goals in literature review

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Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

• UConn Library
• Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide
• Introduction

Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide — Introduction

• Getting Started
• How to Pick a Topic
• Strategies to Find Sources
• Evaluating Sources & Lit. Reviews
• Tips for Writing Literature Reviews
• Writing Literature Review: Useful Sites
• Citation Resources
• Other Academic Writings

What are Literature Reviews?

So, what is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries." Taylor, D.  The literature review: A few tips on conducting it . University of Toronto Health Sciences Writing Centre.

Goals of Literature Reviews

What are the goals of creating a Literature Review?  A literature could be written to accomplish different aims:

• To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
• To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews .  Review of General Psychology , 1 (3), 311-320.

What kinds of sources require a Literature Review?

• A research paper assigned in a course
• A thesis or dissertation
• A grant proposal
• An article intended for publication in a journal

All these instances require you to collect what has been written about your research topic so that you can demonstrate how your own research sheds new light on the topic.

Types of Literature Reviews

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.

• Example : Predictors and Outcomes of U.S. Quality Maternity Leave: A Review and Conceptual Framework:  10.1177/08948453211037398  

Systematic review : "The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find." (p. 139). Nelson, L. K. (2013). Research in Communication Sciences and Disorders . Plural Publishing.

• Example : The effect of leave policies on increasing fertility: a systematic review:  10.1057/s41599-022-01270-w

Meta-analysis : "Meta-analysis is a method of reviewing research findings in a quantitative fashion by transforming the data from individual studies into what is called an effect size and then pooling and analyzing this information. The basic goal in meta-analysis is to explain why different outcomes have occurred in different studies." (p. 197). Roberts, M. C., & Ilardi, S. S. (2003). Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . Blackwell Publishing.

• Example : Employment Instability and Fertility in Europe: A Meta-Analysis:  10.1215/00703370-9164737

Meta-synthesis : "Qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic." (p.312). Zimmer, L. (2006). Qualitative meta-synthesis: A question of dialoguing with texts .  Journal of Advanced Nursing , 53 (3), 311-318.

• Example : Women’s perspectives on career successes and barriers: A qualitative meta-synthesis:  10.1177/05390184221113735

Literature Reviews in the Health Sciences

• UConn Health subject guide on systematic reviews Explanation of the different review types used in health sciences literature as well as tools to help you find the right review type
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Reference management. Clean and simple.

What is a literature review? [with examples]

What is a literature review?

The purpose of a literature review, how to write a literature review, the format of a literature review, general formatting rules, the length of a literature review, literature review examples, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, related articles.

A literature review is an assessment of the sources in a chosen topic of research.

In a literature review, you’re expected to report on the existing scholarly conversation, without adding new contributions.

If you are currently writing one, you've come to the right place. In the following paragraphs, we will explain:

• the objective of a literature review
• how to write a literature review
• the basic format of a literature review

Tip: It’s not always mandatory to add a literature review in a paper. Theses and dissertations often include them, whereas research papers may not. Make sure to consult with your instructor for exact requirements.

The four main objectives of a literature review are:

• Studying the references of your research area
• Summarizing the main arguments
• Identifying current gaps, stances, and issues
• Presenting all of the above in a text

Ultimately, the main goal of a literature review is to provide the researcher with sufficient knowledge about the topic in question so that they can eventually make an intervention.

The format of a literature review is fairly standard. It includes an:

• introduction that briefly introduces the main topic
• body that includes the main discussion of the key arguments
• conclusion that highlights the gaps and issues of the literature

➡️ Take a look at our guide on how to write a literature review to learn more about how to structure a literature review.

First of all, a literature review should have its own labeled section. You should indicate clearly in the table of contents where the literature can be found, and you should label this section as “Literature Review.”

➡️ For more information on writing a thesis, visit our guide on how to structure a thesis .

There is no set amount of words for a literature review, so the length depends on the research. If you are working with a large amount of sources, it will be long. If your paper does not depend entirely on references, it will be short.

Take a look at these three theses featuring great literature reviews:

• School-Based Speech-Language Pathologist's Perceptions of Sensory Food Aversions in Children [ PDF , see page 20]
• Who's Writing What We Read: Authorship in Criminological Research [ PDF , see page 4]
• A Phenomenological Study of the Lived Experience of Online Instructors of Theological Reflection at Christian Institutions Accredited by the Association of Theological Schools [ PDF , see page 56]

Literature reviews are most commonly found in theses and dissertations. However, you find them in research papers as well.

There is no set amount of words for a literature review, so the length depends on the research. If you are working with a large amount of sources, then it will be long. If your paper does not depend entirely on references, then it will be short.

No. A literature review should have its own independent section. You should indicate clearly in the table of contents where the literature review can be found, and label this section as “Literature Review.”

The main goal of a literature review is to provide the researcher with sufficient knowledge about the topic in question so that they can eventually make an intervention.

Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library

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• Research Help

YSN Doctoral Programs: Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

• Biomedical Databases
• Global (Public Health) Databases
• Soc. Sci., History, and Law Databases
• Grey Literature
• Trials Registers
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• Google Tips
• Recommended Books
• Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

APA7 Style resources

APA Style Blog - for those harder to find answers

1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

• use the tabs on this guide
• Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
• More on the Medical Library web page
• ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

• Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
• Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Ask your librarian for help at any time.
• Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
• Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
• Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
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• The Chicago School
• The Chicago School Library
• Research Guides

Conducting a Literature Review

• Introduction

What is a Literature Review?

Goals of the literature review, types of literature reviews, recommended reading.

• Planning Your Literature Review
• Choose Keywords
• Decide where to search
• Formulate Your Search Strategy
• Utilize Citation Chaining
• When to Stop Searching
• Using Ai for Searching the Literature
• Evaluate, Synthesize & Analyze the Literature
• Write a Literature Review

A literature review surveys, summarizes, critically analyzes, compares, and synthesizes multiple scholarly works, or published knowledge on a particular topic or specific subject area.

Literature can include peer-reviewed or scholarly  articles, books/ ebooks, conference proceedings, theses/ dissertations, documents published by governmental agencies and non-profit organizations, and other forms of gray literature.

Conducting a literature review is part of the research process and serves to establish a base of knowledge and overview of the principal works on a specific area of research as well as identify important themes, discoveries, areas of consensus and debate, changes over time, and provide a foundation for further research.

A literature review may be written to:

•     Synthesize past and current literature on a topic
•     Identify a problem in a field of research  
•     Show how the literature relates to one another
•     Place your work in the the context of other related research

What kinds of sources require a Literature Review?

•     A thesis or dissertation
•     A grant proposal
•     A research paper assigned in a course 
•     An article intended for publication in a journal

All these instances require you to collect what has been written about your research topic so that you can demonstrate how your own research sheds new light on the topic.

The following are common types of literature reviews:

Narrative or Traditional Review

The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.

Systematic Review

The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find.

Meta-analysis

This type of review utilizes quantitative methods to combine the results of independent studies and synthesize summaries and conclusions which can be used to evaluate therapeutic effectiveness, plan new studies, etc.

Meta-synthesis

A meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic.

Further Reading on Different Types of Literature Reviews

Grant, M. J., & Booth, A. (2009). A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies . Health Information and Libraries Journal, 26(2), 91-108. doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x Gough, D., Thomas, J., & Oliver, S. (2012). Clarifying differences between review designs and methods . Systematic Reviews, 1, 28. doi:10.1186/2046-4053-1-28

The library has a number of books on conducting and writing literature reviews. The following are some recommended ebooks available in the library:

Books on Conducting Systematic Literature Reviews:

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Writing Literature Reviews: What is a "Literature Review"?

