-collar workers and semi-skilled and unskilled manual laborers.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. Class is the primary way in which people approach social stratification. The upper class (the landed gentry, the titled nobility, and members of the royal family) has roughly the same social position it has had since the nineteenth century, when the middle classes began to compete successfully with the landed interests for influence. However, the upper class lost official political influence (and credibility) in the twentieth century. The major change in England's social identity structure has been the shrinking number of workers in manufacturing and the increasing number of people who work in service industries. White-collar and other service workers have replaced blue-collar workers as England's economic backbone. Consequently, the middle class has increased in size and wealth, and home ownership has increased, while union membership has declined dramatically, along with the size of the traditional industrial working class.

Most workers expect unemployment at some point in their careers, especially the unskilled and uneducated. In 1983, only 5 percent of non-manual workers were unemployed. In contrast, skilled manual workers experienced 12 percent and semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers 23 percent unemployment, and manual workers combined accounted for 84 percent of the unemployed.

The richest class has increased its share of the national income and national assets. In 1995, the wealthiest 10 percent of the population owned half the assets controlled by households. In 1997 the income of the top 20 percent of households was four times that of the bottom 20 percent. Meanwhile, those earning less than half of the median doubled between 1979 and 1998, reaching 10 percent.

Ethnic minorities have not fared well in the new economic environment. For all minority men, unemployment was 17 percent in the period 1986–1988, for example, compared with 10 percent for whites. Ten years on, in the period 1997–1998, unemployment rates of Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, and blacks were more than three times those for whites. Indians, on the other hand, have faired better, currently occupying a central position in the middle class as entrepreneurs and in the professions, enjoying chances of employment more comparable to whites.

Symbols of Social Stratification. Many of the traditional symbols of social difference have undergone change. Clothing and other consumer goods historically were indicators of class, but are now more ambiguous. Most consumer goods are widely available, and the clothing and fashion industries recycle styles so quickly that rank and clothing do not always correspond. Education, which used to be a clear way to divide people into classes, has also lost some of its defining power. Private primary and secondary schools increased their share of school age children through 1990, and higher education has expanded the number of places available to those who want postsecondary training; by the mid 1990s more than 30 percent of students age eighteen were attending a university. Oxford and Cambridge have been accepting students from an increasingly broad socioeconomic spectrum, and students now have many more universities to choose from. Accent also has become a less reliable class signifier.

Political Life

Government. Unlike Scotland and Wales, England does not have a separate parliament or departments to represent and manage it. Contact with the central government is increasingly achieved through nine Government Offices for the Regions. Day-to-day life in the community is governed by local authorities such as district and parish councils.

Leadership and Political Officials. Political parties and institutions favor those judged to be respectable and, in senior positions, those with political experience. Thus, in the Conservative Party, only members of Parliament (MPs) can elect party leaders. It is still common for politicians and judges to have an elite education and a privileged background. Local politics is a mixed bag, with some local authorities and town and village councils politically polarized and others less so, although the larger the community the more likely it is to be dominated by the Labour Party. In general, those who participate in local politics and local organizations such as arts councils knew someone in government before becoming involved.

England has no national parties that affiliate specifically with the national culture. The main parties are the Labour Party (now often called New Labour), the Conservative Party (Tories), and the Liberal Democrats.

Access to political leaders is achieved most effectively through voluntary sector interest groups. These organizations work with local government authorities, local agencies such as the police, individual MPs, and central government ministries and may acquire an official role.

Social Problems and Social Control. For purposes of policing and criminal justice, England and Wales are treated as one unit. Policing is handled by forty-one locally organized police forces in addition to the Metropolitan Police Service and the City of London police force. Most police officers carry a nightstick, with only designated officers carrying sidearms. Persons suspected of committing a crime may be stopped and searched. More extensive searching is possible with authorization from a senior officer. For most crimes the police require judicial authorization to make arrests, but for "arrestable" offences such as murder, authorization is unnecessary. The maximum period of detention without a charge being leveled is ninety-six hours. The Police Complaints Authority handles cases of police brutality. The national policing bodies are the National Crime Squad and the National Criminal Intelligence Service. The Home Secretary of the United Kingdom has overall responsibility for policing in England as well as for the prison service, the probation service, and the criminal law.

