case description in case study

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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• Roberta Heale 1 ,
• Alison Twycross 2
• 1 School of Nursing , Laurentian University , Sudbury , Ontario , Canada
• 2 School of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Roberta Heale, School of Nursing, Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON P3E2C6, Canada; rheale{at}laurentian.ca

https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102845

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What is it?

Case study is a research methodology, typically seen in social and life sciences. There is no one definition of case study research. 1 However, very simply… ‘a case study can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit, which is aimed to generalize over several units’. 1 A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several variables. 2

Often there are several similar cases to consider such as educational or social service programmes that are delivered from a number of locations. Although similar, they are complex and have unique features. In these circumstances, the evaluation of several, similar cases will provide a better answer to a research question than if only one case is examined, hence the multiple-case study. Stake asserts that the cases are grouped and viewed as one entity, called the quintain . 6  ‘We study what is similar and different about the cases to understand the quintain better’. 6

The steps when using case study methodology are the same as for other types of research. 6 The first step is defining the single case or identifying a group of similar cases that can then be incorporated into a multiple-case study. A search to determine what is known about the case(s) is typically conducted. This may include a review of the literature, grey literature, media, reports and more, which serves to establish a basic understanding of the cases and informs the development of research questions. Data in case studies are often, but not exclusively, qualitative in nature. In multiple-case studies, analysis within cases and across cases is conducted. Themes arise from the analyses and assertions about the cases as a whole, or the quintain, emerge. 6

Benefits and limitations of case studies

If a researcher wants to study a specific phenomenon arising from a particular entity, then a single-case study is warranted and will allow for a in-depth understanding of the single phenomenon and, as discussed above, would involve collecting several different types of data. This is illustrated in example 1 below.

Using a multiple-case research study allows for a more in-depth understanding of the cases as a unit, through comparison of similarities and differences of the individual cases embedded within the quintain. Evidence arising from multiple-case studies is often stronger and more reliable than from single-case research. Multiple-case studies allow for more comprehensive exploration of research questions and theory development. 6

Despite the advantages of case studies, there are limitations. The sheer volume of data is difficult to organise and data analysis and integration strategies need to be carefully thought through. There is also sometimes a temptation to veer away from the research focus. 2 Reporting of findings from multiple-case research studies is also challenging at times, 1 particularly in relation to the word limits for some journal papers.

Examples of case studies

Example 1: nurses’ paediatric pain management practices.

One of the authors of this paper (AT) has used a case study approach to explore nurses’ paediatric pain management practices. This involved collecting several datasets:

Observational data to gain a picture about actual pain management practices.

Questionnaire data about nurses’ knowledge about paediatric pain management practices and how well they felt they managed pain in children.

Questionnaire data about how critical nurses perceived pain management tasks to be.

These datasets were analysed separately and then compared 7–9 and demonstrated that nurses’ level of theoretical did not impact on the quality of their pain management practices. 7 Nor did individual nurse’s perceptions of how critical a task was effect the likelihood of them carrying out this task in practice. 8 There was also a difference in self-reported and observed practices 9 ; actual (observed) practices did not confirm to best practice guidelines, whereas self-reported practices tended to.

Example 2: quality of care for complex patients at Nurse Practitioner-Led Clinics (NPLCs)

The other author of this paper (RH) has conducted a multiple-case study to determine the quality of care for patients with complex clinical presentations in NPLCs in Ontario, Canada. 10 Five NPLCs served as individual cases that, together, represented the quatrain. Three types of data were collected including:

Review of documentation related to the NPLC model (media, annual reports, research articles, grey literature and regulatory legislation).

Interviews with nurse practitioners (NPs) practising at the five NPLCs to determine their perceptions of the impact of the NPLC model on the quality of care provided to patients with multimorbidity.

Chart audits conducted at the five NPLCs to determine the extent to which evidence-based guidelines were followed for patients with diabetes and at least one other chronic condition.

The three sources of data collected from the five NPLCs were analysed and themes arose related to the quality of care for complex patients at NPLCs. The multiple-case study confirmed that nurse practitioners are the primary care providers at the NPLCs, and this positively impacts the quality of care for patients with multimorbidity. Healthcare policy, such as lack of an increase in salary for NPs for 10 years, has resulted in issues in recruitment and retention of NPs at NPLCs. This, along with insufficient resources in the communities where NPLCs are located and high patient vulnerability at NPLCs, have a negative impact on the quality of care. 10

These examples illustrate how collecting data about a single case or multiple cases helps us to better understand the phenomenon in question. Case study methodology serves to provide a framework for evaluation and analysis of complex issues. It shines a light on the holistic nature of nursing practice and offers a perspective that informs improved patient care.

• Gustafsson J
• Calanzaro M
• Sandelowski M

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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• Victoria Stokes , foundation year 2 doctor, trauma and orthopaedics, Basildon Hospital ,
• Caroline Fertleman , paediatrics consultant, The Whittington Hospital NHS Trust
• victoria.stokes1{at}nhs.net

Victoria Stokes and Caroline Fertleman explain how to turn an interesting case or unusual presentation into an educational report

It is common practice in medicine that when we come across an interesting case with an unusual presentation or a surprise twist, we must tell the rest of the medical world. This is how we continue our lifelong learning and aid faster diagnosis and treatment for patients.

It usually falls to the junior to write up the case, so here are a few simple tips to get you started.

First steps

Begin by sitting down with your medical team to discuss the interesting aspects of the case and the learning points to highlight. Ideally, a registrar or middle grade will mentor you and give you guidance. Another junior doctor or medical student may also be keen to be involved. Allocate jobs to split the workload, set a deadline and work timeframe, and discuss the order in which the authors will be listed. All listed authors should contribute substantially, with the person doing most of the work put first and the guarantor (usually the most senior team member) at the end.

Getting consent

Gain permission and written consent to write up the case from the patient or parents, if your patient is a child, and keep a copy because you will need it later for submission to journals.

Information gathering

Gather all the information from the medical notes and the hospital’s electronic systems, including copies of blood results and imaging, as medical notes often disappear when the patient is discharged and are notoriously difficult to find again. Remember to anonymise the data according to your local hospital policy.

Write up the case emphasising the interesting points of the presentation, investigations leading to diagnosis, and management of the disease/pathology. Get input on the case from all members of the team, highlighting their involvement. Also include the prognosis of the patient, if known, as the reader will want to know the outcome.

Coming up with a title

Discuss a title with your supervisor and other members of the team, as this provides the focus for your article. The title should be concise and interesting but should also enable people to find it in medical literature search engines. Also think about how you will present your case study—for example, a poster presentation or scientific paper—and consider potential journals or conferences, as you may need to write in a particular style or format.

Background research

Research the disease/pathology that is the focus of your article and write a background paragraph or two, highlighting the relevance of your case report in relation to this. If you are struggling, seek the opinion of a specialist who may know of relevant articles or texts. Another good resource is your hospital library, where staff are often more than happy to help with literature searches.

How your case is different

Move on to explore how the case presented differently to the admitting team. Alternatively, if your report is focused on management, explore the difficulties the team came across and alternative options for treatment.

Finish by explaining why your case report adds to the medical literature and highlight any learning points.

Writing an abstract

The abstract should be no longer than 100-200 words and should highlight all your key points concisely. This can be harder than writing the full article and needs special care as it will be used to judge whether your case is accepted for presentation or publication.

Discuss with your supervisor or team about options for presenting or publishing your case report. At the very least, you should present your article locally within a departmental or team meeting or at a hospital grand round. Well done!