• What is a "Literature Review"?
• 1. Brainstorm
• 3. Refine Search and Topic
• 4. Structure Your Lit Review
• Helpful Sites

Literature reviews:

• provide a summary of the published academic work on a topic
• help "make the case" for why someone is writing their paper or conducting their research
• can be the "background" section of a larger paper or it can be the focus of an entire paper

Goals of a Literature Review

• including the major theories, issues, works, and debates in the field
• synthesize all this information into an organized summary
• critique current knowledge of a topic
• identify aspects of the topic that need further investigation

Plagiarism and Citation

Citation is when you give credit to someone else's ideas, words, creative works, or contributions in your own paper.

Reasons to cite:

• Give credit the author(s) of the works that you used to write your paper.
• Avoid plagiarism (which means you are claiming someone else's work as your own. This will get you in big trouble. See the Purdue Online Writing Lab for more information.)
• Show that you know your topic well and have read and thought about what others have already said.
• Show your readers where to find the original sources of the information you present so they can read them fully.

When to cite? What to cite?

• Cite other people's words, ideas and other intellectual property that you use in your papers or that influence your ideas, including things such as books, articles, reports, data/statistics, speeches, academic articles, works of art, songs.
• Cite direct quotes, facts or statistics AND when you summarize or paraphrase others' ideas.

Helpful Sites on Literature Reviews

Much of the information in this guide and more information can be found on the websites listed on the  Helpful Sites tab .

Ask A Librarian

Make an appointment

Chat with a Librarian

Email [email protected]

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• University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
• Research Guides
• Writing Literature Reviews
• Last Updated: Feb 29, 2024 3:43 PM
• URL: https://libguides.colorado.edu/litreview

Conducting Health Sciences Review Articles

• Finding Review Articles
• Goals of a Literature Review
• Select Citation Management Software
• Select Databases to Search
• Track Your Searches
• Conduct Searches
• Select Articles to Include in Review
• Extract Information from Articles
• Structure the Review
• Find "fill-in" information
• Select Books
• Systematic Reviews This link opens in a new window
• Writing Tips
• Quick Links

goals of a literature review

Keeping these goals in mind throughout your project will help you stay organized and focused.

A literature review helps the author:

• Understand the scope, history, and present state of knowledge in a specific topic
• Understand application of research concepts such as statistical tests and methodological choices
• Create a research project that complements the existing research or fills in gaps

A literature review helps the reader:

• Understand how your research project fits into the existing knowledge and research in a field
• Understand that a topic is important/relevant to the world and persuade them to keep reading your project
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Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide: Literature Reviews?

• Literature Reviews?
• Strategies to Finding Sources
• Keeping up with Research!
• Evaluating Sources & Literature Reviews
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• Other Academic Writings

What is a Literature Review?

So, what is a literature review .

"A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available or a set of summaries." - Quote from Taylor, D. (n.d)."The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting it".

• Citation: "The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting it"

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Each field has a particular way to do reviews for academic research literature. In the social sciences and humanities the most common are:

• Narrative Reviews: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific research topic and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weaknesses, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section that summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.
• Book review essays/ Historiographical review essays : A type of literature review typical in History and related fields, e.g., Latin American studies. For example, the Latin American Research Review explains that the purpose of this type of review is to “(1) to familiarize readers with the subject, approach, arguments, and conclusions found in a group of books whose common focus is a historical period; a country or region within Latin America; or a practice, development, or issue of interest to specialists and others; (2) to locate these books within current scholarship, critical methodologies, and approaches; and (3) to probe the relation of these new books to previous work on the subject, especially canonical texts. Unlike individual book reviews, the cluster reviews found in LARR seek to address the state of the field or discipline and not solely the works at issue.” - LARR

What are the Goals of Creating a Literature Review?

• To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
• To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 
• Baumeister, R.F. & Leary, M.R. (1997). "Writing narrative literature reviews," Review of General Psychology , 1(3), 311-320.

When do you need to write a Literature Review?

• When writing a prospectus or a thesis/dissertation
• When writing a research paper
• When writing a grant proposal

In all these cases you need to dedicate a chapter in these works to showcase what has been written about your research topic and to point out how your own research will shed new light into a body of scholarship.

Where I can find examples of Literature Reviews?

Note:  In the humanities, even if they don't use the term "literature review", they may have a dedicated  chapter that reviewed the "critical bibliography" or they incorporated that review in the introduction or first chapter of the dissertation, book, or article.

• UCSB electronic theses and dissertations In partnership with the Graduate Division, the UC Santa Barbara Library is making available theses and dissertations produced by UCSB students. Currently included in ADRL are theses and dissertations that were originally filed electronically, starting in 2011. In future phases of ADRL, all theses and dissertations created by UCSB students may be digitized and made available.

Where to Find Standalone Literature Reviews

Literature reviews are also written as standalone articles as a way to survey a particular research topic in-depth. This type of literature review looks at a topic from a historical perspective to see how the understanding of the topic has changed over time. 

• Find e-Journals for Standalone Literature Reviews The best way to get familiar with and to learn how to write literature reviews is by reading them. You can use our Journal Search option to find journals that specialize in publishing literature reviews from major disciplines like anthropology, sociology, etc. Usually these titles are called, "Annual Review of [discipline name] OR [Discipline name] Review. This option works best if you know the title of the publication you are looking for. Below are some examples of these journals! more... less... Journal Search can be found by hovering over the link for Research on the library website.

Social Sciences

• Annual Review of Anthropology
• Annual Review of Political Science
• Annual Review of Sociology
• Ethnic Studies Review

Hard science and health sciences:

• Annual Review of Biomedical Data Science
• Annual Review of Materials Science
• Systematic Review From journal site: "The journal Systematic Reviews encompasses all aspects of the design, conduct, and reporting of systematic reviews" in the health sciences.
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Review Articles (Health Sciences)

• Finding Review Articles
• Goals of a Literature Review
• Select Citation Management Software
• Select databases to search
• Track your searches
• Conduct searches
• Select articles to include
• Extract information from articles
• Structure your review
• Find "fill-in" information
• Other sources and help
• Systematic Reviews
• Other types of reviews

Keeping these goals in mind throughout your project will help you stay organized and focused.

A literature review helps the author:

• Understand the scope, history, and present state of knowledge in a specific topic
• Understand application of research concepts such as statistical tests and methodological choices
• Create a research project that complements the existing research or fills in gaps

A literature review helps the reader:

• Understand how your research project fits into the existing knowledge and research in a field
• Understand that a topic is important/relevant to the world and persuade them to keep reading your project
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• Last Updated: Apr 12, 2024 2:21 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/healthsciences/reviewarticles

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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process. 

Table of Contents

• What is the purpose of literature review? 
• a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction: 
• b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes: 
• c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: 
• d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts: 
• How to write a good literature review 
• Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question: 
• Decide on the Scope of Your Review: 
• Select Databases for Searches: 
• Conduct Searches and Keep Track: 
• Review the Literature: 
• Organize and Write Your Literature Review: 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2  

• Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge. 
• Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field. 
• Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research. 
• Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered. 
• Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research. 
• Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature. 

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic. 

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies: 

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements. 

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources. 

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. 

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning. 

How to write a good literature review

Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements. 

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review. 

• Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field. 
• Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address. 
• Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research. 
• Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic. 
• Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review. 

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria. 

• Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement. 
• Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic. 
• Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature. 
• Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps. 
• Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review. 

Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research. 

• Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective. 
• Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field. 
• Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice. 
• Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field. 
• Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community. 

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1  

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

• Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study. 
• Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore? 

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

• Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview? 
• Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region? 
• Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude? 

Select Databases for Searches:

• Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. 
• Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic. 

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

• Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques. 
• Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability. 
• Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references. 

Review the Literature:

• Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies. 
• Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research. 
• Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives. 
• Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions. 
• Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research? 

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

• Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches. 
• Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered. 
• Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). 
• Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research. 

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. 

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.  

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic. 

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods. 

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers.  Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved.  Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic.  Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings.  Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject.  It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review:  Introduction:   Provide an overview of the topic.  Define the scope and purpose of the literature review.  State the research question or objective.  Body:   Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology.  Critically analyze and evaluate each source.  Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.  Highlight any methodological limitations or biases.  Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research.  Conclusion:   Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review.  Highlight the research gap.  Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction.  Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows: 

References 

• Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234. 
• Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis. 
• Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center . 

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Improving Outcomes for Adults with ASD by Targeting Meaningful Skill Acquisition Goals: A Review of the Literature and Available Assessments and Curricula

• Review Paper
• Published: 12 April 2024

Cite this article

• Shanna Bahry   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4347-018X 1 , 2 ,
• Peter F. Gerhardt 1 , 3 ,
• Mary Jane Weiss 1 ,
• Natalie M. Driscoll 1 , 4 ,
• Justin B. Leaf 1 , 5 ,
• Kevin M. Ayres 6 &
• Jessica Cauchi 1 , 7  

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Outcomes in adulthood for individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are poor in every area assessed (e.g., postsecondary education, employment, living arrangements, health and safety). As such, it is critical that interventions target the best outcomes across the lifespan and improve the overall quality of life. Given that targeting meaningful skill-acquisition goals can help affect positive changes in these outcomes, the intention of this paper was to conduct a systematic literature review of the research examining what has been done to improve the quality of goals written by educational and behavior analytic practitioners. However, the literature review yielded so few references that the focus of this paper shifted to an examination of available assessment and curriculum tools that help practitioners to write meaningful goals. Implications and recommendations for guiding clinical practice and research questions are discussed.T

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Meaningful Curriculum and Functional Intervention for Adults with Autism

Academic Skills and ABA

Special Education Teacher Training to Address Challenging Behaviors for Students with ASD in the Classroom Setting: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Chelsea Marelle, Emily Tanner & Claire Donehower Paul

Data Availability

Not applicable.

A note about terminology: throughout this paper, the terms “autism”, “on the autism spectrum”, “ASD”, “person with autism”, and “autistic person” are used interchangeably. While the authors recognize that among the clinical, medical, and neurodiverse community there are preferences and conventions in terminology use, the selection of terminology in this paper is based on grammar and stylistic needs and does not reflect a particular terminological intent.

Another note about terminology: throughout this paper, the term “practitioner” is used to signify any professional responsible for creating skill acquisition programming for individuals on the autism spectrum. This most often will mean special educators and behavior analysts, but the recommendations included in this paper may be applicable to many other professionals. Cross-discipline collaboration is an implied mandate and a foundational value.

APA PsycInfo® is the world’s largest database for peer-reviewed literature in the behavioral sciences.

We recognize that these domains may not be the areas of priority for all individuals; because of the breadth of the spectrum and the variability of the needs across ages/developmental phases, it is difficult to find resources with universal applicability.

We recognize that our description of the emphases within each tool does not necessarily reflect the goals that are developed from the tools or the values placed on each area of goal development. Rather, please interpret the data and their critical analysis as a description of the tools only.

The Critical Skills were first developed by Peter F. Gerhardt and Angela Rodriguez and were identified based upon a comprehensive review of student IEP goals combined with input from parents obtained as part of a 3- and 5-year goal-setting process (Gerhardt & Rodriguez, 2018 ).

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Bahry, S., Gerhardt, P.F., Weiss, M.J. et al. Improving Outcomes for Adults with ASD by Targeting Meaningful Skill Acquisition Goals: A Review of the Literature and Available Assessments and Curricula. Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-024-00441-6

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Surgical and radiological perspectives for the spinal accessory nerve passing through a fenestrated internal jugular vein: case series and literature review

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Pierre Guarino, Paolo Tesauro, Leone Giordano, Claudio Donadio Caporale, Livio Presutti, Francesco Mattioli, Surgical and radiological perspectives for the spinal accessory nerve passing through a fenestrated internal jugular vein: case series and literature review, Journal of Surgical Case Reports , Volume 2024, Issue 4, April 2024, rjae099, https://doi.org/10.1093/jscr/rjae099

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The preservation of the spinal accessory nerve represents a key goal in head and neck oncologic surgery during selective neck dissection. This study aims to illustrate the anatomical variants of the XI cranial nerve, delving into the relationship between the spinal nerve and the internal jugular vein, as well as the surgical implications. Two cases of patients who underwent oncologic surgery with neck dissection are described. Both cases found the spinal accessory nerve passing through the fenestration of the internal jugular vein. Alongside this case series, an independent literature review was conducted using the Medline and PubMed databases. In the majority of cases (67% – 96%), the spinal accessory nerve traces a lateral course to the internal jugular vein. Less frequently, the XI cranial nerve courses medial to the internal jugular vein. More rarely, as described in this case series, the nerve crosses through the fenestration of the vein (0.48% – 3.3%). 

During neck dissection, the spinal accessory nerve (SAN) is encountered on Level II at the level of the posterior belly of the digastric muscle where it crosses laterally and anterior the internal jugular vein (IJV). A medial course of the nerve is reported in literature with an incidence that varies from work to work. Rarely, the SAN can pass through a fenestration of the IJV or can split around the IJV [ 1 , 2 ]. Nowadays, preservation of the SAN is the standard of care even though iatrogenic injury to the SAN and to the IJV still occurs. In order to reduce the risk of iatrogenic injury a detailed study of the radiological anatomy together with an extensive knowledge of the anatomical variants of the SAN and of the IJV represent the surgeon’s most important tools [ 3–6 ].

A 78-year-old man with a follow-up PET for a Type B mantle cell lymphoma finding of uptake in in the epiglottis and left laterocervical region is reported here. The patient was diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) after fine needle aspiration of an adenopathy at Level II. His workup included an MRI of the neck with contrast enhancement, which revealed laterocervical lymphadenopathy (bilateral level IIa and left Level III with the biggest adenopathy with maximum diameter of 12 × 12 mm) and thickening of the epiglottis extended at the floor of the left vallecula. No mention was made of an IJV abnormality in the report even though it was noticed during the preoperative evaluation by the surgeon ( Fig. 1 ). The fibroendoscopic evaluation of the neck showed an asymmetry of the epiglottis with the presence of vegetating tissue at the level of the left lingual border of the epiglottis, preserved motility of the vocal cords, and normal breathing space. The patient’s clinical stadiation was cT2 N2c M0. The multidisciplinary meeting indicated an endoscopic partial laryngectomy and bilateral laterocervical dissection. The cervical lymph node dissection on the left side discovered a duplication of the IJV which resulted dilated in comparison to the IJV on the right side. The SAN passed medially to the anterior vein and laterally to the posterior vein. Both the IJV and the SAN were preserved during the procedure ( Fig. 2 ).