Criminal law is a combination of statute law made by Parliament and common law (case law). Founded in 1985, the Crown Prosecution Service prosecutes criminals arrested by the police. The court system is adversarial, and the accused is defended by a lawyer (a solicitor or barrister) who attempts to disprove the case presented by the Crown Prosecution Service. Cases that go to Crown Court involve a trial by a jury of the accused person's peers with guidance from the presiding judge. In all other cases not on appeal, the defendant is tried in magistrate court by a judge who decides the case with the assistance of a law clerk. The accused or the Crown may appeal a judgment to a higher court, with the highest court being the House of Lords. Except for treason and a few other offenses, the highest penalty is a custodial sentence.

Since the 1980s, ideas about the role of the criminal justice system have been changing, largely as a result of perceived and real increases in violent and property crimes. Local communities with their informal mechanisms for social control are considered an important part of criminal justice. Neighborhood watch schemes have become popular, and victim-offender mediation and reparation, community mediation, and neighborhood mediation have emerged. Police cautioning, in which juvenile offenders and their parents or guardians are informed of the seriousness of their offenses, has become popular. Parole boards administer the punishment of offenders in the community, and the police and other official agencies have formed partnerships with local communities and voluntary organizations. Some people are critical of the trend toward integrating informal social control into the official criminal justice apparatus. They argue that such social control may result in a culture divided into communities suspicious of outsiders. Others have noted that vigilantism, which plays a relatively small role in the culture (exceptions are street gangs, less organized groupings of males termed "the lads," and soccer hooligans), may take root.

Military Activity. Military activity is administered through the armed forces of the United Kingdom, which are directed by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defense.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

Social welfare and change programs are directed toward people who cannot care for themselves (the elderly, children and youth, and the disabled), those in poverty, and those experiencing discrimination. Local government social services authorities provide for children and youth, the elderly, and the disabled, and there are advisory and regulatory bodies such as the National Disability Council and the Mental Health Act Commission. For the elderly, the disabled, and those with learning disabilities, major services include supervised residential and day care, help for those confined to the home, support services for family members caring for those individuals, and counseling. Increasingly, government policy has aimed services for the elderly, the disabled, and persons with learning disabilities at helping those people live at home and in the community. The mentally ill are treated locally, though since there are fewer places for the mentally ill in large hospitals, this has meant farming out patients to smaller hospitals and private and charity-supported facilities. Local authorities have the responsibility for child welfare, and provide aid to families such as advice, guidance, counseling, and day care. They also protect abused children and care for children without parents.

Social change programs for ethnic minorities and women are in their infancy. There is a Race Equality Unit in the central government, and the 1976 Race Relations Act set up the Commission for Racial Equality that oversees over one hundred racial equality councils. These changes have not diminished ethnic inequality and tensions, although Britain has a minister for women, a Women's Unit, and an Equal Opportunity Commission (EOC) as well as an umbrella group known as the Women's National Commission.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

The Charity Commission for England and Wales registered 188,000 charities in 1998. Across the United Kingdom, charities employed 485,000 people and supervised three million volunteers in 1998. With the move toward privatization in the 1980s, charities became more important, but social and economic dislocation have made it difficult for them to maintain the social safety net. Nongovernmental organizations work with children and youth; marginalized or disadvantaged groups such as the poor, the elderly, the disabled, and those suffering from inequality; environmental conservationists; the science and technology sector; the arts; and the humanities.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Gender roles assign homemaking, other domestic activities, and most unpaid labor to women. A man's sense of self is defined chiefly in terms of the paid work he can obtain. The impact of these constructions of gender is now much different than before, but is still felt in English society.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. Although there is no equal rights amendment, in recent decades there has been a more noticeable commitment to equality of opportunity for men and women through bodies such as the Equal Opportunity Commission and laws such as the Abortion Act of 1967 and the 1969 Divorce Act. The rate of women's (especially married women's) participation in the workforce increased in the late twentieth century, as did the nature of that participation. In 1971, only 57 percent of women of working age were economically active, but in 1998 that figure was 72 percent, whereas men's participation declined from 91 percent to 84 percent. Despite their importance in the workforce, women earn only 80 percent of what men do. Women have been confined to lower-status work, are more likely to work part-time, and are under-represented in elite jobs. However, some women have obtained high-status, formerly male-dominated work, and the status of female-dominated work has risen. Women's increasing participation in political life and their progress in religious roles in society—the rise of women MPs in the 1990s and the Church of England's agreement to ordain women priests in 1994—may be an indication of this.