Competing interests: We have read and understood BMJ’s policy on declaration of interests and declare that we have no competing interests.

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Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Many writers find themselves grappling with the challenge of crafting persuasive and engaging case studies. 

The process can be overwhelming, leaving them unsure where to begin or how to structure their study effectively. And, without a clear plan, it's tough to show the value and impact in a convincing way.

But don’t worry!

In this blog, we'll guide you through a systematic process, offering step-by-step instructions on crafting a compelling case study. 

Along the way, we'll share valuable tips and illustrative examples to enhance your understanding. So, let’s get started.

• 1. What is a Case Study? 
• 2. Types of Case Studies
• 3. How To Write a Case Study - 9 Steps
• 4. Case Study Methods
• 5. Case Study Format
• 6. Case Study Examples
• 7. Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies

What is a Case Study? 

A case study is a detailed analysis and examination of a particular subject, situation, or phenomenon. It involves comprehensive research to gain a deep understanding of the context and variables involved. 

Typically used in academic, business, and marketing settings, case studies aim to explore real-life scenarios, providing insights into challenges, solutions, and outcomes. They serve as valuable tools for learning, decision-making, and showcasing success stories.

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Types of Case Studies

Case studies come in various forms, each tailored to address specific objectives and areas of interest. Here are some of the main types of case studies :

• Illustrative Case Studies: These focus on describing a particular situation or event, providing a detailed account to enhance understanding.
• Exploratory Case Studies: Aimed at investigating an issue and generating initial insights, these studies are particularly useful when exploring new or complex topics.
• Explanatory Case Studies: These delve into the cause-and-effect relationships within a given scenario, aiming to explain why certain outcomes occurred.
• Intrinsic Case Studies: Concentrating on a specific case that holds intrinsic value, these studies explore the unique qualities of the subject itself.
• Instrumental Case Studies: These are conducted to understand a broader issue and use the specific case as a means to gain insights into the larger context.
• Collective Case Studies: Involving the study of multiple cases, this type allows for comparisons and contrasts, offering a more comprehensive view of a phenomenon or problem.

How To Write a Case Study - 9 Steps

Crafting an effective case study involves a structured approach to ensure clarity, engagement, and relevance. 

Here's a step-by-step guide on how to write a compelling case study:

Step 1: Define Your Objective

Before diving into the writing process, clearly define the purpose of your case study. Identify the key questions you want to answer and the specific goals you aim to achieve. 

Whether it's to showcase a successful project, analyze a problem, or demonstrate the effectiveness of a solution, a well-defined objective sets the foundation for a focused and impactful case study.

Step 2: Conduct Thorough Research

Gather all relevant information and data related to your chosen case. This may include interviews, surveys, documentation, and statistical data. 

Ensure that your research is comprehensive, covering all aspects of the case to provide a well-rounded and accurate portrayal. 

The more thorough your research, the stronger your case study's foundation will be.

Step 3: Introduction: Set the Stage

Begin your case study with a compelling introduction that grabs the reader's attention. Clearly state the subject and the primary issue or challenge faced. 

Engage your audience by setting the stage for the narrative, creating intrigue, and highlighting the significance of the case.

Step 4: Present the Background Information

Provide context by presenting the background information of the case. Explore relevant history, industry trends, and any other factors that contribute to a deeper understanding of the situation. 

This section sets the stage for readers, allowing them to comprehend the broader context before delving into the specifics of the case.

Step 5: Outline the Challenges Faced

Identify and articulate the challenges or problems encountered in the case. Clearly define the obstacles that needed to be overcome, emphasizing their significance. 

This section sets the stakes for your audience and prepares them for the subsequent exploration of solutions.

Step 6: Detail the Solutions Implemented

Describe the strategies, actions, or solutions applied to address the challenges outlined. Be specific about the decision-making process, the rationale behind the chosen solutions, and any alternatives considered. 

This part of the case study demonstrates problem-solving skills and showcases the effectiveness of the implemented measures.

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Step 7: Showcase Measurable Results

Present tangible outcomes and results achieved as a direct consequence of the implemented solutions. Use data, metrics, and success stories to quantify the impact. 

Whether it's increased revenue, improved efficiency, or positive customer feedback, measurable results add credibility and validation to your case study.

Step 8: Include Engaging Visuals

Enhance the readability and visual appeal of your case study by incorporating relevant visuals such as charts, graphs, images, and infographics. 

Visual elements not only break up the text but also provide a clearer representation of data and key points, making your case study more engaging and accessible.

Step 9: Provide a Compelling Conclusion

Wrap up your case study with a strong and conclusive summary. Revisit the initial objectives, recap key findings, and emphasize the overall success or significance of the case. 

This section should leave a lasting impression on your readers, reinforcing the value of the presented information.

Case Study Methods

The methods employed in case study writing are diverse and flexible, catering to the unique characteristics of each case. Here are common methods used in case study writing:

Conducting one-on-one or group interviews with individuals involved in the case to gather firsthand information, perspectives, and insights.

• Observation

Directly observing the subject or situation to collect data on behaviors, interactions, and contextual details.

• Document Analysis

Examining existing documents, records, reports, and other written materials relevant to the case to gather information and insights.

• Surveys and Questionnaires

Distributing structured surveys or questionnaires to relevant stakeholders to collect quantitative data on specific aspects of the case.

• Participant Observation

Combining direct observation with active participation in the activities or events related to the case to gain an insider's perspective.

• Triangulation

Using multiple methods (e.g., interviews, observation, and document analysis) to cross-verify and validate the findings, enhancing the study's reliability.

• Ethnography

Immersing the researcher in the subject's environment over an extended period, focusing on understanding the cultural context and social dynamics.

Case Study Format

Effectively presenting your case study is as crucial as the content itself. Follow these formatting guidelines to ensure clarity and engagement:

• Opt for fonts that are easy to read, such as Arial, Calibri, or Times New Roman.
• Maintain a consistent font size, typically 12 points for the body text.
• Aim for double-line spacing to maintain clarity and prevent overwhelming the reader with too much text.
• Utilize bullet points to present information in a concise and easily scannable format.
• Use numbered lists when presenting a sequence of steps or a chronological order of events.
• Bold or italicize key phrases or important terms to draw attention to critical points.
• Use underline sparingly, as it can sometimes be distracting in digital formats.
• Choose the left alignment style.
• Use hierarchy to distinguish between different levels of headings, making it easy for readers to navigate.

If you're still having trouble organizing your case study, check out this blog on case study format for helpful insights.

Case Study Examples

If you want to understand how to write a case study, examples are a fantastic way to learn. That's why we've gathered a collection of intriguing case study examples for you to review before you begin writing.

Case Study Research Example

Case Study Template

Case Study Introduction Example

Amazon Case Study Example

Business Case Study Example

APA Format Case Study Example

Psychology Case Study Example

Medical Case Study Example

UX Case Study Example

Looking for more examples? Check out our blog on case study examples for your inspiration!

Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies

Case studies are a versatile and in-depth research method, providing a nuanced understanding of complex phenomena. 