MRI showing the fenestration of the IJV; left image: sagittal section showing the fenestration (arrowhead) of the left IJV; right image: axial section showing the anterior (dotted arrowhead) and the posterior (arrowhead) part of the fenestrated IJV.

SAN passes through medially to the anterior part (filled triangle) and laterally to the posterior part (star) of the fenestrated IJV (arrowhead); ICA: internal carotid artery; SCM: sternocleidomastoid muscle.

A 72-year-old woman underwent total laryngectomy + thyroid isthmectomy + bilateral (II–IV) laterocervical dissection for a G3 SCC of the right hemilarynx (involving the right true and false vocal cord and extending to the anterior commissure and left vocal cord). The preoperative radiology report did not mention any IJV variations. Nonetheless, a left IJV fenestration was observed in the preoperative study, raising the suspect of a possible SAN variant ( Fig. 3 ). Pathological stadiation of the patient was pT4a (infiltration of thyroid cartilage and prethyroid soft tissue) pN2c, cM0. Intraoperatively, the fenestration of the left IJV, that was noticed during the CT, was confirmed. As for the first patient presented, the SAN nerve passed medially to the anterior vein and laterally to the posterior vein ( Fig. 4 ).

CT scan showing the fenestration of the IJV; left image: sagittal section showing the fenestration (arrowhead) of the left IJV; central image: coronal section showing the anterior (dotted arrowhead) and the posterior (arrowhead) part of the fenestrated IJV; right image: axial section showing the anterior (dotted arrowhead) and the posterior (arrowhead) part of the fenestrated IJV.

SAN passes through medially to the anterior part (filled triangle) and laterally to the posterior part (star) of the fenestrated IJV (arrowhead); CCA: common carotid artery.

An in-depth understanding of the anatomy of the lateral neck is essential to avoid injury to the IJV during SAN dissection. A literature review of the anatomic relationship of the SAN to the IJV is presented in Table 1 .

Literature review of the incidence of the anatomical variants of the SAN.

As shown, Krause, Soo, and Kierner conducted cadaveric studies [ 7–9 ]. Soo and Kierner reported an equal frequency of the lateral (56%) and medial (44%) position of the nerve compared to the IJV, while Krause reported an incidence of 72.5% of the nerve crossing lateral to the IJV. Krause also observed one case of SAN “fenestrating” through the IJV. Saman’s cadaveric study supported Krause’s data, reporting a 79.8% of SAN coursing lateral to the IJV, 19% of SAN medial to the IJV, and 1.2% of SAN “fenestrating” through the IJV [ 10 ].

In vivo studies reported a higher frequencies of the nerve crossing lateral to the IJV. Levy et al. [ 11 ], Hinsley et al. [ 12 ] and Taylor et al. [ 13 ] showed the SAN lateral to the IJV in 99.25%, 96.6%, 95.7% and the SAN medial to the IJV in 0.75%, 2.6% and 2.8%. Taylor and Hinsley also reported <1% of cases of SAN “fenestrating” to the IJV; moreover, Taylor described a new anatomical variant of the SAN in which the nerve divides and travels both medial and lateral to the IJV.

The higher incidence of the nerve crossing lateral to the IJV in in vivo studies compared to cadaveric is explained by Hinsley and Taylor as follows. The IJV of cadavers can collapse, determining a higher incidence of the medial position of the nerve in relation to the IJV. Moreover, in vivo studies which are conducted on oncological patients focus on the relation between the nerve and IJV at the level of the posterior belly of the digastric muscle, while cadaveric studies do not always keep the same reference points.

In 2009, Lee published an in vivo study in which he found a surprising 57.4% incidence of SAN medial to the IJV. However, these results have not been confirmed by other studies [ 14 ].

In his in vivo study, Lee pointed out that the variation of the course of the SAN correlates with a variation in the number of lymph node of the Levels IIa and IIb. Therefore, a lateral course of the SAN increases the Level IIb area, and subsequently, the number of lymph nodes.

Regarding the rarer anatomic variants of the SAN, Table 1 shows an incidence of the SAN “fenestrating” the IJV ranging from 0.8% to 2.2% [ 15–17 ]. Taylor also describes a new anatomical variant of the spinal nerve splitting around the IJV. However, there are no other reports of this variant of the SAN and no iconographic material results available.

So what tools can a surgeon use to uncover a rare anatomical variant of the SAN? In 2012, Hashimoto published a case report where they were able to identify the fenestration of the IJV with a contrast-enhanced CT. However, Ozturk warns us that even though the fenestration of the IJV is strongly associated with the SAN traveling through the fenestration, this is not to be taken for granted as it can also travel medial or lateral to the fenestration [ 18 ].

In both cases presented in this article, the surgeon noticed the fenestration of the IJV during the preoperative imaging which was not indicated in the radiologist report. As the radiologist priority concerns the extension of the tumor and lymph nodal spread, it falls to the surgeon to enquire about potential anatomical variants of the IJV during the scan.

The literature review conducted in this study confirms that the SAN crosses lateral to the IJV in the majority of cases. However, incidental finding of variants of the SAN, as presented in the case reports, can occur intraoperatively, resulting in iatrogenic lesion of the SAN or of the IJV. Therefore, an upfront radiological study together with a deep knowledge of the possible variants of the SAN are the surgeon’s keystones to reduce the cases of damage to the SAN or to the IJV. The authors also hope that this study could be a starting point for further investigations about the relationship between radiological and surgical anatomy.

All authors conceptualized the study. P.T. wrote the manuscript and prepared the original draft. PG reviewed and edited the manuscript. F.M., L.G., C.D.C., and L.P. supervised the study. P.T., P.G., and L.G. confirm the authenticity of all the raw data. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

None declared.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

The patients have provided written informed consent for the publication of any associated data and accompanying images.

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Healthy Lifestyle Behavior, Goal Setting, and Personality among Older Adults: A Synthesis of Literature Reviews and Interviews

Ming yu claudia wong.

1 Department of Health and Education, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Kai-ling Ou

2 Department of Sport, Physical Education and Health, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China

Pak Kwong Chung

Associated data.

Not applicable.

Background: Despite the well-known health benefits of adopting a healthy lifestyle, older adults’ self-determination, goals, and motivation, as well as other personality factors, are known to influence their healthy lifestyle behaviors, yet these interactions have rarely been discussed. Method: The literature that investigated and discussed the interaction of personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behaviors among older adults was reviewed. In addition, interview responses from older adults regarding their experiences in participating in a real-life physical activity intervention and its relationship with their personality traits and goal setting were synthesized using content analysis. Results: The current review highlights the relationship between healthy living practices, goal setting, and personalities, and it is backed up and expanded upon by interviews with participants. People with different personality types are likely to have diverse views on HLBs. Individuals who are more conscientiousness or extraverted are more likely to adopt HLBs than those who are not. Discussion: It is suggested that a meta-analysis should be conducted on the relationship between personality, goal setting, and physical exercise or other specific HLBs. In addition, future research should focus on various types of HLB therapies that take into account personality and goal setting.

1. Highlights

• The current review highlights the relationship between healthy living practices, goal setting, and personality.
• Conscientiousness, neuroticism, and extraversion were shown to have significant effects on health-related behaviors as well as actual healthy lifestyle behaviors.
• Future research should focus on various types of HLB therapies that take into account personality and goal-setting processes.