Women have probably made the least progress in the social sphere. They were the victims in 70 percent of cases of domestic violence in 1998, and women still perform most unpaid work, such as running households and raising children. Gender roles among particular subgroups, however, diverge from this picture. Some Muslim and Jewish women are more involved in the domestic sphere, and Afro-Caribbean community women are more likely to be employed and have a higher status than Afro-Caribbean men.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Among many members of the South Asian and Jewish communities, arranged marriages as a means of cementing family alliances are the norm. Most inhabitants, however, decide independently whom to marry, often choosing to cohabit with the partner before marriage. Social position, social aspirations, and informal social control drive the choice of a marriage partner. Thus, marriages across class lines are not common, especially among unskilled workers and the professional and managerial classes. Marriages across ethnic lines also are not common. As a reason for marriage, economic security is prominent, but so is the desire for sexual and social companionship. In 1997, about half the population over age sixteen was married. While marriage between a man and a woman remains the primary model for long-term relationships, it is not the only one. Same-sex unions and so-called blended families are increasingly common, and experimentation with forms of quasi-polygamy has taken place.

Domestic Unit. The basic domestic unit is a household headed by a married couple—a model that accounted for 59 percent of the households in 1998. Close to 73 percent of inhabitants live in a family headed by a couple (though not necessarily a married couple). It is uncommon for couples to live with the kin of either partner. Current gender roles dictate that men are the primary breadwinners and women are responsible for household management. Who actually controls the household on a daily basis, however, varies by household. Single-parent, usually female-headed households are on the rise, accounting for 9 percent of all households in 1998. The extended family is a visible and important social institution in the South Asian, Asian, Afro-Caribbean, and Jewish communities and still plays a role in the majority population. People living alone represented 28 percent of households in 1998.

Inheritance. Children rarely depend on inherited wealth to become independent and usually inherit movable property rather than real estate. When real estate is involved, it often consists of a home and the attached land, not agricultural land. Most people follow the principle of equal division of inherited wealth among offspring, with some favoritism toward biological offspring in blended families.

Kin Groups. People envision themselves as part of a set of interconnected families, the size of which varies with marital status and family traditions. Most people include three to four generations of people in their kin group. Those who are married count the same number of generations of the spouse's family as part of their family. Kin groups do not have prominent status in society formally or informally. Notions of kinship involve a network of individuals who enter into kin relationships. The individual is not subsumed by the kin structure.

Socialization

Infant Care. Good mothering entails stimulating an infant through play and other activities. Many other aspects of infant care are class-specific. For example, middle-class mothers are likely to breast feed babies and wean them early, while working-class mothers tend to use bottle feeding and wean infants later. Middle-class infants are more likely to sleep in a separate room in a crib than are their working-class peers. Working-class infants also are more likely to receive physical chastisement for crying. Working-class fathers are not likely to participate in the upbringing of infant children because of the difficulty of obtaining time off.