However, like any research approach, case studies come with their set of benefits and limitations. Some of them are given below:

Tips for Writing an Effective Case Study

Here are some important tips for writing a good case study:

• Clearly articulate specific, measurable research questions aligned with your objectives.
• Identify whether your case study is exploratory, explanatory, intrinsic, or instrumental.
• Choose a case that aligns with your research questions, whether it involves an individual case or a group of people through multiple case studies.
• Explore the option of conducting multiple case studies to enhance the breadth and depth of your findings.
• Present a structured format with clear sections, ensuring readability and alignment with the type of research.
• Clearly define the significance of the problem or challenge addressed in your case study, tying it back to your research questions.
• Collect and include quantitative and qualitative data to support your analysis and address the identified research questions.
• Provide sufficient detail without overwhelming your audience, ensuring a comprehensive yet concise presentation.
• Emphasize how your findings can be practically applied to real-world situations, linking back to your research objectives.
• Acknowledge and transparently address any limitations in your study, ensuring a comprehensive and unbiased approach.

To sum it up, creating a good case study involves careful thinking to share valuable insights and keep your audience interested. 

Stick to basics like having clear questions and understanding your research type. Choose the right case and keep things organized and balanced.

Remember, your case study should tackle a problem, use relevant data, and show how it can be applied in real life. Be honest about any limitations, and finish with a clear call-to-action to encourage further exploration.

However, if you are having issues understanding how to write a case study, it is best to hire MyPerfectWords.com 's Professional service.  Hiring our custom essay service will ensure that you will get the best grades on your essay without any stress of a deadline. 

So be sure to check out case study writing service online and stay up to the mark with your grades. 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the purpose of a case study.

The objective of a case study is to do intensive research on a specific matter, such as individuals or communities. It's often used for academic purposes where you want the reader to know all factors involved in your subject while also understanding the processes at play.

What are the sources of a case study?

Some common sources of a case study include:

• Archival records
• Direct observations and encounters
• Participant observation
• Facts and statistics
• Physical artifacts

What is the sample size of a case study?

A normally acceptable size of a case study is 30-50. However, the final number depends on the scope of your study and the on-ground demographic realities.

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Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

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Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Virtual coaching, self-directed learning, and the implementation of evidence-based practices: a single qualitative case study.

Elisabeth Myers , Liberty University Follow

School of Education

Doctor of Philosophy in Education (PhD)

Christine Saba

virtual coaching, self-directed learning, evidence-based practices, self-determination theory, sustained implementation

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Education | Educational Leadership

Recommended Citation

Myers, Elisabeth, "Virtual Coaching, Self-Directed Learning, and the Implementation of Evidence-Based Practices: A Single Qualitative Case Study" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5543. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5543

The purpose of this single instrumental case study was to understand how a virtual coaching program provides opportunities for self-directed learning during the implementation of evidence-based practices for adults at Navigator Coaching. The theory guiding this study was Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory as conceptualizations of self-directed learning described in the literature mirror descriptions of self-determination. The central research question was: How does a virtual coaching program provide opportunities for self-directed learning during the implementation of evidence-based practices? As a single instrumental case, the setting for this study was one virtual life-coaching program in North America. The sample of participants included 12 adults who were currently enrolled in the program for a minimum of 6 months and participated in weekly program activities. Multiple data collection methods were employed to describe and understand the case: observations, audiovisual materials, and individual interviews. Interpretational analysis and a multistep data analysis process including direct interpretation, categorical aggregation, correspondence tables, and interpretive commentaries were utilized to develop the themes and overall synthesis of the case. Opportunities for self-directed learning were provided in weekly live sessions, modules in the program library, and in the Facebook group. Program members utilized instructional opportunities to satisfy their need for autonomy, thus becoming students of self. Participation in a purposeful community that was focused on solutions provided opportunities for program members to satisfy competence and relatedness needs. Program members implemented evidence-based practices and developed skills to create weekly learning plans, which assisted them in becoming agents of their highest selves.

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Geospatial technologies for landslide monitoring: a case study of Sighetu Marmației, Romania

• Original Article
• Open access
• Published: 16 May 2024
• Volume 83 , article number  341 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Tiberiu Mihai Kalmar 1   na1 ,
• Marcel Dîrja 1   na1 ,
• Adrian Traian G. M. Rădulescu 2   na1 ,
• Petru Daniel Măran 2   na1 ,
• Gheorghe M. T. Rădulescu 2   na1 ,
• Mariya Nychvyd 3   na1 ,
• Ivan Kalynych 3   na1 ,
• Virgil Mihai G. M. Rădulescu 2   na1 ,
• Gelu Zaharia 2   na1 &
• Gelu Danku 2   na1  

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Landslides are a significant geological phenomenon with the potential for catastrophic consequences. There are numerous potential causes of landslides, including both natural and man-made ones. Their growing frequency raises alarm due to the often catastrophic consequences of these events. The monitoring of regions prone to landslides is a multifaceted undertaking that involves the use of several technologies and approaches, such as geospatial technology and modeling. The primary objective of this work is to construct a spatial analysis model for a region in north-western Romania that is susceptible to landslides. A case study was conducted to estimate the susceptibility of landslides in a monitored region located near Sighetu Marmației, Romania. To achieve this objective, a combination of several technologies and approaches were used, such as remote sensing, land surveying, aerial photogrammetry, geographic information systems, and spatial modeling. The research region underwent landslide susceptibility evaluation by processing geo-information data using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and developing a prediction model based on the MaxEnt (Maximum Entropy) approach. The research’s distinctive contribution is integrating geo-information data acquired from the hazardous site utilizing geomatics methods into a novel geo-monitoring system. The research offers valuable insights into the monitoring of landslides, adding to the current body of literature by introducing an expanded paradigm. The study’s theoretical and practical implications might be valuable for professionals, local authorities, emergency response agencies, and other parties involved in mitigating the danger of landslides.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Landslides are the most common natural catastrophes worldwide, resulting in human fatalities, damage of structures, and significant economic disruptions (Dai et al. 2002a ). Landslides are geological events that may occur naturally or as a result of human activities. They include the downward displacement of material caused by instability (Dai et al. 2002a ; Larsen 2008 ).

Most types of mass movements usually involve shallow debris that can fall quickly or slowly. If the movement is fast, it can cause serious damage, but if the movement is slow, it is possible to take steps to prevent the damage (Dai et al. 2002a ). Landslides can be triggered by prolonged and intensified rains, earthquakes or volcanoes (Larsen 2008 ). Other landslides are also aided by rock degradation and soil erosion, thus having a direct impact on slope stability (Gonzalez Ollauri and Mickovski 2017 ). The susceptibility of a given area to landslides can be determined and described based on hazard zoning (Rossi et al. 2010 ).

Reported landslides are usually understated, for various reasons (Kirschbaum et al. 2015 ; Froude and Petley 2018 ) and thus total rates are likely underreported. Infrastructure is also frequently affected, with damages exceeding a billion annually in the US alone (Dale et al. 2001 ).

The frequent occurrence of disaster phenomena is increasingly associated with the effects of climate change. Climate change is predicted to increase the rate of landslides due to more frequent and stronger storms (Dale et al. 2001 ), which historically correlate with increased landslides (Kirschbaum and Stanley 2018 ). However, the long-term implications of respective landslides, mass removal and translocation of soil, initiation of succession in the first place (Walker and Shiels 2012 ) and implications of potential future developments due to increased storm intensity/precipitation (Jakob and Lambert 2009 ) require a strong understanding of how these ecosystems respond and recover from landslides.

Numerous studies address the assessment of hazards and the monitoring of these risks (Alimohammadlou et al. 2013 ; Dai et al. 2002b ; Sim et al. 2022 ; Alcántara-Ayala and Sassa 2023 ). Still unsolved, nevertheless, is the complex problem of studying an effective monitoring system that combines a variety of approaches and technologies. As the number of disasters in the surrounding regions rises, it is necessary to step up research and promote cooperation with specialists in the impacted countries.