2. Background

Despite the well-known benefits of engaging in a healthy lifestyle [ 1 , 2 , 3 ], older adults are expected to have a less goal-oriented mindset than teenagers and younger adults. This is because older adults have a weaker sense of pursuing life goals or they have a scheduled routine for their life that facilitates self-regulation. Therefore, older adults’ self-determination, goals, and motivation to engage in a healthy lifestyle, as well as other personality factors, are seen to influence their healthy lifestyle behaviors. A few well-documented factors have been proven to have an impact on older adults’ adherence to a healthy lifestyle or engagement in physical activities in particular, including believing in the benefits of exercising and having experience with exercise, setting goals, and having certain personality traits [ 4 ]. Considering the unchangeability of older adults’ past experiences, setting appropriate goals based on individual personalities is expected to be useful in fostering older adults’ participation in physical activity or adherence to other healthy lifestyle behaviors. The existing literature describes the relationship between personality and goals among older adults, with their outcomes associated with subjective well-being, quality of life, and other mental benefits [ 5 , 6 ]. Previous research also indicated that various sociocultural variables, such as gender, education level, the sense of autonomy, and the physical capability of older adults, should be taken into account when determining their attitudes toward and intention to participate in physical activities. It is believed that various factors will negatively affect older adults’ personality, autonomy, and awareness of physical activity goal setting, thus affecting their healthy lifestyle behaviors [ 7 , 8 ].

According to the literature, life goals are considered as an internal mental conception of desired outcomes or activities that a person aims to pursue in their daily life [ 9 ]. Based on the self-determination theory, individuals emphasize the importance of goal content rather than only having objectives and claim that these types of goals are important. Personality is seen as a factor influencing the construction of goals [ 10 ]. Psychologists view personality traits and life goals as part of a distinct concept or theory, with personality traits being comparatively stable and consistent, whereas life goals might fluctuate due to life changes. Other psychologists [ 11 , 12 ] claim that goals or life tasks are the “doing” or “acting” side of the personality. Moreover, goals are described as dynamic components of personality that reflect one’s interaction with the environment across time. As a result, goals serve as a link between personality traits and behavior. Based on establishing the concept of goals as personality-in-context [ 13 ], a research study showed that extraversion was associated with understanding the importance of intrinsic goals, having good health, and making progress in social goals among older adults [ 6 , 14 ]. Conscientiousness results in higher levels of health and social progress, while neuroticism only results in lower progress toward social goals and no progress in health goals [ 14 ]. Furthermore, individuals with higher neuroticism are more sensitive to stress and have significantly moderate progress in health and social goals, while conscientiousness individuals who are sensitive to stress have significantly moderate progress only in health goals, and for extraverts, there is no moderation effect on any goal progress [ 14 ]. Nevertheless, optimism is associated with goal attainment and continuity and leads to good health [ 5 , 15 ]. Unsurprisingly, goal continuity showed a negative correlation with neuroticism, and a positive correlation with conscientiousness [ 15 ]. However, a research study also claimed that the relationship between goal orientation and proactive health-related coping behavior depends on the stressors, yet this has not been completely explained by individual differences [ 16 ].

Although the relationship between goals and personality has been investigated in previous studies, to the best of our best knowledge, the relationship between personality and particular health goals among older adults has been less discussed. With regard to the importance of healthy and active aging, pursuing health-related goals is essential for older adults. Meanwhile, the interaction between personality and appropriate health goals among older adults is not yet known. Therefore, a discussion on the interaction of personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behaviors among older adults should be presented.

3. Objectives

The purpose of this review is to emphasize the importance of personality and goal setting in older adults’ participation in healthy lifestyle behaviors. The body of research on this topic has been limited; therefore, as part of this study, we reviewed the prior literature to examine the interactions between personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behaviors among older adults. We synthesized the literature review to address the first research question (RQ1): How does the interaction between personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behaviors (e.g., physical activity and eating habits) manifest among adults? Second, we analyzed interviews with older adults who participated in the authors’ previous physical activity intervention program to determine how their participation was associated with their personality traits and goals. To achieve this objective, we formulated the second research question (RQ2): How do interviewees describe their most satisfying goals for facilitating participation in healthy lifestyle behaviors?

4.1. Literature Search

The two authors, a post-doctoral research fellow and a PhD student, each with extensive knowledge on physical health and developmental psychology, conducted a literature search on the body of research that investigates the relationship between personality and health-related goals. The Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched using the keywords (“Older Adults” AND “Goals” AND “Personality) AND (“Healthy Lifestyle Behaviour” OR “Physical Activity” OR “Eating Habits”). The extracted research articles were imported to EndNote for management. After removing duplicates, the authors screened the titles and abstracts of the retrieved studies independently to identify relevant research articles. Disagreements were settled through discussions. Considering the generalizability of the literature synthesis covering adults to young, old, and older adults, the only inclusion/exclusion criterion for screening relevant papers was to exclude studies that targeted the samples of subjects aged 18 or below. Studies that mentioned older adults were also included. Appropriate papers were then identified and processed for a full-text review. The literature synthesis mainly targeted the following information: (1) types of personality traits, (2) types of goals, (3) content of goals, (4) types of healthy lifestyle behaviors, and (5) how they interact.

4.2. Interview

A total of 20 participants from the authors’ previous intervention program [ 17 ] were invited to participate in semi-structured in-depth interviews after completing the program. These 20 people participated in either tai chi or resistance training interventions during three 1 h sessions per week over 18 weeks. Questions addressed participants’ goals in the intervention program and for daily healthy living, their perceived impact of personality on goal setting, forms of preferred goals, and the attractiveness of extrinsic rewards. The interview guide included the following questions:

• 1. Did you set any goals for yourself before this program? What were they?
• 2. Think about your overall health and fitness and ability to get around and do the things you want to do. What are your wishes and hopes for that in the future?
• 2a. Do you think this program/participating in physical activity has facilitated you to do so, or at least achieve a certain extent of that?
• 3. Again, think about your health and fitness and ability to get around and do the things you want to do. What are your fears and worries about the future?
• 3a. Do you think this program/participating in physical activity could eliminate these fears or worries?
• 4. What kinds of goals do you tend to set for yourself, in terms of physical activity/health-related factors (e.g., diet, exercise)?
• 5. What kind of personality do you think you have?
• 5a. Do you think your personality affects your goals for physical activity and overall health? How?
• 6. Do you prefer having standardized static goals or personalized goals when participating in an exercise program with coach supervision?
• 7. Do you prefer having a single ultimate goal or integrated smaller goals (goal phrase) before achieving the ultimate goal?
• 8. To what extent could rewards prompt you to achieve your goals?

4.3. Data Analysis

The literature review was synthesized and interview responses were analyzed by first creating an open-coding label to identify relevant information and factors, individual differences, types of goals, and types of healthy lifestyle behaviors, as well as potential interactions between factors. The above-mentioned study objectives provided the basis for the initial categorization. Then, the relevant open codes were refined and combined by labelling with an “analytical” theme. After this process, the second coder went through the same process together, expressing agreement with the first coder’s labels, indicating inter-rater reliability. The audio recordings of the interviews were transcribed verbatim and translated from Chinese to English. The verbatim transcripts were screened by another author to eliminate translation variations, strengthening the qualitative research’s credibility. The data were managed by using NVivo 12 (QSR, 2020) using memo writing, coding, and categorizing until data saturation was reached. A similar inter-rater reliability process was used for analyzing the interview’s transcripts.

5.1. Literature Review and Interview Demographics

A total of 22 research articles were identified during the database search. Figure 1 displays the flowchart of the search. The research articles that were retrieved and included in the synthesis mentioned the effects of personalities on healthy lifestyle behavior (HLB)-related goals among older adults as well as younger adults. A total of 20 people participated in the in-depth interviews:17 women and 3 men; the age range for 17 of them was 65–69 years, and for 3 of them, it was 70–74 years. The inter-rater reliability showed 95% agreement in both the literature synthesis and interview transcript analysis.

