cognitive problem solving tasks

Cognitive Remediation Therapy: 13 Exercises & Worksheets

This can result in concentration, organizational, and planning difficulties that impact their quality of life and independent living.

Cognitive Remediation Therapy (CRT) helps by increasing awareness of intellectual difficulties and improving thinking skills. While originally designed for people with thinking problems associated with schizophrenia, it has also proven successful for those with other diagnoses (Bristol Mental Health, n.d.).

CRT works by encouraging a range of exercises and activities that challenge memory, flexible thinking, planning, and concentration problems.

This article explores CRT and its potential to help clients and includes techniques, activities, and worksheets to build effective therapy sessions.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will provide you with detailed insight into Positive CBT and give you the tools to apply it in your therapy or coaching.

This Article Contains:

What is cognitive remediation therapy (crt), how does cognitive remediation work, 8 techniques for your sessions, 7 exercises, activities, & games, 6 helpful worksheets and manuals, implementing online crt programs, 3 best software programs for helping your clients, a take-home message.

“Cognitive remediation is a behavioral treatment for people who are experiencing cognitive impairments that interfere with daily functioning” (Medalia, Revheim, & Herlands, 2009, p. 1).

Successful cognitive functions, including memory, attention, visual-spatial analysis, and abstract reasoning, are vital for engaging with tasks, the environment, and healthy relationships.

CRT improves cognitive processing and psychosocial functioning through behavioral training and increasing individual confidence in people with mental health disorders (Corbo & Abreu, 2018). Training interventions focus on the skills and supports required to “improve the success and satisfaction people experience in their chosen living, learning, working, and social environments” (Medalia et al., 2009, p. 2).

Exercises typically focus on specific cognitive functions, where tasks are repeated (often on a computer) at increasing degrees of difficulty. For example:

Paying attention
Remembering
Being organized
Planning skills
Problem-solving
Processing information

Based on the principles of errorless learning and targeted reinforcement exercises , interventions involve memory, motor dexterity, and visual reading tasks. Along with improving confidence in personal abilities, repetition encourages thinking about solving tasks in multiple ways (Corbo & Abreu, 2018).

While initially targeted for patients with schizophrenia, CRT is an effective treatment for other mental health conditions , including mood and eating disorders (Corbo & Abreu, 2018).

CRT is particularly effective when the cognitive skills and support interventions reflect the individual’s self-selected rehabilitation goals. As a result, cognitive remediation relies on collaboration, assessing client needs, and identifying appropriate opportunities for intervention (Medalia et al., 2009).

Cognitive remediation vs cognitive rehabilitation

CRT is one of several skill-training psychiatric rehabilitation interventions. And yet, cognitive remediation is not the same as cognitive rehabilitation (Tchanturia, 2015).

Cognitive rehabilitation typically targets neurocognitive processes damaged because of injury or illness and involves a series of interventions designed to retrain previously learned cognitive skills along with compensatory strategies (Tsaousides & Gordon, 2009).

While initially done in person, they can subsequently be performed remotely as required (Corbo & Abreu, 2018; Bristol Mental Health, n.d.).

Well-thought-out educational software provides multisensory feedback and positive reinforcement while supporting success, choice, and control of the learning process. Its design can target either specific cognitive functions or non-specific learning skills and mechanisms (Medalia et al., 2009).

CRT successfully uses the brain’s neuroplasticity and is often more effective in younger age groups who haven’t experienced the effects of long-term psychosis. It works by increasing activation and connectivity patterns within and across several brain regions involved in working memory and high-order executive functioning (Corbo & Abreu, 2018).

The Neuropsychological Educational Approach to Cognitive Remediation (NEAR) is one of several approaches that provide highly individualized learning opportunities. It allows each client to proceed at their own pace on tasks selected and designed to engage them and address their cognitive needs (Medalia et al., 2009).

NEAR and other CRT techniques are influenced by learning theory and make use of the following (Medalia et al., 2009):

Errorless learning Encouraging the client to learn progressively, creating a positive experience without relying on trial and error.
Shaping and positive feedback Reinforcing behaviors that approximate target behaviors (such as good timekeeping) and offering rewards (for example, monthly certificates for attendance).
Prompting Using open-ended questions that guide the client toward the correct response.
Modeling Demonstrating how to solve a problem.
Generalizing Learning how to generalize learned skills to other situations.
Bridging Understanding how to apply skills learned inside a session outside in everyday life.

Encouraging intrinsic motivation (doing the tasks for the satisfaction of doing them rather than for external rewards) and task engagement are also essential aspects of successful CRT programs (Medalia et al., 2009).

Therapy is most effective when it successfully supports clients as they transfer learning skills into the real world.

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Cognitive remediation techniques must be selected according to the skills and needs of the client and typically fall into one of three major intervention categories (Medalia et al., 2009):

Planning exercises, such as planning a trip to the beach to practice cognitive strategies
Cueing and sequencing , such as adding signs or placing reminder notes at home to encourage completing everyday tasks (for example, brushing teeth)

Such techniques rely on several key principles, including “(1) teaching new, efficient, information processing strategies; (2) aiding the transfer of cognitive gains to the real world; and (3) modifying the local environment” (Medalia et al., 2009, p. 5).

Restorative approaches Directly target cognitive deficits by repeating task practices and gradually increasing difficulty and complexity; along with regular feedback, they encourage accurate and high levels of performance.

Practice is often organized hierarchically, as follows:

Elementary aspects of sensory processing (for example, improving auditory processing speed and accuracy)
High-order memory and problem-solving skills (including executive functioning and verbal skills)

This technique assumes a degree of neuroplasticity that, with training, results in a greater degree of accuracy in sensory representations, improved cognitive strategies for grouping stimuli into more meaningful groups, and better recall.

Repetition and reaching for increasing levels of task difficulty
Modeling other people’s positive behavior
Role-play to re-enact experienced or imagined behavior from different perspectives
Corrective feedback to improve and correct unwanted or unhelpful behavior

Complex social cognitive processes are typically broken down into elemental skills for repetitive practice, role-play, and corrective feedback.

Professor Dame Til Wykes: cognitive remediation therapy

It is vital that activities within CRT are interesting and engaging for clients. They must foster the motivation required to persevere to the end of the task or game.

The following three games and puzzles are particularly valuable for children and adolescents (modified from Tchanturia, 2015):

SET is a widely available card game that practices matching based on color, shape, shading, etc.

Clients must shift their thinking to identify multiple ways of categorizing and grouping cards, then physically sort them based on their understanding.

It may be helpful to begin with a limited set of cards to reduce the likelihood of the clients becoming overwhelmed by the game or finding it less enjoyable.

2. Rush Hour

Rush Hour is another fun game that balances problem-solving skills with speed.

Puzzles start simple and increase in complexity, with additional elements involved. Skills developed include problem-solving and abstract thinking, and the game requires a degree of perseverance.

Other activities require no specialist equipment and yet can be highly engaging and support clients in learning transferable skills (modified from Tchanturia, 2015).

Bigger picture thinking This involves the client picturing a shape in their minds or looking at one out of sight of the therapist. They then describe the shape (without naming it), while the therapist attempts to draw it according to the instructions. This practice is helpful with clients who get overwhelmed by detail and cannot see the bigger picture.
Word searches Word searches encourage the client to focus on relevant information and ignore everything else – an essential factor in central coherence. Such puzzles also challenge memory, concentration, and attention.
Last word response Last word response is a challenging verbal game promoting cognitive flexibility. The first player makes up and says a sentence out loud. Each subsequent player makes up a new sentence, starting with the last word of the previous player’s sentence. For example, ‘ I like cheese’ may be followed by the next player saying, ‘ Cheese is my favorite sandwich ingredient ,’ etc.
Dexterity Using your non-dominant hand once a week (for example, combing your hair or brushing your teeth) stimulates different parts of your brain, creating alternative patterns of neuron firing and strengthening cognitive functions.

The following therapy worksheets help structure Cognitive Remediation Therapy sessions and ensure that the needs of clients are met using appropriately targeted CRT interventions (modified from Medalia et al., 2009; Medalia & Bowie, 2016):

Client referral to CRT

The Cognitive Remediation Therapy Referral Form captures valuable information when a client is referred from another agency or therapist so that the new therapist can identify and introduce the most appropriate CRT interventions. The form includes information such as:

Primary reasons

Secondary reasons

Self-confidence
Working with others
Time management
Goal-directed activities

Cognitive Appraisal for CRT

The Cognitive Appraisal for CRT form is helpful for identifying and recording areas of cognitive processing that cause difficulty for the client and require focus during Cognitive Remediation Therapy sessions.

Clients are scored on their degree of difficulty with the following:

Paying attention during conversation
Maintaining concentration in meetings
Completing tasks once started
Starting tasks
Planning and organizing tasks and projects
Reasoning and solving problems

Software Appraisal for CRT

The Software Appraisal for CRT form helps assess which software would be most helpful in a specific Cognitive Remediation Therapy session. It provides valuable input for tailoring treatment to the needs of the client.

For example:

Level of reading ability required
Cognitive deficits addressed by the software
What is the multimedia experience like?
How much input is required by the therapist?

Appraisal records become increasingly important as more software is acquired for clients with various cognitive deficits from multiple backgrounds.

Software Usage for CRT

The Software Usage for CRT form helps keep track of the software clients have tried and how effectively it supports them as they learn, develop, and overcome cognitive deficits.

The client considers the software they use and whether they practiced the following areas of cognition:

Concentration
Processing speed
Multitasking
Logic and reasoning
Organization
Fast responses
Working memory

Thought Tracking During Cognitive Remediation Therapy

Thought Tracking During Cognitive Remediation Therapy is valuable for identifying and recording the client’s goals for that day’s Cognitive Remediation Therapy session and understanding how it relates to their overall treatment goals.

Planning to Meet Goals in CRT

The Planning to Meet Goals in CRT worksheet is for clients requiring support and practice in planning, goal-setting, and goal achievement.

Working with the client, answer the following prompts:

What goal or project are you working toward?
What date should it be completed by?
Are there any obstacles to overcome to complete the goal?
Are there any additional resources required?
Then consider the steps needed to achieve the goal.

Other free resources

Happy Neuron provides several other free resources that are available for download .

Consider the five Cs when selecting online CRT programs (modified from Medalia et al., 2009):

Cognitive – What target deficits are being addressed?
Client – What interests and level of functioning does the client have?
Computer – What computing requirements and compatibility factors need to be considered?
Context – Does the software use real-world or fantasy activities and environments? Are they age and cognitive ability appropriate?
Choice – Is the learner given choice and options to adapt the activity to their preferences?

Once you’ve ordered the software, give it a thorough review to understand when it is most appropriate to use and with whom.

For online CRT programs to be effective as teaching tools and activities, they should include the following features (modified from Medalia et al., 2009, p. 53):

Intrinsically motivating
Active use of information
Multisensory strategies
Frequent feedback
Control over the learning process
Positive reinforcement
Application of newly acquired skills in appropriate contexts
Errorless learning – challenging yet not frustrating

Therapists must become familiar with each program’s content and processes so that targeted deficits are fully understood and clients are engaged without confusion or risk of failure.

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A great deal of software “targets different skills and offers a variety of opportunities for contextualization and personalization” (Medalia et al., 2009, p. 43).

We focus on three suppliers of extensive CRT software resources below (recommended by Medalia et al., 2009).

1. Happy Neuron

Happy Neuron provides a wide variety of online brain training exercises and activities to stimulate cognitive functioning in the following areas:

Visual-spatial

When you’re performing well, the exercises become increasingly difficult.

The exercises are grouped into the following areas:

Brain speed
People skills
Intelligence

3. Games for the Brain

Cognitive difficulties, such as challenges with paying attention, planning, remembering, and problem-solving, can further compound and exacerbate mental health issues

While initially created for schizophrenia, CRT is also valuable for other mental health problems, including eating and mood disorders. Treatments are effective in one-to-one and group sessions, and lessons can be transferred to the outside world, providing crucial gains for a client’s mental wellbeing and social interaction.