Child Rearing and Education. A good child is often termed well adjusted, as opposed to children who are shy, withdrawn, overly aggressive, or hyperactive. Typically, people see children's behavior as the result of interactions with those around them, with the parents being the primary influence. Some children are viewed as having health problems that affect behavior, requiring medical intervention. There are two major areas of emphasis in child-rearing practices and beliefs. First, adults, particularly parents, need to teach children and young adults how to behave by setting limits to what they can and cannot do, teaching them how to solve conflicts and deal with others, and modeling good behavior. Second, adults should stimulate children to learn and be curious and creative to promote the growth of their mental capacities. Children are supposed to be well behaved but capable of interacting with their peers without shyness and should be curious and inquisitive as learners. Models for learning, teaching, and parenting involve intense interaction between teacher and learner and parent and child. Major secular initiation ceremonies for children and young adults revolve around the educational process and clubs. School graduation ceremonies are a primary rite of passage for most children and young adults. Hazing is used to initiate junior members of clubs, schools, and street gangs. There are three levels of schooling below the university level: preschool, primary school, and secondary school. Depending on the kinds of knowledge tested at the secondary levels, schools emphasize practical knowledge and problem solving as much as the mastery of a body of knowledge.

Higher Education. Government policy since the late 1950s has been aimed at expanding the opportunities for students to benefit from postsecondary education to create a more skilled workforce and increase social mobility. In the 1990s, more than 30 percent of all eighteen-year-olds were attending a university (up from under 5 percent in 1960), although the recent introduction of student fees may cause some to discontinue their education.

Etiquette is changing, but norms for appropriate behavior articulated by the elite and the middle class are still an important normative force. Greetings vary by the class or social position of the person with whom one is dealing. Those with titles of nobility, honorific titles, academic titles, and other professional titles prefer to be addressed by those titles, but like people to avoid calling too much attention to a person's position. Unless invited to do so, one does not call people by their nicknames. Postural norms are akin to those in other Western cultures; people lean forward to show interest and cross their legs when relaxed, and smiles and nods encourage conversation. The English expect less physical expression and physical contact than do many other societies: handshakes should not be too firm, social kissing is minimal, loud talking and backslapping are considered inappropriate, staring is impolite, and not waiting one's turn in line is a serious social blunder.

In conversation the English are known for understatement both in humor and in other forms of expression. On social occasions, small talk on neutral topics is appropriate and modest gifts are given. People reciprocate in paying for food and drink in social exchanges, by ordering drinks by rounds, for example. In public houses (bars), appropriate etiquette includes not gesturing for service. In restaurants it is important to keep one's palms toward the waiter, and tips are in the range of 10 to 15 percent. Standard table manners include holding the fork in the left hand and the knife in the right hand, tipping one's soup bowl away when finishing, and not leaning one's elbows on the table. Deviations from these norms occur in ethnic subcultures and among the working class. These groups usually develop their own version of etiquette, appropriating some rules from the majority standard while rejecting others.

Religious Beliefs. In 1998, approximately 10 percent of the population claimed to be atheists and 15 percent said they were agnostics, while 20 percent said they believed in God. In 1991, about 25 percent of inhabitants claimed to believe in astrology and good luck charms, and 42 percent believed in fortune-telling and faith healing. The major religious traditions are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Buddhism. In recent decades, so-called pagan or cult religions have included Wicca, shamanism, heathenism, druidry, goddess religion, the Unification Church, and Transcendental Meditation.

Religious Practitioners. Christian leaders derive power and authority from their control and dispensation of sacraments. Jewish rabbis and Islamic imams derive their authority from their mastery of a specific set of religious legal texts and the application of those texts to everyday life. Hinduism relies on a wide variety of texts, and traditionally its primary leaders gain authority from their caste position as well as from their adherence to specific ascetic rules and, especially in the case of gurus, their perceived connection to the divine. Sikhism is a monotheistic religion with a single set of texts, and ideally Sikhs associate themselves with a guru who helps believers achieve spirituality. In the most popular form of Buddhism (Mahayana), monks and teachers hold spiritual authority by virtue of their ascetic way of life and mastery of certain texts. In the various forms of Buddhism, monks and teachers hold spiritual authority by virtue of their ascetic way of life, their mastery of certain texts, and their leadership of worship ceremonies. Modern paganism often envisions its priests as deriving their power through a unique connection to the hidden forces in nature. Leaders of other movements rely on charisma or the attractiveness of the skills they teach.

