deductive argument essay

How to Write a Deductive Essay Like Immanuel Kant?

Did you know that Immanuel Kant, an influential 18th-century German philosopher, significantly contributed to how we write a deductive essay today through his groundbreaking work in epistemology and metaphysics? Kant's emphasis on rationalism and the nature of human cognition profoundly impacted the structure and approach to deductive reasoning in academic discourse. 

In his seminal work, the "Critique of Pure Reason," Kant explored the relationship between a priori knowledge and deductive rationale, arguing that certain truths are inherent in the structure of human thought. This perspective had a lasting impact on how philosophers and writers approached deductive essays, encouraging a deeper consideration of the inherent principles guiding logical thought processes. 

In this article, we will use Kant's insights to show you how to compose engaging deductive essays without straining yourself. 

What Is a Deductive Essay

According to the definition, a deductive essay is a form of academic writing that follows a logical and structured approach to presenting an argument or thesis. In this type of essay, the author begins with a general premise or hypothesis and then provides specific evidence and examples to support and validate the initial assertion. The deductive process involves moving from the general to the specific, ultimately leading to a well-founded conclusion.

Unlike inductive reasoning, which derives general principles from specific observations, papers start with a broad statement and work towards a more specific and nuanced understanding. Every essay writer sees the purpose of a deductive essay to convince the reader of the validity of the central claim through a carefully crafted sequence of logical steps and evidence, demonstrating a clear and persuasive line of thought.

Deductive vs Inductive Writing Styles

Deductive and inductive reasoning represent contrasting approaches to logical thinking and are fundamental in shaping the structure of arguments and essays. Deductive writing begins with a general statement or hypothesis and then narrows down to specific conclusions through a series of logical steps. The process is characterized by moving from the broader to the more specific, aiming to demonstrate the inherent truth of the initial proposition. If the general premise in deductive thinking is true and the logical steps are valid, the conclusion is deemed certain. This form of rationale is often associated with formal logic and mathematical proofs, making it a structured and rigorous method for constructing arguments.

On the other hand, the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning starts with specific observations or evidence and moves toward broader generalizations or theories. Unlike deductive logic, inductive arguments do not guarantee the truth of their conclusions. Instead, they aim to establish a likely probability. Inductive writing is prevalent in scientific inquiry, where empirical observations lead to formulating hypotheses and theories. It acknowledges the inherent uncertainty in drawing broad conclusions from specific instances and allows for knowledge development through cumulative evidence and repeated observations. Both deductive and inductive writing styles play vital roles in critical thinking and shaping the persuasive power of various forms of discourse, including essays and academic writing.

Deductive Essay Example

Check out this deductive essay example designed to elucidate the methodology and highlight how deductive reasoning constructs a persuasive argument. Study our analysis of the correlation between smartphone usage and sleep quality to observe the effectiveness of this logical writing approach in practical application. By the way, if you enjoy this example and want a paper of similar quality, try our custom research paper writing solution for a quick and consistent result.

How to Write a Deductive Essay

Writing a deduction essay involves several key aspects contributing to its effectiveness and coherence. By paying attention to these aspects, writers can effectively convey their deductive reasoning, creating essays that are both persuasive and intellectually satisfying.

1. Clear Thesis Statement

Begin with brainstorming deductive essay topics and then presenting a clear and concise thesis statement that conveys the main argument or hypothesis. This statement serves as the foundation for the entire essay and guides the reader in understanding the central claim.

2. Logical Structure

Deductive essays require a well-organized structure that follows a logical progression. Typically, the essay moves from a general premise to specific evidence and then to a conclusive statement. Each paragraph should build upon the previous one, creating a coherent and convincing argument.

3. Evidential Support

Providing strong evidence to support the central thesis is crucial in deductive reasoning. Relevant examples, facts, or data should support each step in the argument. This evidential support enhances the credibility of the essay and strengthens the logical flow of ideas.

4. Clarity in Reasoning

Deduction essays demand clarity in reasoning. Each step in the logical sequence should be explicit and easy for the reader to follow. Avoid ambiguity and ensure that the connections between the general premise, specific evidence, and the conclusion are transparent.

5. Conclusion and Recapitulation

A deductive essay concludes by summarizing the key points and restating the thesis in light of the presented evidence. The conclusion should reaffirm the logical connections established throughout the essay and leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the validity of the central argument. If you want to learn how to write an essay fast , this guide will definitely help!

What Are Deductive Arguments

Deductive arguments form a category of reasoning where the conclusion logically follows from the premises, providing a form of certainty if the premises are true. These arguments are characterized by moving from the general to the specific, and the structure ensures that if the premises are accurate, the conclusion must be true. In other words, deductive reasoning is concerned with the necessity of the conclusion based on the provided premises. This process mirrors a top-down approach, where a broad statement or hypothesis leads to more specific, grounded outcomes through a series of logical steps.

If you want to really learn how to write deductive essay, presenting a rigid deductive argument is a must-do. If the initial premise is true and the reasoning is valid, the conclusion is considered certain or logically necessary. Deductive arguments are prevalent in mathematics, formal logic, and various scientific disciplines where precision and certainty are essential. Philosophers like Aristotle and later logicians have extensively studied and formalized deductive reasoning, contributing to its prominence in logical discourse.

While deductive arguments offer a high degree of certainty, it is crucial to distinguish them from inductive reasoning. Inductive arguments involve moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and only provide a degree of probability rather than certainty. Deductive reasoning, emphasizing logical necessity, is fundamental in constructing rigorous and convincing arguments in various academic and intellectual domains.

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Structure of a DeducDeductive Essay Structure

Much like a well-orchestrated symphony, a deductive essay unfolds with precision, building from a sweeping general premise to a finely tuned conclusion. This essay structure symbolizes a deliberate journey where each paragraph serves as a stepping stone, leading readers through the intricate maze of deductive reasoning. In the symphony of words, the introduction sets the stage, the body paragraphs harmonize evidence, and the conclusion orchestrates a powerful finale, leaving an indelible imprint of logical prowess. So, let's unravel the layers of how to write an academic essay where persuasion meets the elegance of structured thoughts.

Introduction 

The structure of a deduction essay is characterized by a systematic progression from a general premise to a specific conclusion. The essay typically begins with an introduction with a clear and concise thesis statement, presenting the overarching argument. This thesis serves as the foundation for the subsequent development of the essay. Following the introduction, the body paragraphs unfold logically, each contributing to the overall deductive reasoning.

In the body of the essay, each paragraph is dedicated to a specific aspect or piece of evidence that supports the thesis. The writer starts with a general statement, laying out the initial premise, and then presents detailed evidence or examples. These specifics gradually lead the reader toward a more specific and focused understanding of the central argument. The logical progression ensures that each step in the argument is built upon the previous one, creating a coherent and convincing line of reasoning.

The conclusion of a deductive essay serves to summarize the key points and restate the thesis in light of the evidence provided. It reaffirms the logical connections established throughout the essay and emphasizes the validity of the central argument. The essay structure, therefore, mirrors the process of deductive reasoning itself, guiding the reader through a carefully crafted sequence of logical steps to arrive at a well-founded conclusion. This approach is essential for constructing a persuasive and intellectually satisfying composition. To learn more, consult our guide on how to write a conclusion for an essay .

Deductive Essay Key Considerations

Several key considerations merit thoughtful attention to ensure the effectiveness and persuasiveness of the argument presented. One fundamental aspect is the formulation of a clear and well-defined thesis statement. This statement is the guiding beacon for the entire essay, articulating the central premise from which logical deductions will flow. The clarity in the thesis not only aligns the writer's focus but also provides readers with a roadmap for the forthcoming journey of deductive reasoning.

Equally crucial is the logical structure of the essay. Deductive essays demand a systematic arrangement that moves seamlessly from the general to the specific. Each paragraph should be a carefully calibrated step in the logical sequence, building a persuasive case for the validity of the central argument. The interconnection of ideas and the seamless transition from one point to the next contribute significantly to the overall coherence and impact of the essay.

Moreover, the provision of compelling evidential support cannot be overstated. Deductive reasoning hinges on the strength and relevance of the evidence presented. Writers must meticulously select examples, facts, or data that directly support each logical step, reinforcing the argument's credibility. A well-supported deductive essay not only persuades but also instills confidence in the reader regarding the soundness of the conclusion drawn.

Finally, key writing considerations encompass the formulation of a clear thesis, the establishment of a logical structure, and the incorporation of compelling evidence. By addressing these considerations with precision, writers can construct deductive essays that not only showcase intellectual prowess but also leave a lasting impact on the audience.

Deductive Essay Writing Tips

Writing a deductive essay involves presenting a logical argument based on premises and drawing a conclusion. Remember that writing relies on the strength of the logic and evidence presented. Here are some tips to help you craft an effective paper:

1. Understand the Structure:

• Introduction: Provide a brief overview of the topic and state the thesis or main argument.
• Body Paragraphs: Present your premises separately, providing evidence and supporting details for each.
• Conclusion: Summarize the main points and restate the conclusion based on the premises.

2. Cogitate a  Thesis Statement:

• Clearly state your main argument or thesis in the introduction.
• Make sure your thesis is specific and debatable.
• Consult a deductive essay example for inspiration.

3. Identify Premises:

• Clearly state the premises that lead to your conclusion.
• Each premise should be logically connected to the others.

4. Logical Order:

• Present your premises in a logical order, starting with the most general and progressing to the more specific.
• Ensure a clear and coherent flow between paragraphs.

5. Provide Evidence:

• Support each premise with relevant evidence, examples, or data.
• Use credible sources to strengthen your arguments.

6. Avoid Fallacies:

• Be aware of common logical fallacies and avoid using them in your arguments.
• Common fallacies include hasty generalizations, ad hominem attacks, and faulty causation.
• Study the types of tone in writing .

7. Clarity and Precision:

• Use clear and precise language to convey your ideas.
• Define any terms that may be unclear or have multiple interpretations.

8. Counterarguments:

• Address potential counterarguments to strengthen your position.
• Refute counterarguments with logical reasoning and evidence.

9. Conciseness:

• Be concise in your writing. Avoid unnecessary words or information.
• Stick to the relevant points that directly contribute to your argument.

10. Relevance:

• Ensure that all information presented is relevant to the main argument.
• Remove any unnecessary details or tangential information.

11. Proofread and Edit:

• Carefully proofread your essay for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Edit for clarity, coherence, and overall effectiveness.
• Ask others to read your essay and provide constructive feedback.

20 Great Deductive Essay Topics

Should you encounter difficulty in selecting topics to explore, do not worry! We have compiled an outstanding list suitable for diverse assignments, ranging from standard homework tasks to more complex projects. Additionally, we have an extensive list of argumentative essay topics that will definitely ignite your creativity!

• How does higher education impact career opportunities and economic success?
• The Impact of technological advancements on human relationships.
• The link between educational attainment and economic success.
• The relationship between environmental conservation and economic growth: Exploring the sustainability paradigm.
• What role does early childhood education play in long-term academic achievement?
• Can universal basic income lead to increased employment rates and economic stability?
• The influence of social media on mental health: Investigating the connection between online presence and well-being.
• Assessing the strengths and challenges of a multicultural workforce.
• Analyzing the relationship between government policies and income inequality.
• The impact of early childhood education on long-term academic achievement.
• How will artificial intelligence affect employment in the future of work?
• A connection between physical activity and cognitive function.
• The intersection of gender and leadership: Unpacking stereotypes and examining gender disparities in leadership positions.
• Investigating the link between socioeconomic status and health outcomes.
• Analyzing the role of media in shaping public opinion.
• The relationship between immigration and economic growth.
• How parental support impacts educational achievement.
• Analyzing the future of work in the age of automation.
• Investigating the link between social support networks and mental health.
• Does government spending have a positive or negative impact on economic growth?

Deductive essays offer college students valuable opportunities to enhance critical thinking and analytical skills. Through the systematic presentation of premises leading to a logical conclusion, students develop the ability to analyze information, identify patterns, and draw reasoned inferences. Engaging with deductive reasoning encourages students to structure their thoughts methodically, fostering clarity in communication. 

These essays also promote effective problem-solving as students must assess evidence, evaluate its relevance, and construct a compelling argument. Moreover, such essays provide a platform for honing research skills, as students often need to gather and synthesize information to support their claims. In case you’d like to continue improving your skills of convincing readers, we suggest you read our persuasive essay format guide with more interesting information on the topic.

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Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

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The ultimate guide to writing a deductive essay, carla johnson.

• June 14, 2023
• Essay Topics and Ideas , How to Guides

Whether you’re a student or a professional writer, you’ve probably written different kinds of essays, each with its own rules and requirements; a deductive essay is one type of essay you might come across. In a deductive essay, you start with a general statement and then use logic to come to a certain conclusion. It’s a type of essay that requires you to think carefully about the evidence and analyze it carefully.

What You'll Learn

Importance of Writing a Deductive Essay

Students and professionals alike need to know how to write a deductive essay. In academia, deductive essays are often assigned as a way to assess a student’s ability to think logically and critically. Deductive essays can be used to make arguments in the legal, scientific, or business worlds.

Writing a deductive essay is not only a useful skill, but it can also be a lot of fun. It lets you look into complicated ideas and come to conclusions based on facts and logic.

Purpose of the Guide

The goal of this guide is to show you how to write a deductive essay step by step. This guide will help you understand the key parts of a deductive essay and how to structure your argument, whether you’re a student who has been assigned one or a professional who wants to get better.

By the end of this guide, you’ll know what a deductive essay is, how to choose a topic, how to organize your argument, and how to revise your essay for maximum impact.

Understanding the Elements of a Deductive Essay

Before we delve into the process of writing a deductive essay, it’s important to understand the key elements that make up this type of essay.

Premise: A premise is a statement that gives an argument its foundation. It’s a general statement that helps prove a point. In a deductive essay, your argument starts with the premise. It’s important to pick a strong premise that fits your topic and can be backed up with evidence.

Conclusion: A conclusion is what you get at the end of your line of reasoning. It is the conclusion you come to based on the evidence and reasoning you present in your essay . Your argument’s conclusion should make sense based on the evidence you gave in your premises.

Syllogism : A syllogism is a logical argument that comes to a conclusion by combining two premises. In a deductive essay, you will build your case with syllogisms. A syllogism has three parts: a main idea, a secondary idea, and a conclusion. The main premise is a general statement, the minor premise is a specific example that supports the main premise, and the conclusion is the logical result of the two premises.

Choosing a Topic for a Deductive Essay

Choosing a topic for your deductive essay is an important step in the writing process. A good topic will make it easier to develop your argument and will engage your reader. Here are some tips for choosing a topic:

– Choose a topic that interests you: Writing about a topic that you’re passionate about will make the writing process more enjoyable and engaging.

– Choose a topic that is relevant : Your topic should be relevant to your audience. It should be something that they care about or that affects them in some way.

– Choose a topic that is debatable : A deductive essay is an argumentative essay, so you’ll need to choose a topic that has two or more sides. This will make it easier to develop your argument and engage your reader.