Through repeated and increasingly challenging skill-based interventions, CRT benefits cognitive functioning and provides confidence gains to its users. The treatment adheres to learning theory principles and targets specific brain processing areas such as motor dexterity, memory, and visual-spatial perception, along with higher-order functioning.

Involving clients in treatment choices increases the likelihood of ongoing perseverance, engagement, and motivation as activities repeat with increasing degrees of difficulty.

This article offers a valuable starting point for exploring CRT and its benefits, with several worksheets and forms to encourage effective treatment.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. For more information, don’t forget to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free .

Bristol Mental Health. (n.d.). Cognitive remediation therapy: Improving thinking skills . Retrieved December 15, 2021, from http://www.awp.nhs.uk/media/424704/cognitive-remediation-therapy-022019.pdf
Corbo, M., & Abreu, T. (2018). Cognitive remediation therapy: EFPT psychotherapy guidebook . Retrieved December 15, 2021, from https://epg.pubpub.org/pub/05-cognitive-remediation-therapy/release/3
Medalia, A., & Bowie, C. R. (2016). Cognitive remediation to improve functional outcomes . Oxford University Press.
Medalia, A., Revheim, N., & Herlands, T. (2009). Cognitive remediation for psychological disorders: Therapist guide . Oxford University Press.
Tchanturia, K. (2015). Cognitive remediation therapy (CRT) for eating and weight disorders . Routledge.
Tsaousides, T., & Gordon, W. A. (2009). Cognitive rehabilitation following traumatic brain injury: Assessment to treatment. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine: A Journal of Translational and Personalized Medicine , 76 (2), 173-181.

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To my surprise this is a treatment that has not been discussed in the area I live and work. I just stumbled upon this when I was researching cognitive impairments with schizophrenia. I currently work on a team with multiple mental health professionals that go out into the community, to work with people diagnosed with Schizophrenia. It seems like most of what we do is manage and monitor symptoms. Are you aware of anyone or any agency in Buffalo, NY that uses this method of treatment? I am trying to figure out how to get trained and use it in practice, if that is possible. Any help will be greatly appreciated.

This looks like the treatment my daughter needs. She has struggled for years with the cognitive problems associated with depression. How do we find a therapist near us who can use these techniques?

I’m sorry to read that your daughter is struggling. You can find a directory of licensed therapists here (and note that you can change the country setting in the top-right corner). You’ll also find that there are a range of filters to help you drill down to the type of support you need: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/therapists

I hope you find the help you need.

– Nicole | Community Manager

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10 practical cognitive therapy activities

I’m sharing 10 practical cognitive therapy activities that I’ve done with my patients recently, with suggested SMART goals. Details have been changed to protect privacy.

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Sample goals .
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Your cognitive therapy activities .

Scheduling appointments

One patient I worked with was having trouble scheduling appointments.

Disorganized
Not taking notes during the phone call.
Waiting too long before adding the information to her calendar.
Using a monthly calendar with small boxes.
Messy and hard to read.

I recommended that she get a planner, which her daughter picked up. I taught the strategies:

Have planner open to avoid double-booking.
Take notes during the phone call.
Read back the information to confirm details.
Write in planner immediately.

When I went in for the next couple of sessions, I looked at her planner to see if I could understand it. Then I asked her questions about it. And finally, I had her call and make a new appointment. I could have asked her to confirm an appointment if she didn’t need to make a new one.

I listened to her side of the conversation to make sure she was gathering the correct information and confirming it, then watched as she wrote the information in the book.

That was all she needed. She was independently making and keeping track of her own appointments accurately when I discharged her.

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Sample goals

Patient will demonstrate:

Ability to add new appointments to personal planner with 90% accuracy independently to improve ability to manage own schedule by 12.31.19.
Understanding of personal schedule by answering comprehension questions with 100% accuracy independently to improve ability to participate in desired activities by 12.31.19.

Organizing information

Another patient complained that calling doctors and the home health agency was a hassle. He had the phone numbers written down in various places, so it was an effort to find the information to make the calls.

He’d been using a smart phone for awhile, but his daughter had only entered family contacts. He was open to learning how to enter new contacts into his cell phone. So I spent about ten minutes during one session teaching that skill and guiding him to practice by adding a few home health and MD numbers.

At the next session, he told me that he tried adding another one on his own but got stuck. So I retaught that part and had him write down a reminder note about how to do that step.

At the following session, he had added more of his doctors and even included the addresses. He said that it made making phone calls really easy, and he wasn’t procrastinating anymore.

Patient will demonstrate ability to:

Add at least 5 new contacts to electronic contact book with 100% accuracy independently to improve organization of information for daily tasks by 12.31.19.
Make at least 3 phone calls using electronic contact book with 100% accuracy independently to improve ability to communicate with medical professionals in a timely manner by 12.31.19.

Daily writing to improve attention and memory

Another patient I worked with recently had pretty significant impairment of attention, memory, and executive function skills. She reported various problems which were frustrating to her:

Difficulty remembering strategies from PT and OT.
Trouble remembering recent conversations.
Not oriented to the day of week or the date.
No longer able to read for pleasure
Couldn’t sign her name (or write functionally).

One activity I started her on was to write in a notebook every day. In the beginning, she started off by copying the day of the week and the date with the help of her husband. And she signed her name over and over (the OT started that) as homework.

We built up to her writing the day of week and the date, copying her daily therapy schedule down, and then adding one of the strategies she was working on for each therapy.

On days when she didn’t have therapy, I had her write down a brief note about something that she did that day.

By the time I discharged her to outpatient therapy, she:

Could remember key recommendations from PT, OT, and ST.
Was oriented to time from memory.
Could sign her name.
Was remembering recent events without referring to her notes.
Could write short sentences (with errors).

Patient will:

be oriented to day of week, date, and time using visual supports as needed with 100% accuracy independently to improve daily function and reduce frustration by 12.31.19.
recall at least 3 recommendations from any therapy with 100% accuracy independently using visual supports as needed to improve safety and independence by 12.31.19.

Word finding

Another patient was having mild difficulty with word finding, which was very frustrating for her. I taught her Semantic Feature Analysis (SFA), which she learned how to do very quickly. I also taught her word finding strategies.

In therapy, we did a variety of word retrieval exercises for two reasons. First, to give her the opportunity to use the word finding strategies when she failed to retrieve a word. And second, to identify challenging exercises to assign for homework.

I also asked her to complete at least one SFA each day, ideally using a word that she really had trouble retrieving in her normal conversation.

She worked diligently, and when I discharged after six sessions she was independently using the strategies and was experiencing far fewer word retrieval failures (less than once a day).

ability to use at least 3 word finding strategies during moments of word finding failure on 4 of 5 opportunities to improve communication and reduce frustration by 12.31.19.
no more than one un-repaired word-finding failure during 30 minutes of conversation independently to demonstrate improved word-finding skills for conversation by 12.31.19.

Using YouTube for attention and memory

Another patient I worked with recently had left neglect, with general attention and memory deficits. His wife really wanted him to be able to focus on television and then be able to discuss what they watched. He was happy to work on anything that would help him.

I found a seven-minute TED talk, divided into three parts, that I knew he would enjoy.

The first time he watched it, he was very excited and talked during the video. After it was over, he said how much he liked the video but his comments were only tangentially-related. He couldn’t recall any specific details independently.

So I taught the strategies of paying attention and noticing the details. We then watched the time lapse section from 0:50 to 1:58 and I asked him to tell me what he could remember. He could not remember the four specific examples: the mushroom, the creeping vine, the air traffic, and the ship traffic.

We worked on remembering those four examples using WRAP: writing, repetition, association, and picturing it (visualization). By the end of the session, he was able to watch that part of the exciting video and then state the four examples. He worked on studying the video for homework, and we continued in this way.

By the end of therapy, he was able to recall at least eight specific details independently and several more when given a question prompt. Ideally, I would have had him watch a new video to see if his performance was improved, but we ran out of time with the reassessment and discharge.

Sample goal

demonstrate ability to recall at least 5 specific details from information recently heard or seen with 100 percent accuracy independently to improve ability to engage in leisure activities by 12.31.19.

Remembering spouse’s name after brain surgery

I treated a young man recently after brain surgery who was persistently calling his wife by his ex-wife’s name. As you can imagine, this was embarrassing for him even though his wife didn’t seem overly bothered by it.

In addition to treating general word-finding and memory deficits, we focused on her name. I taught the WRAP strategies of writing, repetition, association, and picturing (visualization).

Then I had him write her name 10 times which imagining her face and saying her name each time he wrote it. I suggested doing that every day until he wasn’t mixing the names up anymore. Finally, I helped him to find an association that would help trigger the word when he was in conversation with her.

This is a fictional example to preserve privacy, but the idea is the same. His wife’s name was Marla, and he created a little phrase “I’m married to Marla” that he would think when he saw her. This way, he was sure of her name and it reduced the anxiety of possibly mixing the names up in conversation.

We spent perhaps 10 minutes total in therapy on this issue. When I returned the following week, he reported that he was no longer mixing up the names and was no longer feeling stress about it.

Sample goals:

independently use recommended strategies to recall wife’s name in 9 of 10 opportunities by report or observation to reduce stress and embarrassment by 12.31.19.
demonstrate the use of at least 3 memory strategies for recalling preferred information with 100% accuracy independently to improve recall of important information by 12.31.19.

Basic executive function skills

I recently worked with a patient who was impaired in all areas of cognitive-communication. It seemed that working memory and executive function skills were impacting her the most.

Her specific complaints included:

Difficulty remembering and following directions.
Unable to complete basic reading and writing tasks.
Trouble maintaining the topic in conversation.
Difficulty remembering recent information.

We started off with functional activities: activities that she would do in the course of her normal day. Such as using the TV remote, maintaining a conversation, and sequencing the steps to get up from the wheelchair. I modified in various ways: simplifying, visual supports, written instructions, discussing and then doing (even down to the single step level), and modeling for imitation. I even tried spaced retrieval with errorless learning. However, I wasn’t seeing as much improvement as I’d have liked.

So we switched from these real-life activities to apps on her iPad. After trying some different things, we ended up using the iBrainH D app and Tactus Therapy’s Visual Attention and Writing apps .

We focused on learning and using strategies to slow down and improve accuracy, error detection, and error correction. For instance, I taught her to point to and/or verbalize each element, compare to the target, and double check her work.

This approach seemed to work better. When I discharge her to out-patient therapy, she had improved from a “severe” to a “mild” cognitive communication impairment per the CLQT+ . She was maintaining the topic of conversation at least 80% of the time, and she improved to only needing min assist with standing up from the wheelchair.

demonstrate understanding of at least two cognitive strategies by independently using them during functional activities in 4 of 5 opportunities to improve participation in daily tasks by 12.31.19.
maintain the topic of conversation for 3 turns in 4 of 5 opportunities to improve functional communication and reduce frustration by 12.31.19.
verbalize and demonstrate the correct sequence for safely standing up from the wheelchair with 100% accuracy across three trials to improve safety by 12.31.19.

Massed practice for visual neglect

Another person I worked with had left visual neglect. His main complaint was difficulty reading because he was missing information on the left. Although he was fully aware of his deficit and with the slightest cue would correct himself, he was not consistently using the strategy independently.

Neither a bright-colored guideline or a written reminder worked for him. He continued to require a verbal cue to use the strategies to detect information on the left.

One activity that we did that was helpful was to have him page through a catalog and report what was in the top left corner on each page. After several correct answers in a row, then I would introduce a distractor question and then have him turn the page. When this was easy, I made it harder by asking him to name the third thing down on the left side of each page.

In this way, he had multiple opportunities to practice his skills in a short period of time.

Sample goal:

locate the top left corner of reading material (e.g., paper, calendar, cell phone) using recommended strategy independently within 10 seconds in 9 of 10 opportunities across 3 sessions to improve functional reading by 12.31.19.

Remembering to use the call bell

A gentleman I’m working with in an assistive living facility has recently started wearing a bracelet with a call button. He’s supposed to use it to obtain assistance for the bathroom, but he’s been forgetting. In talking with him, I don’t get the sense that he is deliberately avoiding using it.

We’re using spaced retrieval with errorless learning to train the use of the call button.