Death and the Afterlife. In the early 1990s, about 25 percent of the population believed in life after death, although there is a wide range of practices around death. For a majority of the population, ideas about the afterlife are based on typical Victorian notions that are reinforced on television and in film: a place where life is better and those who have lived a good life are rewarded. For most people, funerals have become much cleaner, with the deceased meticulously prepared and cleaned before burial. Cemeteries are kept pristine and immaculate. Others, however, feel that the dead are very much among the living in photographs, videos, and other visual mementos. People used to remember the dead in a yearly cycle of religious days, but with the geographic spread of families, family occasions have become the occasions to recall them. There are organizations that promote awareness of how to die, from living wills to hospice care to palliative measures and euthanasia.

Medicine and Health Care

Since 1946, most people have obtained health care from a physician or other specialist attached to the National Health Service (NHS), a government-controlled and government-funded health care system. Although in the 1980s and early 1990s there were attempts to introduce market-driven principles into the NHS, and the number of privately insured inhabitants has risen; the NHS retains the principles of free services at the point of delivery, and the current Labour government has rescinded many of the measures intended to manage healthcare by market principles.

Most people believe in an approach to medicine that focuses on particular problems and illnesses as opposed to overall wellness. In this type of medicine a patient sees a medical specialist when a health complaint arises. The doctor diagnoses the problem on the basis of the patient's physical symptoms and either prescribes a treatment or sends the patient to a more specialized doctor. In recent years, a very different set of approaches to medicine and health (complementary medicine) has been informed by non-Western traditions such as traditional Chinese medicine and nonstandard approaches such as herbal lore. Rather than trying to cure a specific ailment, practitioners of complementary medicine attempt to restore the well-being of the patient's entire mind and body, often by tapping the body's capacities to heal itself. Examples of complementary medicine are acupuncture, herbal medicine, massage therapy, and healing touch.

Secular Celebrations

New Year's Eve and Day (31 December, 1 January), celebrate the beginning of the new year. April Fool's Day (1 April), is a day on which people play practical jokes on one another. The sovereign's birthday is celebrated in June. Guy Fawkes's Day (5 November) commemorates the foiling of a 1605 Catholic plot to blow up the houses of Parliament and is an occasion for fireworks and revelry. Remembrance Day (11 November) celebrates the contributions of war veterans to defending the freedom of the nation.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. In addition to artists' earnings, support for the arts derives from the government, chiefly through the Arts Council and business and private philanthropic sources.

Literature. The elaboration of an expressly English literature began in the medieval period with Geoffrey Chaucer and continued into the Renaissance and then into the Restoration with William Shakespeare, John Milton, and John Dryden. During those periods, drama and poetry were the major literary forms, with popular literature shading into song, cartoons, and storytelling.

The eighteenth century is notable for the emergence of new literary forms such as the novel, the true crime tale, light opera, magazines, and new oral traditions associated with England's port districts. Regionalized music and storytelling from this era still provide the foundation for much currently performed folk music in England.

The nineteenth century is the age of the Romantics and the Victorians. Artists in both movements were social realists, with the Romantics known for recovering older forms and the Victorians known for highly elaborate language. Popular literature offered the penny dreadful and a profusion of magazines that published novels and other literary work serially. New oral traditions sprang up around labor protest movements such as those of the Luddites and Chartists.

In the twentieth century, writers born in England shared the stage with Commonwealth writers such as Derek Walcott, V.S. Naipaul, and Nadine Gordimer and with other non-English writers such as James Joyce, Dylan Thomas, and Alice Walker. The twentieth century also saw the continuance of the phenomenon of Anglicized émigré writers such as T. S. Eliot. Edwardians such as E. M. Forster and moderns such as D. H. Lawrence and Virginia Woolf dominated the period 1900–1950. Edwardians extended Victorian approaches, and moderns worked in older forms such as the novel and helped develop the short story.

Since World War II, the efforts of writers to stretch the bounds of genres expanded. Poetry is now performed in the form of hip-hop music or at poetry slams, while written poetry may be rooted in jazz and has lost prominence. Drama has flourished, as have filmed versions of classic and contemporary works. Novels focus on the everyday and the autobiographical, a reflection in part of women's influence on literature.