Here are 50 deductive essay topics to get you started:

1. The impact of social media on mental health

2. The effectiveness of online learning

3. The impact of climate change on the economy

4. The benefits of meditation

5. The impact of video games on children

6. The importance of a healthy diet

7. The impact of technology on society

8. The benefits of exercise

9. The impact of music on the brain

10. The effectiveness of alternative medicine

11. The impact of immigration on the economy

12. The benefits of reading

13. The impact of artificial intelligence on employment

14. The importance of sleep

15. The impact of globalization on culture

16. The benefits of travel

17. The impact of automation on the workforce

18. The importance of education

19. The impact of social media on relationships

20. The benefits of volunteering

21. The impact of income inequality on society

22. The importance of mental health

23. The impact of social media on politics

24. The benefits of learning a second language

25. The impact of technology on privacy

26. The importance of recycling

27. The impact of social media on self-esteem

28. The benefits of art therapy

29. The impact of automation on the environment

30. The importance of renewable energy

31. The impact of social media on communication

32. The benefits of mindfulness

33. The impact of technology on creativity

34. The importance of exercise for mental health

35. The impact of social media on activism

36. The benefits of therapy

37. The impact of automation on transportation

38. The importance of diversity

39. The impact of social media on body image

40. The benefits of pet therapy

41. The impact of technology on ethics

42. The importance of community service

43. The impact of automation on healthcare

44. The benefits of laughter

45. The impact of social media on education

46. The importance of financial literacy

47. The impact of technology on relationships

48. The benefits of nature therapy

49. The impact of automation on education

50. The importance of self-care.

Research and Gathering of Information

Once you’ve decided on a topic, the next step is to do research and find evidence to back up your argument . Research is an important part of writing, and it will help you build a strong argument for your deductive essay.

Why research is important when writing a deductive essay: Research gives you the proof that backs up your argument. It lets you find reliable sources of information and use them to build your case. Without research, your deductive essay won’t be convincing and won’t be believable. Information sources for research: You can get information for your deductive essay from many different places, such as books, academic journals, online articles, and interviews. It’s important to choose sources that can be trusted.

How to judge sources: When judging sources, think about things like the qualifications of the author, when it was published, and the reputation of the publisher. Avoid sources that are biased or can’t be trusted.

Creating a Deductive Essay Outline

Once you have conducted research and gathered information, the next step is to create an outline for your deductive essay. An outline will help you organize your thoughts and ensure that your argument is logical and coherent.

Importance of creating an outline: Creating an outline will help you stay focused and on track as you write your essay . It will also ensure that your argument is well-structured and easy to follow.

Elements of a deductive essay outline:

I. Introduction

– Hook

– Background information

– Thesis statement

II. Premise 1

– Major premise

– Minor premise

– Conclusion

III. Premise 2

IV. Premise 3 (optional)

V. Counterargument (optional)

– Counterargument

– Rebuttal

VI. Conclusion

– Restate thesis statement

– Summarize main points

– Final thoughts

Examples of a deductive essay outline:

– Hook: The impact of social media on mental health

– Background information: Statistics on social media use and mental health issues

– Thesis statement: Social media use is linked to increased rates of anxiety and depression.

– Major premise: Social media use is associated with increased feelings of isolation and loneliness.

– Minor premise: Studies have found that people who spend more time on social media report higher levels of loneliness and social isolation.

– Conclusion: Therefore, social media use is a contributing factor to mental health issues .

– Major premise: Social media use can lead to negative comparisons and self-esteem issues.

– Minor premise: Studies have found that people who spend more time on social media are more likely to compare themselves to others and experience negative self-esteem.

– Conclusion: Therefore, social media use can contribute to mental health issues.

– Restate thesis statement: Social media use is linked to increased rates of anxiety and depression.

– Summarize main points: Social media use can lead to increased feelings of isolation and loneliness, as well as negative comparisons and self-esteem issues.

– Final thoughts: It’s important to be mindful of our social media use and take steps to protect our mental health .

Writing the Introduction of a Deductive Essay

The introduction of a deductive essay is the first impression that your reader will have of your argument. It’s important to make a strong and clear introduction that captures your reader’s attention and sets the tone for the rest of your essay .

Importance of an introduction: The introduction provides context for your argument and sets the stage for your main points. It should also include your thesis statement , which is the central argument of your essay.

Elements of an introduction:

1. Hook: A compelling sentence or question that captures your reader’s attention.

2. Background Information : Information that provides context for your argument and helps your reader understand the topic.

3. Thesis statement: A clear and concise statement that summarizes your argument and sets the tone for your essay.

Examples of a deductive essay introduction:

1. Hook: Imagine waking up to the sound of birds chirping and the scent of fresh flowers in the air.

Background information: Nature has a healing effect on the mind and body, and spending time in nature can reduce stress and improve overall well-being.

Thesis statement: Therefore, spending time in nature should be a priority for everyone.

2. Hook : In today’s fast-paced world, it’s easy to lose sight of what’s important.

Background information: Many people struggle with finding balance in their lives and prioritizing self-care.

Thesis statement: However, by making self-care a priority, we can improve our overall well-being and productivity.

Developing the Body Paragraphs of a Deductive Essay

The body paragraphs of a deductive essay are where you present your evidence and build your argument. It’s important to make sure that your body paragraphs are well-structured, clearly written, and logically organized.

Importance of body paragraphs: The body paragraphs provide the evidence and reasoning to support your thesis statement. They should be well-organized and clearly written to convince your reader of your argument.

Elements of body paragraphs:

1. Topic sentence: A clear and concise sentence that introduces the main point of the paragraph.

2. Evidence: Evidence that supports your argument and is relevant to your topic.

3. Explanation: An explanation of how the evidence supports your argument and connects to your thesis statement.

4. Transition sentence: A clear and concise sentence that connects the current paragraph to the next.

Examples of a deductive essay body paragraphs:

1. Topic sentence: Spending time in nature reduces stress and improves overall well-being.

Evidence: Studies have found that spending time in nature can lower cortisol levels and reduce stress .

Explanation: This evidence supports the thesis statement that spending time in nature should be a priority for everyone, as it has a positive impact on mental and physical health.

Transition sentence: Furthermore, spending time in nature can also improve cognitive functioning and creativity.

2. Topic sentence: Prioritizing self-care improves overall well-being and productivity.

Evidence: Studies have found that practicing self-care activities, such as exercise and meditation, can reduce stress and improve mental and physical health .

Explanation: This evidence supports the thesis statement that self-care should be a priority for everyone, as it has a positive impact on overall well-being and productivity.

Transition sentence: Additionally, prioritizing self-care can also improve relationships and lead to a more fulfilling life.

Crafting the Conclusion of a Deductive Essay

The conclusion of a deductive essay is your final opportunity to leave a lasting impression on your reader. It’s important to craft a conclusion that summarizes your argument and leaves your reader with a clear understanding of your position.

Importance of a conclusion: The conclusion provides closure to your argument and reinforces your thesis statement . It should leave your reader with a clear understanding of your position and the importance of your argument.

Elements of a conclusion:

1. Restate thesis statement: A clear and concise restatement of your thesis statement.

2. Summary of main points: A brief summary of the main points covered in your essay .

3. Final thoughts : A final thought that reinforces the importance of your argument and encourages your reader to take action.

Examples of a deductive essay conclusion:

1. Restate thesis statement: Spending time in nature should be a priority for everyone.

Summary of main points: In this essay, we have explored the positive effects of spending time in nature on mental and physical health , as well as cognitive functioning and creativity.

Final thoughts: By prioritizing time in nature, we can improve our overall well-being and productivity, and enjoy the many benefits that nature has to offer.

2. Restate thesis statement: Prioritizing self-care improves overall well-being and productivity.

Summary of main points: Throughout this essay, we have examined the many benefits of self-care, including improved mental and physical health, reduced stress, and increased productivity.

Final thoughts: By making self-care a priority, we can improve our quality of life and achieve our goals with greater ease. It’s important to take care of ourselves so that we can be our best selves for ourselves and for those around us.

Editing and Revising a Deductive Essay

Editing and revising are important steps in the writing process that ensure your deductive essay is clear, concise, and effective. By taking the time to edit and revise, you can catch errors and make improvements that will strengthen your argument and engage your reader.

Importance of editing and revising : Editing and revising help to improve the clarity and effectiveness of your writing. By reviewing your work and making edits, you can catch errors and make improvements that will strengthen your argument and engage your reader.

Tips for editing and revising:

1. Take a break: Step away from your essay for a little while before reviewing it. This will help you come back to it with fresh eyes.

2. Read it out loud: Reading your essay out loud can help you catch errors and improve the flow of your writing .

3. Use a checklist: Create a checklist of common errors to look for, such as spelling and grammar mistakes.

4. Get feedback: Ask someone else to read your essay and provide feedback. This can help you identify areas for improvement that you may have missed.

Examples of edited and revised deductive essays:

Before editing:

Spending time in nature is good for you. It has many benefits.

After editing:

Spending time in nature has numerous benefits for both mental and physical health. Studies have shown that spending time in nature can lower cortisol levels, reduce stress, and improve cognitive functioning and creativity. By prioritizing time in nature, we can improve our overall well-being and productivity.

Before revision:

Self-care is important. It helps you feel better.

After revision:

Prioritizing self-care is essential for improving overall well-being. By engaging in activities such as exercise and meditation, we can reduce stress, improve mental and physical health , and increase productivity. By making self-care a priority, we can achieve our goals and live a more fulfilling life.

Frequently Asked Questions about Deductive Essays

1. what is a deductive essay.

A deductive essay is a type of academic essay in which an argument is presented and supported by evidence, reasoning, and logic. The essay begins with a thesis statement that presents the main argument, and the body paragraphs provide evidence and reasoning to support the thesis.

2. What are the elements of a deductive essay?

The elements of a deductive essay include a clear thesis statement, well-organized body paragraphs, and a conclusion that summarizes the main points and reinforces the thesis statement.

3. How do I choose a topic for a deductive essay?

When choosing a topic for a deductive essay, it’s important to choose a topic that is debatable and has sufficient evidence to support your argument. You can choose a topic based on your interests , current events, or a specific question or problem that you want to address.

4. What is the structure of a deductive essay?

The structure of a deductive essay includes an introduction with a clear thesis statement, body paragraphs that provide evidence and reasoning to support the thesis, and a conclusion that summarizes the main points and reinforces the thesis statement.

5. What is a deductive essay thesis?

A deductive essay thesis is a clear and concise statement that presents the main argument of the essay. It should be specific and debatable, and provide a clear direction for the rest of the essay.

6. What are some common mistakes to avoid in writing a deductive essay?

Common mistakes to avoid in writing a deductive essay include using fallacious reasoning, presenting weak or irrelevant evidence, failing to address counterarguments, and lacking a clear and concise thesis statement.

10 Fascinating Deductive Essay Examples

1. The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health

2. The Benefits of a Plant-Based Diet

3. The Importance of Early Childhood Education

4. The Ethics of Genetic Engineering

5. The Impact of Climate Change on Global Health

6. The Relationship Between Technology and Productivity

7. The Role of Government in Providing Healthcare

8. The Effects of Music on the Brain

9. The Importance of Financial Literacy in Education

10. The Ethics of Animal Testing

In conclusion, writing a deductive essay requires careful planning, research, and organization. It’s important to choose a relevant and debatable topic , present clear and concise arguments, use relevant and credible evidence, and address counterarguments. By following these guidelines and learning from deductive essay examples, you can write an effective and compelling essay that engages your reader and makes a strong argument .

Whether you’re a student or a professional writer, you’ve probably written different kinds of essays, each with its own rules and requirements. A deductive essay is one type of essay you might come across.

In a deductive essay, you start with a general statement and then use logic to come to a certain conclusion. It’s a type of essay that requires you to think carefully about the evidence and analyze it carefully.

Conclusion: A conclusion is what you get at the end of your line of reasoning. It is the conclusion you come to based on the evidence and reasoning you present in your essay. Your argument’s conclusion should make sense based on the evidence you gave in your premises.

Once you’ve decided on a topic, the next step is to do research and find evidence to back up your argument. Research is an important part of writing, and it will help you build a strong argument for your deductive essay.

Importance of creating an outline: Creating an outline will help you stay focused and on track as you write your essay. It will also ensure that your argument is well-structured and easy to follow.

– Conclusion: Therefore, social media use is a contributing factor to mental health issues.

– Final thoughts: It’s important to be mindful of our social media use and take steps to protect our mental health.

The introduction of a deductive essay is the first impression that your reader will have of your argument. It’s important to make a strong and clear introduction that captures your reader’s attention and sets the tone for the rest of your essay.

Importance of an introduction: The introduction provides context for your argument and sets the stage for your main points. It should also include your thesis statement, which is the central argument of your essay.

2. Background information: Information that provides context for your argument and helps your reader understand the topic.

Evidence: Studies have found that spending time in nature can lower cortisol levels and reduce stress.

Evidence: Studies have found that practicing self-care activities, such as exercise and meditation, can reduce stress and improve mental and physical health.

Importance of a conclusion: The conclusion provides closure to your argument and reinforces your thesis statement. It should leave your reader with a clear understanding of your position and the importance of your argument.

2. Summary of main points : A brief summary of the main points covered in your essay.

Summary of main points: In this essay, we have explored the positive effects of spending time in nature on mental and physical health, as well as cognitive functioning and creativity.

2. Read it out loud: Reading your essay out loud can help you catch errors and improve the flow of your writing.

Prioritizing self-care is essential for improving overall well-being. By engaging in activities such as exercise and meditation, we can reduce stress, improve mental and physical health, and increase productivity. By making self-care a priority, we can achieve our goals and live a more fulfilling life.

When choosing a topic for a deductive essay, it’s important to choose a topic that is debatable and has sufficient evidence to support your argument. You can choose a topic based on your interests, current events, or a specific question or problem that you want to address.

In conclusion, writing a deductive essay requires careful planning, research, and organization. It’s important to choose a relevant and debatable topic, present clear and concise arguments, use relevant and credible evidence, and address counterarguments. By following these guidelines and learning from deductive essay examples, you can write an effective and compelling essay that engages your reader and makes a strong argument.

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How to Write a Deductive Essay: Step-by-Step

October 26, 2023

What is a Deductive Essay

A deductive essay, as the name suggests, is an essay type where the writer forms an argument by deductive reasoning. In other words, a writer makes a claim and presents evidence to support it. The goal of writing a deductive essay is to convince readers of the validity of an argument, thereby persuading them to accept the writer’s point of view.

The structure of a deductive essay is defined by the logical progression of the argument. The essay starts with a premise, which is a general statement that serves as a foundation for the argument. The premise is followed by supporting evidence, which can be in the form of observations or data, leading to a conclusion that is drawn from the evidence. Deductive reasoning closely resembles the scientific method of experiment and observation.

It is essential to be concise, clear, and logical when writing a deductive essay. A well-written deductive essay can persuade readers to accept an argument, while a poorly written one can leave readers confused. The following sections of this article will guide you through the various steps involved in writing a deductive essay and provide expert tips to help you successfully write a deductive essay.

Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Writing

While both deductive and inductive writing involve reasoning and making arguments, there are key differences between the two approaches. Understanding these differences is crucial when learning how to write a deductive essay.

Deductive writing starts with a general premise or statement and uses it to form a specific argument or conclusion. The writer presents evidence that supports the premise, leading to a logical deduction. Deductive reasoning is often used in scientific research, mathematics, and philosophy.

On the other hand, inductive writing begins with specific observations or evidence and then draws a general conclusion based on that evidence. Unlike deductive writing, inductive reasoning allows for a degree of uncertainty and generalization. This approach is common in fields such as social sciences, where researchers analyze data and patterns to formulate theories.