Prompt question: “What should you do when you need to use the bathroom?”
Response: “Press the button and wait” and demonstrate.

We just started this past week, and I’d guess it would take another week or so to take effect (if it will help). While spaced retrieval with errorless learning doesn’t work for everyone, I’ve had many good successes with it.

independently verbalize and demonstrate the recommendation to press the call button when he wants to use the bathroom with 100% accuracy across 3 sessions to improve safety by 12.31.19.

Using supports to be oriented to time

Sometimes, just making sure the tools are in the right place is all that is needed: clock, calendar, or a digital combination.

One recent patient had a digital calendar * that was recommended by a physical therapist, but she wasn’t using it. It was just another bit of decoration on the shelf that she wasn’t paying attention to.

I used spaced retrieval with errorless learning to train her to use it in two session (and confirmed it in each subsequent visit).

Prompt question: “What should you do when you want to know the time or the date?”
Response: “Look at the clock” and then read off the time and the date.

Not only was she using the digital calendar independently when I returned the following week, but she was also independently oriented to the day of the week and the month (i.e. from memory).

*This is an Amazon affiliate link. As an Amazon associate, I may earn a small commission on qualifying purchases. There is no extra charge to you, and it will help keep Eat, Speak, & Think sustainable.

verbalize and demonstrate the independent use of the electronic calendar to determine the current day of week, date, and time with 100% accuracy across 3 consecutive sessions to improve ability to participate in desired activities by 12.31.19.

Related Eat, Speak, & Think posts

5 easy steps to remember names .
Collaborative goal setting to identify meaningful cognitive goals .
How to use spaced retrieval with errorless learning to improve memory .
Writing SMART memory goals for a reluctant patient .
Treating cognition in the real world .
Improve aphasia outcomes by creating intensive home exercise programs .

Your cognitive therapy activities

What are some of your recent cognitive therapy activities? Leave a comment below!

Featured image by kang_hojun from pixabay .

Lisa A Young M.A. CCC-SLP

Lisa earned her M.A. in Speech-Language Pathology from the University of Maryland, College Park and her M.A. in Linguistics from the University of California, San Diego.

She participated in research studies with the National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) and the University of Maryland in the areas of aphasia, Parkinson’s Disease, epilepsy, and fluency disorders.

Lisa has been working as a medical speech-language pathologist since 2008. She has a strong passion for evidence-based assessment and therapy, having earned five ASHA Awards for Professional Participation in Continuing Education.

She launched EatSpeakThink.com in June 2018 to help other clinicians be more successful working in home health, as well as to provide strategies and resources to people living with problems eating, speaking, or thinking.

Lisa A Young M.A. CCC-SLP https://eatspeakthink.com/author/admin/ Home health SLP survey results may surprise you
Lisa A Young M.A. CCC-SLP https://eatspeakthink.com/author/admin/ An easy way to write participation-level speech therapy goals
Lisa A Young M.A. CCC-SLP https://eatspeakthink.com/author/admin/ Learn how Goal Attainment Scaling makes SMART goals better
Lisa A Young M.A. CCC-SLP https://eatspeakthink.com/author/admin/ Quick guide to self-management training in Parkinson's

Loving your blog. Thanks for sharing!

Thank you, Mireya!

I’m a graduate student treating a person with aphasia in therapy this semester. This is the first website I’ve found that has been truly helpful for my adult client, Thank you so much!

Thanks so much for sharing your feedback, Kristin! I’m happy to hear you’re finding something helpful on my site. Good luck with your client and your program!

[…] 10 practical cognitive therapy activities. […]

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Solving problems the cognitive-behavioral way, problem solving is another part of behavioral therapy..

Posted February 2, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

What Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy?
Find a therapist who practices CBT
Problem-solving is one technique used on the behavioral side of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
The problem-solving technique is an iterative, five-step process that requires one to identify the problem and test different solutions.
The technique differs from ad-hoc problem-solving in its suspension of judgment and evaluation of each solution.

As I have mentioned in previous posts, cognitive behavioral therapy is more than challenging negative, automatic thoughts. There is a whole behavioral piece of this therapy that focuses on what people do and how to change their actions to support their mental health. In this post, I’ll talk about the problem-solving technique from cognitive behavioral therapy and what makes it unique.

The problem-solving technique

While there are many different variations of this technique, I am going to describe the version I typically use, and which includes the main components of the technique:

The first step is to clearly define the problem. Sometimes, this includes answering a series of questions to make sure the problem is described in detail. Sometimes, the client is able to define the problem pretty clearly on their own. Sometimes, a discussion is needed to clearly outline the problem.

The next step is generating solutions without judgment. The "without judgment" part is crucial: Often when people are solving problems on their own, they will reject each potential solution as soon as they or someone else suggests it. This can lead to feeling helpless and also discarding solutions that would work.

The third step is evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. This is the step where judgment comes back.

Fourth, the client picks the most feasible solution that is most likely to work and they try it out.

The fifth step is evaluating whether the chosen solution worked, and if not, going back to step two or three to find another option. For step five, enough time has to pass for the solution to have made a difference.

This process is iterative, meaning the client and therapist always go back to the beginning to make sure the problem is resolved and if not, identify what needs to change.

Advantages of the problem-solving technique

The problem-solving technique might differ from ad hoc problem-solving in several ways. The most obvious is the suspension of judgment when coming up with solutions. We sometimes need to withhold judgment and see the solution (or problem) from a different perspective. Deliberately deciding not to judge solutions until later can help trigger that mindset change.

Another difference is the explicit evaluation of whether the solution worked. When people usually try to solve problems, they don’t go back and check whether the solution worked. It’s only if something goes very wrong that they try again. The problem-solving technique specifically includes evaluating the solution.

Lastly, the problem-solving technique starts with a specific definition of the problem instead of just jumping to solutions. To figure out where you are going, you have to know where you are.

One benefit of the cognitive behavioral therapy approach is the behavioral side. The behavioral part of therapy is a wide umbrella that includes problem-solving techniques among other techniques. Accessing multiple techniques means one is more likely to address the client’s main concern.

Salene M. W. Jones, Ph.D., is a clinical psychologist in Washington State.

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Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Sean is a fact-checker and researcher with experience in sociology, field research, and data analytics.

JGI / Jamie Grill / Getty Images

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From deciding what to eat for dinner to considering whether it's the right time to buy a house, problem-solving is a large part of our daily lives. Learn some of the problem-solving strategies that exist and how to use them in real life, along with ways to overcome obstacles that are making it harder to resolve the issues you face.

What Is Problem-Solving?

In cognitive psychology , the term 'problem-solving' refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze, and solve problems.

A problem exists when there is a goal that we want to achieve but the process by which we will achieve it is not obvious to us. Put another way, there is something that we want to occur in our life, yet we are not immediately certain how to make it happen.

Maybe you want a better relationship with your spouse or another family member but you're not sure how to improve it. Or you want to start a business but are unsure what steps to take. Problem-solving helps you figure out how to achieve these desires.

The problem-solving process involves:

Discovery of the problem
Deciding to tackle the issue
Seeking to understand the problem more fully
Researching available options or solutions
Taking action to resolve the issue

Before problem-solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem itself. If your understanding of the issue is faulty, your attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or flawed.

Problem-Solving Mental Processes

Several mental processes are at work during problem-solving. Among them are:

Perceptually recognizing the problem
Representing the problem in memory
Considering relevant information that applies to the problem
Identifying different aspects of the problem
Labeling and describing the problem

Problem-Solving Strategies

There are many ways to go about solving a problem. Some of these strategies might be used on their own, or you may decide to employ multiple approaches when working to figure out and fix a problem.

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that, by following certain "rules" produces a solution. Algorithms are commonly used in mathematics to solve division or multiplication problems. But they can be used in other fields as well.

In psychology, algorithms can be used to help identify individuals with a greater risk of mental health issues. For instance, research suggests that certain algorithms might help us recognize children with an elevated risk of suicide or self-harm.

One benefit of algorithms is that they guarantee an accurate answer. However, they aren't always the best approach to problem-solving, in part because detecting patterns can be incredibly time-consuming.

There are also concerns when machine learning is involved—also known as artificial intelligence (AI)—such as whether they can accurately predict human behaviors.

Heuristics are shortcut strategies that people can use to solve a problem at hand. These "rule of thumb" approaches allow you to simplify complex problems, reducing the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.

If you find yourself sitting in a traffic jam, for example, you may quickly consider other routes, taking one to get moving once again. When shopping for a new car, you might think back to a prior experience when negotiating got you a lower price, then employ the same tactics.

While heuristics may be helpful when facing smaller issues, major decisions shouldn't necessarily be made using a shortcut approach. Heuristics also don't guarantee an effective solution, such as when trying to drive around a traffic jam only to find yourself on an equally crowded route.

Trial and Error

A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of potential solutions to a particular issue, then ruling out those that do not work. If you're not sure whether to buy a shirt in blue or green, for instance, you may try on each before deciding which one to purchase.

This can be a good strategy to use if you have a limited number of solutions available. But if there are many different choices available, narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving technique can be helpful before attempting trial and error.

In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. You are facing an issue in a relationship or your career when, out of nowhere, the solution appears in your mind and you know exactly what to do.

Insight can occur when the problem in front of you is similar to an issue that you've dealt with in the past. Although, you may not recognize what is occurring since the underlying mental processes that lead to insight often happen outside of conscious awareness .

Research indicates that insight is most likely to occur during times when you are alone—such as when going on a walk by yourself, when you're in the shower, or when lying in bed after waking up.

How to Apply Problem-Solving Strategies in Real Life

If you're facing a problem, you can implement one or more of these strategies to find a potential solution. Here's how to use them in real life:

Create a flow chart . If you have time, you can take advantage of the algorithm approach to problem-solving by sitting down and making a flow chart of each potential solution, its consequences, and what happens next.
Recall your past experiences . When a problem needs to be solved fairly quickly, heuristics may be a better approach. Think back to when you faced a similar issue, then use your knowledge and experience to choose the best option possible.
Start trying potential solutions . If your options are limited, start trying them one by one to see which solution is best for achieving your desired goal. If a particular solution doesn't work, move on to the next.
Take some time alone . Since insight is often achieved when you're alone, carve out time to be by yourself for a while. The answer to your problem may come to you, seemingly out of the blue, if you spend some time away from others.

Obstacles to Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is not a flawless process as there are a number of obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. These obstacles include:

Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people can make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions. Thus, they may not even try some potential options.
Functional fixedness : This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution.
Irrelevant or misleading information: When trying to solve a problem, it's important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. The more complex the problem, the easier it is to focus on misleading or irrelevant information.
Mental set: A mental set is a tendency to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.

How to Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills

In the end, if your goal is to become a better problem-solver, it's helpful to remember that this is a process. Thus, if you want to improve your problem-solving skills, following these steps can help lead you to your solution:

Recognize that a problem exists . If you are facing a problem, there are generally signs. For instance, if you have a mental illness , you may experience excessive fear or sadness, mood changes, and changes in sleeping or eating habits. Recognizing these signs can help you realize that an issue exists.
Decide to solve the problem . Make a conscious decision to solve the issue at hand. Commit to yourself that you will go through the steps necessary to find a solution.
Seek to fully understand the issue . Analyze the problem you face, looking at it from all sides. If your problem is relationship-related, for instance, ask yourself how the other person may be interpreting the issue. You might also consider how your actions might be contributing to the situation.
Research potential options . Using the problem-solving strategies mentioned, research potential solutions. Make a list of options, then consider each one individually. What are some pros and cons of taking the available routes? What would you need to do to make them happen?
Take action . Select the best solution possible and take action. Action is one of the steps required for change . So, go through the motions needed to resolve the issue.
Try another option, if needed . If the solution you chose didn't work, don't give up. Either go through the problem-solving process again or simply try another option.