Flowchart of the literature search [ 18 ].

5.1.1. Types of Healthy Lifestyle Behavior

Most of the 22 research articles mentioned the types of healthy lifestyle behavior that may be affected by personality traits and goal achievement. They include exercising, participating in sports, eating a healthy diet, participating in physical activity using electronic devices [ 19 , 20 ], participating in leisure-time physical activity that is “planned, structured, repeated and with maintenance” [ 21 ], controlling one’s weight, managing one’s nutrition [ 22 ], engaging in social activities, and having intentions and beliefs about physical activity [ 23 ]. The literature indicated that people who engage in these HLBs tend to have better physical, mental, emotional, and cognitive health [ 24 ].

5.1.2. Personality Types and Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors

Among the 22 research articles, personality traits were mostly represented by the “Big Five” traits [ 21 , 23 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ] and measured by the Big Five Inventory [ 32 ]. Research has shown that personality traits play an important role in influencing people’s health and HLB choices throughout their lives [ 28 ]. Studies have shown that people who are highly extraverted, highly conscientious, and not neurotic tend to have higher levels of self-efficacy, self-motivation, and self-control [ 21 ] and, thus, engage in more leisure-based physical activities. An intervention study showed that for people with a high level of conscientiousness, their step count was positively predicted from a pre-test, while under monitoring during the intervention, people with a high level of neuroticism showed a significant increase in their daily step counts as well [ 30 ]. Meanwhile, people with a sense of openness tended to be slightly more active, but there were no significant differences in the level of leisure-based physical activity among people with agreeableness [ 31 , 33 , 34 ]. In addition to people with high neuroticism, people with other types of personality traits were associated with a high level of engagement in leisure activities, including social and physical activities, which indicates successful active aging [ 29 ].

Other than the Big Five personality traits, the relationship between conscientiousness and HLB was shown using the effect of perfectionism [ 35 , 36 ] and measured using self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism subscales [ 37 ]. Despite its association with a high level of self-discipline, perfectionism was also associated with extreme behaviors such as binge eating, which is considered to have a deleterious effect on physical and mental health [ 36 ]. The opposite of perfectionism, according to Sirois [ 24 ], may be chronic procrastination, which is defined as a trait-like personal characteristic. It was shown to have an association with difficulties in self-regulation and the avoidance of engaging in HLBs such as physical activity and healthy eating habits, thus resulting in poor physical health and well-being [ 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Some research studies [ 41 , 42 ] discussed personalities in a more general manner by dividing them into optimistic and pessimistic, as measured by the Life Orientation Test Revised (LOT-R) [ 43 ]. They showed that optimistic individuals tend to have a higher mental health-related quality of life [ 42 ], as well as favorable physical health outcomes [ 44 , 45 ]. Another study [ 22 ] investigated personality measurements in terms of the Type D personality, which is correlated with obesity, unhealthy lifestyle behavior, and vulnerability [ 22 , 46 ].

5.1.3. Healthy Lifestyle Behavior, Goals, and Personality Traits

There are multiple types of goals, including achievement, maintenance, disengagement, engagement, and compensation goals [ 47 ], and the retrieved research studies mostly focused on achievement and disengagement goals. Achievement goals were examined and applied mostly in the context of healthy lifestyle behavior interventions, which consisted of physical activity, nutrition management, stress management, and cognitive function training. Achievement goals in interventions tended to be mutual goals regardless of personality traits [ 22 ]. On the other hand, research on M-health indicated that electronic devices, such as a Fitbit, were considered to be effective in facilitating goal setting and achievements. This is because the planning, learning [ 19 ], rewarding, comparing, and sharing functions in electronic devices can trigger individuals’ motivation to achieve their desired goals [ 30 , 48 ]; it is also noteworthy that electronic devices can support personalized goals based on individual personality traits.

Engagement goals involve more inflexible pursuits, and research has shown that disengagement goals with more flexibility (e.g., short-term or long-term goals) for adjustment were also important for achieving a healthy life [ 49 , 50 ]. Apart from theoretically supported goals, qualitative research has also revealed other forms of desire goals or preventive goals related to achieving HLBs, which were labelled as “hoped-for possible self” and “feared possible self” [ 24 ]. The “hoped-for” goals include being physically active, being a vegetarian, reducing weight, etc. Fear-related goals include preventing oneself from becoming obese, preventing heart disease, preventing weak lower limbs, etc. These kinds of goals can also encourage individuals to engage in HLBs. They are also considered to be similar to desired goals and “anti-goals” [ 25 ]. Research has shown that individuals stick with HLBs when they have goal-relevant information, such as a concept of their ideal self (both physically and psychologically) and health-related information [ 31 ]. Goals, with meaningful purpose and rewards for achievement, were also considered as effective in achieving a healthy lifestyle.

Persistent and perceived goal progress can also be influenced by individual personality traits [ 47 ]; for instance, people with a higher level of conscientiousness tend to show better self-control and self-regulation and engage in self-corrective actions when pursuing goals [ 21 , 51 ]. Moreover, conscientiousness is strongly associated with a high level of perfectionism, which also correlates with higher personal standards and high-order goals [ 36 ], as well as the high-level self-evaluation of goal achievement [ 26 ], which might mean vulnerability in terms of the mental status or even health (e.g., eating disorders or extreme eating as related to exercise goals) [ 35 , 52 ].

5.1.4. Interaction between Personality, Goals, and Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors

In general, the retrieved studies demonstrated the inter-relationships between personality, goals, and HLBs. Some of the studies also mentioned the lack of a discussion on the role of personality in health-related goal settings and HLBs, which has been shown to have implications in terms of affecting the motivation and perception of HLB among older adults [ 27 , 47 , 50 ].

The studies indicated that personality plays a role in health-related goal setting and HLBs. Only people with a high level of conscientiousness are significantly affected by the product judgments and health-relevant information that they receive, which affects their decision making with respect to dietary choices and physical activity related to their overall goal of a healthy lifestyle [ 31 ]. As mentioned above, conscientiousness has been associated with higher levels of self-control, and as discussed in [ 21 ], people with self-control tend to give priority to long-term goals over short-term goals, can resist goal-disrupting temptations [ 53 , 54 ], and have strong goal-striving abilities [ 28 ], such as avoiding junk food or staying engaged in healthy acts on a daily basis, in order to pursue their long-terms goals consistently. Hence, people with a higher level of self-control, similarly to conscientiousness, are significantly associated with positive subjective well-being and physical activity, mediated by high levels of perceived goal progress and self-efficacy [ 21 , 23 ]. Similarly, Briki and Dagot [ 25 ] demonstrated that dispositional self-control and perceived goal progress were negatively associated with neurotic self-attentiveness, thus negatively predicting subjective well-being. Furthermore, people with lower levels of conscientiousness and optimism are associated with low goal re-engagement, higher mental fatigability, and poorer physical and cognitive health maintenance [ 33 ]. Meanwhile, optimism and conscientiousness are positively associated with goal achievement, adjustments, and re-engagement and thus are related to older adults’ participating in physical activity and having a healthy quality of life [ 30 ]. However, people who exhibit extreme conscientiousness, or perfectionism, tend to overvaluate and think dichotomously about their goal progress, such as weight and body shape, which might lead to unhealthy eating habits or even an eating disorder [ 35 , 36 ]. On the other hand, people who procrastinate tend to have lower expectations for “hoped-for goals” and place no importance on avoiding “feared-for” possible outcomes; thus, they have less intention to change their health behaviors [ 24 ].