When writing a deductive essay, it is important to focus on deductive reasoning and provide clear evidence to support your argument. Avoid making broad generalizations or hasty conclusions based on limited evidence. By understanding the distinction between deductive and inductive writing, you can effectively structure and strengthen your deductive arguments in your essay.

How to Write a Deductive Essay: Step-by-Step Guide

1. choosing a topic.

Choosing a topic is a critical step when writing a deductive essay. A well-chosen topic sets the foundation for a strong and focused argument. When selecting a topic for your deductive essay, consider the following guidelines:

• Relevance: Choose a topic that is relevant to your field of study or the subject you are writing about. Ensure that it is an area where deductive reasoning can be applied effectively.
• Interesting and Engaging: Select a topic that captivates your interest and engages your readers. Choose something that you are passionate about, as it will make the writing process more enjoyable and yield better results.
• Clarity and Scope: Opt for a topic that is clear and specific, allowing for a focused and concise essay. Avoid broad or ambiguous topics that may lead to a lack of clarity and difficulty in presenting a deductive argument.
• Availability of Evidence: Ensure that there is sufficient evidence available to support your chosen topic. Conduct preliminary research to gauge the availability of relevant sources, data, or examples.
• Originality: Consider choosing a unique or lesser-explored topic to stand out from the crowd. This will not only make your essay more interesting but also demonstrate your ability to think critically and creatively.

By carefully considering these factors, you can select a suitable topic that aligns with the requirements of a deductive essay and allows for a strong, focused, and compelling argument.

10 Deductive Essay Topics:

• The effects of climate change on the world’s oceans.
• The link between social media and anxiety disorders.
• The impact of universal healthcare on the economy.
• The relationship between violent video games and real-life aggression.
• The effects of automation on employment in the manufacturing industry.
• The importance of early childhood education in future academic success.
• The role of genetics in the development of mental illnesses.
• The effects of fast food consumption on obesity rates.
• The significance of renewable energy in reducing carbon emissions.
• The relationship between higher education and earning potential.

These topics cover a broad range of fields and issues while allowing for the application of deductive reasoning. When writing a deductive essay on any of these topics, ensure that the argument is structured logically, with evidence used effectively to support premises and conclusions.

2. Conducting Research

Conducting research is an essential step when writing a deductive essay. Research serves as the backbone of a deductive argument and provides evidence to support the premises and conclusion. Here are some tips to help you conduct effective research for your deductive essay:

• Start with a clear understanding of the topic. This will help you to focus your research and find relevant sources of information.
• Use credible sources such as peer-reviewed journals, trusted databases, and academic publications to ensure that your research is reliable and accurate.
• Keep a detailed record of your sources to avoid plagiarism and allow for easy referencing.
• Pay attention to the quality and quantity of your research. Ensure that you have enough sources to support your argument and that they are relevant to your topic.
• Organize your research into relevant sections and group related information together. This will help you to identify patterns and connections that will strengthen your argument.
• Analyze the data and information you have gathered, and use it to form your premises and conclusion. Ensure that all your evidence supports your argument and that there are no contradictions in your reasoning.

Conducting thorough research can make the difference between a convincing and well-supported deductive argument and one that falls short. By following these tips, you can conduct effective research and produce a successful deductive essay.

3. Developing a Thesis Statement

Developing a strong thesis statement is crucial when writing a deductive essay. The thesis statement provides the main argument or position that will be explored and supported throughout the essay. Here are some key steps to consider when developing your thesis statement:

• Understand the assignment: Ensure you have a clear grasp of the essay prompt or assignment requirements. This will help you align your thesis statement with the expectations of the task.
• Identify the main premise: Determine the primary premise or assumption on which your deductive argument will be based. This will serve as the foundation of your thesis statement.
• Make it concise: Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that accurately conveys the main argument of your essay. Avoid vague or ambiguous wording that could weaken the impact of your statement.
• Make it specific: Be specific in your thesis statement to guide your essay’s focus and ensure a well-defined argument. Use precise language and avoid broad generalizations.
• Reflect the structure: Consider how your essay will be structured, such as outlining the major premises or evidence that will be presented. Your thesis statement should align with this structure and clearly indicate the direction your essay will take.

Remember that your thesis statement should be arguable and provable based on the deductive reasoning used in your essay. It should serve as a roadmap for both you as the writer and your reader, providing a clear and concise summary of the main argument you will be developing throughout your deductive essay.

4. Creating an Outline

Creating an outline is an essential step in the process of writing a deductive essay. It helps you organize your thoughts, structure your argument, and maintain a logical flow throughout your essay. Here are some key tips to consider when creating an outline for your deductive essay:

• Introduction: Start with a captivating introduction that provides background information on your topic and presents your thesis statement. This section should grab the reader’s attention and set the stage for your deductive argument.
• Premise 1: Introduce your first premise, providing a clear statement or fact that supports your thesis. Present evidence, examples, or quotes that reinforce this premise, showcasing its relevance and validity.
• Premise 2: Introduce your second premise, which strengthens your argument and supports your thesis. Just like Premise 1, provide evidence and examples to substantiate this premise, making sure it logically connects to the previous premise.
• Premise 3 (if applicable): If your deductive essay requires additional premises or evidence, include them in this section.
• Conclusion: Summarize your premises and restate your thesis, drawing a logical conclusion based on the deductive reasoning presented. Emphasize the strength of your argument and its implications.
• Counterarguments (optional): If relevant, address potential counterarguments and refute them using logical reasoning and evidence.

Remember, the outline serves as a roadmap for your essay, guiding your writing process and ensuring a well-structured and coherent argument. It allows you to organize your thoughts, identify any gaps in your reasoning, and maintain a logical flow throughout your deductive essay.

Sample Deductive Essay Outline:

I. Introduction A. Engaging hook to grab the reader’s attention B. Background information on the topic C. Clear thesis statement that conveys the main argument

II. Premise 1 A. Clear statement or fact that supports the thesis B. Explanation of how Premise 1 is relevant to the argument C. Presentation of evidence, examples, or quotes to support Premise 1

III. Premise 2 A. Introduction of the second premise that strengthens the argument B. Explanation of the logical connection between Premise 2 and Premise 1 C. Evidence, examples, or quotes to support Premise 2

IV. Premise 3 (if applicable) A. Optional section for including additional premises or evidence B. Clear statement or fact relevant to the argument C. Supporting evidence, examples, or quotes for Premise 3

V. Counterarguments (optional) A. Address potential counterarguments to the main argument B. Refute the counterarguments using logical reasoning and evidence

VI. Conclusion A. Summary of the premises presented in the essay B. Restatement of the thesis and its importance C. Drawing a logical conclusion based on the deductive reasoning presented

Remember, this is just a sample outline for a deductive essay and can be adapted to fit your specific topic and approach. The outline serves as a guide to help you structure your essay and maintain a logical flow of ideas.

5. Writing the Introduction for a Deductive Essay

The introduction of your deductive essay plays a crucial role in setting the tone and capturing the reader’s attention. It should provide the necessary context and background for the topic while clearly stating the purpose of your essay. Here are some key tips for writing an effective introduction for a deductive essay:

• Start with a captivating hook: Begin your introduction with an engaging statement, question, or anecdote that grasps the reader’s interest. This will encourage them to continue reading and delve into your deductive argument.
• Provide background information: Give a brief overview of the topic and any relevant historical, social, or cultural context. This will help orient the reader and demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of the subject matter.
• Clearly state your purpose: In a concise and straightforward manner, clearly articulate that you are writing a deductive essay. This will set the expectations for the reader and inform them about the logical argument you will be presenting.
• Present your thesis statement: Towards the end of the introduction, clearly state your thesis, which represents the main argument of your deductive essay. Make it explicit, concise, and specific to provide the reader with a clear roadmap of your essay.

Remember, the introduction should be engaging, informative, and concise. It should effectively introduce the topic, explain the purpose of your essay, and present your thesis statement, all while keeping the reader eager to explore your deductive argument further.

6. Presenting the Premises

Presenting the premises is a critical component of any deductive essay. A premise is a piece of evidence or statement that serves as the foundation for your argument and supports your thesis. When presenting your premises, you need to provide clear and convincing evidence, examples, or quotes to establish its relevance and validity. Here are some key tips to consider when presenting the premises of your deductive essay:

• Make it clear: Ensure the premise is explicit and clearly stated, leaving no room for ambiguity or misinterpretation.
• Provide context: Introduce any necessary background information or context to help the reader understand the relevance of the premise.
• Use supporting evidence: Use evidence, examples, or quotes to support your premise. This will strengthen your argument and enhance the credibility of your essay.
• Explain the connection: Clearly explain how the premise supports your thesis and how it fits into your overall argument.
• Be logical: Ensure that your premises are logical and follow a clear progression. Each premise should build on the previous one and support your thesis in a logical way.

Remember, the presentation of your premises is what forms the backbone of your essay. It provides the necessary evidence and supporting arguments to prove your thesis and form a convincing and logical argument. Take the time to present your premises in a clear, concise, and convincing manner to ensure the success of your deductive essay.

7. Writing Deductive Essay Conclusion

Drawing a sound and logical conclusion is crucial when writing a deductive essay. It serves as the final section of the essay, where you summarize the premises presented and restate your thesis. The conclusion should leave the reader with a clear understanding of the argument and its significance. Here are some tips for writing a compelling conclusion for your deductive essay:

• Summarize the main points: Use the conclusion to summarize the main premises presented in your essay. This will help reinforce the main points and provide a concise overview for the reader.
• Restate your thesis: Restate your thesis in a clear and concise manner to remind the reader of the central argument of your essay. Use the conclusion to emphasize the importance of your thesis.
• Provide a final thought: Provide a final thought or takeaway for the reader that ties in with the topic and argument of your essay.
• Be confident: Be confident in your argument and use the conclusion to reinforce the strength of your deductive reasoning.
• End strongly: End your conclusion with a strong statement, leaving the reader with a lasting impression of your writing.

Drawing a well-written conclusion is the final step in creating a successful deductive essay. By writing a strong conclusion that summarizes the premises and restates the thesis, you can ensure that the reader understands and appreciates the logical argument presented in your writing.

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What Is Deductive Reasoning?

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Deduction is a method of reasoning from the general to the specific. Also called deductive reasoning and  top-down logic .

In a deductive argument , a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises . (Contrast with induction .)

In logic , a deductive argument is called a syllogism . In rhetoric , the equivalent of the syllogism is the enthymeme.​

From Latin, "leading"

Examples and Observations

• "The fundamental property of a deductively valid argument is this: If all of its premises are true, then its conclusion must be true also because the claim asserted by its conclusion already has been stated in its premises, although usually only implicitly.
• Scientific Deduction and Rhetorical Deduction "For Aristotle, scientific deduction differs in kind from its rhetorical counterpart. True, both are conducted according to the 'laws' of thought. But rhetorical deduction is inferior for two reasons: it starts with uncertain premises, and it is enthymematic : it generally relies on audience presuppositions to supply missing premises and conclusions. Because conclusions cannot be more certain than their premises and because any argument is deficient in rigor that relies on audience participation for its completion, rhetorical deductions can yield at best only plausible conclusions. . . .
• Syllogisms and Enthymemes "Very rarely in literary argument do reasoners make use of the complete syllogism, except to render perfectly apparent the premises from which the conclusion is deduced, or to show some fault in reasoning. Deductive arguments take various forms. One premise, or even the conclusion, may not be expressed if obvious enough to be taken for granted; in this case, the syllogism is called an enthymeme . One of the premises may be conditional, which gives the hypothetical syllogism. A syllogistic argument may be involved in a statement with its reasons, or with its inferences, or may be diffused throughout an extended discussion. To argue effectively, with clearness and cogency, the reasoner must have his deductive framework clearly in mind at every point of his discussion, and keep it before the reader or hearer."

Pronunciation

di-DUK-shun

Also Known As

Deductive Argument

• H. Kahane,  Logic and Contemporary Rhetoric , 1998
• Alan G. Gross,  Starring the Text: The Place of Rhetoric in Science Studies . Southern Illinois University Press, 2006
• Elias J. MacEwan,  The Essentials of Argumentation . D.C. Heath, 1898
• Definition and Examples of Syllogisms
• Definition and Examples of Valid Arguments
• Premise Definition and Examples in Arguments
• Definition and Examples of Sorites in Rhetoric
• Definition and Examples of Conclusions in Arguments
• Enthymeme - Definition and Examples
• Propositions in Debate Definition and Examples
• Induction (Logic and Rhetoric)
• paralogism (rhetoric and logic)
• AP English Exam: 101 Key Terms
• Undistributed Middle (Fallacy)
• How to Prove an Argument Invalid by a Counterexample
• How Logical Fallacy Invalidates Any Argument
• Circular Reasoning Definition and Examples
• What is a Logical Fallacy?

Organizing an Argument

As with other aspects of writing an argument, your organizational strategy will vary according to the requirements of its disciplinary context, your knowledge and level of expertise within the field, and your previous experience preparing arguments.

There are probably as many ways to draft an argument as there are arguments; however, there are a few tried and true methods-from adversarial to mediation based, and deductive to inductive reasoning-which work well in the academic world. None of them are carved in stone, however. Here we'll explore a number of useful methods to guide you in drafting your own argument.

Rogerian Method

Most of the time we think of arguments as adversarial, taking place between people who fundamentally disagree. One will be right and the other wrong; one wins and the other loses. This works in legal systems as well as in the context of many other situations. But often-especially in academic arguing-no single position regarding a controversy is completely right.

When you're working on an issue or problem about which more than one viewpoint may be valid, you may want to try drafting an argument that is oriented more toward mediation. Unlike adversarial arguments, which typically begin with a firm claim, an argument that mediates will postpone stating a position until much later in the presentation, often the middle or the end.

There are a number of ways to do this; one of the best being based on the work of psychologist Carl Rogers. A Rogerian argument presumes that if author and audience find common ground regarding an issue or problem, they will be more likely to find, or agree upon, a common solution. It succeeds only when the author understands the audience. He or she must present the audience's perspective clearly, accurately, and fairly before asking them to consider an alternative position or solution.

This method downplays emotional appeals in favor of the rational and is particularly useful in dealing with emotionally charged, highly divisive issues and allows for people of good will on different sides of an issue to find, or agree upon, solutions together.

Parts of a Rogerian Argument

The introduction typically points out how both the author and the audience are similarly affected. Rather than presenting a thesis demanding agreement, which is often seen as an attack on whomever holds an opposing view; this presentation emphasizes unity, putting the audience first.

The audience perspective comes next. Described as clearly and accurately as possible-typically in neutral language-the author acknowledges their point of view and the circumstances and contexts in which their perspective or position is valid. Done well, the author builds good will and credibility with the audience, a crucial step leading toward potential compromise. Honest, heartfelt sincerity is the key here: if the audience perceives an attempt at manipulation, the Rogerian argument strategy generally backfires.

The author's perspective comes in the next chunk of the argument. For the audience to give it a listen it must be presented in as fair-minded a way as was theirs, in language as equally neutral and clear. To be convincing, besides describing the circumstances or contexts in which the position is valid, it must contain the evidence that supports the claim.

The closing of a Rogerian argument doesn't ask the audience to give up their position, but shows how they would benefit from moving closer toward that of the author's. In other words, it ends by laying out the ways a compromise or alternative solution benefits both audience and author under a wider variety of circumstances than either can account for alone.