You can find a way to solve your problems as long as you keep working toward this goal—even if the best solution is simply to let go because no other good solution exists.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Psychology

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48 Problem Solving

Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara

Published: 03 June 2013
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Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal when the problem solver does not initially know a solution method. A problem exists when someone has a goal but does not know how to achieve it. Problems can be classified as routine or nonroutine, and as well defined or ill defined. The major cognitive processes in problem solving are representing, planning, executing, and monitoring. The major kinds of knowledge required for problem solving are facts, concepts, procedures, strategies, and beliefs. Classic theoretical approaches to the study of problem solving are associationism, Gestalt, and information processing. Current issues and suggested future issues include decision making, intelligence and creativity, teaching of thinking skills, expert problem solving, analogical reasoning, mathematical and scientific thinking, everyday thinking, and the cognitive neuroscience of problem solving. Common themes concern the domain specificity of problem solving and a focus on problem solving in authentic contexts.

The study of problem solving begins with defining problem solving, problem, and problem types. This introduction to problem solving is rounded out with an examination of cognitive processes in problem solving, the role of knowledge in problem solving, and historical approaches to the study of problem solving.

Definition of Problem Solving

Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the problem solver does not initially know a solution method. This definition consists of four major elements (Mayer, 1992 ; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006 ):

Cognitive —Problem solving occurs within the problem solver’s cognitive system and can only be inferred indirectly from the problem solver’s behavior (including biological changes, introspections, and actions during problem solving). Process —Problem solving involves mental computations in which some operation is applied to a mental representation, sometimes resulting in the creation of a new mental representation. Directed —Problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal. Personal —Problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so that what is a problem for one problem solver may not be a problem for someone who already knows a solution method.

The definition is broad enough to include a wide array of cognitive activities such as deciding which apartment to rent, figuring out how to use a cell phone interface, playing a game of chess, making a medical diagnosis, finding the answer to an arithmetic word problem, or writing a chapter for a handbook. Problem solving is pervasive in human life and is crucial for human survival. Although this chapter focuses on problem solving in humans, problem solving also occurs in nonhuman animals and in intelligent machines.

How is problem solving related to other forms of high-level cognition processing, such as thinking and reasoning? Thinking refers to cognitive processing in individuals but includes both directed thinking (which corresponds to the definition of problem solving) and undirected thinking such as daydreaming (which does not correspond to the definition of problem solving). Thus, problem solving is a type of thinking (i.e., directed thinking).

Reasoning refers to problem solving within specific classes of problems, such as deductive reasoning or inductive reasoning. In deductive reasoning, the reasoner is given premises and must derive a conclusion by applying the rules of logic. For example, given that “A is greater than B” and “B is greater than C,” a reasoner can conclude that “A is greater than C.” In inductive reasoning, the reasoner is given (or has experienced) a collection of examples or instances and must infer a rule. For example, given that X, C, and V are in the “yes” group and x, c, and v are in the “no” group, the reasoning may conclude that B is in “yes” group because it is in uppercase format. Thus, reasoning is a type of problem solving.

Definition of Problem

A problem occurs when someone has a goal but does not know to achieve it. This definition is consistent with how the Gestalt psychologist Karl Duncker ( 1945 , p. 1) defined a problem in his classic monograph, On Problem Solving : “A problem arises when a living creature has a goal but does not know how this goal is to be reached.” However, today researchers recognize that the definition should be extended to include problem solving by intelligent machines. This definition can be clarified using an information processing approach by noting that a problem occurs when a situation is in the given state, the problem solver wants the situation to be in the goal state, and there is no obvious way to move from the given state to the goal state (Newell & Simon, 1972 ). Accordingly, the three main elements in describing a problem are the given state (i.e., the current state of the situation), the goal state (i.e., the desired state of the situation), and the set of allowable operators (i.e., the actions the problem solver is allowed to take). The definition of “problem” is broad enough to include the situation confronting a physician who wishes to make a diagnosis on the basis of preliminary tests and a patient examination, as well as a beginning physics student trying to solve a complex physics problem.

Types of Problems

It is customary in the problem-solving literature to make a distinction between routine and nonroutine problems. Routine problems are problems that are so familiar to the problem solver that the problem solver knows a solution method. For example, for most adults, “What is 365 divided by 12?” is a routine problem because they already know the procedure for long division. Nonroutine problems are so unfamiliar to the problem solver that the problem solver does not know a solution method. For example, figuring out the best way to set up a funding campaign for a nonprofit charity is a nonroutine problem for most volunteers. Technically, routine problems do not meet the definition of problem because the problem solver has a goal but knows how to achieve it. Much research on problem solving has focused on routine problems, although most interesting problems in life are nonroutine.

Another customary distinction is between well-defined and ill-defined problems. Well-defined problems have a clearly specified given state, goal state, and legal operators. Examples include arithmetic computation problems or games such as checkers or tic-tac-toe. Ill-defined problems have a poorly specified given state, goal state, or legal operators, or a combination of poorly defined features. Examples include solving the problem of global warming or finding a life partner. Although, ill-defined problems are more challenging, much research in problem solving has focused on well-defined problems.

Cognitive Processes in Problem Solving

The process of problem solving can be broken down into two main phases: problem representation , in which the problem solver builds a mental representation of the problem situation, and problem solution , in which the problem solver works to produce a solution. The major subprocess in problem representation is representing , which involves building a situation model —that is, a mental representation of the situation described in the problem. The major subprocesses in problem solution are planning , which involves devising a plan for how to solve the problem; executing , which involves carrying out the plan; and monitoring , which involves evaluating and adjusting one’s problem solving.

For example, given an arithmetic word problem such as “Alice has three marbles. Sarah has two more marbles than Alice. How many marbles does Sarah have?” the process of representing involves building a situation model in which Alice has a set of marbles, there is set of marbles for the difference between the two girls, and Sarah has a set of marbles that consists of Alice’s marbles and the difference set. In the planning process, the problem solver sets a goal of adding 3 and 2. In the executing process, the problem solver carries out the computation, yielding an answer of 5. In the monitoring process, the problem solver looks over what was done and concludes that 5 is a reasonable answer. In most complex problem-solving episodes, the four cognitive processes may not occur in linear order, but rather may interact with one another. Although some research focuses mainly on the execution process, problem solvers may tend to have more difficulty with the processes of representing, planning, and monitoring.

Knowledge for Problem Solving

An important theme in problem-solving research is that problem-solving proficiency on any task depends on the learner’s knowledge (Anderson et al., 2001 ; Mayer, 1992 ). Five kinds of knowledge are as follows:

Facts —factual knowledge about the characteristics of elements in the world, such as “Sacramento is the capital of California” Concepts —conceptual knowledge, including categories, schemas, or models, such as knowing the difference between plants and animals or knowing how a battery works Procedures —procedural knowledge of step-by-step processes, such as how to carry out long-division computations Strategies —strategic knowledge of general methods such as breaking a problem into parts or thinking of a related problem Beliefs —attitudinal knowledge about how one’s cognitive processing works such as thinking, “I’m good at this”

Although some research focuses mainly on the role of facts and procedures in problem solving, complex problem solving also depends on the problem solver’s concepts, strategies, and beliefs (Mayer, 1992 ).

Historical Approaches to Problem Solving

Psychological research on problem solving began in the early 1900s, as an outgrowth of mental philosophy (Humphrey, 1963 ; Mandler & Mandler, 1964 ). Throughout the 20th century four theoretical approaches developed: early conceptions, associationism, Gestalt psychology, and information processing.

Early Conceptions

The start of psychology as a science can be set at 1879—the year Wilhelm Wundt opened the first world’s psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, and sought to train the world’s first cohort of experimental psychologists. Instead of relying solely on philosophical speculations about how the human mind works, Wundt sought to apply the methods of experimental science to issues addressed in mental philosophy. His theoretical approach became structuralism —the analysis of consciousness into its basic elements.

Wundt’s main contribution to the study of problem solving, however, was to call for its banishment. According to Wundt, complex cognitive processing was too complicated to be studied by experimental methods, so “nothing can be discovered in such experiments” (Wundt, 1911/1973 ). Despite his admonishments, however, a group of his former students began studying thinking mainly in Wurzburg, Germany. Using the method of introspection, subjects were asked to describe their thought process as they solved word association problems, such as finding the superordinate of “newspaper” (e.g., an answer is “publication”). Although the Wurzburg group—as they came to be called—did not produce a new theoretical approach, they found empirical evidence that challenged some of the key assumptions of mental philosophy. For example, Aristotle had proclaimed that all thinking involves mental imagery, but the Wurzburg group was able to find empirical evidence for imageless thought .

Associationism

The first major theoretical approach to take hold in the scientific study of problem solving was associationism —the idea that the cognitive representations in the mind consist of ideas and links between them and that cognitive processing in the mind involves following a chain of associations from one idea to the next (Mandler & Mandler, 1964 ; Mayer, 1992 ). For example, in a classic study, E. L. Thorndike ( 1911 ) placed a hungry cat in what he called a puzzle box—a wooden crate in which pulling a loop of string that hung from overhead would open a trap door to allow the cat to escape to a bowl of food outside the crate. Thorndike placed the cat in the puzzle box once a day for several weeks. On the first day, the cat engaged in many extraneous behaviors such as pouncing against the wall, pushing its paws through the slats, and meowing, but on successive days the number of extraneous behaviors tended to decrease. Overall, the time required to get out of the puzzle box decreased over the course of the experiment, indicating the cat was learning how to escape.

Thorndike’s explanation for how the cat learned to solve the puzzle box problem is based on an associationist view: The cat begins with a habit family hierarchy —a set of potential responses (e.g., pouncing, thrusting, meowing, etc.) all associated with the same stimulus (i.e., being hungry and confined) and ordered in terms of strength of association. When placed in the puzzle box, the cat executes its strongest response (e.g., perhaps pouncing against the wall), but when it fails, the strength of the association is weakened, and so on for each unsuccessful action. Eventually, the cat gets down to what was initially a weak response—waving its paw in the air—but when that response leads to accidentally pulling the string and getting out, it is strengthened. Over the course of many trials, the ineffective responses become weak and the successful response becomes strong. Thorndike refers to this process as the law of effect : Responses that lead to dissatisfaction become less associated with the situation and responses that lead to satisfaction become more associated with the situation. According to Thorndike’s associationist view, solving a problem is simply a matter of trial and error and accidental success. A major challenge to assocationist theory concerns the nature of transfer—that is, where does a problem solver find a creative solution that has never been performed before? Associationist conceptions of cognition can be seen in current research, including neural networks, connectionist models, and parallel distributed processing models (Rogers & McClelland, 2004 ).

Gestalt Psychology

The Gestalt approach to problem solving developed in the 1930s and 1940s as a counterbalance to the associationist approach. According to the Gestalt approach, cognitive representations consist of coherent structures (rather than individual associations) and the cognitive process of problem solving involves building a coherent structure (rather than strengthening and weakening of associations). For example, in a classic study, Kohler ( 1925 ) placed a hungry ape in a play yard that contained several empty shipping crates and a banana attached overhead but out of reach. Based on observing the ape in this situation, Kohler noted that the ape did not randomly try responses until one worked—as suggested by Thorndike’s associationist view. Instead, the ape stood under the banana, looked up at it, looked at the crates, and then in a flash of insight stacked the crates under the bananas as a ladder, and walked up the steps in order to reach the banana.

According to Kohler, the ape experienced a sudden visual reorganization in which the elements in the situation fit together in a way to solve the problem; that is, the crates could become a ladder that reduces the distance to the banana. Kohler referred to the underlying mechanism as insight —literally seeing into the structure of the situation. A major challenge of Gestalt theory is its lack of precision; for example, naming a process (i.e., insight) is not the same as explaining how it works. Gestalt conceptions can be seen in modern research on mental models and schemas (Gentner & Stevens, 1983 ).

Information Processing

The information processing approach to problem solving developed in the 1960s and 1970s and was based on the influence of the computer metaphor—the idea that humans are processors of information (Mayer, 2009 ). According to the information processing approach, problem solving involves a series of mental computations—each of which consists of applying a process to a mental representation (such as comparing two elements to determine whether they differ).