This study aims to provide a comprehensive system for monitoring landslides occurring on the north-western border of Romania. The system utilizes geomatics technology and does geospatial analysis to construct a prediction model using the MaxEnt approach ( https://pro.arcgis.com/en/pro-app/latest/tool-reference/spatial-statistics/how-presence-only-prediction-works.htm ).

To conduct the empirical study, a project was chosen aimed at geo-monitoring landslides in the cross-border region of Romania, focusing on the area of Sighetu Marmației municipality.

The paper first emphasizes the monitoring steps used in the project to underscore the intricacy of the research activities that resulted in the development of a comprehensive system for monitoring landslides in the cross-border region. Next, the research proceeds by doing a geospatial analysis. This involves selecting a specific location within the project for the empirical investigation and constructing a geospatial model using the MaxEnt approach.

The paper is divided into four sections (Kalmar 2023 ): “ Introduction ” section which comprises a part dedicated to theoretical frame of landslides monitoring. Next, the section dedicated to “ Materials and methods ”, by emphasizing the monitoring stages that led to the development of a comprehensive system for monitoring landslides in the cross-border region. The investigation then proceeds with a geospatial analysis and modeling exhibited in “ Conclusion ” section. The results, indicate that integrating geomatics technology and geospatial analysis techniques is the most effective strategy for enhancing landslide monitoring efficacy.

Landslide susceptibility and monitoring methods and technologies

Determining factors of landslides.

The natural causes of landslides are investigated based on the scale at which they occur in a given location (Abedin et al. 2020 ). The factors that are examined at the local level include terrain conditions and physical processes. On the other hand, the analysis at the regional level encompasses geological, geomorphological, climatic, and hydrological factors, as well as land cover. These factors contribute to the identification of derived sub-factors such as slope, terrain profile and curvature, geological composition, humidity, and depth of fragmentation. The lithology of the land and the plant cover are significant factors that contribute to the increased instability of the slopes. Large amounts of rain, the actions of different geological, chemical, or underground water forces, and earthquakes are all immediate triggers that have a big effect on the occurrence of landslides (Nanehkaran et al. 2023 ). One of the key anthropogenic elements is the unsustainable manner in which human activities are carried out. These factors include road development, mineral extraction, abandoned mines, and toxic industrial activity, among others. Man-made interventions often result in deforestation, which in turn leads to soil instability and the occurrence of landslides (Sharma and Ram 2014 ). These dangers often result in disastrous consequences. Under these circumstances, understanding the vulnerability of an area to landslides is of utmost importance for all parties concerned with identifying the causes and subsequently mitigating the impacts of these events (Prasad et al. 2016 ).

Methods of landslide susceptibility analysis

The interest in mapping and predicting regions prone to landslides is of utmost importance for both regional development practitioners and catastrophe risk reduction specialists. Landslide risk monitoring is a complex issue that involves the integration of several approaches and procedures to detect, map, model, and communicate the causes and impacts of landslides. Furthermore, to mitigate potential future landslides and develop appropriate land use policies, it is essential to study the impacted areas using several methodologies (Jurchescu et al. 2023 ). These methodologies have the capability to produce risk maps that serve as the foundation for decision-making on local and regional plans. The study and modeling of landslide risk susceptibility may be conducted using heuristic and statistical–probabilistic approaches, such as the maximum entropy model. Heuristic approaches are simple models that may be readily used in a GIS setting and are utilized for multicriteria analysis or physical linearity (Umer et al. 2022 ). Examination of the maximum entropy model is a commonly used technique for determining the probability distribution of high-risk locations within a wider set of investigated areas. It enables the analysis of elements that impact the distribution in a given region, specifically regarding the vulnerability of landslides (Park and Bera 2009 ). This is accomplished by establishing a direct relationship between the geographical location of a region and the causative elements that may influence its distribution. MaxEnt is a machine learning model that uses the Bayesian rule to assess the likelihood of landslides occurring in a certain location (Shahzad et al. 2022 ). It does this by analyzing the indicators of the geological environment of previously observed landslides in the training dataset. The method utilizes the locations of landslides and the Gibbs distribution to compute the probability distribution function (PDF) for landslides. This is done by employing Bayes’ rule instead of utilizing a discriminative technique (Liu et al. 2022 ). The presence-only nature of the model might be seen as a benefit compared to other techniques, especially when dealing with little data and regions that are distant and difficult to visit (Konowalik and Nosol 2021 ). This trait is of utmost importance in landslide research since it is impossible to rule out the possibility that a location without landslides may nevertheless have a high potential for landslide occurrences (Samia et al. 2017 ). This approach does not require extensive or highly accurate research data. It may use both continuous and categorical variables, and it can also be used to assess the significance of conditioning factors without any previous assumptions (Lam et al. 2020 ). This technique was developed based on the idea of maximum entropy. It guarantees that the most accurate estimate meets all the limitations on the unknown probability, as described by the relationship between landslide incidence data and their conditioning variables (Chang et al. 2020 ). Therefore, the most suitable landslide probability density function (PDF) (Florsheim and Nichols 2013 ) chosen for the unknown distribution should possess the highest level of entropy, indicating the most amount of information.

Geomatics Monitoring Technologies

To guarantee the acquisition of precise and pertinent information, it is necessary to integrate analytical monitoring techniques with other methods and technologies. These additional resources not only provide the required information but also facilitate the processing of data gathered from the field. Several geomatic approaches are used for the purpose of landslide monitoring (Albattah et al. 2021 ; Artese et al. 2014 ). InSAR, also known as synthetic radar interferometry, is a method that utilizes radar data to quantify changes in the Earth’s surface (Magyar et al. 2021 ). While it offers precise and comprehensive data, the expenses associated with it might be substantial. GPS (Global Positioning System)-based monitoring devices may provide precise information on ground movements, but they may be influenced by certain air conditions or impediments (Ma et al. 2012 ). Photogrammetry and remote sensing involve using aerial or satellite pictures to generate three-dimensional models and identify changes in topography. This method is both cost-efficient and accessible. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) ensure high-resolution imagery and are capable of being deployed rapidly at low costs (Yao et al. 2019 ). Landslide detection and monitoring may be facilitated by its utility. Sensor-based remote monitoring systems use sensors to continuously monitor surface deformations, enabling real-time detection of landslides and providing valuable information. The selection of a geomatic technique for landslide monitoring often depends on the specific requirements of the monitoring project (Kalmar et al. 2022 ; Rădulescu et al. 2021 ; Măran and Herbei 2021 ; Kalynych et al. 2022 ). The selection procedure will be guided by factors such as the size of the area of interest, the required level of resolution and accuracy, financial limitations, ease of access, and the possible risk posed by the landslide. It is typical to employ numerous technologies together to get a full knowledge of landslide dynamics (Scaioni 2015 ). Table 1 presents the pros and cons of comparing various technologies employed in monitoring landslides, each with its own set of benefits and limitations. When selecting a monitoring technique for studying landslide features, it is important to take into account elements such as cost, precision, accuracy, and the capability for real-time monitoring. By combining these geospatial tools, we may get significant insights into monitoring landslides and effectively develop systems for monitoring.