Deductive Method

The traditional academic argument is deductive, placing the author's position in the introduction and devoting the rest of the argument to presenting the evidence. Unless you are in a field where inductive reasoning is the norm, you can hardly go wrong with this method.

In some cases, all the evidence may be directed at proving the main point; in others, each piece may lead to a sub-point that needs proving before a convincing argument for the main point can be made. Depending on how directly each piece of evidence relates to the position, a deductive argument can be organized in a variety of ways.

When All Evidence Relates...

When all evidence relates directly to your main point, or thesis, and each piece of evidence is equally relevant, a typical arrangement simply introduces the position and presents each piece. Transitions connect each to the thesis.

Depending on their strengths and weaknesses, the order in which each piece of evidence is presented, as well as the rebuttals of opposing arguments, can differ greatly.

More often than not, even when all evidence is directly relevant, some pieces may be more convincing-less open to question or interpretation-than others. In these cases, arguments are typically arranged as follows:

• Introduction establishing the context of the argument as well as the author's position.
• Body of Evidence presented, depending on the audience analysis, from most to least, or least to most convincing.
• Conclusion summarizing the argument, presenting a call to action, or suggesting further research.

When Seemingly Unrelated Sub-Points...

When seemingly unrelated sub-points need to be made and proven in order to prove the main point, the author must show how the particular premises of each, along with its supporting evidence, connect, collectively and logically, to support the main position.

An argument supporting a ban on logging in rain forests might first need to establish and provide evidence regarding five other environmental premises, each supporting the author's position, regarding the effects of logging. For instance:

• It causes soil erosion
• It affects global warming
• It destroys native species
• It alters water routes and levels
• It destroys indigenous lifestyles

Each premise is a debatable issue in and of itself. Therefore, some measure of the supportive evidence behind each-at least enough to connect them as reasonably evidentiary links-must be given before they can be used to collectively support the author's main position. In these cases, arguments are typically arranged as follows:

• Brief Preview outlining each premise, or reason, to be used as evidence supporting the claim.
• Body of Evidence presented, depending on audience analysis, in an order which will make the most sense to the audience.
• Conclusion summarizing the argument and demonstrating how each premise leads logically to the author's position, presents a call to action, or suggests further research.

Note: This arrangement is ideal for content sub-headings where each heading describes the premise/reason to be discussed.

When Opposing Arguments...

When opposing arguments or points of view must be addressed there are a variety of ways to argue against or refute them. They can be place almost anywhere in the text, however, the strength and power of the opposing arguments and how familiar your audience is with them should be your main considerations. Here are a couple of options:

When opposing arguments are less persuasive or, at best, equal to, rebuttals are best saved till last where the opposing argument will appear less credible in light of your own:

Introduction Your argument and evidence Rebuttal of opposition claims Conclusion

When opposing arguments are particularly strong and readily accepted, discrediting them point-by-point may be the best strategy for convincing an audience to consider alternative points or support a different position.

Introduction Rebut first opposing argument followed by first counter-argument Rebut next opposing arguments, followed by further counter-arguments as you go along Conclusion

Inductive Method

Inductive arguments are more difficult for an audience to follow, thus they are less commonly found in the academic world than deductive arguments. Typically they begin with the author introducing an issue without proposing a solution or stating a position. Instead, various takes and opposing positions are introduced and argued, for and against, all of which then leads up to the author stating his or her position.

The goal of an inductive strategy is to present all the evidence and information in a manner such that, when the author's position is finally stated, the audience has been moved, or persuaded to agree that it is the one and only logical conclusion.

Inductive arguments can be organized in a variety of ways depending either on your assessment of what position the audience already holds or, on whether you are arguing a position from original research. It may be completely inductive, saving your position for the end, or partially inductive, introducing your position somewhere in the middle of the argument.

When an Audience Completely Disagrees...

When an audience completely disagrees with your position convincing them that their reasons for disagreeing are faulty before presenting your own position may be the best strategy.

Introduction: States the issue to be addressed and why it is important.

Body of Argument: Examines positions already proposed and refutes each one, showing why they are inadequate. Typically organized like this.

Position 1 Your refutation of position 1 Position 2 Your refutation of position 2

Alternatively, all positions might be examined first and then refuted second.

Position 1 Position 2 Your refutation of position 1 Your refutation of position 2

Conclusion/Position Statement: Once all other positions are shown to be inadequate, conclude with your position as the only logical choice.

When an Audience Partially Disagrees...

When an audience partially disagrees with your position, the best strategy still looks a great deal like when they completely disagree: convincing them that their reasoning is faulty before presenting your own position.

Position Statement: Introduced as the only logical choice after the positions your audience finds most persuasive are shown to be inadequate.

Presentation of Evidence: Supports your position as not only reasonable, but the best one available as well.

When an Audience is Completely Unfamiliar...

When an audience is completely unfamiliar with the issue, presenting evidence and leading to a logical conclusion may be the best choice because you are informing the audience while simultaneously proving the position.

Body of Argument: Presents the different work done on the issue and the conclusions reached.

Logical Connections: Looks at how conclusions reached in the research fit together leading to a particular answer to the problem or position on the issue. An alternative arrangement would include connections between each conclusion presented and proven.

Conclusion/Position Statement: ends the argument with your position as the only logical choice.

When Original Research Forms the Basis...

When original research forms the basis for an argument, particularly in the sciences, the study itself and the results must be discussed before a conclusion or interpretation of the data can be discussed. It must be made obvious to the audience that your position emerges from the research rather than being one you are ensuring the research will support. A deductive arrangement, starting with the conclusion or position, implies that the research may be biased.

Research questions: Describes study and the issue, problem or question it was designed specifically to answer.

Methods: Describes in detail the methods employed in the study.

Results: Summarizes and provides a detailed presentation of findings.

Conclusion/Position Statement: Argues for a particular interpretation of the results which leads to a conclusion addressing or answering the original issue, problem or question investigated.

Tying it All Together

American methods of academic argument are best depicted as a straight line. No matter what-be it evidence, sub-points, refutations of other positions, or personal anecdotes-everything used must lead clearly back to the position being argued. Although the relevance of each is always clear to the author, their connections are not always so obvious to the audience. Therefore, it is up to the author to carefully explain them.

Toulmin Method

One of the best ways to demonstrate why a given piece of evidence supports the thesis, claim or position of an argument is to explain the reasoning process by which they are logically connected. In the Toulmin method, these explanations are referred to as warrants.

First, for each claim that is debatable, or open to question, a reason is offered that supports the claim's validity. A warrant-consisting of a sentence or two-then follows, explaining the reason. Finally, evidence is supplied that supports connecting the reason to a given point or the overall claim of the paper.

Example of the Toulmin Method

Thesis, Claim or Position

Grading should be optional in non-major courses.

Reason/Point #1

Non-major courses are designed to help students become intelligent, well-rounded citizens. If the goal of such courses is the exploration and acquisition of knowledge, grades only get in the way.

Rather than learning for the sake of becoming a better person, grades encourage performance for the sake of a better GPA. The focus grading puts on performance undercuts learning opportunities when students choose courses according to what might be easiest rather than what they'd like to know more about. [Introduces why proof is relevant to point]

For example, students polled at CSU in a College of Liberal Arts study cite the following reasons for choosing non-major courses:

• Easy grading (80%)
• Low quantity of work (60%)
• What was available (40%)
• Personality of teacher (30%)
• Something they were interested in knowing more about (10%)

Similarly, in an interview I conducted with graduating seniors, only two of the 20 people I spoke with found their non-major courses valuable. The other 18 reported that non-major courses were a waste of time for a variety of reasons:

• I'm never going to do anything with them.
• I just took whatever wouldn't distract me from my major so I didn't work very hard in them, just studying enough to get an A on the test.
• Non-major courses are a joke. Everyone I know took the simplest, stupidest, 100-level courses needed to fulfill the requirements. I can't even remember the ones I took now.

Although not everyone in the interviews or the CLA poll cited grades explicitly as the reason for choosing easy, irrelevant, non-major courses, we can read such reasoning into many of the less explicit references as well. Clearly, students are not choosing courses based on what they can learn from them. Yet they are fairly consistent in their choices: 100-level courses with little work. Although laziness might be seen as the cause of such choices, it is just as likely that choosing according to the amount of work, selecting simple courses, or only studying for the exam are a result of the GPA system. Higher work loads and more complex topics obviously could mean receiving a lower grade; thus, they should be avoided. [Demonstrates how proof leads to point as necessary conclusion.]

Using Subheadings and Transitions

Chunking text into sections according to where a new point is being made, a new reason in support of your thesis is offered, or a new opposing argument is being addressed helps establish coherence among the various parts of your argument. Using sub-headings to label these different sections will help the audience follow your argument.

In addition, transitions explaining why one section helps support the point made in the previous one or how the next point follows logically from the first helps the reader see more clearly how these points ultimately relate to the claim, or position being argued.

Using Subheadings and Transitions: An Example

Thesis/Claim: Greenlife's proposal to ban all logging in rain forests should be supported.

Reason #1: It would help prevent global warming. [This sentence then gets developed, followed by a transition leading to Reason #2.]

Transition between #1 and #2: Although global warming may be the most persuasive reason to stop logging in rainforests due to the effect it has on the entire planet's population, the effect on local culture, affecting a much smaller number of people, is just as important. Losing native habitats destroys ways of life which can never be replaced, displacing people and devastating cultures that can never be restored. [ Logic: both are equally important reasons to stop logging.]

Reason #2: Logging destroys indigenous lifestyles. [This gets developed, followed by a transition leading to Reason #3.]

Transition between #2 and #3: Not only is the effect on indigenous cultures and global climate impossible to reverse but logging also has a lasting effect on the local environment that could have equally disastrous consequences. The erosion caused by logging results in a change in the ecosystem, particularly the loss of rich, fertile soil essential to both plant and animal life. [ Logic: human effects of global warming and loss of indigenous cultures are not the only considerations: effects on ecosystems are also consequences of logging.]

Reason #3: Logging produces erosion in the local environment. [This gets developed, followed by a transition leading to Opposing Position #1.]

Transition between reason 3 and opposition #1: Of course, many have argued that the loss of plant life and soil should be considered necessary damages if they work in favor of increasing the quality of human life. [ Logic: Introduces opposing argument #1 and leads to its refutation.]

Opposition #1: The argument that human life is more important than plant life, however, simply does not hold up when considering that the devastation of an ecosystem also affects human life. These effects, as I've already shown, can be measured not only in terms of climate change and the loss of indigenous cultures, but also in terms of losses to farming and other local economic systems. [ Logic: Demonstrates that opposition to point 3 is not viable because of points 1, 2, and 3.]

Using Topic Sentences or Explanatory Paragraphs

Another good way to help an audience follow the logic of your argument is to use of topic sentences literally telling them how each point relates to the claim, clearly connecting them so that there isn't any question how or why they relate. In longer arguments, entire paragraphs can serve this purpose by explaining the connections between extended summaries of evidence or the logical arguments of sub-points to the main claim.

Paragraph Example

Claim/Thesis of Paper: Writing teachers fail to deal with multicultural issues to the detriment of their students.

Section One: An analysis of the weaknesses of current curricular approaches to writing

Transitional Paragraph tying analysis to thesis and next section: As the analysis above shows, none of the available curricular models address multiculturalism except in the most cursory manner. Worse, their very superficiality does more damage than good. By introducing the topic of writing for multiple communities, the pedagogies make an attempt to bring diversity into the classroom; yet their focus remains on teaching academic writing with standard usage and grammar. Although they admit that such teaching is only for this context, putting such emphasis on standard forms introduces the issue: which forms of writing have more power in society, something none of the pedagogies address. By putting forth the academic model as the one which must be taught and learned in schools, they implicitly devalue other forms. The failure to foreground these power issues, then, leads students of difference to conclude that although their language and forms of writing might be acceptable in certain places, they are not welcome in the places which count in society. The effect of such an implicit message can be devastating to maintaining cultural values and difference.

Section Two: Discussion of research on multicultural student reactions' to writing classes.

Topic Sentence Example

Main Claim or Thesis of Paper: Professor X is a good teacher and should retain her job at CSU.

Introduction: Agues that determining whether Professor X is a good teacher involves evaluating her performance against criteria for good teachers.

Body of Argument: Works through several criteria to judge Professor X's teaching quality.

Topic Sentence Example: The first and probably most important criteria for judging the quality of a teacher is student opinion and, by any measure of student opinion-course evaluations, interviews, and class enrollment-Professor X is clearly one of the best teachers at CSU. [Paper goes on to offer summaries of all three forms of proof listed and then moves onto the second criteria with a topic sentence that ties back to the overall judgment of Prof. X as a good teacher.]

Example of When Methods are Combined

Claim of Paper: Decreasing the average work week to 32 hours would help support family values.

From Body of Paper: Although most of us know that working too much affects family time and thus family structure, we usually assume that this is the case only for people who work 40+ hours a week. Studies of how work-related stress influences family time, however, suggest that too much work, even within what is considered "normal," has detrimental effects on family time. [Topic sentence connects evidence (studies) to the point that 40 hour work weeks have negative affects on families.] For example, in Smith's 1987 study of 15 average, middle-class families, he describes the undue pressure a 9-5 schedule puts on families. In particular, he notes that this time schedule translates to at least three forms of unnecessary family stress: (1) "rushed" mornings where parents desperately try sticking to a rigid time schedule that gets the children off to school and themselves to work between the hours of 7 and 9; (2) financial pressure of paying babysitters or day care facilities during school holidays and the 2 or 3 hours after school while parents are still at work; (3) overly frantic weekends where, since many businesses close at 5:00, all errands must be done before then. [Note how the author highlights only the parts of the study that influence family pressures.] The stresses Smith documents are not in families where parents work 60-70 hours a week. The parents working 40 hours a week are secretaries, mechanics, bank employees, etc. The effects on them, he notes, clearly translate to less time spent with family members because of work demands as well as increased pressure when the family is together. [Warrant explaining why proof shows the problem is the 40-hour work week discussed in the initial point made]

Such pressures can't help but influence the quality of time the family spends together, influencing its ability to stay together or to have the type of time most conducive to instilling family values. [Topic sentences which ties point 1 to overall claim of paper] In fact, as psychological studies show, the type of time spent together has a great influence on family cohesiveness. [Transition connecting point 1--effect of 40 hour week on families--to point 2: the influence of time pressures on keeping family together]

Next Paragraph: Summaries of psychological studies to support the new claim of effect on cohesiveness.

Reviewing and Revising Your Connections

After drafting an argument you'll want take a step back and check the logic of its organization. You want to make sure that everything is connected and that every connection will make sense to an audience.

Analyze by Outlining

Chunk your argument into numbered sections: read through the text and place a number in the margin every time you change focus, even slightly. These changes may or may not come at regular intervals: one section might take three paragraphs while another takes only one. When you are finished, ask the following questions:

• Do similar points come up in different sections? If so, put them together.
• Are any sections only a few sentences long? Are they relevant? If so, expand them; if not, cut them out.
• Can you define the relationship each section has to the position being argued? How is each one relevant? Look at your revised argument and create a list of reasons that connect each section to the position being argued. Those that don't should be cut. Save this list, the reasons you have identified will make excellent transitions between argument sections.
• Can you explain why section #2 follows section #1 and so on? If not consider how sections might be moved around so that you have a clear reason for why each one follows another. Make another list, including these reasons. Consider using them as transitions between argument sections as well.