In their classic book, Human Problem Solving , Newell and Simon ( 1972 ) proposed that problem solving involved a problem space and search heuristics . A problem space is a mental representation of the initial state of the problem, the goal state of the problem, and all possible intervening states (based on applying allowable operators). Search heuristics are strategies for moving through the problem space from the given to the goal state. Newell and Simon focused on means-ends analysis , in which the problem solver continually sets goals and finds moves to accomplish goals.

Newell and Simon used computer simulation as a research method to test their conception of human problem solving. First, they asked human problem solvers to think aloud as they solved various problems such as logic problems, chess, and cryptarithmetic problems. Then, based on an information processing analysis, Newell and Simon created computer programs that solved these problems. In comparing the solution behavior of humans and computers, they found high similarity, suggesting that the computer programs were solving problems using the same thought processes as humans.

An important advantage of the information processing approach is that problem solving can be described with great clarity—as a computer program. An important limitation of the information processing approach is that it is most useful for describing problem solving for well-defined problems rather than ill-defined problems. The information processing conception of cognition lives on as a keystone of today’s cognitive science (Mayer, 2009 ).

Classic Issues in Problem Solving

Three classic issues in research on problem solving concern the nature of transfer (suggested by the associationist approach), the nature of insight (suggested by the Gestalt approach), and the role of problem-solving heuristics (suggested by the information processing approach).

Transfer refers to the effects of prior learning on new learning (or new problem solving). Positive transfer occurs when learning A helps someone learn B. Negative transfer occurs when learning A hinders someone from learning B. Neutral transfer occurs when learning A has no effect on learning B. Positive transfer is a central goal of education, but research shows that people often do not transfer what they learned to solving problems in new contexts (Mayer, 1992 ; Singley & Anderson, 1989 ).

Three conceptions of the mechanisms underlying transfer are specific transfer , general transfer , and specific transfer of general principles . Specific transfer refers to the idea that learning A will help someone learn B only if A and B have specific elements in common. For example, learning Spanish may help someone learn Latin because some of the vocabulary words are similar and the verb conjugation rules are similar. General transfer refers to the idea that learning A can help someone learn B even they have nothing specifically in common but A helps improve the learner’s mind in general. For example, learning Latin may help people learn “proper habits of mind” so they are better able to learn completely unrelated subjects as well. Specific transfer of general principles is the idea that learning A will help someone learn B if the same general principle or solution method is required for both even if the specific elements are different.

In a classic study, Thorndike and Woodworth ( 1901 ) found that students who learned Latin did not subsequently learn bookkeeping any better than students who had not learned Latin. They interpreted this finding as evidence for specific transfer—learning A did not transfer to learning B because A and B did not have specific elements in common. Modern research on problem-solving transfer continues to show that people often do not demonstrate general transfer (Mayer, 1992 ). However, it is possible to teach people a general strategy for solving a problem, so that when they see a new problem in a different context they are able to apply the strategy to the new problem (Judd, 1908 ; Mayer, 2008 )—so there is also research support for the idea of specific transfer of general principles.

Insight refers to a change in a problem solver’s mind from not knowing how to solve a problem to knowing how to solve it (Mayer, 1995 ; Metcalfe & Wiebe, 1987 ). In short, where does the idea for a creative solution come from? A central goal of problem-solving research is to determine the mechanisms underlying insight.

The search for insight has led to five major (but not mutually exclusive) explanatory mechanisms—insight as completing a schema, insight as suddenly reorganizing visual information, insight as reformulation of a problem, insight as removing mental blocks, and insight as finding a problem analog (Mayer, 1995 ). Completing a schema is exemplified in a study by Selz (Fridja & de Groot, 1982 ), in which people were asked to think aloud as they solved word association problems such as “What is the superordinate for newspaper?” To solve the problem, people sometimes thought of a coordinate, such as “magazine,” and then searched for a superordinate category that subsumed both terms, such as “publication.” According to Selz, finding a solution involved building a schema that consisted of a superordinate and two subordinate categories.

Reorganizing visual information is reflected in Kohler’s ( 1925 ) study described in a previous section in which a hungry ape figured out how to stack boxes as a ladder to reach a banana hanging above. According to Kohler, the ape looked around the yard and found the solution in a flash of insight by mentally seeing how the parts could be rearranged to accomplish the goal.

Reformulating a problem is reflected in a classic study by Duncker ( 1945 ) in which people are asked to think aloud as they solve the tumor problem—how can you destroy a tumor in a patient without destroying surrounding healthy tissue by using rays that at sufficient intensity will destroy any tissue in their path? In analyzing the thinking-aloud protocols—that is, transcripts of what the problem solvers said—Duncker concluded that people reformulated the goal in various ways (e.g., avoid contact with healthy tissue, immunize healthy tissue, have ray be weak in healthy tissue) until they hit upon a productive formulation that led to the solution (i.e., concentrating many weak rays on the tumor).

Removing mental blocks is reflected in classic studies by Duncker ( 1945 ) in which solving a problem involved thinking of a novel use for an object, and by Luchins ( 1942 ) in which solving a problem involved not using a procedure that had worked well on previous problems. Finding a problem analog is reflected in classic research by Wertheimer ( 1959 ) in which learning to find the area of a parallelogram is supported by the insight that one could cut off the triangle on one side and place it on the other side to form a rectangle—so a parallelogram is really a rectangle in disguise. The search for insight along each of these five lines continues in current problem-solving research.

Heuristics are problem-solving strategies, that is, general approaches to how to solve problems. Newell and Simon ( 1972 ) suggested three general problem-solving heuristics for moving from a given state to a goal state: random trial and error , hill climbing , and means-ends analysis . Random trial and error involves randomly selecting a legal move and applying it to create a new problem state, and repeating that process until the goal state is reached. Random trial and error may work for simple problems but is not efficient for complex ones. Hill climbing involves selecting the legal move that moves the problem solver closer to the goal state. Hill climbing will not work for problems in which the problem solver must take a move that temporarily moves away from the goal as is required in many problems.

Means-ends analysis involves creating goals and seeking moves that can accomplish the goal. If a goal cannot be directly accomplished, a subgoal is created to remove one or more obstacles. Newell and Simon ( 1972 ) successfully used means-ends analysis as the search heuristic in a computer program aimed at general problem solving, that is, solving a diverse collection of problems. However, people may also use specific heuristics that are designed to work for specific problem-solving situations (Gigerenzer, Todd, & ABC Research Group, 1999 ; Kahneman & Tversky, 1984 ).

Current and Future Issues in Problem Solving

Eight current issues in problem solving involve decision making, intelligence and creativity, teaching of thinking skills, expert problem solving, analogical reasoning, mathematical and scientific problem solving, everyday thinking, and the cognitive neuroscience of problem solving.

Decision Making

Decision making refers to the cognitive processing involved in choosing between two or more alternatives (Baron, 2000 ; Markman & Medin, 2002 ). For example, a decision-making task may involve choosing between getting $240 for sure or having a 25% change of getting $1000. According to economic theories such as expected value theory, people should chose the second option, which is worth $250 (i.e., .25 x $1000) rather than the first option, which is worth $240 (1.00 x $240), but psychological research shows that most people prefer the first option (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984 ).

Research on decision making has generated three classes of theories (Markman & Medin, 2002 ): descriptive theories, such as prospect theory (Kahneman & Tversky), which are based on the ideas that people prefer to overweight the cost of a loss and tend to overestimate small probabilities; heuristic theories, which are based on the idea that people use a collection of short-cut strategies such as the availability heuristic (Gigerenzer et al., 1999 ; Kahneman & Tversky, 2000 ); and constructive theories, such as mental accounting (Kahneman & Tversky, 2000 ), in which people build a narrative to justify their choices to themselves. Future research is needed to examine decision making in more realistic settings.

Intelligence and Creativity

Although researchers do not have complete consensus on the definition of intelligence (Sternberg, 1990 ), it is reasonable to view intelligence as the ability to learn or adapt to new situations. Fluid intelligence refers to the potential to solve problems without any relevant knowledge, whereas crystallized intelligence refers to the potential to solve problems based on relevant prior knowledge (Sternberg & Gregorenko, 2003 ). As people gain more experience in a field, their problem-solving performance depends more on crystallized intelligence (i.e., domain knowledge) than on fluid intelligence (i.e., general ability) (Sternberg & Gregorenko, 2003 ). The ability to monitor and manage one’s cognitive processing during problem solving—which can be called metacognition —is an important aspect of intelligence (Sternberg, 1990 ). Research is needed to pinpoint the knowledge that is needed to support intelligent performance on problem-solving tasks.

Creativity refers to the ability to generate ideas that are original (i.e., other people do not think of the same idea) and functional (i.e., the idea works; Sternberg, 1999 ). Creativity is often measured using tests of divergent thinking —that is, generating as many solutions as possible for a problem (Guilford, 1967 ). For example, the uses test asks people to list as many uses as they can think of for a brick. Creativity is different from intelligence, and it is at the heart of creative problem solving—generating a novel solution to a problem that the problem solver has never seen before. An important research question concerns whether creative problem solving depends on specific knowledge or creativity ability in general.

Teaching of Thinking Skills

How can people learn to be better problem solvers? Mayer ( 2008 ) proposes four questions concerning teaching of thinking skills:

What to teach —Successful programs attempt to teach small component skills (such as how to generate and evaluate hypotheses) rather than improve the mind as a single monolithic skill (Covington, Crutchfield, Davies, & Olton, 1974 ). How to teach —Successful programs focus on modeling the process of problem solving rather than solely reinforcing the product of problem solving (Bloom & Broder, 1950 ). Where to teach —Successful programs teach problem-solving skills within the specific context they will be used rather than within a general course on how to solve problems (Nickerson, 1999 ). When to teach —Successful programs teaching higher order skills early rather than waiting until lower order skills are completely mastered (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988 ).

Overall, research on teaching of thinking skills points to the domain specificity of problem solving; that is, successful problem solving depends on the problem solver having domain knowledge that is relevant to the problem-solving task.

Expert Problem Solving

Research on expertise is concerned with differences between how experts and novices solve problems (Ericsson, Feltovich, & Hoffman, 2006 ). Expertise can be defined in terms of time (e.g., 10 years of concentrated experience in a field), performance (e.g., earning a perfect score on an assessment), or recognition (e.g., receiving a Nobel Prize or becoming Grand Master in chess). For example, in classic research conducted in the 1940s, de Groot ( 1965 ) found that chess experts did not have better general memory than chess novices, but they did have better domain-specific memory for the arrangement of chess pieces on the board. Chase and Simon ( 1973 ) replicated this result in a better controlled experiment. An explanation is that experts have developed schemas that allow them to chunk collections of pieces into a single configuration.

In another landmark study, Larkin et al. ( 1980 ) compared how experts (e.g., physics professors) and novices (e.g., first-year physics students) solved textbook physics problems about motion. Experts tended to work forward from the given information to the goal, whereas novices tended to work backward from the goal to the givens using a means-ends analysis strategy. Experts tended to store their knowledge in an integrated way, whereas novices tended to store their knowledge in isolated fragments. In another study, Chi, Feltovich, and Glaser ( 1981 ) found that experts tended to focus on the underlying physics concepts (such as conservation of energy), whereas novices tended to focus on the surface features of the problem (such as inclined planes or springs). Overall, research on expertise is useful in pinpointing what experts know that is different from what novices know. An important theme is that experts rely on domain-specific knowledge rather than solely general cognitive ability.

Analogical Reasoning

Analogical reasoning occurs when people solve one problem by using their knowledge about another problem (Holyoak, 2005 ). For example, suppose a problem solver learns how to solve a problem in one context using one solution method and then is given a problem in another context that requires the same solution method. In this case, the problem solver must recognize that the new problem has structural similarity to the old problem (i.e., it may be solved by the same method), even though they do not have surface similarity (i.e., the cover stories are different). Three steps in analogical reasoning are recognizing —seeing that a new problem is similar to a previously solved problem; abstracting —finding the general method used to solve the old problem; and mapping —using that general method to solve the new problem.

Research on analogical reasoning shows that people often do not recognize that a new problem can be solved by the same method as a previously solved problem (Holyoak, 2005 ). However, research also shows that successful analogical transfer to a new problem is more likely when the problem solver has experience with two old problems that have the same underlying structural features (i.e., they are solved by the same principle) but different surface features (i.e., they have different cover stories) (Holyoak, 2005 ). This finding is consistent with the idea of specific transfer of general principles as described in the section on “Transfer.”