Intervention studies [ 22 ] showed that intervention programs that followed an adaptation of goal attainment theories facilitating the development of participants’ mutual goals were able to improve the HLBs of those with Type D personality, reducing their mental vulnerability. Moreover, the vulnerability and established healthy habits of Type D participants were also shown to be influenced by the social support gained from the intervention. Another study [ 41 ] demonstrated that people who expressed optimism had higher levels of health-related self-efficacy after the intervention and were able to reduce their waist circumference (lose weight) even one year after the intervention. This indicates that optimistic people have better self-control than pessimistic people with regard to health-related goals and behaviors.

There was a trend of increasing research investigating the self-determination effect of using electronic health devices, such as smart watches, on goal monitoring and physical activity levels. Studies indicated that even though the functions of these electronic devices could trigger the self-monitoring and self-regulation of HLBs by individuals, including older adults, the research results showed that personality also plays a role in people’s levels of regulation and HLBs. Hence, it is recommended that smart devices provide personalized goal setting systems in which big data can be used to provide goals or HLB plans that are tailored to users’ individual differences and personalities [ 20 ]. Bischoff [ 19 ] highlighted the importance of goal-specific apps in smart devices in being able to identify individual differences, including personality traits, levels of vulnerability, and usual health behaviors, and being able to provide suitable goal planning and management strategies, as well as relevant features for pursuing HLBs. In addition, based on the differences in physical activity outcomes among people with different personality traits in intervention studies, including personalized interventions and individualized goals based on people’s personality traits, priorities, and attitudes is also suggested, instead of standardized goals and procedures, in order to achieve positive and successful aging [ 48 , 55 , 56 ]. In addition to individualized goals, promoting programs that offer individual care, verbal encouragement from coaches or instructors, and personalized regular schedules in both research and community settings is suggested to enhance older adults’ HLB [ 56 ].

5.2. Participant Interviews

5.2.1. personality.

After the interview, all participants were asked to fill in a 16-item personality test based on a framework that evolved from the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) [ 57 ]. It indicates personality traits in four dimensions: (1) preferred orientation to life: extraversion (E) or introversion (I); (2) preferred way of perceiving things: sensing (S) or intuition (N); (3) preferred way of making decisions: thinking (T) or feeling (F); and (4) preferred way of dealing with the world: judging (J) or perceiving (P) [ 58 ].

To be more consistent with the literature synthesis, the relationship between MBTI and the Big Five personality traits was determined. A previous study found that the T-F dimension was correlated with agreeableness and the J-P dimension correlated with conscientiousness; the E-I dimension was strongly correlated with extraversion, and neuroticism was not correlated with any MBTI dimensions [ 59 ]. However, when separating the subfactors, researchers [ 60 ] later found that E was correlated with extraversion. Openness was significantly associated with N and inversely correlated with S, which involves a direct involvement with information. Agreeableness was negatively correlated with T but positively correlated with F, which means more concern with feelings. Conscientiousness was positively correlated with J and negatively correlated with P, which indicates people who are orderly, deliberate, and self-disciplined. Neuroticism was positively correlated with I but negatively correlated with E; the mental processes of such people are more oriented toward their inner world, which is highly associated with self-consciousness, depression, and anxiety [ 59 ].

The results showed that the participants were mainly divided into four types: ESFJ (12), ISFJ (6), INFP (1), and ESTJ (1). According to the findings and combining them with the Big Five personality types, we can clarify that the personality types of these participants are as follows: ESFJ—extroversion, based on information perception, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; ISFJ—introversion (or neuroticism), which relies on information perception, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; INFP—introversion (or neuroticism), openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; and ESTJ—extroversion, based on information perception, logical thinking, and conscientiousness.

5.2.2. Goals and Healthy Lifestyle Behavior

• Hoped-for possible self

Participants recalled that before they joined the intervention program, their expectations (goals) for the program were mainly to maintain their physical activity level, improve their physical health, expand their social networks, learn knowledge, and feel a sense of persistence. Only three participants said that they did not set any goals.

“My goal in retirement is to do more exercises, stay healthy and have fewer doctor visits" (F, R, 10, ISFJ). “Reducing fatty liver” (F, T, 12, ESFJ). “Improve balance and body cold” (F, T,6, ISFJ). “Flexibility in arms and legs and good health” (F, T,14,ESFJ).

They want to use what they have learned to educate others: “My aim is not only to help myself but also others, as well as teach my friends Tai Chi together” (F, T, 14, ESFJ). Another participant agreed: “I can also teach my family, I will be happy and initiate other older adults” (F, T, 12,ESFJ).

Some participants wanted to learn about exercise theory to help them maintain their physical activity levels for their entire lives: “I hope that the intervention can open up the path to understanding sports and learn some sports that I can do at home so that I can do them regularly without the help of others” (F, R, 7, ESTJ); “I hope the knowledge of Tai Chi taught by my teacher can be my lifelong asset” (F, T, 2, ESFJ); “I usually do exercise, but I don’t have enough theoretical knowledge, so I sometimes overexert myself and hurt my knee” (F, R, 15, ESFJ).

One participant noted that perseverance was the goal of program participation: “Try not to miss a single day of training” (F, R, 2, ESFJ).

Those with no goals were mainly inactive and had no sports experience: “I haven’t tried resistance training, I don’t have any goal in doing sports” (F, R, 18, ESFJ); “I don’t have special goals, I usually do stretching at home, I haven’t participated in any other sports activity” (F, R, 19, ESFJ).

• Fear of possible self

The worries expressed by participants were mainly having limited physical fitness, becoming injured, and a lack of determination: “I was worried that my muscles were not strong enough or that I was not able to do the movements in the class” (F, R, 11, ESFJ); “I was afraid of Tai Chi standing might hurt my knee” (F, T, 14, ESFJ); “I was afraid I wouldn’t be able to do it [resistance] as I was almost 70 years old and I was afraid it would be too drastic” (F, R, 19, ESFJ); “I was worried that I would give up halfway because I don’t know if the exercise is too difficult” (F, R, 7, ESTJ).

However, all participants said that the intervention eventually eliminated their concerns. Because some participants believed in the professionalism of the instructors, their stereotypes regarding physical activity changed after learning from the intervention: “Because the instructor is very experienced and knows what age we are, they won’t force us to do it if we can’t” (F, R, 18, ESFJ). A female participant (F, T, 14, ESFJ), after practicing tai chi, said the following: “Standing on one leg in Tai Chi helps me to maintain my balance and I know how to adjust when I fall”.

• Long term health-related goals

Participants said that they set long-term health-related goals after the intervention and they reported being more conscious of healthy eating habits after participating: “I will pay attention to health information, such as the ingredients of food, to avoid food allergies” (F, R, 10, ISFJ); “I will maintain my weight and take foods that maintain muscle, such as protein” (F, R, 11, ESFJ); “Eat less fried and sweet foods” (M, R, 1, ESFJ); “Eat lighter, less diet out, make breakfast cooked at home” (M, T, 4, ISFJ); “Eat more vegetables, grains and cereals” (F, R, 15, ESFJ).

Regarding physical health, participants stated that the recovering function was their long-term health goal: “I hope my lower limb function can be improved, stronger feet and bones” (F, T, 9, ESFJ); “reducing muscle loss” (F, R, 10, ISFJ).