Get Some Peer-Review

Have a friend or several friends read through your argument. Ask them to mark where they get lost or are not sure of your point or where you are going next. These are places where rearrangement or clearer transitions are probably necessary. Also, try reading the argument aloud, to yourself and your friends. Frequently, when you hear an argument out loud, you can pinpoint where its logic doesn't add up. Changes can then be made.

Cut and Paste

Cut and paste. Play around with your organizational structure. Literally cut your paper into paragraphs and then make piles out of those which have things in common. If only part of a paragraph does, then cut some more. Save the leftovers in a separate pile. What do the pieces in each pile have in common? Construct a title for each pile based on the reason: Finally, ask yourself: what is the relationship between each pile: How are they related? Don't be afraid to shuffle them around and look at them in different positions. This will help you order the sections of your argument when pasting it back together. Look at your pile of left over pieces to see if they belong. If they do, consider expanding them so their relevance is made clear. If not, leave them out. Remember, throwing stuff out is not a sign of failure; it's an integral part of rewriting.

LeCourt, Donna, Kate Kiefer, & Peter Connor. (1996). Organizing an Argument. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=56

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1.3: Deductive and Inductive Arguments

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• Matthew Knachel
• University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee

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As we noted earlier, there are different logics—different approaches to distinguishing good arguments from bad ones. One of the reasons we need different logics is that there are different kinds of arguments. In this section, we distinguish two types: deductive and inductive arguments.

Deductive Arguments

First, deductive arguments. These are distinguished by their aim: a deductive argument attempts to provide premises that guarantee, necessitate its conclusion. Success for a deductive argument, then, does not come in degrees: either the premises do in fact guarantee the conclusion, in which case the argument is a good, successful one, or they don’t, in which case it fails. Evaluation of deductive arguments is a black-and-white, yes-or-no affair; there is no middle ground.

We have a special term for a successful deductive argument: we call it valid . Validity is a central concept in the study of logic. It’s so important, we’re going to define it three times. Each of these three definitions is equivalent to the others; they are just three different ways of saying the same thing:

An argument is valid just in case... (i) its premises guarantee its conclusion; i.e., (ii) IF its premises are true, then its conclusion must also be true; i.e., (iii) it is impossible for its premises to be true and its conclusion false.

Here’s an example of a valid deductive argument:

All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

This argument is valid because the premises do in fact guarantee the conclusion: if they’re true (as a matter of fact, they are), then the conclusion must be true; it’s impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.

Here’s a surprising fact about validity: what makes a deductive argument valid has nothing to do with its content; rather, validity is determined by the argument’s form . That is to say, what makes our Socrates argument valid is not that it says a bunch of accurate things about Socrates, humanity, and mortality. The content doesn’t make a difference. Instead, it’s the form that matters—the pattern that the argument exhibits.

Later, when undertake a more detailed study of deductive logic, we will give a precise definition of logical form. (Definitions, actually. We’ll study two different deductive logics, each with its own definition of form.) For now, we’ll use this rough gloss: the form of an argument is what’s left over when you strip away all the non-logical terms and replace them with blanks. (What counts as a “logical term,” you’re wondering? Unhelpful answer: it depends on the logic; different logics count different terms as logical. Again, this is just a rough gloss. We don’t need precision just yet, but we’ll get it eventually.)

Here’s what that looks like for our Socrates argument:

All A are B. x is A. Therefore, x is B.

The letter are the blanks: they’re placeholders, variables. As a matter of convention, we’re using capital letters to stand for groups of things (humans, mortals) and lower case letters to stand for individual things (Socrates).

The Socrates argument is a good, valid argument because it exhibits this good, valid form. Our third way of wording the definition of validity helps us see why this is a valid form: it’s impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false, in that it’s impossible to plug in terms for A, B, and x in such a way that the premises come out true and the conclusion comes out false.

A consequence of the fact that validity is determined entirely by an argument’s form is that, given a valid form, every single argument that has that form will be valid. So any argument that has the same form as our Socrates argument will be valid; that is, we can pick things at random to stick in for A, B, and x, and we’re guaranteed to get a valid argument. Here’s a silly example:

All apples are bananas. Donald Trump is an apple. Therefore, Donald Trump is a banana.

This argument has the same form as the Socrates argument: we simply replaced A with ‘apples’, B with ‘bananas’, and x with ‘Donald Trump’. That means it’s a valid argument. That’s a strange thing to say, since the argument is just silly—but it’s the form that matters, not the content. Our second way of wording the definition of validity can help us here. The standard for validity is this: IF the premises are true, then the conclusion must be. That’s a big ‘IF’. In this case, as a matter of fact, the premises are not true (they’re silly, plainly false). However, IF they were true—if in fact apples were a type of banana and Donald Trump were an apple—then the conclusion would be unavoidable: Trump would have to be a banana. The premises aren’t true, but if they were, the conclusion would have to be—that’s validity.

So it turns out that the actual truth or falsehood of the propositions in a valid argument are completely irrelevant to its validity. The Socrates argument has all true propositions and it’s valid; the Donald Trump argument has all false propositions, but it’s valid, too. They’re both valid because they have a valid form; the truth/falsity of their propositions don’t make any difference. This means that a valid argument can have propositions with almost any combination of truth- values: some true premises, some false ones, a true or false conclusion. One can fiddle around with the Socrates’ argument’s form, plugging different things in for A, B, and x, and see that this is so. For example, plug in ‘ants’ for A, ‘bugs’ for B, and Beyoncé for x: you get one true premise (All ants are bugs), one false one (Beyoncé is an ant), and a false conclusion (Beyoncé is a bug). Plug in other things and you can get any other combination of truth-values.

Any combination, that is, but one: you’ll never get true premises and a false conclusion. That’s because the Socrates’ argument’s form is a valid one; by definition, it’s impossible to generate true premises and a false conclusion in that case.

This irrelevance of truth-value to judgments about validity means that those judgments are immune to revision. That is, once we decide whether an argument is valid or not, that decision cannot be changed by the discovery of new information. New information might change our judgment about whether a particular proposition in our argument is true or false, but that can’t change our judgment about validity. Validity is determined by the argument’s form, and new information can’t change the form of an argument. The Socrates argument is valid because it has a valid form. Suppose we discovered, say, that as a matter of fact Socrates wasn’t a human being at all, but rather an alien from outer space who got a kick out of harassing random people on the streets of ancient Athens.That information would change the argument’s second premise—Socrates is human—from a truth to a falsehood. But it wouldn’t make the argument invalid. The form is still the same, and it’s a valid one.

It’s time to face up to an awkward consequence of our definition of validity. Remember, logic is about evaluating arguments—saying whether they’re good or bad. We’ve said that for deductive arguments, the standard for goodness is validity: the good deductive arguments are the valid ones. Here’s where the awkwardness comes in: because validity is determined by form, it’s possible to generate valid arguments that are nevertheless completely ridiculous-sounding on their face. Remember, the Donald Trump argument—where we concluded that he’s a banana—is valid. In other words, we’re saying that the Trump argument is good; it’s valid, so it gets the logical thumbs-up. But that’s nuts! The Trump argument is obviously bad, in some sense of ‘bad’, right? It’s a collection of silly, nonsensical claims.

We need a new concept to specify what’s wrong with the Trump argument. That concept is soundness . This is a higher standard of argument-goodness than validity; in order to meet it, an argument must satisfy two conditions.

An argument is sound just in case (i) it’s valid, AND (ii) its premises are in fact true. (What about the conclusion? Does it have to be true? Yes: remember, for valid arguments, if the premises are true, the conclusion has to be. Sound arguments are valid, so it goes without saying that the conclusion is true, provided that the premises are.)

The Trump argument, while valid, is not sound, because it fails to satisfy the second condition: its premises are both false. The Socrates argument, however, which is valid and contains nothing but truths (Socrates was not in fact an alien), is sound.

The question now naturally arises: if soundness is a higher standard of argument-goodness than validity, why didn’t we say that in the first place? Why so much emphasis on validity? The answer is this: we’re doing logic here, and as logicians, we have no special insight into the soundness of arguments. Or rather, we should say that as logicians, we have only partial expertise on the question of soundness. Logic can tell us whether or not an argument is valid, but it cannot tell us whether or not it is sound. Logic has no special insight into the second condition for soundness, the actual truth-values of premises. To take an example from the silly Trump argument, suppose you weren’t sure about the truth of the first premise, which claims that all apples are bananas (you have very little experience with fruit, apparently). How would you go about determining whether that claim was true or false? Whom would you ask? Well, this is a pretty easy one, so you could ask pretty much anybody, but the point is this: if you weren’t sure about the relationship between apples and bananas, you wouldn’t think to yourself, “I better go find a logician to help me figure this out.” Propositions make claims about how things are in the world. To figure out whether they’re true or false, you need to consult experts in the relevant subject-matter. Most claims aren’t about logic, so logic is very little help in determining truth-values. Since logic can only provide insight into the validity half of the soundness question, we focus on validity and leave soundness to one side.

Returning to validity, then, we’re now in a position to do some actual logic. Given what we know,we can demonstrate invalidity ; that is, we can prove that an invalid argument is invalid, and therefore bad (it can’t be sound, either; the first condition for soundness is validity, so if the argument’s invalid, the question of actual truth-values doesn’t even come up). Here’s how:

To demonstrate the invalidity of an argument, one must write down a new argument with the same form as the original, whose premises are in fact true and whose conclusion is in fact false. This new argument is called a counterexample .

Let’s look at an example. The following argument is invalid:

Some mammals are swimmers. All whales are swimmers. Therefore, all whales are mammals.

Now, it’s not really obvious that the argument is invalid. It does have one thing going for it: all the claims it makes are true. But we know that doesn’t make any difference, since validity is determined by the argument’s form, not its content. If this argument is invalid, it’s invalid because it has a bad, invalid form. This is the form:

Some A are B. All C are B. Therefore, all C are A.

To prove that the original whale argument is invalid, we have to show that this form is invalid. For a valid form, we learned, it’s impossible to plug things into the blanks and get true premises and a false conclusion; so for an invalid form, it’s possible to plug things into the blanks and get that result. That’s how we generate our counterexample: we plug things in for A, B, and C so that the premises turn out true and the conclusion turns out false. There’s no real method here; you just use your imagination to come up with an A, B, and C that give the desired result. (Possibly helpful hint: universal generalizations (All ___ are ____) are rarely true, so if you have to make one true, as in this example, it might be good to start there; likewise, particular claims (Some ___ are ___) are rarely false, so if you have to make one false—you don’t in this particular example, but if you had one as a conclusion, you would—that would be a good place to start.) Here’s a counterexample:

Some lawyers are American citizens. All members of Congress are American citizens. Therefore, all members of Congress are lawyers.

For A, we inserted ‘lawyers’, for B we chose ‘American citizens’, and for C, ‘members of Congress’. The first premise is clearly true. The second premise is true: non-citizens aren’t eligible to be in Congress. And the conclusion is false: there are lots of people in Congress who are non- lawyers—doctors, businesspeople, etc.

That’s all we need to do to prove that the original whale-argument is invalid: come up with one counterexample, one way of filling in the blanks in its form to get true premises and a false conclusion. We only have to prove that it’s possible to get true premises and a false conclusion, and for that, you only need one example.

What’s far more difficult is to prove that a particular argument is valid. To do that, we’d have to show that its form is such that it’s impossible to generate a counterexample, to fill in the blanks to get true premises and a false conclusion. Proving that it’s possible is easy; you only need one counterexample. Proving that it’s impossible is hard; in fact, at first glance, it looks impossibly hard! What do you do? Check all the possible ways of plugging things into the blanks, and make sure that none of them turn out to have true premises and a false conclusion? That’s nuts! There are, literally, infinitely many ways to fill in the blanks in an argument’s form. Nobody has the time to check infinitely many potential counterexamples.

Well, take heart; it’s still early. For now, we’re able to do a little bit of deductive logic: given an invalid argument, we can demonstrate that it is in fact invalid. We’re not yet in the position we’d like to be in, namely of being able to determine, for any argument whatsoever, whether it’s valid or not. Proving validity looks too hard based on what we know so far. But we’ll know more later: in chapters 3 and 4 we will study two deductive logics, and each one will give us a method of deciding whether or not any given argument is valid. But that’ll have to wait. Baby steps.

Inductive Reasoning

That’s all we’ll say for now about deductive arguments. On to the other type of argument we’re introducing in this section: inductive arguments . These are distinguished from their deductive cousins by their relative lack of ambition. Whereas deductive arguments aim to give premises that guarantee/necessitate the conclusion, inductive arguments are more modest: they aim merely to provide premises that make the conclusion more probable than it otherwise would be; they aim to support the conclusion, but without making it unavoidable.

Here is an example of an inductive argument:

I’m telling you, you’re not going die taking a plane to visit us. Airplane crashes happen far less frequently than car crashes, for example; so you’re taking a bigger risk if you drive. In fact, plane crashes are so rare, you’re far more likely to die from slipping in the bathtub. You’re not going to stop taking showers, are you?

The speaker is trying to convince her visitor that he won’t die in a plane crash on the way to visit her. That’s the conclusion: you won’t die. This claim is supported by the others—which emphasize how rare plane crashes are—but it is not guaranteed by them. After all, plane crashes sometimes do happen. Instead, the premises give reasons to believe that the conclusion—you won’t die—is very probable.

Since inductive arguments have a different, more modest goal than their deductive cousins, it would be unreasonable for us to apply the same evaluative standards to both kinds of argument. That is, we can’t use the terms ‘valid’ and ‘invalid’ to apply to inductive arguments. Remember, for an argument to be valid, its premises must guarantee its conclusion. But inductive arguments don't even try to provide a guarantee of the conclusion; technically, then, they’re all invalid. But that won’t do. We need a different evaluative vocabulary to apply to inductive arguments. We will say of inductive arguments that they are (relatively) strong or weak , depending on how probable their conclusions are in light of their premises. One inductive argument is stronger than another when its conclusion is more probable than the other, given their respective premises.

One consequence of this difference in evaluative standards for inductive and deductive arguments is that for the former, unlike the latter, our evaluations are subject to revision in light of new evidence. Recall that since the validity or invalidity of a deductive argument is determined entirely by its form, as opposed to its content, the discovery of new information could not affect our evaluation of those arguments. The Socrates argument remained valid, even if we discovered that Socrates was in fact an alien. Our evaluations of inductive arguments, though, are not immune to revision in this way. New information might make the conclusion of an inductive argument more or less probable, and so we would have to revise our judgment accordingly, saying that the argument is stronger or weaker. Returning to the example above about plane crashes, suppose we were to discover that the FBI in the visitor’s hometown had recently being hearing lots of “chatter” from terrorist groups active in the area, with strong indications that they were planning to blow up a passenger plane. Yikes! This would affect our estimation of the probability of the conclusion of the argument—that the visitor wasn’t going to die in a crash. The probability of not dying goes down (as the probability of dying goes up). This new information would trigger a re-evaluation of the argument, and we would say it’s now weaker. If, on the other hand, we were to learn that the airline that flies between the visitor’s and the speaker’s towns had recently upgraded its entire fleet, getting rid of all of its older planes, replacing them with newer, more reliable model, while in addition instituting a new, more thorough and rigorous program of pre- and post-flight safety and maintenance inspections—well, then we might revise our judgment in the other direction. Given this information, we might judge that things are even safer for the visitor as it regards plane travel; that is, the proposition that the visitor won’t die is now even more probable than it was before. This new information would strengthen the argument to that conclusion.