Mathematical and Scientific Problem Solving

Research on mathematical problem solving suggests that five kinds of knowledge are needed to solve arithmetic word problems (Mayer, 2008 ):

Factual knowledge —knowledge about the characteristics of problem elements, such as knowing that there are 100 cents in a dollar Schematic knowledge —knowledge of problem types, such as being able to recognize time-rate-distance problems Strategic knowledge —knowledge of general methods, such as how to break a problem into parts Procedural knowledge —knowledge of processes, such as how to carry our arithmetic operations Attitudinal knowledge —beliefs about one’s mathematical problem-solving ability, such as thinking, “I am good at this”

People generally possess adequate procedural knowledge but may have difficulty in solving mathematics problems because they lack factual, schematic, strategic, or attitudinal knowledge (Mayer, 2008 ). Research is needed to pinpoint the role of domain knowledge in mathematical problem solving.

Research on scientific problem solving shows that people harbor misconceptions, such as believing that a force is needed to keep an object in motion (McCloskey, 1983 ). Learning to solve science problems involves conceptual change, in which the problem solver comes to recognize that previous conceptions are wrong (Mayer, 2008 ). Students can be taught to engage in scientific reasoning such as hypothesis testing through direct instruction in how to control for variables (Chen & Klahr, 1999 ). A central theme of research on scientific problem solving concerns the role of domain knowledge.

Everyday Thinking

Everyday thinking refers to problem solving in the context of one’s life outside of school. For example, children who are street vendors tend to use different procedures for solving arithmetic problems when they are working on the streets than when they are in school (Nunes, Schlieman, & Carraher, 1993 ). This line of research highlights the role of situated cognition —the idea that thinking always is shaped by the physical and social context in which it occurs (Robbins & Aydede, 2009 ). Research is needed to determine how people solve problems in authentic contexts.

Cognitive Neuroscience of Problem Solving

The cognitive neuroscience of problem solving is concerned with the brain activity that occurs during problem solving. For example, using fMRI brain imaging methodology, Goel ( 2005 ) found that people used the language areas of the brain to solve logical reasoning problems presented in sentences (e.g., “All dogs are pets…”) and used the spatial areas of the brain to solve logical reasoning problems presented in abstract letters (e.g., “All D are P…”). Cognitive neuroscience holds the potential to make unique contributions to the study of problem solving.

Problem solving has always been a topic at the fringe of cognitive psychology—too complicated to study intensively but too important to completely ignore. Problem solving—especially in realistic environments—is messy in comparison to studying elementary processes in cognition. The field remains fragmented in the sense that topics such as decision making, reasoning, intelligence, expertise, mathematical problem solving, everyday thinking, and the like are considered to be separate topics, each with its own separate literature. Yet some recurring themes are the role of domain-specific knowledge in problem solving and the advantages of studying problem solving in authentic contexts.

Future Directions

Some important issues for future research include the three classic issues examined in this chapter—the nature of problem-solving transfer (i.e., How are people able to use what they know about previous problem solving to help them in new problem solving?), the nature of insight (e.g., What is the mechanism by which a creative solution is constructed?), and heuristics (e.g., What are some teachable strategies for problem solving?). In addition, future research in problem solving should continue to pinpoint the role of domain-specific knowledge in problem solving, the nature of cognitive ability in problem solving, how to help people develop proficiency in solving problems, and how to provide aids for problem solving.

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Cognitive Tasks and Learning

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Liesbeth Kester 2 &
Paul A. Kirschner 2

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Complex tasks ; Higher-order tasks ; Intellectual tasks ; Problem-solving tasks

Cognitive tasks are those undertakings that require a person to mentally process new information (i.e., acquire and organize knowledge/learn) and allow them to recall, retrieve that information from memory and to use that information at a later time in the same or similar situation (i.e., transfer).

Theoretical Background

Cognitivism.

The roots of cognitive psychology and the role of cognitive tasks lie with David Ausubel’s Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning (Ausubel 1963 ) and Robert Gagné’s Conditions of Learning (Gagné 1977 ). According to Gagné, cognitive tasks aim at the acquisition of intellectual skills and consist of eight hierarchically organized cognitive processes: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem-solving. Gagné identified five major categories of learning...

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Anderson, R. C. (1977). The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise: General discussion of the conference. In R. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge (pp. 415–431). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

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Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2006). Teaching complex rather than simple tasks: Balancing intrinsic and germane load to enhance transfer of learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20 , 343–352.

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Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Education, University of Freiburg, 79085, Freiburg, Germany

Norbert M. Seel

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Kester, L., Kirschner, P.A. (2012). Cognitive Tasks and Learning. In: Seel, N.M. (eds) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_225

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9 cognitive skill examples and how to improve them

woman-writing-on-whiteboard-cognitive-skill-examples

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What are cognitive skills?

Cognitive development

Types of cognitive skills.

What are examples of cognitive skills at work?

How to improve your cognitive skills

Stay focused.

Out of the blue, your team leader drops a curveball: the team is adopting a new project management app and updating work performance standards.

Such an abrupt shift pushes your most basic cognitive skills into action. You diligently listen to your manager's instructions, process the influx of new information, and use logic to understand it all.

Normally, your thinking skills operate in the background, quietly supporting your daily work. But moments like this emphasize the incredible potential of your brain and the importance of honing your cognitive abilities.

Of course, some abilities — such as reasoning, visual learning, and listening — may come more naturally than others. Don’t worry: like any skill, you can grow and develop your brain power.

Prepare to unlock the full potential of your mind . Let's explore examples of cognitive skills and discover practical ways to elevate them in the workplace.

What are cognitive skills?

The definition of cognitive skills encompasses your brain's remarkable capacity to process, store, and utilize information . These include abilities such as concentration , memory , and problem-solving.

Your cognitive skills operate subtly yet significantly, shaping your social interactions, learning processes, and ability to complete tasks successfully.

Say you meet a potential client at a networking event. Your brain effortlessly processes various pieces of information, from nonverbal social cues (like gestures ) to your elevator pitch . In this scenario, your adaptability is the defining factor between a successful and unsuccessful connection.

Cognitive development begins in infancy and early childhood and continues throughout your life. Your brain learns and grows as you age — a process called neuroplasticity . The more you train your mind through goal-setting and skill learning, the sharper your brain becomes.

Research suggests the greater your cognitive ability, the better your performance . But there’s a caveat: your cognitive skills don’t operate in a vacuum. Self-discipline and planning also play a strong role in your ability to access and improve these abilities.

Although you may lean toward certain skills — perhaps your auditory processing is stronger than your visual learning — you can improve in any area with thoughtful practice and goal-setting .

Remember: your cognitive skills define your capacity for processing incoming information, building memories, and interpreting stimuli. Before jumping into cognitive skills to fine-tune, let’s explore eight different types of cognitive skills and their daily applications:

Attention abilities

The world is full of stimuli. With so many distractions, it’s important to build up your ability to keep your focus.

Your attention span is divided into three categories:

Sustained attention: This is your ability to focus and concentrate your thought processes over an extended period of time. You’ve likely been in a meeting or call where your mind started to wander — that was your sustained attention clocking off. But when you let distractions get the best of you, you might procrastinate , take exc essive time to complete tasks, or lose out on important information.
Selective attention : When various stimuli battle for your attention, your selective attention helps you suppress distractions and stay on task. Giving into distractions pushes your workflow off course and disrupts your productivity.
Divided attention : When you’re working on a project, you often have constructive feedback from your manager, requests from your client, and the scope of work to consider. Your divided attention allows you to take in all this information and find the right path forward. Without it, you might become overwhelmed and struggle to chart a course of action.

woman-listening-to-her-client-talking-at-work-event-cognitive-skill-examples

Memory skills

At work, building your memory helps ensure that information doesn't go in one ear and out the other. These are the two types of memories to polish:

Working memory : Sometimes referred to as your short-term memory, working memory allows you to hold on to information while you use it. Imagine a virtual onboarding with a new project management app: your working memory allows you to process instructions as you work through the platform. Weak working memory can cost you time. You might re-read directions, forget what someone just told you, or have difficulty following step-by-step instructions.
Long-term memory : Long-term memories are the procedures, facts, and experiences you use to interact with your environment and learn new skills . Your long-term memory guides your professional development as you build upon your knowledge and expertise. Without a sharp long-term memory, you may struggle to fine-tune important technical skills or build relationships impo rtant to your career.

Information processing skills

Pings on your phone, numbers on a chart, and the inflection of a coworker's voice all signal different messages. Here are three ways your brain processes information:

Auditory processing: Noise is identified, analyzed, and separated by your auditory processing abilities. Auditory processing disorder is a common cognitive disorder that impacts your ability to listen to speech with background noise, follow spoken instructions, or learn new languages.
Visual processing: This is your ability to perceive, analyze, and synthesize visual patterns — as well as form visual imagery and memory. It’s not uncommon to struggle with visual pro cessing, which can make pattern recognition in math and written instructions difficult. Fortunately, this can often be improved with a vision therapist .
Processing speed: This is the time required to respond to and process information from your environment. Low processing speeds can cause you to take longer to complete tasks — especially under pressure — which throws off your efficiency and workflow.

two-friends-reading-notebook-with-highlighted-text-cognitive-skill-examples

What are examples of cognitive skills at work?

Ready to level up your performance? Here are nine examples of cognitive skills to work on to strengthen your professional development:

1. Logic and reasoning

The ability to draw specific conclusions based on varied facts or data is your deductive reasoning. Even mundane tasks, like organizing your calendar, require strong logic and problem-solving skills. Deductive reasoning also helps you gauge importance, estimate work times, and set realistic goals. Without these logical thinking skills, you would struggle to work productively.

2. Language

Language is divided into four skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Every person is different — you may be an excellent writer but struggle with verbally expressing your ideas. However, clearly communicating your ideas is valuable in just about any role. Strong language skills can help you overcome miscommunications, resolve conflict, and encourage teamwork.

3. Critical thinking

Critical thinking is a union of several soft skills , including attention to detail, intellectual curiosity , and open-mindedness. These traits are integral to problem-solving because they help you work through biases and arrive at independent, out-of-the-box solutions . That’s likely why critical thinking is considered one of the most durable skills in the workplace .

4. Planning

Your day-to-day is full of short-term tasks and long-term objectives. Without proper planning, you could become disorganized or miss important deadlines. Planning requires logic and memory recall — these skills allow you to estimate a task's relevance and how long it should take to complete. Learning to organize and prioritize your tasks empowers you to be efficient, responsible, and proactive.

work-team-looking-at-manager-presenting-project-at-meeting-cognitive-skill-examples

5. Quantitative skills

An understanding of statistics and math helps you turn ideas into data and eliminate emotional biases from important decisions. Data analysis is an increasingly important hard skill to have on your resume .

And as artificial intelligence and big data can contribute to businesses project growth and calculate risk, learning quantitative tools might help you stay competitive in the job market. Similarly, if you’re a freelancer building a personal brand , being able to read analytics allows you to engage wider audiences and find opportunities in your market.

6. Networking

Making the right first impression is a science. It requires you to pay attention to social cues and process several visual and auditory stimuli from the person you’re networking with. Practicing active listening trains your brain to sustain its focus and pick up on information that will lead to positive and productive professional interactions.

In the digital age, we work with more emails, project management tools, and messenger apps than ever before. While you don’t have to aspire to be a copywriting master, learning to organize your thoughts and contextualize them for your readers can reduce miscommunications. And when someone understands a message immediately, it saves you and your colleagues time that you can dedicate to more important tasks.

8. Reading comprehension

Reading requires you to connect ideas, sustain your focus, and recall past experiences or know-how to de-code information. Similar to writing, analyzing and contextualizing information can help you avoid misunderstandings and improve your productivity. Reading comprehension is important in any job, particularly remote jobs that depend heavily on written communication.

man-reading-while-listening-to-music-on-headphones-cognitive-skill-examples

9. Collaboration

While collaboration may sound more like a social skill than a cognitive function, efficient teamwork requires abstract thinking. These skills help you break a project down into different tasks, leverage everyone’s strengths, and keep on top of all your team members’ deliverables.