Graphic Arts. Most training of graphic artists is provided by universities and art colleges. Art has been incorporated into the school curriculum as part of the nation's educational policy, and all English students receive some training in and exposure to the graphic arts. In 1997 and 1998, 22 percent of the population over age 15 visited a gallery, museum, or other major collection, a figure that has shown little change since the late 1980s. Whether museums are egalitarian in terms of affordability and relevance, however, is debatable. The National Disability Arts Forum and similar organizations are funded by the Arts Council of England and improve access to the arts and training in the arts for the disabled population; the Arts Council promotes cultural diversity as well.

Performance Arts. The Royal Shakespeare Company and musical productions in London's West End are well attended. Musical productions range from orchestras such as the London Philharmonic to jazz, rock, and folk music. Dance forms range from classical ballet to free-form club dancing. Ticket prices limit attendance at elite forms of performance art, although statistics show that in the last decade their audience has not decreased in size.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

England supports research and teaching in all areas of science and the social sciences. The government funds most scientific and social scientific research. Larger private corporations and private foundations are also major players. The research sector develops applications for basic primary research in a range of fields. With a long tradition of empirical inquiry, English scholars have often been active in applied science.

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Goldthorpe, J.E. Family Life in Western Societies: A Historical Sociology of Family Relationships in Britain and North America, 1987.

Hakim, Catherine. Social Change and Innovation in the Labour Market: Evidence from the Census SARs on Occupational Segregation and Labour Mobility, Part-Time Work and Student Jobs, Homework and Self-Employment, 1998.

Hall, Peter, and Colin Ward. Sociable Cities: The Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, 1998.

Harper, Timothy. Passport United Kingdom: Your Pocket Guide to British Business, Customs & Etiquette, 1997.

Harvey, Graham, and Charlotte Hardman, eds. Paganism Today: Wiccans, Druids, the Goddess and Ancient Earth Traditions for the Twenty-First Century, 1995.

Heyck, Thomas William. The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1870 to Present, 1992.

Hirschel, David J., and William Wakefield. Criminal Justice in England and the United States, 1995.

Hoggart, Richard. Townscape with Figures: Farnham: Portrait of an English Town, 1994.

Kalsi, Sewa Singh. Simple Guide to Sikhism, 1999.

Lehmberg, Stanford E. The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from Prehistoric Times to 1688, 1992.

Lewis, Jane. Women in Britain since 1945: Women, Family, Work and the State in the Post-War Years, 1992.

Marwick, Arthur. British Society Since 1945, 1996.

——. A History of the Modern British Isles, 1914-1999, 2000.

McRae, Susan. "Introduction: Family and Household Change in Britain." In Susan McRae, ed., Changing Britain: Families and Households in the 1990s, 1999.

Mennell, Stephen. All Manners of Food: Eating and Taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the Present, 1996.

Newman, Gerald. The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History, 1740–1830, 1997.

Office for National Statistics. Britain 2000: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom, 2000.

Rock, Paul. Helping Victims of Crime: The Home Office and the Rise of Victim Support in England and Wales, 1990.

Samuel, Raphael. Theatres of Memory: Volume I, Past and Present in Contemporary Culture, 1994.

Strathern, Marilyn. After Nature: English Kinship in the Late Twentieth Century, 1992.

BBC News Online. "That Spiritual Touch," http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/health/newsid_431000/431013.stm , 26 August 1999

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. "England Rural Development Programme, 2000-2006," http://www.maff.gov.uk/erdp/docs/national/programmecontentshome.htm , October 2000

National Statistics. http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/2001

—D OUGLAS C ATTERALL

S EE A LSO : United Kingdom

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British Culture

Oct 07, 2014

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British Culture. National Identity. English (specifically England) =/= British (generally Great Britain) United Kingdom - England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland Britain = England, Scotland, and Wales National Flag = England (St. George) + Scotland (St. Andrew) + Ireland (St. Patrick)

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National Identity • English (specifically England) =/= British (generally Great Britain) • United Kingdom - England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland • Britain = England, Scotland, and Wales • National Flag = England (St. George) + Scotland (St. Andrew) + Ireland (St. Patrick) = + +

England • Land: • South: mostly low-lying land with hills and agricultural land • North: mostly covered in moorland and mountains. • Capital: London (also of the U.K.) • History: nearly 2,000 years, beginning with the arrival of the Romans soon after their invasion of Britain in AD43.