Materials and methods

Landslides are prevalent in the border region encompassing Ukraine, Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia (Magyar et al. 2021 ; Kalmar et al. 2022 ; Rădulescu et al. 2021 ; Măran and Herbei 2021 ; Kalynych et al. 2022 ). In the present circumstances, where the local and global significance of the environmental consequences of human activity is paramount, the development of efficient informational and technical systems for monitoring areas prone to landslides is imperative. Consequently, cross-border initiatives serve as valuable instruments in the advancement of projects that seek to analyze and oversee potential avalanche scenarios (Rădulescu et al. 2021 ). The monitoring of landslides investigation was carried out in the course of the GeoSES project (Magyar et al. 2021 ; Kalmar et al. 2022 ; Rădulescu et al. 2021 ; Măran and Herbei 2021 ; Kalynych et al. 2022 ). A comprehensive geomonitoring system was constructed as a component of the project to monitor landslides in this area. By analyzing the deformation history of the persistent scatterers, regions displaying significant subsidence or deformation were identified. This study highlights, first, the context in which the monitoring activities took place and the characteristics of the study area, and then the monitoring stages applied within the project. The study highlights the complexity of the research activities that led to the realization of an integrated landslide monitoring system of land in the cross-border area. The research continues by carrying out a geospatial analysis by selecting a location within the project using GIS and geospatial modeling based on the Maxent method.

Presentation of the context in which landslide monitoring activities were carried out

Cross-border cooperation (CBC) is a key element of EU policy towards its neighbors, supporting sustainable development along the EU’s external borders and addressing common challenges beyond these borders ( https://neighbourhood-enlargement.ec.europa.eu/european-neighbourhood-policy/cross-border-cooperation_en ). The cross-border project “Extension of the operational “Space Emergency System” towards monitoring of dangerous natural and man-made geo-processes in the HU-SK-RO-UA cross-border region” (Project GeoSES 2021 ), acronym GeoSES, was carried out in the interval December 1, 2019 and December 31, 2022. The project was part of the 2nd Call for Proposals, ENI Cross-border Cooperation Programme, 2014–2020, Hungary, Slovakia, Romania–Ukraine. The initiator and leader of the project was the State University “Uzhhorod National University,” Ukraine, with partners P1. Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Slovakia, P2. Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania, P3. Budapest University of Technology and Economics and P4. Self-government of Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County, Hungary. The role of the Romanian partner in the project was to monitor the most important landslides in the cross-border area of Romania and Ukraine, more precisely in the area of the Municipality of Sighetu Marmației.

Characteristics of the study area

Geomorphologically, Sighetu Marmației municipality is located in the Maramureș Depression, which has a complex origin: tectonic, volcanic, and differentiated erosion. Morphometrically, the municipality of Sighetu Marmației belongs to the lower level, namely the Vad-Sighet depression, formed at the confluence of the Tisza, Iza, and Ronișoara rivers. From a geomorphological point of view, the area belongs to the lower terraces of the Iza and Tisza rivers in the northern part, the Mara-Săpânța Piedmont in the center, and in the southwestern part, the Igniș Mountains. Geographically, Solovan Hill is located south of the Iza River, with the town of Sighetu Marmației to the north and east, Vadu Izei with Valea Șugaului to the southeast, and Iapa-Valea Hotarului with Valea Iepei to the northwest (Fig.  1 ).

Relief map, digital elevation model (Var. 1-DEM), Sighetu Marmației Municipality, study area of the work (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Geologically, the area has a foundation made up of formations that belong to the Neozoic age, respectively Eocene, Tortonian and Sarmatian, and over the latter are Quaternary age deposits (Pleistocene and Holocene) (Fig.  2 ). Of interest in the research of landslides are the Neogene (Badenian) clay and marl deposits. In order to create a framework for the study area, in terms of view of landslides, the research of the bibliography shows us that reactivated and primary landslides are present in the area (Zaharia 2022 ). The slope of the study area is between 0% and 90%, being a submontane area (Fig.  3 ). The statistics obtained after processing the relief and slope maps are presented in Fig.  4 which displays a Statistical relief map: Minimum altitude—250 m, Maximum altitude—1221 m, Average altitude—538.9 m, respectively Fig.  4 b with a map of statistical slopes: minimum slope—0°, maximum slope—70.7°, average slope—8.9°.

Map of lithography (Var. 4—Geological map), Sighetu Marmației Municipality, study area of the work (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Map of slopes (Var. 2—Slope), Sighetu Marmației Municipality, study area of the work (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Statistics obtained after processing relief ( a ), (Fig.  1 ) and slope ( b ) (Fig.  3 ) maps, Sighetu Marmației Municipality, study area of the work (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Operation flow of landslide monitoring activities and monitoring system development

Geo-information and remote sensing are effective instruments for enhancing operational tactics in the prevention of natural hazards and supporting research and operations focused on disasters. The use of advanced Earth observation methods and geomatics technology is crucial for the examination of natural hazards and their corresponding calamities (Manfré et al. 2012 ). Hazard and risk assessments are performed at several levels of study, spanning from a global scale to a village level. Each level has distinct goals for inventorying and specific geographic data requirements for hazards, environmental data, triggers, and vulnerable items. Utilizing spatial data in the examination and simulation of different categories of dangers is among the most beneficial implementations of geoinformatics in the monitoring of hazards (Senanayake et al. 2020 ; Hsiena and Shengb 2011 ). The GeoSES Monitoring System was developed by following these procedures, which included using geoinformation data (Rădulescu et al. 2023 ). To implement this system, the following tasks were undertaken, as presented in Fig.  5 .

The landslide monitoring system (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Description of monitoring stages

Phase A Identification and selection of landslides in the study area

Common techniques used to identify areas susceptible to landslides include analyzing the history of landslides in the area as well as using InSAR satellite technologies to identify land changes in real-time. Thus:

A1. Interferometric studies/collecting satellite images/InSAR, satellite-based radar imagery.

The initial documentation was based on data provided by the specialists of Budapest University of Technology and Economics, partners in the project, following consultation of information obtained through developing satellite Earth observation technology, interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), which has the characteristic of component of surface deformations with high accuracy, independent of time of day and weather (Florsheim and Nichols 2013 ). In order to establish the locations that present the greatest danger of landslides they have used the technique of Persistent Scatterer Interferometry. For this purpose vv-polarized, IW-acquisition mode complex SAR images from the Sentinel-1 mission, namely Sentinel-1A and B (S1AB) satellites of the ESA Copernicus Earth Observation programme were used. As a result, the aforementioned partners provided us with a map of the locations most exposed to landslides in the area (Fig.  6 ).

Localization of the areas most exposed to landslides in the area of Sighetu Marmației Municipality and its surroundings, according to data provided on the basis of satellite measurements

A2. The study of the history of landslides. Studies on existing documents, geological maps, geotechnical studies.

The documentation continued by consulting existing documentation, geological maps, geological and geotechnical studies, older risk maps, data provided by the Emergency Services in the area, etc. The geological research (Zaharia 2022 ) done previously confirmed the existence of formations of these phenomena of soil instability on the surface, favoring the production of landslides.

A3. Creation of a database of dangerous sites, from the point of view of landslides in the region adjacent to the Tisza River based on the data resulting from stages A1 and A2 and choosing the locations that will be monitored.

Based on the interferometry results, the numerous landslides produced on the slopes or at the foot of Solovan Hill, where Sighetu Marmației Municipality is located, were further investigated. Around 120 locations have been identified that present these instability phenomena, with the great majority located on the northern slope of Solovan Hill (Fig.  7 ). Georeferencing all of the identified locations helped create the database with these locations. Within the project, six of these locations were chosen (Fig.  8 ), which were monitored. Among these locations, a case study was selected for this study for one of the most serious situations, in which a landslide on Valea Cufundoasă street, on the slope belonging to Solovan Hill (Fig.  9 ), produced the destruction of a household in the year 2000. In this area, four landmarks (the Ground Control Point) (Fig.  10 ) were selected in the field that served to calibrate all the measurements carried out.