Inspired to level up your cognitive capacities? Here are four ways to take care of your brain:

1. Stay healthy

Your physical and mental health are intimately connected to one another. Besides working up a sweat, physical exercise builds new neurons and stimulates memory by increasing blood flow to the brain.

Consider developing a routine to get your 150 minutes of recommended weekly exercise , like an after work swim, joining a jogging club, or hiring a personal trainer. Similarly, a firm sleep schedule , staying hydrated , and good nutrition are complimentary habits that contribute to better brain health.

2. Practice focusing

Repetition leads to success, which also applies to strengthening your focus. Methods like the Pomodoro Technique and concentration-based apps are great ways to build self-awareness and discover how you can stay on track.

Learning task management methods (like the Eisenhower Matrix) , adopting work productivity tools, or occasional digital detoxes are more ways to prioritize your focus. Find what works for you and practice until it becomes a habit. This prolonged ability to concentrate will strengthen your overall cognitive abilities.

3. Reduce your stress

Worry activates your fight or flight response , which can cause mental fatigue and poor sleep. Acute stress or anxiety can often be improved by developing regular self-care practices, such as meditation , yoga, and deep breathing.

Chronic stress is a more serious mental health risk with serious implications on your short term wellness and long-term cognitive health. Mental health professionals can help you identify the root cause of your stress and provide you with the tools and resources to ease your mind.

4. Train your brain

Your brain is like any other muscle in your body — to keep it in peak condition, you need to work it out. Incorporate some mental activities into your free time , such as reading before bed, playing chess on your lunch break, or following a serial podcast during your daily commute. You ca n also try memory or reasoning games to sharpen your cognitive skills in fun and practical ways. Even two minutes a day dedicated to self-improvement can grow your skills.

Your brain is working even when you aren’t. But even though many of your cognitive skills are firing off in the background, you can still work to actively sharpen your abilities.

The next time you’re tackling a new task, pay close attention to your focus. How easily do you succumb to distractions? Do you respond better to visual or auditory learning? Once you understand your strengths and acknowledge your weaknesses, you can incorporate techniques to improve.

Eventually, you won’t have to focus so much on focusing. And the next time your coworker comes at you with a curveball, you’ll have the resources and know-how to take the change in stride.

Transform your life

Make meaningful changes and become the best version of yourself. BetterUp's professional Coaches are here to support your personal growth journey.

Elizabeth Perry, ACC

Elizabeth Perry is a Coach Community Manager at BetterUp. She uses strategic engagement strategies to cultivate a learning community across a global network of Coaches through in-person and virtual experiences, technology-enabled platforms, and strategic coaching industry partnerships. With over 3 years of coaching experience and a certification in transformative leadership and life coaching from Sofia University, Elizabeth leverages transpersonal psychology expertise to help coaches and clients gain awareness of their behavioral and thought patterns, discover their purpose and passions, and elevate their potential. She is a lifelong student of psychology, personal growth, and human potential as well as an ICF-certified ACC transpersonal life and leadership Coach.

Improve these 12 parenting skills and watch your kids thrive

Discover the 7 essential types of life skills you need, why self-management is key to success and how to improve yours, how to organize your life (and keep it that way), developing emotional intelligence skills for lasting success, 8 social skills examples: how socializing can take you to the top, find out what the data reveal about the 6 key skills for managing stress, using mindfulness skills to improve your daily life, how to improve adaptability skills, similar articles, multitasking isn't working: a science-backed approach to a better day, sound on, distractions off: how to use music to concentrate, eq versus iq: which should you leverage when, what are analytical skills examples and how to level up, how executive functioning governs daily life activities, top-down processing & how to avoid self-limiting behavior, squirrel how to increase attention span so you get stuff done, all about the 3 types of memory and how they form, what are metacognitive skills examples in everyday life, stay connected with betterup, get our newsletter, event invites, plus product insights and research..

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Functional Cognition and OT: Our Time to Shine

One of things I love most about being an occupational therapist is the huge diversity in our scope of practice . Bridging the gap between physical therapy and speech pathology, occupational therapy practitioners truly get the best of both worlds. We are able to dip our hands into orthopedic conditions as well as cognitive impairments (via neuro rehab).

While we typically consider speech therapists the cognitive and language experts, occupational therapists do play a big part in cognitive therapy. Functional cognition relates to the cognitive skills required to complete those meaningful daily activities that we all know so well.

So What Do These Self-Care Tasks Include?

For OTs, these instrumental ADLs (or IADLs) include tasks such as online shopping or planning a weekly menu and grocery list. Treatment for functional cognition is truly a place for OTs to let our creativity shine. You probably have endless books with cognitive worksheets for patients to complete. But I would suggest ditching those for a bit, and bring it all back to our roots (aka: function ).

Think outside the box – I bet you can create some awesome activities or “worksheets” that are much more realistic and applicable to everyday life.

Everyday tasks don’t require just one cognitive component. We use memory, attention, problem solving, etc., cohesively to complete necessary tasks. So let’s think about the wide assortment of tasks we complete every day as adults.

Of course, some of these tasks will vary depending on the age range of your patients. Patients who are still working or have children will have different responsibilities, and thus a different set of IADLs, than those who are retired or are living in independent living/assisted living communities.

OTs are typically most attuned to two cognitively-related IADLs: paying bills and medication management. But adults obviously have so many more responsibilities, so why does our toolbox stop there?

As a parent, I can think about what I am responsible for and use that as a basis for forming challenging tasks for my patients.

Make a weekly meal plan and coordinated grocery list
Schedule my son’s before and after school sessions
Make doctor’s appointments and write them on our family calendar
Write checks to daycare
Pay lunch money online
Plan out a gift list for Christmas
Manage the spending for each of my kids and nieces or nephews
Figure out how long it will take me to get to various stores or offices using my phone map
Plan vacations and date nights

The list goes on! We are all responsible for so many daily tasks.. And so are our patients. So get out there and find out what they personally need to do to help them live life to their fullest potential.

Functional Cognition and Mealtime

Planning a weekly meal schedule is such a common and necessary task, and one that can change each week since we typically don’t eat the same things over and over!

Have your patient write out a week’s worth of basic dinners, and under each item include the required ingredients. They can use that list as their shopping list, or combine ingredients if the meals match up well.

occupational-therapy-functional-cognition1

Prior to shopping for ingredients, have them look through a local grocery store’s ads to find items on sale that might correspond to their list. Did they choose ordering pizza one night? Locate the pizza restaurant of their choice on their phone and identify what they want to order.

If you are working with someone experiencing aphasia or even processing difficulties, consider simulating a call to the restaurant with you providing the prompts for ordering delivery, which includes asking for their phone number, what they would like to order, how they will pay, and their address.

Scheduling and Timing Appointments

We probably all have used calendar tasks with patients, having them organize a series of events onto specific calendar dates. But simply writing appointments down on a calendar does not cover the entire task requirement. We can work on functional math when determining when to leave home for appointments depending on how early we need to be there.

For example, if you made a doctor appointment for 1:15 pm and the office is 15 minutes away from your house, how early should you leave to arrive 10 minutes early? Rather than simply work on writing a patient’s name, address, and phone number correctly on a blank piece of paper, simulate this requirement in a real-life situation – have them fill out a doctor office new patient form.

Money Management

Managing money does not have to end at paying bills and balancing your checking accounts. As shopping online is so prevalent these days, it is a necessary addition to your intervention activities. Start with a designated task, such as planning a birthday party.

Involve all aspects of organizing the party, writing down whom to invite, food/snacks to be served, supplies needed, etc. Use the list to shop for supplies online and find a bakery that is close to their house (using their phone’s Map app) so that they can order a cake. Search for supplies on Amazon and write down the cost of each item.

Downgrade the task by providing a pre-fabricated list of supplies (rather than having them independently create one), and direct them to choose items that are most appropriate and required for a birthday party. Simulate a call to the bakery and take their cake order.

Have them calculate the total cost of the birthday party supplies and food (or separate these depending on how you grade the task).

occupational-therapy-functional-cognition2

You can use the same method for any entertainment activity and create varying challenges: going to the movies, planning a day out with a child or grandchild, or creating an estimated budget for a Christmas gift list.

Creating Your Own Scenarios

I seem to be making a case for task-specific simulation in intervention. We do this constantly with ADL practice, so why not up the ante on how we address functional cognition and use the same practice? With some spare time you can create your own scenarios, and you may enjoy doing it!

The University of Utah’s College of Health has a great resource for OT therapeutic activities that includes online bill paying (including utilities and credit cards) as well as a new online shopping activity – check this out to get you started.

Otherwise, have fun! Enjoy flexing your creative muscles and coming up with a product you can be proud of.

How do you like to incorporate functional cognition in your OT interventions? Please share your favorite functional cognition intervention tips and ideas in the comments below.

And for even more about working in neuro occupational therapy in general, you can also check out Renee’s Day in the Life as an Outpatient Neuro Occupational Therapist here .

This post was originally published on April 6, 2020 and last updated on February 26, 2024.

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Child cognitive development is a fascinating and complex process that entails the growth of a child’s mental abilities, including their ability to think, learn, and solve problems. This development occurs through a series of stages that can vary among individuals. As children progress through these stages, their cognitive abilities and skills are continuously shaped by a myriad of factors such as genetics, environment, and experiences. Understanding the nuances of child cognitive development is essential for parents, educators, and professionals alike, as it provides valuable insight into supporting the growth of the child’s intellect and overall well-being.

Throughout the developmental process, language and communication play a vital role in fostering a child’s cognitive abilities . As children acquire language skills, they also develop their capacity for abstract thought, reasoning, and problem-solving. It is crucial for parents and caregivers to be mindful of potential developmental delays, as early intervention can greatly benefit the child’s cognitive development. By providing stimulating environments, nurturing relationships, and embracing diverse learning opportunities, adults can actively foster healthy cognitive development in children.

Key Takeaways

Child cognitive development involves the growth of mental abilities and occurs through various stages.
Language and communication are significant factors in cognitive development , shaping a child’s ability for abstract thought and problem-solving.
Early intervention and supportive environments can play a crucial role in fostering healthy cognitive development in children.

Child Cognitive Development Stages

Child cognitive development is a crucial aspect of a child’s growth and involves the progression of their thinking, learning, and problem-solving abilities. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget developed a widely recognized theory that identifies four major stages of cognitive development in children.

Sensorimotor Stage

The Sensorimotor Stage occurs from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, infants and newborns learn to coordinate their senses (sight, sound, touch, etc.) with their motor abilities. Their understanding of the world begins to develop through their physical interactions and experiences. Some key milestones in this stage include object permanence, which is the understanding that an object still exists even when it’s not visible, and the development of intentional actions.

Preoperational Stage

The Preoperational Stage takes place between the ages of 2 and 7 years old. In this stage, children start to think symbolically, and their language capabilities rapidly expand. They also develop the ability to use mental images, words, and gestures to represent the world around them. However, their thinking is largely egocentric, which means they struggle to see things from other people’s perspectives. During this stage, children start to engage in pretend play and begin to grasp the concept of conservation, recognizing that certain properties of objects (such as quantity or volume) remain the same even if their appearance changes.

Concrete Operational Stage

The Concrete Operational Stage occurs between the ages of 7 and 12 years old. At this stage, children’s cognitive development progresses to more logical and organized ways of thinking. They can now consider multiple aspects of a problem and better understand the relationship between cause and effect . Furthermore, children become more adept at understanding other people’s viewpoints, and they can perform basic mathematical operations and understand the principles of classification and seriation.

Formal Operational Stage

Lastly, the Formal Operational Stage typically begins around 12 years old and extends into adulthood. In this stage, children develop the capacity for abstract thinking and can consider hypothetical situations and complex reasoning. They can also perform advanced problem-solving and engage in systematic scientific inquiry. This stage allows individuals to think about abstract concepts, their own thought processes, and understand the world in deeper, more nuanced ways.