Monarchy • The British Royal Family’s Surname: Windsor • Changed from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor in 1917 • Reason: in 1917, King George V renounced all the German titles belonging to him and his family adopted the name of his castle, Windsor • Duties: Head of State (representative), Head of the Armed Forces (declare war), Head of the Church of England (appoints bishops and archbishops), Government Duties (signature needed).

Festivals • May Day Celebrations: Maypole Dancing • Origin: the Roman festival of Flora, goddess of fruit and flowers • It celebrates the coming of summer after a long winter

Etiquette in England • Do: • Stand in line • Take off your hat when indoors • Cover your mouth when yawning or coughing • Shake hands • Drive on the left side of the road • Don’ts: • Greet people with a kiss unless it’s family or close friends • Talk loudly in public • Stare at others • Ask personal and intimate questions

Tea Customs • Afternoon Tea: • Served at 4 in the afternoon • Tea, coffee, freshly baked scones, tea sandwiches and assorted pastries • This became popular about one hundred and fifty years ago when rich ladies invited their friends to their houses for an afternoon cup of tea • High Tea: • Served at 6 in the evening • Scones, cakes, buns or tea breads, toasted crumpets, cold meats and pickles or poached eggs on toast • British working population did not have afternoon tea, only a midday meal and a meal after work

Food • Traditional English Breakfast (Full English) • eggs, bacon, sausages, fried bread, baked beans and mushrooms • Traditional English Dinner • meat and 2 vegetables with hot brown gravy • Sunday Roast Dinner • roast meat, two vegetables and potatoes with a Yorkshire pudding Lunch – dinner (the main meal) Dinner – tea, supper

Sports • England’s national sport: cricket • Most popular sport: soccer (football) • Rugby: this sport used to be played by the rich upper class only • Tennis: Wimbledon • Traditionally, visitors eat strawberries and cream while watching the game • Polo: brought to Britain from India in the 19th Century by army officers • Boxing Day Hunts: traditionally it is a day for fox hunting

Superstitions • Good Luck: • Lucky to meet a black cat • Lucky to touch wood • Lucky to find a four-leaved clover. • Catch falling leaves in Autumn and you‘ll have good luck. • Bad Luck: • Unlucky to walk underneath a ladder • Seven years bad luck to break a mirror • Unlucky to see one magpie, lucky to see two, etc. • Unlucky to spill salt. If you do, you must throw it over your shoulder to counteract the bad luck • Unlucky to open an umbrella indoors. • The number thirteen is unlucky • Friday the thirteenth is a double unlucky day because Jesus was crucified on a Friday. • Unlucky to put new shoes on the table

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• Preferences

English culture and traditions - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