Land layout of landslides in the area of Sighetu Marmației Municipality, 120 identified cases (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Land layout of the six monitored locations and territorial positioning of location Valea Cufundoasă (location 5), (the selected case study) (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Landslide located on Valea Cufundoasă Street, Sighetu Marmației Municipality (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

GCP installed in the monitoring area on Valea Cufundoasă Street, Sighetu Marmației Municipality (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Phase B, Conducting field studies, Carrying out the monitoring of landslides in the Tisza River valley, the mentioned area, by performing four cycles of geodetic measurements using the following methods: UAV aerial photogrammetry, GNSS observation, high precision trigonometric leveling and geometric and their comparative study. Then, the UAH, RO, and SK partners have performed four cycles of measurement, each through geodetic/geographic methods and techniques (GNSS—Global Navigation Satellite Systems; TLS—Terrestrial Laser Scanning; ALS—Aerial Laser Scanning; UAV—Unmanned Aerial Vehicle; high-precision leveling). These methods were used for geo-monitoring of landslides in the study areas. The results and information were collected into a central database of our main partner. The next step was to configure the GIS system from the joint databases with the goal of presenting 3D variable visual models of Earth’s surface deformations (landslides and mudflows) from the target areas of the HU-SK-RO-UA cross-border region, as well as the development of risk maps with monitoring results that will allow timely implementation of measures aimed at localization of dangerous phenomena and preventing their progressing negative development.

B1. Technology and tools verification stage.

The technologies and tools used within the GeoSES Project, for the monitoring of landslides, the case presented, were the following (Kalmar et al. 2022 ; Rădulescu et al. 2021 ; Măran and Herbei 2021 ; Kalynych et al. 2022 ; Project GeoSES 2021 ): Trigonometric level using Total Stations, Leica TS02plus total station, 3″; 2. GNSS technology with Leica GS 08 plus and GNSS RTK L1L2 HI-TARGET V90; 3. UAV aerial photogrammetry, instruments used, DJI Phantom 4 and DJI Matrix 210 RTK V2;

B2. Field stage, four cycles

The monitoring of landslides in the study area was carried out through four cycles (Dai et al. 2002b ; Alcántara-Ayala and Sassa 2023 ; https://pro.arcgis.com/en/pro-app/latest/tool-reference/spatial-statistics/how-presence-only-prediction-works.htm ; Kalmar 2023 ) as follows, Cycle “0”, 29–30.07.2020; Cycle “1”, 13–14.04.2021; Cycle “2”, 22–23.06.2021; Cycle “3”, 25–26.10.2021B2. Field stage, 4 cycles.

B3. Final measurements, confirmation of result.

After the last cycle (Cycle “3”), at an interval of 1 month, another test was carried out, re-measuring the measurements for all six locations to validate the final results. The test was carried out using several monitoring methods, including high-precision geometric middle leveling. As a result of the data processing, the final results of the entire monitoring process were confirmed and communicated, virtually validating the entire process.

Phase C. Primary field data processing The operating flow in the use of UAV technology, for the purpose of monitoring landslides, through the four previously mentioned cycles was as follows, field operations:

1. Delimitation of the operating area, respectively of the monitored area; 2. Selection of the GCP (Ground Control Points) control points and stationing them with the GNSS antenna in order to determine the coordinates; 3. Establishment of the flight plan and setting up of the instrument for proper flight; 4. Flight performance.

The Agisoft Photoscan Professional software was used for the processing of the images taken and consisted of the following steps; 5. Downloading data to the computer and Saving file work AGISOFT; 6. Adding photos to AGISOFT; 7. Align the pictures; 8. Formation of the Point Cloud; 9. Settings for achieving the dense cloud of dots; 10. Mesh realization and 11. Mesh realization settings; 12. Creation of texture; 13. Presentation of the model with texture; 14. Tiled model; 15. Realization DEM; 16. Processing DEM; 17. Realization Orthomosaic; 18. Processing Orthomosaic; 19. Orthophotoplan Processing; 20. DEM exported; 21. Simultaneous presentation of Orthophotoplan and DEM;

The research in Phase D (as shown in Fig.  5 ) included using GIS technology to analyze field data. Additionally, MaxEnt open-source software was used to model the data and forecast the likelihood of landslides in the chosen case study location. The development of spatial models for landslides included a two-step process of geospatial investigation and modeling:

Phase D1. Collecting data from the field using GIS technology,

Phase D2. Generating landslide risk maps in the operating area using the MaxEnt model, divided into three steps as follows:

Step 1. The creation of the spatial database was carried out with the help of the ArcGIS Pro program.

Step 2. Carrying out a spatial analysis by defining the variables of the model in the monitored area,

Step 3. Using the MaxeEnt model for prediction of landslide susceptibility and the development of a landslide risk map.

The following software was used for the processing and analysis of the data:

ArcGIS Pro 2.7.0; QGIS 3.4.5; 4. ArcGIS Online: ESRI for data processing in GIS; Google Earth for global spatial analysis; MaxEnt software.

Collecting data from the field using GIS technology (Phase D1)

After importing the data collected from the field, for example Orthophotoplans and DEMs, cycle “0” and cycle “1”, location 5 (analyzed in the work), this steps is shown in Figs. 11 , 12 .

Phase D1 . Import of data pairs, Orthophotoplans (top) and DEMs (bottom), cycle “0” and cycle “1”, location 5 (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Images of the four monitoring cycles carried out in the field, a Cycle “0”, b Cycle “1”, c Cycle “2”, d Cycle “3” (Source: by Authors)

Generating landslides risk maps in the operating area using MaxEnt model (Phase D2)

Divided in:

Step 1. The creation of the spatial database was carried out with the help of the ArcGIS Pro program (Table  2 ).

Step 2. Carrying out a spatial analysis by defining the variables of the model in the monitored area

First, a network of rectangular polygons 50 × 50 cm in size was created (Fig.  9 ), allowing for data generalization and analysis of altitude differences acquired using the “Compute Change Raster” tool. The following statistical analyses, namely Hot Spot Analysis and Cluster and Outlier Analysis, were carried out to clearly show the deformations (Figs. 13 , 14 , 15 ).

Step 2. Spatial analysis. a Calculation of deformations by subtracting the average values of the centralized altitude in a rectangular network of 50 × 50 cm, (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Step 2. Spatial analysis, b hot spot analysis (statistical indicator Getis-Ord Gi*), a Cycle “1”—Cycle “0”, b Cycle “3”—Cycle “2” (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Step 2. Spatial analysis, c . cluster analysis and outlier (statistical index Anselin Local Moran’s I ), a Cycle “1”–Cycle “0”, b Cycle “3”–Cycle “2” (Source: GeoSES Project (Dai et al. 2002b ))

Hot Spot Analysis uses the Getis-Ord Gi* tool (Getis and Ord 1992 ; Getis 2008 ) to analyze the statistical properties of spatial characteristics in a data set. This analytical tool examines the spatial grouping of elements with high or low values. Each element is analyzed in relation to the neighboring elements, determining whether an element with a high value is surrounded by others with high values (or vice versa for low values). The Getis-Ord Gi* tool calculates Z scores and p -values to establish the statistical significance of these spatial groupings, helping to identify hot spot and cold spot areas with values that differ significantly from a random pattern. The Statistic Getis-Ord indicator, statistically \({G}_{i}^{*}\) * (1 and 2, 3) being a score, is given by the relationship:

where \({x}_{j}, {w}_{i,j}\) represents the attribute value for the characteristic j and the spatial weight between the characteristics i and j , respectively, and n is equal to the total number of characteristics and:

respectively

Interpretation of results: the Gi* statistical indicator obtained for each feature in the data set is a Z score. In the case of statistically significant positive Z scores, the higher the Z score, the greater the intensity of the grouping of large values (Hot Spot). In the case of statistically significant negative Z scores, the lower the Z score, the more pronounced the intensity of the grouping of small values (Cold Spot).