Reasonable follow-up question: how much is the argument strengthened or weakened by the new information imagined in these scenarios? Answer: how should I know? Sorry, that’s not very helpful. But here’s the point: we’re talking about probabilities here; sometimes it’s hard to know what the probability of something happening really is. Sometimes it’s not: if I flip a coin, I know that the probability of it coming up tails is 0.5. But how probable is it that a particular plane from Airline X will crash with our hypothetical visitor on board? I don’t know. And how much more probable is a disaster on the assumption of increased terrorist chatter? Again, I have no idea. All I know is that the probability of dying on the plane goes up in that case. And in the scenario in which Airline X has lots of new planes and security measures, the probability of a crash goes down. Sometimes, with inductive arguments, all we can do is make relative judgments about strength and weakness: in light of these new facts, the conclusion is more or less probable than it was before we learned of the new facts. Sometimes, however, we can be precise about probabilities and make absolute judgments about strength and weakness: we can say precisely how probable a conclusion is in light of the premises supporting it. But this is a more advanced topic. We will discuss inductive logic in chapters 5 and 6, and will go into more depth then. Until then, patience. Baby steps.

1. Determine whether the following statements are true or false.

(a) Not all valid arguments are sound. (b) An argument with a false conclusion cannot be sound. (c) An argument with true premises and a true conclusion is valid. (d) An argument with a false conclusion cannot be valid.

2. Demonstrate that the following arguments are invalid.

(a) Some politicians are Democrats. Hillary Clinton is a politician. Hillary Clinton is a Democrat.

The argument’s form is:

Some A are B. x is A Therefore, x is B.

[where ‘A’ and ‘B’ stand for groups of things and ‘x’ stands for an individual]

(b) All dinosaurs are animals. Some animals are extinct. Therefore, all dinosaurs are extinct.

All A are B. Some B are C. Therefore, all A are C.

[where ‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’ stand for groups of things]

3. Consider the following inductive argument (about a made-up person):

Sally Johansson does all her grocery shopping at an organic food co-op. She’s a huge fan of tofu. She’s really into those week-long juice cleanse thingies. And she’s an active member of PETA. I conclude that she’s a vegetarian.

(a) Make up a new piece of information about Sally that weakens the argument. (b) Make up a new piece of information about Sally that strengthens the argument.

Introduction to Philosophy

Gaura Rader

• Logic for Intro to Philosophy: Deductive Reasoning, Validity, and Soundness

3 Types of arguments

Deductive Arguments

• Inductive Arguments

A valid deductive argument is truth preserving.

Truth Preserving – If the premises are true the conclusion is guaranteed to be true. The premises cannot be true and the conclusion false. They preserve the truth of the claims being made.

Validity – A deductive argument is valid if it is in the correct logical form. Validity refers only to the logical form of the argument and has nothing to do with whether the premises or the conclusion are true.

An argument can be valid but the conclusion can be false and an argument can be invalid but nevertheless have a true conclusion.

An argument can be valid but have a false conclusion because one or more of the premises may be false. If one or more of the premises are false we say that the argument is not sound.

A valid argument with a false conclusion:

• If I don’t do the readings for this class, then I will get a good grade.
• I won’t do the readings for this class.
• So, I’ll get a good grade.

Let me assure you this conclusion is false J This argument is valid but unsound because one of the premises is false.

Soundness – A deductive argument is sound if all the premises are true.

So, if an argument is valid and sound we know for sure that the conclusion is true, which means that when evaluating an argument we need to check for validity and soundness and when constructing arguments we should make sure our arguments are valid and sound.

An invalid argument with a true conclusion:

• Roses are red.
• Violets are blue.
• So, thirty plus two is thirty-two.

The conclusion happens to be true but the “argument” does not guarantee the conclusion to be true because the conclusion does not actually follow from the premises.

The difference between the first and second argument is that the first is in valid logical form but the conclusion is false because one of the premises is false and the second argument is not in valid logical, despite the conclusion being true.

Logical Form – The logical structure of an argument.

Common Valid Forms of Arguments

Modus Ponens

• If P then Q.
• Therefore, Q.
• If it is raining out then there are clouds in the sky.
• It is raining outside.
• Therefore, there are clouds in the sky.

This argument is valid as it is in a correct logical form. And it is sound, both premises are true, so, we know that the conclusion is true.

Modus Tollens

• Therefore, not-P.
• There are not clouds in the sky.
• Therefore, it is not raining.

Exercise: With your partner come up a sound and unsound examples of a modus ponnens and a modus tollens argument.

Common Invalid forms of Argument

Affirming the Consequent:

• Therefore, P.
• There are clouds in the sky.
• Therefore, it is raining.

Denying the Antecedent:

• Therefore, not-Q.
• It is not raining.
• Therefore, there are not clouds in the sky.

Exercise: With your partner come up an example of an argument that makes the mistake of affirming the consequent and an argument that makes the mistake of denying the antecedent.

Logically Syllogism – Also known as a Syllogism in Barbara. Dates back 2,500 years to Aristotle, the father of logic in the Western philosophical tradition.

• All A’s are B.
• Therefore, C is a B.
• All men are mortal.
• Socrates is a man.
• Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Logical Fallacies

Equivocation:

• Man is the only rational animal.
• No woman is a man.
• Therefore, no woman is rational.

Using the same word multiple times with a different meaning each time or switching back and forth between meanings is called equivocating.

When we using a more precise word than man it becomes clear that the conclusion does not actually follow from the premises.

Example substituting biological species definition of man:

• Homo sapiens are the only rational animal.
• No woman is a homo sapien.

Example substituting gender definition of man:

• Male homo sapiens are the only rational animal.
• No woman is a male homo sapien.

Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning

“Begging the question” is a technical term in philosophy and should not be used casually without care as to its definition in philosophy. This fallacy is also known as circular reasoning.

Begging the Question – An argument begs the question when the conclusion is stated or assumed in one or more of the premises.

• It is always wrong to kill an innocent human being.
• A fetus is an innocent human being.
• Therefore, it is always wrong to kill a fetus.

Exercise: Discuss with your partner how it might be that this argument assumes the conclusion.

Other dubious methods of arguing

Straw man Argument – A straw man argument is when instead of arguing against the actual argument one sets up a “straw man”, which is an argument that looks similar to the original but different is some important way, and then attacks the straw man while claiming to have show the original argument unsound or invalid.

Ad Hominem – Often times arguments resort to attacking the other person’s character in an attempt to discredit them, but this is not a logically acceptable way of arguing. When doing philosophy we should just focus on the argument being presented and leave the character of the person making the argument out of the picture.

Example: Anyone who says abortion is right/wrong is just stupid and evil and should never be listened to or taken seriously by anyone.

Arguing from authority – Appeals to authority, whether a particular person or religious tradition, are not acceptable methods of arguing in philosophy.

Example: Einstein believed in God so God must exist.

Other Types of Arguments

Inductive – Inductive arguments are the type of arguments used in science, such arguments are also called empirical arguments as they rely on information derived from the senses and draw conclusion based on our experiences. No inductive argument is ever one-hundred percent guaranteed the way a deductive argument is.

• The sun has risen every morning in recorded history.
• Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.
• Every swan I have ever seen is white.
• Therefore, all swans are white.

As you can see inductive arguments are stronger or weaker depending on the evidence and sample size whereas deductive arguments are either valid or invalid.

However, it is very important to note that many deductive argument rely on an empirical premises, which may give us reason to doubt the conclusion if the argument is valid.

Consider the previous example wherein we had a deductive argument where one of the premises was that “All men are mortal” which is an empirical claim.

Abductive – Abductive arguments, also called inference to the best explanation (IBE), also play an important rule in scientific inquiry. Many scientific facts are inferences to the best explanation.

Example: Previous to Galileo it was thought that the sun orbited the earth, this was thought to be the best explanation of certain facts. However, this explanation didn’t properly explain the movement of the other planets so Galileo hypothesized that the Sun was the center of the universe and that all the planets orbited the Sun and not the earth.

This type of thinking is also employed constantly in everyday life.

• My sandwich is gone from the refrigerator.
• My roommate is the only one in the apartment.
• Therefore, my roommate ate my sandwich.

Types of Arguments:

• Abductive (IBE)

Validity and Soundness

Logical Fallacies:

• Equivocation
• Begging the Question
• Straw man Argument
• Ad Hominem Argument
• Arguing from Authority

Other Terminology:

Conditional – an if-then claim i.e If P the Q.

Antecedent – the first part of a conditional.

Consequent – the second part of a conditional

Conclusion – the conclusion of a argument, denoted by the use of “so” or “therefore” and the last line of the argument is generally underlined to show that the next line of the argument is the conclusion

A deductive argument is valid if all of its premises are true? T/F

A deductive argument is sound if it is in the correct logical form? T/F

If a an argument is valid then its conclusion is true. T/F

In the statement, “If the lamp is on, there is power in the outlet,” which part is the consequent?

If P then Q. Not-Q. Therefore, not-P. Valid/Invalid

If P then Q. Not-P. Therefore, not-Q. Valid/Invalid

If P then Q. Q. Therefore, P. Valid/Invalid

If P then Q. P. Therefore, Q. Valid/Invalid

Is the following argument valid Y/N Is it sound? Y/N

If turtles are mammals then tigers are amphibians. Turtles are not mammals. So, tigers are not amphibians

Question 6 

If chairs are evil then tables are good. Chairs are evil. So, tables are good

If Joey is a kangaroo then Joey is not a reptile. Joey is a kangaroo. So, Joey is not a reptile.

Question 6 Is the following argument valid Y/N Is it sound? Y/N

• If abortion is wrong, then Greece is not in Europe.
• Greece is Europe.
• Therefore, abortion is not wrong.

What  logical fallacy does this argument makes: Man is the only rational animal. No woman is a man. Therefore, no woman is rational.

Explain the logical fallacy this argument makes: It is always wrong to kill an innocent human being. A fetus is an innocent human being. Therefore, it is always wrong to kill a fetus.

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Leave a comment cancel reply, course overview.

• Some General Tips for writing a Philosophy Paper
• More good advice on writing a philosophy paper
• Even More Good Advice About Writing a Philosophy Paper
• The Elements of Style by Strunk and White
• Sample Essays
• Essay Grading Rubric
• How to Cite in a Philosophy Paper (MLA)
• Unit 1: Introduction
• Unit 2: The Science of Morality
• Unit 3: Philosophy and Morality
• Unit 4: Social Contract Theory
• Unit 5 : Kantian Ethics
• Unit 6 : Utilitarianism
• Unit 7: Marxism
• Unit 8: Egalitarianism
• Unit 9: Libertarianism
• Unit 10: Abortion and Animal Rights
• Unit 11: Criminal Justice
• Unit 12: Racism and the #BlackLivesMatter Movement
• Unit 13: Feminism and the #MeToo Movement
• Unit 14: Sex and Marriage
• Unit 15: Climate Change
• Unit 16: Is Utopia Possible?
• Lesson 1 Introduction
• Lesson 2: Utilitarianism
• Lecture 3 Notes (Contractarianism/Hobbesian Social Contract Theory)
• Lecture 4 Notes (Contractualism/Kantian Ethics)
• Lecture 5 Notes: Judith Jarvis Thomson and Don Marquis
• Lecture 6 Notes (Warren and Singer)
• Lecture 7 (Tooley and English)
• Lecture 8 (Norcross and Regan)
• Lecture 9 (Machan and Cohen)
• Lecture 10 (Rawls and Nozick)
• Lecture 11 (Singer)
• Lecture 12 (Occupy the Future)
• Final Exam Review
• Course Readings
• Euthyphro: Summary
• Euthyphro: Dialogue
• Euthyphro: Notes
• Apology: Summary
• Apology: Dialogue
• Apology: Notes
• Crito: Summary
• Crito: Dialogue
• Crito: Notes
• Phaedo: Summary
• Phaedo: Dialogue
• Phaedo: Notes
• Gorgias: Summary
• Gorgias: Dialogue
• Gorgias: Notes
• Plato’s Allegory of the Cave
• Allegory of the Cave Notes
• SEP – The Cosmological Argument
• The No Infinite Regress Argument
• The Contingency Argument
• Russell and Copleston Debate
• The Inductive Argument
• Overview of Design Arguments
• SEP: Design Arguments
• Hume Reading Intro and Notes
• Paley Reading Intro and Notes
• Behe Reading Intro and Notes
• Kitcher Reading Intro and Notes
• SEP: The Ontological Argument
• Ontological Argument Notes
• IEP: The Problem of Evil
• Dostoyevsky’s Rebellion Chapter from The Brothers Karamazov
• Rebellion Notes
• Mackie and Swinburne Reading Notes and Intro
• SEP: Pascal’s Wager
• Pascal’s Wager Notes
• SEP: Mind-Body Dualism
• Parallelism and Occasionalism
• SEP: Mind-Body Dualism Notes
• Foster and Churchland Notes
• Physicalism: Mind Brain Identity Theory (Type Identity Theory)
• Smart and Place Notes
• Multiple Realizability and Functionalism
• Token Identity Theory and Token Physicalism
• Searle Notes
• Jackson Notes
• Chalmers Notes
• Descartes’ Meditations 1 & 2
• Descartes’ Meditations Notes
• Skepticism Notes
• Notes on Moore’s Proof of the Existence of the an External World
• Naive Realism and Representational Realism
• Transcendental Idealism
• Logical Positivism
• The Euthyphro Dilema Notes
• Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan
• SEP: Hobbes’s Political and Moral Philosophy
• Leviathan Notes
• Gauthier Notes
• Objections: The Fool Argument
• Lesson 1 Lecture Notes
• Immanuel Kant – What is Enlightenment?
• Lesson 2 Lecture Notes
• Lesson 3 Lecture Notes
• Lesson 4 Lecture Notes (Kantian Ethics part I)
• Lesson 5 Lecture Notes (Kantian Ethics part II)
• Allen Wood – Kantian Ethics (excerpts)
• Lesson 6 Lecture Notes (Social Contract Theory par I)
• Lesson 7 Lecture Notes (Social Contract Theory part II)
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau – The Social Contract
• Lesson 8 Lecture Notes (Applied Ethics part 1)
• Lesson 9 Lecture Notes (Applied Ethics part II)
• Peter Singer – Unsanctifying Human Life
• Mary Anne Warren – On the Legal and Moral Status of Abortion
• Lesson 10 Lecture Notes (Applied Ethics part III)
• Lesson 11 Lecture Notes (Metaethics)
• Reagan – The Case for Animal Rights
• Lesson 12 Lecture Notes (Political Philosophy)
• John Rawls – A Theory of Justice (excerpts)
• Robert Nozick – Anarchy, State, Utopia
• Cumulative Final Review
• Cumulative Final

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Guide to Writing Deductive Essays

Table of contents.

• What Is A Deductive Essay?

What are Deductive Arguments

• The Three Main Parts In a Deductive Essay
• The Structure Of a Deductive Essay

Writing serves several purposes. For instant, humor writers craft pieces to entertain, novel writers and poets craft pieces to explore our language and the human condition, journalists write to convey news items, and so on. Students, however, usually write to explain and inform, often using the “deductive” essay format to do so. The art of deduction is a means of stating assumptions, opinion, information that is well known, and then by applying reasoning to clarify and reach conclusions. Writing deductive essays are often a challenge and quite stressful for students. However, these types of essays are an essential tool for tutors to evaluate how much their students understand from various courses.