By understanding these stages of cognitive development, you can better appreciate the complex growth process that children undergo as their cognitive abilities transform and expand throughout their childhood.

Key Factors in Cognitive Development

Genetics and brain development.

Genetics play a crucial role in determining a child’s cognitive development. A child’s brain development is heavily influenced by genetic factors, which also determine their cognitive potential , abilities, and skills. It is important to understand that a child’s genes do not solely dictate their cognitive development – various environmental and experiential factors contribute to shaping their cognitive abilities as they grow and learn.

Environmental Influences

The environment in which a child grows up has a significant impact on their cognitive development. Exposure to various experiences is essential for a child to develop essential cognitive skills such as problem-solving, communication, and critical thinking. Factors that can have a negative impact on cognitive development include exposure to toxins, extreme stress, trauma, abuse, and addiction issues, such as alcoholism in the family.

Nutrition and Health

Maintaining good nutrition and health is vital for a child’s cognitive development. Adequate nutrition is essential for the proper growth and functioning of the brain . Key micronutrients that contribute to cognitive development include iron, zinc, and vitamins A, C, D, and B-complex vitamins. Additionally, a child’s overall health, including physical fitness and immunity, ensures they have the energy and resources to engage in learning activities and achieve cognitive milestones effectively .

Emotional and Social Factors

Emotional well-being and social relationships can also greatly impact a child’s cognitive development. A supportive, nurturing, and emotionally healthy environment allows children to focus on learning and building cognitive skills. Children’s emotions and stress levels can impact their ability to learn and process new information. Additionally, positive social interactions help children develop important cognitive skills such as empathy, communication, and collaboration.

In summary, cognitive development in children is influenced by various factors, including genetics, environmental influences, nutrition, health, and emotional and social factors. Considering these factors can help parents, educators, and policymakers create suitable environments and interventions for promoting optimal child development.

Language and Communication Development

Language skills and milestones.

Children’s language development is a crucial aspect of their cognitive growth. They begin to acquire language skills by listening and imitating sounds they hear from their environment. As they grow, they start to understand words and form simple sentences.

Infants (0-12 months): Babbling, cooing, and imitating sounds are common during this stage. They can also identify their name by the end of their first year. Facial expressions play a vital role during this period, as babies learn to respond to emotions.
Toddlers (1-3 years): They rapidly learn new words and form simple sentences. They engage more in spoken communication, constantly exploring their language environment.
Preschoolers (3-5 years): Children expand their vocabulary, improve grammar, and begin participating in more complex conversations.

It’s essential to monitor children’s language development and inform their pediatrician if any delays or concerns arise.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication contributes significantly to children’s cognitive development. They learn to interpret body language, facial expressions, and gestures long before they can speak. Examples of nonverbal communication in children include:

Eye contact: Maintaining eye contact while interacting helps children understand emotions and enhances communication.
Gestures: Pointing, waving goodbye, or using hand signs provide alternative ways for children to communicate their needs and feelings.
Body language: Posture, body orientation, and movement give clues about a child’s emotions and intentions.

Teaching children to understand and use nonverbal communication supports their cognitive and social development.

Parent and Caregiver Interaction

Supportive interaction from parents and caregivers plays a crucial role in children’s language and communication development. These interactions can improve children’s language skills and overall cognitive abilities . Some ways parents and caregivers can foster language development are:

Reading together: From an early age, reading books to children enhance their vocabulary and listening skills.
Encouraging communication: Ask open-ended questions and engage them in conversations to build their speaking skills.
Using rich vocabulary: Expose children to a variety of words and phrases, promoting language growth and understanding.

By actively engaging in children’s language and communication development, parents and caregivers can nurture cognitive, emotional, and social growth.

Cognitive Abilities and Skills

Cognitive abilities are the mental skills that children develop as they grow. These skills are essential for learning, adapting, and thriving in modern society. In this section, we will discuss various aspects of cognitive development, including reasoning and problem-solving, attention and memory, decision-making and executive function, as well as academic and cognitive milestones.

Reasoning and Problem Solving

Reasoning is the ability to think logically and make sense of the world around us. It’s essential for a child’s cognitive development, as it enables them to understand the concept of object permanence , recognize patterns, and classify objects. Problem-solving skills involve using these reasoning abilities to find solutions to challenges they encounter in daily life .

Children develop essential skills like:

Logical reasoning : The ability to deduce conclusions from available information.
Perception: Understanding how objects relate to one another in their environment.
Schemes: Organizing thoughts and experiences into mental categories.

Attention and Memory

Attention refers to a child’s ability to focus on specific tasks, objects, or information, while memory involves retaining and recalling information. These cognitive abilities play a critical role in children’s learning and academic performance . Working memory is a vital component of learning, as it allows children to hold and manipulate information in their minds while solving problems and engaging with new tasks.

Attention: Focuses on relevant tasks and information while ignoring distractions.
Memory: Retains and retrieves information when needed.

Decision-Making and Executive Function

Decision-making is the process of making choices among various alternatives, while executive function refers to the higher-order cognitive processes that enable children to plan, organize, and adapt in complex situations. Executive function encompasses components such as:

Inhibition: Self-control and the ability to resist impulses.
Cognitive flexibility: Adapting to new information or changing circumstances.
Planning: Setting goals and devising strategies to achieve them.

Academic and Cognitive Milestones

Children’s cognitive development is closely linked to their academic achievement. As they grow, they achieve milestones in various cognitive domains that form the foundation for their future learning. Some of these milestones include:

Language skills: Developing vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure.
Reading and mathematics: Acquiring the ability to read and comprehend text, as well as understanding basic mathematical concepts and operations.
Scientific thinking: Developing an understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and forming hypotheses.

Healthy cognitive development is essential for a child’s success in school and life. By understanding and supporting the development of their cognitive abilities, we can help children unlock their full potential and prepare them for a lifetime of learning and growth.

Developmental Delays and Early Intervention

Identifying developmental delays.

Developmental delays in children can be identified by monitoring their progress in reaching cognitive, linguistic, physical, and social milestones. Parents and caregivers should be aware of developmental milestones that are generally expected to be achieved by children at different ages, such as 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, 9 months, 18 months, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, and 5 years. Utilizing resources such as the “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” program can help parents and caregivers recognize signs of delay early in a child’s life.

Resources and Support for Parents

There are numerous resources available for parents and caregivers to find information on developmental milestones and to learn about potential developmental delays, including:

Learn the Signs. Act Early : A CDC initiative that provides pdf checklists of milestones and resources for identifying delays.
Parental support groups : Local and online communities dedicated to providing resources and fostering connections between families experiencing similar challenges.

Professional Evaluations and Intervention Strategies

If parents or caregivers suspect a developmental delay, it is crucial to consult with healthcare professionals or specialists who can conduct validated assessments of the child’s cognitive and developmental abilities. Early intervention strategies, such as the ones used in broad-based early intervention programs , have shown significant positive impacts on children with developmental delays to improve cognitive development and outcomes.

Professional evaluations may include:

Pediatricians : Primary healthcare providers who can monitor a child’s development and recommend further assessments when needed.
Speech and language therapists : Professionals who assist children with language and communication deficits.
Occupational therapists : Experts in helping children develop or improve on physical and motor skills, as well as social and cognitive abilities.

Depending on the severity and nature of the delays, interventions may involve:

Individualized support : Tailored programs or therapy sessions specifically developed for the child’s needs.
Group sessions : Opportunities for children to learn from and interact with other children experiencing similar challenges.
Family involvement : Parents and caregivers learning support strategies to help the child in their daily life.

Fostering Healthy Cognitive Development

Play and learning opportunities.

Encouraging play is crucial for fostering healthy cognitive development in children . Provide a variety of age-appropriate games, puzzles, and creative activities that engage their senses and stimulate curiosity. For example, introduce building blocks and math games for problem-solving skills, and crossword puzzles to improve vocabulary and reasoning abilities.

Playing with others also helps children develop social skills and better understand facial expressions and emotions. Provide opportunities for cooperative play, where kids can work together to achieve a common goal, and open-ended play with no specific rules to boost creativity.

Supportive Home Environment

A nurturing and secure home environment encourages healthy cognitive growth. Be responsive to your child’s needs and interests, involving them in everyday activities and providing positive reinforcement. Pay attention to their emotional well-being and create a space where they feel safe to ask questions and explore their surroundings.

Promoting Independence and Decision-Making

Support independence by allowing children to make decisions about their playtime, activities, and daily routines. Encourage them to take age-appropriate responsibilities and make choices that contribute to self-confidence and autonomy. Model problem-solving strategies and give them opportunities to practice these skills during play, while also guiding them when necessary.

Healthy Lifestyle Habits

Promote a well-rounded lifestyle, including:

Sleep : Ensure children get adequate and quality sleep by establishing a consistent bedtime routine.
Hydration : Teach the importance of staying hydrated by offering water frequently, especially during play and physical activities.
Screen time : Limit exposure to electronic devices and promote alternative activities for toddlers and older kids.
Physical activity : Encourage children to engage in active play and exercise to support neural development and overall health .

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the key stages of child cognitive development.

Child cognitive development can be divided into several key stages based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development . These stages include the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), preoperational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage (7-11 years), and formal operational stage (11 years and beyond). Every stage represents a unique period of cognitive growth, marked by the development of new skills, thought processes, and understanding of the world.

What factors influence cognitive development in children?

Several factors contribute to individual differences in child cognitive development, such as genetic and environmental factors. Socioeconomic status, access to quality education, early home environment, and parental involvement all play a significant role in determining cognitive growth. In addition, children’s exposure to diverse learning experiences, adequate nutrition, and mental health also influence overall cognitive performance .

How do cognitive skills vary during early childhood?

Cognitive skills in early childhood evolve as children progress through various stages . During the sensorimotor stage, infants develop fundamental skills such as object permanence. The preoperational stage is characterized by the development of symbolic thought, language, and imaginative play. Children then enter the concrete operational stage, acquiring the ability to think logically and solve problems. Finally, in the formal operational stage, children develop abstract reasoning abilities, complex problem-solving skills and metacognitive awareness.

What are common examples of cognitive development?

Examples of cognitive development include the acquisition of language and vocabulary, the development of problem-solving skills, and the ability to engage in logical reasoning. Additionally, memory, attention, and spatial awareness are essential aspects of cognitive development. Children may demonstrate these skills through activities like puzzle-solving, reading, and mathematics.

How do cognitive development theories explain children’s learning?

Piaget’s cognitive development theory suggests that children learn through active exploration, constructing knowledge based on their experiences and interactions with the world. In contrast, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning. Both theories imply that cognitive development is a dynamic and evolving process, influenced by various environmental and psychological factors.

Why is it essential to support cognitive development in early childhood?

Supporting cognitive development in early childhood is critical because it lays a strong foundation for future academic achievement, social-emotional development, and lifelong learning. By providing children with diverse and enriching experiences, caregivers and educators can optimize cognitive growth and prepare children to face the challenges of today’s complex world. Fostering cognitive development early on helps children develop resilience, adaptability, and critical thinking skills essential for personal and professional success.

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COMMENTS

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Here are nine examples of cognitive skills to work on to strengthen your professional development: 1. Logic and reasoning . The ability to draw specific conclusions based on varied facts or data is your deductive reasoning. Even mundane tasks, like organizing your calendar, require strong logic and problem-solving skills.
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Activities. This guidebook provides simple cognitive activities that can be done in a home setting at little to no cost and without professional expertise. Activities are ranked by their level of difficulty, with higher level activities harder to do than lower level activities.
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Practicing tasks that address goals need to be conducted every day for positive outcomes. Patients performing home programs each day — allow for daily work toward goals. _____ Instructions: Caregivers should encourage one of these activities a day in order to encourage daily cognitive stimulation. Please try a different task each day. 1.
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The list of exercises compiled here ranges from simple cognitive activities to more advanced tasks to allow those with various cognitive skill levels to find an appropriately challenging activity. ... problem solving, and reasoning, among other skills. Furthermore, many apps can optimize the difficulty level of exercises, providing a just-right ...
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