Cluster and Outlier Analysis (Anselin Local Moran’s I) (Getis and Ord 1992 ; Getis 2008 ).

Based on a set of spatial characteristics (Feature Class) that contains a field of analysis, the Cluster & Outlier analysis methodology identifies spatials of characteristics with high or low values. This tool also detects features that have atypical values. The procedure involves calculating a value using the statistical indicator Anselin Local Moran’s I . A z score, a pseudo value p , and a code indicating the cluster type for each statistically significant feature are also calculated. The z scores and pseudo p values reflect the statistical significance of the calculated index values. In general, the Local Moran’s statistical indicator \({I}_{i} (4 {\text{and}} 5)\) of spatial association is obtained from the relationship:

where x i is an attribute for the i feature, and \(\overline{X}\) is the mean of the corresponding attribute, \({w}_{i,j}\) is the spatial weight between feature i and j , and:

with n equations to the total number of characteristics.

The \({Z}_{{I}_{i}}\) ( 6 ) score for statistics is calculated as:

Interpretation of results

A positive value for statistical indicator I indicates that a feature is near other characteristics with similar attribute values, whether high or low, thus indicating the existence of a cluster. On the other hand, a negative value for indicator I signals that a feature is near other characteristics with different values, signaling a potential anomaly. In both cases, the p value associated with the characteristic must be small enough to certify the statistical significance of the cluster or atypical values. The statistical indicator Anselin Local Moran’s I ( I ) is a relative measure and can only be interpreted in the context of the z score or calculated p values. The cluster/atypical values field resulting from the analysis distinguishes between a statistically significant cluster of high values (HH: High–High), a low-value cluster (LL: Low–Low), atypic values in which a high value is surrounded mainly by low values, and atypic values where a low value is primarily surrounded by higher values. (LH: Low–High). The statistical significance is set at a 95% confidence level. In the absence of the FDR (False Discovery Rate) correction, characteristics with p values less than 0.05 are considered statistically significant. Following the FDR correction, this threshold for p values is adjusted to better reflect the 95% confidence level in the context of multiple tests. Results of the cluster analysis for the study area can be visualized in Fig.  15 . For a better visualization of the analysis results a 3D scene was generated (Fig.  16 ). The spatial analysis outputs (Valjarević et al. 2023 ; Pradhan and Youssef 2010 ) enabled generation of deformation maps, deformation distribution histogram and deformation, including, GI_Bin methodology Moran’s scatterplot presented in Fig.  17 a.1, a.2; b.1,b.2; c1,c.2.

Step 3. d . 3D scene generation. Deformation classification and analysis through a 3D scene (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 )

Step 4. Results, a deformation map, Cycle, a.1 “1”–Cycle “0”, a.2 . Cycle “3”–Cycle “2”, Location 5, b deformation distribution histogram, b.1 “1”–Cycle “0”, b.2 Cycle “3”– Cycle “2”, d Deformation Analysis, GI_Bin Methodology Moran’s Scatterplot, c.1 “1”–Cycle “0”, c.2 Cycle “3”–Cycle “2” (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Step 3. Using MaxEnt model for prediction of landslides susceptibility and development of landslide risk map

The MaxEnt model, based on the statistical–physical principle of entropy maximization (Herbei and Nemes 2012 ; Pressé et al. 2013 ; Dewar 2009 ; Catani et al. 2005 ) derived from information theory, provides a model of medium complexity and high accuracy, making it useful for the spatial modeling of landslides. Model development requires a set of independent variables and a sample of the dependent variable. Here we combine landslide data from heuristic models and use a similar correlative approach to statistical methods for landslides (Boitor et al. 2019 ). The model can easily be used for landslide prediction. To create the spatial distribution map and to make predictions about the risk of landslides, we used the MaxEnt program, which estimates the occurrence of a phenomenon based on a sample with known locations and a set of explanatory variables using the principle of maximum entropy. More specifically, in this case, the software models the studied phenomenon by expressing the probability of occurrence of the dependent variable in each pixel (of the GIS map) based on a calculation that sums up the conditions necessary for the triggering and production of landslides. The result can be interpreted as a probability of the occurrence of the dependent variable, in this case, landslides. The alternative hypothesis of the research was that the occurrence of landslides has a specific spatial distribution, correlated with a series of variables such as those shown in the maps below. The null hypothesis assumes that the distribution of landslides has a random spatial structure. The resolution of all rasters used for modeling was 15 m, most of which were generated by geoprocessing from the digital terrain elevation model. The following data sources were exploited through digitization and geoprocessing (Kalmar et al. 2022 ; Rădulescu et al. 2021 ; Măran and Herbei 2021 ; Project GeoSES 2021 ): topographic map at scale 1: 25,000 Geological map 1: 200,000; orthophoto plans from 2005, 2008, and 2012; Vector data taken from Romania’s INSPIRE geoportal Satellite images (Landsat 8); Data taken from the Living Atlas of the World. All variables were integrated into a geodatabase developed using the ArcGIS Pro program. Landslides were incorporated into the model as a set of points representing the centroid of the mapped landslide polygons. After mapping the sample that represents the dependent variable, the data necessary for the geoprocessing of the explanatory variables was acquired. Through digitization, the level curves with the 10-m equidistance and the altitude elevations were taken on the 1:25,000 topographic map, building a land elevation model with a resolution of 15 m. From the geological map at a scale of 1:200,000, the geological structure was generated in vector format, and then a raster with a resolution of 15 m was generated by geoprocessing. Also, through geoprocessing, starting from the land elevation model, several variables are presented below in the form of the eight variables generated by geoprocessing, in the form of a thematic map presented for Sighetu Marmației Municipality, the study area of the work, are as follows: Fig.  1 . Relief map, Digital Elevation model (Var. 1—DEM), Fig.  3 . Map of slopes (Var. 2—Slope), Fig.  18 . Var. 3—The exposure of the slopes, Fig.  2 . Map of lithography (Var. 4—Geological map), Fig.  19 . Var. 5—Relief energy, Fig.  20 . Var. 6—The curvature of the slopes, Fig.  21 . Var. 7—Distance from the hydrographic network, Fig.  22 . Var. 8—NDVI.

Var. 3—The exposure of the slopes, Sighetu Marmației Municipality, study area of the work (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Var. 5—relief energy, Sighetu Marmației Municipality, study area of the work (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Var. 6—the curvature of the slopes, Sighetu Marmației Municipality, study area of the work (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Var. 7—distance from the hydrographic network, Sighetu Marmației Municipality, study area of the work, (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Var. 8—NDVI, Sighetu Marmației Municipality, study area of the work (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

These were incorporated into the MaxEnt software generating a landslide risk map in ArcGIS Pro. Table 3 presents the analysis of the contribution of the explanatory variables to the model, Fig.  23 . Present the principle of using the eight variables/thematic maps through the MaxEnt software and generating the landslide risk map in Arc GIS Pro, also in Fig.  24 . shows the performance model for Landslide Predictions in Sighetu Marmației municipality.