What is a Deductive Essay?

A deductive essay and the art of deductive reasoning or thinking are connected where the latter implies using reasoning to come to conclusions. As it progresses, a deductive essay shows the most reasonable and logical conclusion that can be reached on the basis of the information provided.

When writing a deductive essay, the most crucial factor is supporting each deduction or conclusion. The writer’s very last conclusion is based on their own feelings and experiences of life. Writing a deductive essay involves extensive research and applying one’s critical thinking skills. Therefore, the writer should have a good grasp of the English language if they are to provide a text that is clear and easy to understand. In summary, writing a deductive essay requires:

• the ability to think critically
• the ability to cite and format a text correctly
• a considerable amount of time.

Deductive essays are a great way of evaluating a student’s achievements in various subjects. The individual nature of deductive writing means it should demonstrate how competent a student is at analyzing information and reaching a logical conclusion that accurately represents that information. Deductive reasoning derives from the notion, that when provided with certain signs or information, the writer is able to come to logical conclusions about that information.

Deductive arguments are a type of argument whereby a conclusion should reasonably result from provided evidence. Where the premises of the argument are fact-based and strongly support any conclusion, then it is reasonable that the argument’s conclusion is resoundingly true. There are three basic parts to a deductive argument:

• The main premise
• A lesser premise
• A conclusion.

The Three Main Parts in a Deductive Essay

Clarity and keen focus are key features of deductive writing. The primary aim of this type of essay is to help students understand the process of deductive reasoning. Some popular topics for deductive essays are:

• Communism versus democracy
• Animals versus birds
• Vegetables versus fruit
• Love versus hate.

Deductive reasoning has three parts:

This is the basic belief or fact on which irrefutable conclusions can be drawn. An argument may have several premises.

This element is the various particles of information available to a writer.

This part is the writer’s final analysis of a given subject, problem or situation. A conclusion is reached by matching the premise(s) with available evidence.

The Structure of a Deductive Essay

Deductive essays are a genre of writing given to students at various levels of higher education. It is possible to define a deductive essay as a type of writing that relies heavily on the use of reasoning and on the writer presenting their process of reasoning in the form of an argument – a deductive argument. A worthy essay of this type is highly focused and perfectly formed. Every new paragraph focuses on a particular point or feature where examples and detail are used to arrive at a conclusion. One of the most important aspects of the essay is the support provided to draw conclusions. Put another way, a conclusion will appear weak and feeble if the writer does not support their points with strong evidence. The following are some key elements to bear in mind when writing a deductive essay.

The Process for Writing a Deductive Essay

• Topic selection: Writers should select a topic that interests them, but one they do not have a strong opinion on.
• The purpose: A deductive essay’s purpose is to show students how to use deductive reasoning, a process that uses facts to arrive at conclusions.
• Introductory paragraph: Deductive essays are fact-based so writers should use the introductory paragraph to explain the issue or problem they are exploring and provide any relevant background information about that issue or problem. The thesis statement should outline all main facts as well as any conclusion(s) arrived at.
• Supporting body paragraphs: These are used to describe or elaborate on the main points presented in the thesis statement. Each body paragraph should begin with a clearly written topic sentence to indicate what that paragraph is about. After that, any evidence that supports the writer’s claims should be outlined – while omitting any personal experiences or opinions he or she (the writer) may have.
• Concluding paragraph: In this paragraph, the writer should recap on any conclusion(s) he or she has come to from their research work. A conclusion can also be forward-looking.

You may also be interested in:

Supreme discursive essay   scholarship essay     how to write a five paragraph essay   how to make an exploratory essay engaging.

Inductive and Deductive Assignment (McMahon)

The next writing assignment we will be concentrating on will be the construction of persuasive passages using induction, deduction, and expressive language or analogy. These passages should be used to further strengthen and develop your Pro/Con and/or your Rogerian essays.

1. Inductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from specifics to the general. We draw general conclusions based on discrete, specific everyday experiences. Because both writers and readers share this reasoning process, induction can be a highly effective strategy for persuasion. A truly persuasive and effective inductive argument proceeds through an accumulation of many specifics. Within your own essays you should use support from outside sources, personal experience, and specific examples to fully develop your inductive passages. Also, keep in mind that conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning are always only probable. To use induction effectively, a writer must demonstrate that the specifics are compelling and thus justify the conclusion but never claim that the conclusion is guaranteed in all situations. In addition, a writer must keep in mind who his/her audience is and what specifics or evidence will persuade the audience to accept the conclusion. Finally, a writer who is reasoning inductively must be cautious of hasty generalizations in which the specifics are inadequate to justify the conclusions.

2. Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from general statements agreed to be true to a certain and logical conclusion. Again, like inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning is a familiar strategy we use in our everyday lives and is a potentially effective persuasive strategy. However, unlike inductive reasoning when the conclusion may be justified but is always only probable, the conclusion reached deductively must be logically certain. Most deductive arguments begin with a general statement that has already been "proven" inductively and is now accepted by most people as true. Today, most deductive general statements involve commonly held values or established scientific fact. A writer who uses deduction to frame an argument must be absolutely certain that the general statement is accepted as true and then must demonstrate the relationship between this general statement and the specific claim, thus proving beyond a doubt the conclusion. An effective deductive argument is one in which your audience accepts the general statement and is then logically compelled by the development of the argument to accept your conclusion.

3. An analogy helps a writer further develop and support an idea he/she is trying to convey to a reader. In an analogy a comparison is drawn between the principle idea and something else a reader is familiar with. Thus, the comparison clarifies the principle idea. Analogies within persuasive writing appeal to either a reader's value system or to a reader's reason and logic. Asking a reader to consider an idea, issue, or problem in the context of something else can both clarify the idea and persuade the reader to accept our interpretation of the idea. Please note: analogies only work when the subjects you are comparing have some similarities. If the things you compare are too dissimilar, your readers will dismiss the analogy and fail to be persuaded of your idea.

25 Academic Writing – Sound and Valid Argument

Academic speak – clarification.

When reading about academic writing you will sometimes come across a set of words that seem to be used somewhat interchangeably and even randomly at times. So, just to set the record straight:

Claim / assertion / premise / proposition are all statements that require support either to justify them or prove their soundness. They need further evidence. These are the starting point of reasoning.

Position / Thesis identify the stance you are taking on the main topic of the essay and it is generated by the essay question provided by your instructor. In an analytical or critical essay, it may indicate more than one available stance.

Also, some authors refer to the thesis as the premise or proposition. This is not the best description, though it is not completely inaccurate because the thesis statement does need to be supported with sound evidence and valid arguments throughout the essay.

Glossary of Terms

Argument – noun

• Logic – a reason or set of reasons given in support of an idea, action, or theory

Claim – noun (synonyms – premise, assertion, proposition)

• an assertion that something is true

Claim – verb

• state or assert something, typically without providing evidence or proof

Counter claim – noun

• a claim made to rebut a previous claim; refutation of opposing arguments

Deduction – noun

• Logic – the act of understanding something, or drawing to a conclusion, based on evidence

Induction – noun

• the process or action of bringing about or giving rise to something

Position – noun (synonym – thesis )

• the main point or overall argument that is to be proven or justified. It focuses the writer’s ideas and minor arguments

Premise – noun (synonyms – claim, assertion, proposition)

• Logic – a previous statement or proposition from which another is inferred or follows as a conclusion
• a statement in an argument that provides reason or support for the conclusion

Proposition – noun (synonyms – premise, claim, assertion)

• Logic – a statement or assertion that expresses a judgment or opinion
• a statement that expresses a concept that can be true or false

Soundness – noun

• the quality of being based on valid reason or good judgment
• the soundness of an argument has two qualities 1. valid structure 2. true premises

Validity – noun

• Logic – the quality of being justifiable by reason

the conclusion follows from the premises

Introduction to Academic Argument

The capacity to academically argue is a core skill that many students are not taught adequately prior to university writing. Argumentative ability is centered around knowledge. Not only knowledge of a topic, but knowledge of how to write a clear and coherent argument. Basically, an argument is an informed position, on a topic, that you are supporting or defending with sound evidence and valid conclusions. An essay may have one overall argument or position, yet include a series or set of smaller arguments that support or develop the overall position of the writer. This may include evaluating sources or contradictory evidence. The position is stated in the thesis (see Chapter 21 & 26). This position must be supported by sound academic evidence obtained through reading and research.

Suspend Bias

In order to develop sound and valid arguments, students must first suspend their personal judgments or bias on a topic (see Chapter 30). This can be achieved through self-reflection and critical thinking. Academic writing must be clear and objective, and this means you must be open and willing to examine more than one perspective of a topic or argument without preconceived ideas and opinions, without bias. Make a conscious effort to step beyond your own subjectivity and depersonalize both the topic and the supporting evidence. Through critical thinking skills, such as objectivity and analysis, you can begin to closely examine and evaluate sources and the production of knowledge. As a writer, sound and valid reasoning assists you in determining the best evidence to support your own claims and in evaluating the claims of other writers. As an objective writer, you should remain open to other viewpoints, though rely on your critical analysis skills to both identify and write sound and valid academic arguments.

Validity primarily means that in an argument the conclusion follows from the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true. Salva veritate (Latin) means “without loss of truth” – a rule of inference must be truth preserving; it must take one from truths to truths = Validity [1]

Valid Argument

• All cats are aliens
• Felix is a cat

Therefore, Felix is an alien

This is a valid argument . Hypothetically, if all the premises are true, then the conclusion cannot be false . It is logically impossible for the premises to be true and for the conclusion to be false.

Invalid Argument

• Felix is an alien

Therefore, Felix is a cat

This is an invalid argument . Hypothetically, just because Felix is an alien does not guarantee that he is a cat. There may be other types of creatures that are also aliens. However, if the first premise said “ Only cats are aliens”, then the argument would be valid.

• Only cats are aliens

This is a valid argument . No individual premise (claim, assertion) is labelled as valid or invalid, only the argument structure as a whole . However, premises can be checked for soundness.

The soundness of an argument relies on two qualities:

1. the structure of the argument is valid (see above)

2. the premises are true and therefore the conclusion is also true.

Hence, Felix is not an alien unless we can provide sound proof (truth or true facts) that support this premise (claim, assertion). We would also need to provide evidence that Felix is indeed a cat! So, while the argument structure may be correct (valid), the premises could be untrue, therefore the premises and overall argument lacks soundness .

Deductive Syllogism

The structure of the above arguments is called a deductive syllogism and it is the the conventional way of displaying or writing a deductive argument:

Premise + Premise = Conclusion

Of course, you can have more than two premises or reasons to support your conclusion. In academic writing the major position is put forward in the thesis statement and the balance of the essay has the task of unpacking the claims and counter-claims surrounding the key arguments and providing supporting evidence. Note also, you should never begin your assignment preparation with a predetermined conclusion in mind (called “jumping to the conclusion”) and work your argument back from that point. Yes, in an essay the thesis is proposed in the introduction, though it is assumed that you arrived at this thesis statement through research and careful consideration of the facts and evidence surrounding the chosen topic. Whereas “jumping to the conclusion” beforehand and attempting to make the evidence fit your thesis is not the actions of an open and critical thinker who responds to evidence found through research. It instead indicates a very determined bias in thinking and academic writing.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is often defined as the inference from particular to general [2] . It is based on formulating theories through detailed observations. It is useful in scientific fields, however, it presupposes that the future will resemble the past. This type of reasoning moves from evidence to assumptions (about the future) to a claim. The claim cannot be a deductive conclusion, only a generalization from observable evidence and applied assumptions.

You’re in the supermarket and would like to buy a couple of ripe avocados. To determine if they are ripe, you give them a gentle squeeze. After testing three to four from the fruit case, you determine that they are all still too green and decide not to purchase avocados.

Through induction, you have made your own observation , and from the evidence at hand made an assumption – they’re all too green. This is a generalization made using observable evidence and applying an assumption. As you cannot know for certain that every avocado is green, without testing each one, this cannot be a deductive argument. While there may be sufficient evidence to make a decision and therefore, strong inductive reasoning, the reasoning has not been proven true, merely an assumption.

While inductive reasoning may be useful in formulating a scientific hypothesis for further testing, it is not a strong form of reasoning for academic writing.

Good academic writing is founded on your capacity to academically argue from a well-researched and informed perspective, free from subjectivity and personal bias. The deductive syllogism is a good illustration of sound and valid argument structure that is the backbone of all well-written academic discussions.

Watch the video below for further information and examples of deductive and inductive reasoning. Particularly helpful is the middle section on evaluating deductive and inductive arguments / reasoning.

Test your knowledge with five quick questions:

• Honderich, T. (Ed.). (2005). The Oxford companion to philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ↵
• Plumlee, D., & Taverna, J. [Center for Innovation in Legal Education]. (2013, August 24). Episode 1.3: Deductive and inductive arguments. ↵

the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises

a deductive scheme of a formal argument consisting of a major and a minor premise and a conclusion

assertion, maintain as fact

a claim made to rebut a previous claim

Academic Writing Skills Copyright © 2021 by Patricia Williamson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Deductive and Inductive Reasoning Essay

Inductive and deductive reasoning: essay introduction, deductive approach, inductive approach, inductive vs deductive: essay conclusion, reference list.

There are different types of reasoning, most of which are explained in psychology books and articles. This paper discusses two types of reasoning – deductive and inductive reasoning using cognitive research. The inductive and deductive reasoning essay you read focuses on teaching science and technical courses in High Schools. It explores cases of science and mathematical teaching in schools.

Deductive reasoning is a logical process where conclusions are made from general cases. General cases are studied, after which conclusions are made as they apply to a certain case (Byrne, Evans and Newstead, 2019). In the context of this deductive reasoning essay, an argument from analogy is one of the examples under deductive reasoning. The rule underlying this module is that in the case where P and Q are similar and have properties a, b, and c, object P has an extra property, “x.” Therefore, Q will automatically have the same extra property, “x,” as the two are similar (Dew Jr and Foreman, 2020).

Most high school students in the United States do come across the argument from the analogy model of deductive reasoning while studying science subjects. Nonetheless, most students do not realize the applicability of this rule. They apply the rule unconsciously. Therefore, high school students should learn about this model of reasoning. This will help them know certain instances under which they should apply this rule when making arguments in science subjects (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2019).

Researches conducted on analogies give a clear way of explaining why student reports have added ideas. While studying scientific subjects, students do make productive analogies. They apply scientific principles, for instance, energy conservation principles, to different settings.

Unproductive analogies are also made by students, for example, in experiments between temperature and heat. Research that compares different forms of analogies gained from visual and animated representations. Such studies distinguish the functions of different brain parts. It emphasizes the benefits of activating correct pathways for specific learning forms. Research on analogies emphasizes on the selection and inclusion of right analogies in the reports. It also encourages the analysis of different analogies (Vygotsky, 2020).

Argument from analogy is one of the tools that students can use to advance reasonable arguments in different science subjects. This is according to a study that was conducted to ascertain the model that can be used by high school students in when solving problems in genetics. Different questions and student-teacher engagements were used to reach the conclusion (Choden and Kijkuakul, 2020).