English culture and traditions

English culture and traditions ... chinese and greek restaurants take-away meals english food (3) ... simnel cake is baked for tea, ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• Katerina Kusá
• English festivals
• English food
• Traditional clothes and costumes
• The most important festival
• of the year
• A carol service
• Houses are decorated
• Christmas tree
• Giving presents
• Father Christmas and
• a long sock at the end of the bed
• Christmas Day 25th December
• Boxing Day 26th December, a public holiday
• New Years Eve celebrating of coming of the year at midnight on 31st December
• St. Valentines Day 14th February, sending cards, flowers and chocolates to someone you love
• Ash Wednesday the day in February, the Christian period of Lent begins
• Pancake Tuesday the day before Ash Wednesday, people eats lots of pancakes
• Easter Easter Sunday - chocolate eggs,
• a new birth, Good Friday hot cross-buns,
• Easter Monday a holiday
• April Fools Day a day of fun and jokes
• St. Georges Day 23rd April is a national day in England, St. George is a patron of England, people do not celebrate it much
• May Day 1st May, celebration of the end of the winter, connected with dancing
• Ascension Day a christian holiday, it is the 40th day after Easter Sunday
• Pentecost (Whitsunday) 10 days after Ascension Day, the coming of holly spirit
• Harvest festival - Thanksgiving ceremonies and celebrations for a successful harvest, usually in September
• Halloween 31st October holly evening, connected with witches and ghosts, strange costumes, pumpkin latern
• All Saints Day 1st November
• All Souls Day 2nd November
• Bonfire Night 5th November, the anniversary of the Gunpowder plot, huge fireworks, burning an effigy
• traditionally based on beef, lamb, pork, chicken and fish
• generally served with potatoes and one other vegetable
• no national food, but the most common and typical foods include fish and chips, sandwiches, pies and puddings
• a selection of Indian, Italian, Chinese and Greek restaurants
• take-away meals
• Three main meals a day breakfast, lunch and dinner (sometimes called supper)
• Dinner is usually the main meal of the day
• A typical English breakfast - a bowl of cereals, a slice of toast, orange juice and a cup of coffee
• A 'packed lunch - this typically consists of a sandwich, a packet of crisps, a piece of fruit and a drink
• A typical British meal for dinner is meat and usually the vegetables (one of the vegetables is almost always potatoes)
• the main Christmas meal
• eaten at mid-day or early afternoon
• roast turkey, Brussels sprouts, roast potatoes, cranberry sauce, rich nutty stuffing, tiny sausages wrapped in bacon and lashings of hot gravy
• a rich, fruity pudding which you douse in flaming brandy said to ward off evil spirits.
• On Good Friday - warm 'hot cross buns'
• with their combination of spicy, sweet
• and fruity flavours have long been an
• Easter tradition, it is also traditional
• to eat fish instead of meat
• Easter day - roast lamb is the traditional meat for the main meal, served with mint sauce and vegetables, the traditional puddings are custard tarts sprinkled with currants and flat Easter biscuits, Simnel cake is baked for tea, chicken has long been a modern favourite for Easter Sunday dinner mainly due to the baby (spring) chicken being associated with birth and new life
• An important part in the life of Englishmen
• A popular leisure activity
• Many of the worlds famous sports began
• in England, including cricket, football,
• lawn tennis and rugby
• Englands national sport is cricket
• To many people football (soccer) is seen
• as their national sport
• Rugby is similar to football but
• played with an oval ball
• The worlds famous tennis tournament
• is Wimbledon
• Horse racing, the sport of Kings,
• is a very popular sport (The Grand National)
• Polo is played by men on horses.
• Table tennis (ping pong) was invented
• in England in 1880
• Fishing (angling) is also one of the most
• popular sports in England
• Three public bodies are responsible for television
• and radio throughout England
• The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
• The Independent Television Commission (ITC)
• The Radio Authority
• People in Britain watch TV on average 25 hours of every week
• Television viewing is Britain's most popular leisure pastime
• There are five main channels in Britain (BBC1, BBC2, ITV1, Channel 4 and Channel 5)
• The BBC has been providing regular television broadcasts since 1936
• There are about 130 daily and Sunday newspapers
• British newspapers include the following
• The Daily Mail, The Daily Telegraph, The Financial Times,
• The Guardian, The Independent, The Times, Western Mail
• and Echo, The Sun, The Mirror, The Herald, Written by Rachel.
• England has no national dress
• Some people think men
• in England wear suits and
• bowler hat but it isnt true
• English customs and traditions
• involve a variety of costumes
• Beefeaters (the nearest thing
• to English national costume)
• Most people in England travel by car
• Goods are transported by lorries
• The red double decker buses
• In London, taxis are black
• The name of Londons underground
• system is The Tube
• In England there are also Euro trains
• There are 470 airports in England
• The main religion is Christianity
• Most Christians belong to the Church of England
• there are also Roman Catholics, Hindu, Jewish and Muslim communities
• The Queen is head of Church of England.

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