The principle of using the eight variables/thematic maps through the MaxEnt software and generating the landslide risk map in Arc GIS Pro (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Performance model for landslide predictions in the Sighetu Marmației Area (Source: GeoSES Project (Dai et al. 2002b ; Kalmar 2023 ))

For model verification, a diagnostic test was performed that used 25% of the original sample data, with the remaining 75% of the data being used for model generation. The main result of this statistical modeling process is the map of susceptibility to landslides in the municipality of Sighetu Marmației and its surroundings. The chance of landslides was estimated in three classes: low, medium, and high probability. This study used landslide risk modeling based on the probability of new landslides starting from a sample of older (stabilized) and active landslides. The Maxent software simulates the examined phenomena by expressing the likelihood of the dependent variable occurring in each pixel (of the GIS map) based on a computation that sums together the circumstances required for landslide triggering and generation. The outcome might be regarded as a likelihood of the dependent variable, in this instance, landslides, occurring.

The sensitivity test was performed by analyzing the thresholds of the ROC and AUC curves. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves and Area Under the Curve (AUC) values are valuable for assessing the accuracy of development susceptibility maps in landslide models (Yu et al. 2021 ). The ROC curve is constructed by graphing the true positive rate, also known as sensitivity in machine learning, versus the false positive rate, which is calculated using 1-specificity, at different threshold choices (Wen-Geng et al. 2023 ). In principle, a higher AUC value, closer to 1, indicates a bigger area under the curve and suggests greater accuracy of the prediction model. On the other hand, a lower AUC value indicates worse accuracy. An AUC of 1.0 signifies an impeccable classifier model. The AUC test is a diagnostic test that can be scientifically interpreted as follows: 0.90–1 = excellent; 0.80–0.90 = good; 0.70–0.80 = fair; 0.60–0.70 = weak; 0.50–0.60 = failure. The AUC test, in the case of the selected model, has values above the threshold of 0.90, which indicates excellent results for the predictive capacity regarding the risk of landslides. The accuracy of training data and verification data is 97.6% and 94.3%, respectively (Fig.  24 ).

The result of this workflow is the landslide map (Fig.  25 ), which indicates the susceptibility to landslides through three classes (low, medium, and high risk). It can be seen that the risk of landslides is high in the case of steep slopes and areas occupied by rocks from the Cenozoic era, the Neogene geological period, and the Miocene period. This period began 23 million years ago and ended 5.3 million years ago. These rocks are deposits of clays, marls, and sandstones that are very prone to landslides. It can also be observed that the northern and eastern sides are more prone to landslides compared to the southern or western ones. As can be seen from the landslide risk map generated (Fig.  26 ), following data processing with MaxEnt, for the Municipality of Sighetu Marmației and the surrounding areas, the entire area at the foot of Solovan Hill, including the one studied in the Valea Cufundoasă Street, is strongly exposed. However, for the monitoring interval through four cycles (2020–2021), five of the locations, among which the one presented in the paper, were found to be stabilized landslides. However, the Câmpul Negru-Malec area, relatively recently deforested, was found to be unstable, with spatial displacement values of a maximum of 140 mm.

Landslide map for the study area (Location 5, Valea Cufundoasă Street, Sighetu Marmației) and vicinity (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

Landslide risk map for the study area (Location 5, Valea Cufundoasă Street, Sighetu Marmației) and vicinity (Source: GeoSES Project (Project GeoSES 2021 ))

The combination of Geomatics methods (GNSS, Trigonometric leveling, Geometric leveling, Laser scanner, UAV Aerial Photogrammetry, and Lidar Scanning) in the landslide monitoring activities represents the only alternative to retrieve terrain data for the various operation campaigns. However, this action depends on the natural conditions existing in the field at the time of the measurements. Thus, a very rugged relief limits the use of Geometric leveling, and the existence of rich vegetation or the mere growth of vegetation between measurement cycles can lead to errors in the results obtained by UAV technology.

GIS use in the domain of natural disaster prevention and mitigation has shown itself to be the most efficient method of risk management, particularly in the realm of environmental monitoring. However, it remains an innovative undertaking. Monitoring regions susceptible to landslides is crucial in land management due to the significant financial and safety risks associated with landslides.

Landslide susceptibility mapping is a crucial initial stage in evaluating the potential risk of future landslides. Creating a reliable landslide susceptibility map demands a unified framework capable of integrating numerous environmental parameters. In this investigation, the adaptability of maximum entropy modeling was evaluated for its potential in landslide susceptibility mapping, despite its limited exploration in this particular context.

The MaxEnt open-source software was used for modeling. A diagnostic test was run on 25% of the original sample data for model verification, with the remaining 75% of the data utilized for model creation. The main result of this statistical modeling process is the map of susceptibility to landslides in the municipality of Sighetu-Marmației and its surroundings. The probability of landslides was assessed into three categories.: low, medium and high probability. This study used landslide risk modeling based on the probability of new landslides starting from a sample of older (stabilized) and active landslides.

In our study, MaxEnt modeling has produced excellent results, with the accuracy of training data and verification data reaching 97.6% and 94.3%, respectively. This finding is highly promising, demonstrating the MaxEnt method’s ability, when combined with spatial analysis based on GIS, to offer a strong forecast of landslide susceptibility. Moreover, the model’s results were obtained by creating risk maps in the research region, which is crucial for effective disaster management. Hence, it motivates us to persist in our research endeavors. Furthermore, in order to secure data and increase the accuracy of predictions regarding the risk of disasters, geo-monitoring of hazards will have to combine the collection, storage, and processing of data with advanced IT (information technology) as Blockchain or IoT (Internet of Things).

The field slide monitoring activity is part of the research theme of the collective authors of the paper, focused on static and cinematic monitoring of buildings and land. In this regard, the research work of the collective of authors of this article will continue through the following actions:

Creation of technological models for monitoring landslides, for each type in particular.

Tracking the behavior over time, the evolution of landslides, dives, and mass collapses from the surface under the effect of underground voids produced by mining activity in a particular area, activity currently suspended and mostly unpreserved and unprotected area.

Creation, completion, and updating of landslide risk maps.

Data availability

Data is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This work is supported by Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, by the Research Development and Innovation Centre.

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Tiberiu Mihai Kalmar, Marcel Dîrja, Adrian Traian G. M. Rădulescu, Petru Daniel Măran, Gheorghe M. T. Rădulescu, Mariya Nychvyd, Ivan Kalynych, Virgil Mihai G. M. Rădulescu, Gelu Zaharia, and Gelu Danku have contributed equally to this work.

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Faculty of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 3-5 Calea Mănăștur, 400000, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Tiberiu Mihai Kalmar & Marcel Dîrja

Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Str. Constantin Daicoviciu Nr. 15, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Adrian Traian G. M. Rădulescu, Petru Daniel Măran, Gheorghe M. T. Rădulescu, Virgil Mihai G. M. Rădulescu, Gelu Zaharia & Gelu Danku

Department of Geodesy, Land Management and Geoinformatics, Uzhhorod National University, 14, Universytetska Str., Uzhgorod, 88000, Ukraine

Mariya Nychvyd & Ivan Kalynych

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Kalmar, T.M., Dîrja, M., Rădulescu, A.T.G.M. et al. Geospatial technologies for landslide monitoring: a case study of Sighetu Marmației, Romania. Environ Earth Sci 83 , 341 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-024-11473-w

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