The major problems in the teaching of science subjects are the lapses in communication. More often, students and teachers in science classrooms rarely share similar purpose on either the subject or the activity. At times, teachers and students assign different meanings to the same concept. This happens in cases where the two have different levels of understanding about the science concepts because most of these concepts are technical (Choden and Kijkuakul, 2020).

In order to improve the understanding of science subjects, students are required to use different approaches. For students to use analogy, they must have an understanding of the concept in question first. The concept is the most important thing as arguments derived from the subject will be concrete when the concept is well grasped.

More models should be used by science teachers in the science classes. The real nature of the models or analogs used for teaching are better understood when they are realistic. Analogs are forms of human interventions in learning. They should be used carefully as poor use may result in mal understanding of the real meaning. Analogs have an aspect of practicality which leaves images in the minds of students.

When used well, a constructive learning environment will be attained. Analogies should be used in a way that students can easily capture or map. Students should also be given room to make suggestions of improving the analogies used by their teachers. Imperfect analogies expose difficulties that arise in describing and explaining scientific ideas that are mostly of an abstract nature (Newton, 2022).

According to Oaksford and Chater (2020), inductive reasoning entails taking certain examples and using the examples to develop a general principle. It cannot be utilized in proving a concept. In inductive reasoning, solutions to problems can be reached even when the person offering the solution does not have general knowledge about the world.

An example of deductive reasoning is the case of ‘Rex the dog’. In this case, a child can make a deduction that is logical when Rex barks even at times when barking itself is an unfamiliar activity. If the child was told that Rex is a cat and that all cats bark, the child would respond with a “yes” when asked whether Rex barks. This is even when Rex does not bark. Under this reasoning, logical deductions are counterfactual in that they are not made in line with the beliefs of the real world (Pellegrino and Glaser, 2021).

On the other hand, inductive reasoning is one of the oldest learning models. Inductive reasoning develops with time as students grow. However, this reasoning has not been fully utilized in schools. It carries many cognitive skills within it. Inductive thinking is used in creative arts in high schools. In creative art subjects, students are expected to build on their learned ideas. The knowledge learned is applied in different contexts. This is the real goal of inductive reasoning (Csapó, 2020).

For the purposes of the inductive reasoning essay, research has revealed that deductive reasoning can be applied in two performance contexts. This includes the school knowledge application and the applicable knowledge context. School knowledge is the knowledge that is acquired at school. This knowledge is mostly applied in situations that are related to schoolwork.

It is applied in a similar context in which it was acquired. This knowledge or reasoning is what the students apply in handling assignments, tests, and examinations in school. It is used to grade students and determine student careers in schools. Applicable knowledge can be easily applied in situations that differ from the context in which the command was acquired (Csapó, 2020).

Research conducted in the United States revealed that the skills students acquire at the elementary level are insufficient. Elementary mathematics teaching lacks a conceptual explanation to the students. When these students get to high school, they need a basis upon which they can understand mathematical formulas and measurements. Therefore, teachers are forced to introduce these students to a higher level of thinking.

The tasks in high school mathematics that require deep thinking are also called high cognitive demand tasks. At this level of thinking, students can understand complex mathematical concepts and apply them correctly. Thus, students are introduced to inductive reasoning (Brahier, 2020).

Students will mostly have a tough time at the introductory to inductive reasoning. Students will get a grasp of concepts, mostly mathematical ones. However, it will take longer for students to develop application skills. Mathematical concepts will be understood by students within a short span.

However, applying the concepts to solve different mathematical problems is another problem. Just like for the two types of knowledge, it has always been hard for students from high school to apply the school concept in the real world. Students acquire the inside, but in most cases, they reserve it for schoolwork only.

When students do not get good tutoring, gaining the transition required to achieve the real concepts becomes difficult. This idea further destroys them and may even cause a total failure to understand and apply inductive reasoning (Van Vo and Csapó, 2022).

The transition from elementary school to high school includes psychological changes. These changes need to be molded by introducing the student to detailed thinking. This gradual process begins with slowly ushering the students to simple concepts. This simple concept builds slowly, and complexity is introduced gradually.

The students’ minds grow as they get used to the hard concepts. Later, the students become more creative and critical in thinking and understanding concepts (Hayes et al., 2019).

Inductive and deductive reasoning are two types of reasoning that borrow from one another. The use of logical conclusion applies in both of them. They are very useful, especially in teaching mathematics and science courses.

Brahier, D. (2020) Teaching secondary and middle school mathematics . Abingdon: Routledge.

Byrne, R.M., Evans, J.S.B. and Newstead, S.E. (2019) Human reasoning: the psychology of deduction . London: Psychology Press.

Choden, T. and Kijkuakul, S. (2020) ‘Blending problem based learning with scientific argumentation to enhance students’ understanding of basic genetics’, International Journal of Instruction , 13(1), pp. 445-462.

Csapó, B. (2020) ‘Development of inductive reasoning in students across school grade levels’, Thinking Skills and Creativity , 37, pp. 1-15.

Dew Jr, J.K. and Foreman, M.W. (2020) How do we know?: an introduction to epistemology . Westmont: InterVarsity Press.

Hayes, B.K. et al. (2019) ‘The diversity effect in inductive reasoning depends on sampling assumptions’, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 26, pp.1043-1050.

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2019) Science and engineering for grades 6-12: investigation and design at the center . Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.

Newton, D.P. (2022) A practical guide to teaching science in the secondary school . Milton Park: Taylor & Francis.

Oaksford, M. and Chater, N. (2020) ‘New paradigms in the psychology of reasoning’, Annual Review of Psychology , 71, pp. 305-330.

Pellegrino, J.W. and Glaser, R. (2021) ‘Components of inductive reasoning’, In Aptitude, learning, and instruction (pp. 177-218). Abingdon: Routledge.

Upmeier zu Belzen, A., Engelschalt, P. and Krüger, D. (2021) ‘Modeling as scientific reasoning – the role of abductive reasoning for modeling competence’, Education Sciences , 11(9), pp. 1-11.

Van Vo, D. and Csapó, B. (2022) ‘Exploring students’ science motivation across grade levels and the role of inductive reasoning in science motivation’, European Journal of Psychology of Education , 37(3), pp. 807-829.

Vygotsky, L.S. (2020) Educational psychology . Boca Raton: CRC Press.

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Bibliography

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Organizing Your Argument

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How can I effectively present my argument?

In order for your argument to be persuasive, it must use an organizational structure that the audience perceives as both logical and easy to parse. Three argumentative methods —the  Toulmin Method , Classical Method , and Rogerian Method — give guidance for how to organize the points in an argument.

Note that these are only three of the most popular models for organizing an argument. Alternatives exist. Be sure to consult your instructor and/or defer to your assignment’s directions if you’re unsure which to use (if any).

Toulmin Method

The  Toulmin Method  is a formula that allows writers to build a sturdy logical foundation for their arguments. First proposed by author Stephen Toulmin in  The Uses of Argument (1958), the Toulmin Method emphasizes building a thorough support structure for each of an argument's key claims.

The basic format for the Toulmin Method  is as follows:

Claim:  In this section, you explain your overall thesis on the subject. In other words, you make your main argument.

Data (Grounds):  You should use evidence to support the claim. In other words, provide the reader with facts that prove your argument is strong.

Warrant (Bridge):  In this section, you explain why or how your data supports the claim. As a result, the underlying assumption that you build your argument on is grounded in reason.

Backing (Foundation):  Here, you provide any additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to support the warrant.

Counterclaim:  You should anticipate a counterclaim that negates the main points in your argument. Don't avoid arguments that oppose your own. Instead, become familiar with the opposing perspective.   If you respond to counterclaims, you appear unbiased (and, therefore, you earn the respect of your readers). You may even want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.

Rebuttal:  In this section, you incorporate your own evidence that disagrees with the counterclaim. It is essential to include a thorough warrant or bridge to strengthen your essay’s argument. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis, your readers may not make a connection between the two, or they may draw different conclusions.

Example of the Toulmin Method:

Claim:  Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

Data1:  Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air-polluting activity.

Warrant 1:  Due to the fact that cars are the largest source of private (as opposed to industrial) air pollution, switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

Data 2:  Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.

Warrant 2:  Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that the decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

Data 3:  Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.

Warrant 3:  The combination of these technologies produces less pollution.

Counterclaim:  Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages an inefficient culture of driving even as it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging the use of mass transit systems.

Rebuttal:  While mass transit is an idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work. Thus, hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.

Rogerian Method

The Rogerian Method  (named for, but not developed by, influential American psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers) is a popular method for controversial issues. This strategy seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the audience understand perspectives that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s position. Moreso than other methods, it places an emphasis on reiterating an opponent's argument to his or her satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian Method lies in its ability to define the terms of the argument in such a way that:

• your position seems like a reasonable compromise.
• you seem compassionate and empathetic.

The basic format of the Rogerian Method  is as follows:

Introduction:  Introduce the issue to the audience, striving to remain as objective as possible.

Opposing View : Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way. When you discuss the counterargument without judgement, the opposing side can see how you do not directly dismiss perspectives which conflict with your stance.

Statement of Validity (Understanding):  This section discusses how you acknowledge how the other side’s points can be valid under certain circumstances. You identify how and why their perspective makes sense in a specific context, but still present your own argument.

Statement of Your Position:  By this point, you have demonstrated that you understand the other side’s viewpoint. In this section, you explain your own stance.

Statement of Contexts : Explore scenarios in which your position has merit. When you explain how your argument is most appropriate for certain contexts, the reader can recognize that you acknowledge the multiple ways to view the complex issue.

Statement of Benefits:  You should conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from accepting your position. By explaining the advantages of your argument, you close on a positive note without completely dismissing the other side’s perspective.

Example of the Rogerian Method:

Introduction:  The issue of whether children should wear school uniforms is subject to some debate.

Opposing View:  Some parents think that requiring children to wear uniforms is best.

Statement of Validity (Understanding):  Those parents who support uniforms argue that, when all students wear the same uniform, the students can develop a unified sense of school pride and inclusiveness.

Statement of Your Position : Students should not be required to wear school uniforms. Mandatory uniforms would forbid choices that allow students to be creative and express themselves through clothing.

Statement of Contexts:  However, even if uniforms might hypothetically promote inclusivity, in most real-life contexts, administrators can use uniform policies to enforce conformity. Students should have the option to explore their identity through clothing without the fear of being ostracized.

Statement of Benefits:  Though both sides seek to promote students' best interests, students should not be required to wear school uniforms. By giving students freedom over their choice, students can explore their self-identity by choosing how to present themselves to their peers.

Classical Method

The Classical Method of structuring an argument is another common way to organize your points. Originally devised by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (and then later developed by Roman thinkers like Cicero and Quintilian), classical arguments tend to focus on issues of definition and the careful application of evidence. Thus, the underlying assumption of classical argumentation is that, when all parties understand the issue perfectly, the correct course of action will be clear.

The basic format of the Classical Method  is as follows:

Introduction (Exordium): Introduce the issue and explain its significance. You should also establish your credibility and the topic’s legitimacy.

Statement of Background (Narratio): Present vital contextual or historical information to the audience to further their understanding of the issue. By doing so, you provide the reader with a working knowledge about the topic independent of your own stance.

Proposition (Propositio): After you provide the reader with contextual knowledge, you are ready to state your claims which relate to the information you have provided previously. This section outlines your major points for the reader.

Proof (Confirmatio): You should explain your reasons and evidence to the reader. Be sure to thoroughly justify your reasons. In this section, if necessary, you can provide supplementary evidence and subpoints.

Refutation (Refuatio): In this section, you address anticipated counterarguments that disagree with your thesis. Though you acknowledge the other side’s perspective, it is important to prove why your stance is more logical.  

Conclusion (Peroratio): You should summarize your main points. The conclusion also caters to the reader’s emotions and values. The use of pathos here makes the reader more inclined to consider your argument.  

Example of the Classical Method:  

Introduction (Exordium): Millions of workers are paid a set hourly wage nationwide. The federal minimum wage is standardized to protect workers from being paid too little. Research points to many viewpoints on how much to pay these workers. Some families cannot afford to support their households on the current wages provided for performing a minimum wage job .

Statement of Background (Narratio): Currently, millions of American workers struggle to make ends meet on a minimum wage. This puts a strain on workers’ personal and professional lives. Some work multiple jobs to provide for their families.

Proposition (Propositio): The current federal minimum wage should be increased to better accommodate millions of overworked Americans. By raising the minimum wage, workers can spend more time cultivating their livelihoods.

Proof (Confirmatio): According to the United States Department of Labor, 80.4 million Americans work for an hourly wage, but nearly 1.3 million receive wages less than the federal minimum. The pay raise will alleviate the stress of these workers. Their lives would benefit from this raise because it affects multiple areas of their lives.

Refutation (Refuatio): There is some evidence that raising the federal wage might increase the cost of living. However, other evidence contradicts this or suggests that the increase would not be great. Additionally,   worries about a cost of living increase must be balanced with the benefits of providing necessary funds to millions of hardworking Americans.

Conclusion (Peroratio): If the federal minimum wage was raised, many workers could alleviate some of their financial burdens. As a result, their emotional wellbeing would improve overall. Though some argue that the cost of living could increase, the benefits outweigh the potential drawbacks.

•    
• Deductive Essay

Deductive essays are an important factor in evaluating the knowledge level of students in many courses.

Deductive reasoning is based on the concept that given as set of circumstances or clues (premises), one can draw a reasonable assumption as to the state of the situation. More simply, a person can solve a puzzle or identify a person if given enough information.

Specifically, deductive reasoning takes individual factors, weighs them against the current knowledge about such things, and adds them up to come to a conclusion. There are three parts to deductive reasoning. The first is the PREMISE. A premise is a basic fact or belief that is used as the basis for drawing conclusions. There may be several PREMISES in an argument. The second part is called EVIDENCE. The evidence is the information you have before you, whether it is a story you are analyzing or something you have observed. The last part is the CONCLUSION. The conclusion is your final analysis of the situation, based on balancing PREMISES with EVIDENCE. A simplified example might be as follows:

• premise: all dogs are animals
• evidence: Fido is a dog
• conclusion: Fido is an animal.

This is not a complex deductive exercise, but it is accurate.

We use deductive reasoning quite commonly in day-to-day life. For example, say you look out your window some morning and see the street is wet. There are several ways you could interpret this information. You might assume a large water truck has just driven by, inundating the area with spray. Possibly, you may decide that water has soaked up from the ground. Most likely, however, you will likely decide that it has rained. Why? Based on your life experience and likely factors, the most logical deduction is that a wet street is the result of rainfall. There are other possibilities, but the most logical deduction is rain. If, however, you were SURE that there had been no rain, or you were aware of a street cleaning program, your deduction would change appropriately. Deductive reasoning takes the MOST REASONABLE, LIKELY path, but is not necessarily fool-proof. Deductive reasoning is commonly used in police work, investigative reporting, the sciences (including medicine), law, and, oddly enough, literary analysis.

A good deductive essay is clear and focused. Each paragraph focuses on a particular aspect or a particular point, using detail and examples to lead to a specific conclusion. The support for one's conclusion is the most important factor. In other words, without supporting one's point, the conclusion is weak.

Here are the examples of the popular topics for deductive essays and papers:

• Online Education Courses and Degrees
• Democracy vs Communism
• International Immigrants and Freedom
• The Harm of Lie, The Harm of Truth
• The Love vs Habit

Useful links

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