Meanwhile, participants had a clearer vision of further goal setting for physical activity. A male participant was determined to use technology to monitor his health: “I will be more aware of different activities. … I use a pedometer to set goals for myself and recently I have been using another function to lift myself up to drink” (M, R, 3, ISFJ). In addition, the majority emphasized cultivating the habit of engaging in physical activity, having perseverance when performing exercises, and reducing physical deterioration as their long-term aims: “The long-term goal is to exercise two to three days a week for one to one and a half hours each time” (F, R, 2, ESFJ); “My new goal is how to remain motivated to exercise” (F, R, 17, ISFJ); “I hope I can practice Tai Chi every day, I am satisfied if my body deterioration is slowed down” (F, T, 6, ISFJ). Moreover, one participant (F, T, 12, ESFJ) believed that achieving long-term health-related goals needed time for learning and building up: “It needs time to build up. I want to further learn Tai Chi stances, change the eating pattern and focus on improving healthy lifestyles”.

Importantly, a female participant (F, R, 18, ESFJ) mentioned that health is not the same as longevity and that being able to live independently is critical: “The goal is not to live a long life, but to be able to walk even at an advanced age, without the need for assistance or difficulty in walking”.

Finally, a participant said that a further goal was not only to promote health for herself but also to encourage others: “The goal is now to encourage other people to do exercise together, not just myself” (F, R, 11, ESFJ).

• Goal preference for intervention/program: generalized vs. personalized aims

Participants’ opinions were mixed, with 10 preferring generalized aims, 9 preferring personalized aims, and 1 saying both were important.

Participants believe generalized aims make them more motivated, encourage them, make them happy, and make teaching easier: “It is motivating to work together as a team towards a goal” (M, R, 1, ESFJ); “Generalized aims are more encouraging” (F, T, 9, ESFJ); “We are happier to have generalized aims because they can last for a longer time” (F, R, 17, ISFJ); “The course was too short with only 4 months. It would be too difficult for the instructor to get to know everyone in a short period of time if there was another opportunity to set up personalized aims for each person in the future” (F, R, 7, ESTJ); “Prefer generalized aims, because the instructor doesn’t know everyone’s abilities and physique” (M, T, 4, ISFJ). One participant said that generalized goals can protect their self-esteem: "Personalized goals disguised as one-to-one can be inferior or embarrassing. It’s embarrassing to see that others can but you can’t, so it’s better to have the same goal but give modifications at the same time” (F, T, 14, ESFJ).

On the other hand, one participant preferred personalized aims since they were more in line with individual needs: “There was a big difference in the physical ability of the group for this program, so it would have been boring if I had to do the movements of the less fit students” (F, R, 15, ESFJ).

• Goal preference for intervention/program: ultimate aim vs. progressive small aims

There were 14 participants who supported progressive small goals, whereas only 5 preferred ultimate goals, and 1 person chose both.

Progressive smaller goals will give participants a sense of success and satisfaction: "Smaller goals are more likely to have a sense of success and will be more intentional, large goals take a long time to see results. I am worried that something else is going on in the meantime that will affect the results, therefore less motivation and commitment” (F, R, 10, ISFJ). Some participants believe that small aims can make it easier for them to control their progress and are more suitable for their age: “For example, if I can’t achieve it today, I will try the next day and it will be easy to know if I have done it” (F, R, 15, ESFJ); “I can know the progress in each class and if go in the right direction” (F, R, 18); “It is better to take a gradual approach as you are getting older” (F, T, 5, ESFJ).

Other participants believe that ultimate aims are more flexible: “Because we may not master the movements she [the instructor] taught us in each class, I hope that we will be given a target in the end, because if we have a target in every class, we will be under pressure and we will be afraid of being compared to others. I would rather have a long-term goal so that we can go home and practice even if we don’t do well in that class, and a small goal like asking us to hand in our homework”(F, R, 19, ESFJ).

• Personality, goals, and healthy lifestyle behavior

In addition to filling out personality questionnaires, participants were also asked to describe their personalities. Those categorized as ESFJ, who comprised the majority, described themselves as positive, extroverted, agreeable, open, and conscientious. They like taking the initiative and trying new things, are open-minded about life, and enjoy team activities.

“I am open-minded, and always find activities and sports to participate in” (F, T, 9, ESFJ). “I like to interact and share with others, so I want to find activities and meet other people” (F, T, 12, ESFJ). “I learn spontaneously, and if it is a sport I am interested in, I will participate in it” (F, T, 14, ESFJ). “In the sports program, I was responsible for creating a WhatsApp group to keep my group members in communication” (F, T, 16, ESFJ).

Those categorized as ISFJ described themselves as introverted, curious, anxious, and impatient as well as open-minded to changing themselves to maintain a healthy lifestyle.

“I am a person who likes to get to the bottom of things. I want to find theories to prove, to accept different opinions and then synthesize” (M, R, 3, ISFJ). “After participating in the program, I made new friends, contact with people makes me happier, let the introverted self become extroverted” (M, T, 4, ISFJ). “Actively looking for activities/groups sports can make myself cheerful … avoid overthinking” (F, R, 11, ISFJ). “Originally, I am a person who is in a hurry, but by participating in Tai Chi, I can slow myself down” (F, T, 6, ISFJ).

Only two participants fell into the INFP and ESTJ categories. The participant assessed as INFP described herself as passive and overthinking, which hindered her from connecting with others. The participant assessed as ESTJ believed she was an active, positive, self-disciplined person, which has a positive effect on maintaining a healthy lifestyle.

5.3. Motivations and Intentions

• Theory-based program

The participants reported that being given regular health information was helpful, including the introductory definitions of physical and mental health, how to exercise, how to prevent injuries and reduce the risk of falling, how to eat healthily, etc.: “Giving participants advice on what level of physical or mental health they have, then explaining the means to them, and increasing their awareness of their own health” (F, T, 12, ESFJ); “Distributing exercise practices in the group, such as the movements, let us review, otherwise we will forget” (F, R, 15, ESFJ); “Holding health seminars on how to prevent injuries rather than only sport, provide us with knowledge such as fall prevention, injury triggers, diet and so on” (F, R, 18, ESFJ).

• Exercise encouragement

Participants reported that verbal encouragement, coupons, coach supervision, and social support inspire them to maintain exercise. “Verbal compliments with a few material rewards” (F, R, 11, ESFJ). “Having coaches who can correct movement mistakes and encourage them to keep doing it” (F, T, 14, ESFJ). “Group sports can encourage and help each other” (F, R, 18, ESFJ).

• Perceived constraints on exercise

Participants report that due to the COVID-19 pandemic, they had to stop all exercise programs. When the interviewer asked whether they used Zoom as a platform to participate in online exercise programs, some of them said that they did not because of privacy, limited space at home, or family issues. They also said that social interactions in face-to-face programs cannot be replaced by Zoom. Moreover, a few participants said that they could not adhere to exercise without a regular exercise program due to family, social matters, lack of discipline, and inertia.

“Because of the pandemic, my exercise classes were stopped, and I’m lazy so I don’t do any exercise anymore” (F, R, 2, ESFJ).

“Using Zoom is not good enough, because of the different housing environment” (M, T, 4, ISFJ). “Zoom class is actually fine, but it’s a little more scattered because at home you’re thinking about other things and it’s hard to concentrate” (F, R, 8, ISFJ). “Because Zoom classes can only be conducted at home, there are no sports facilities at my home, especially full body mirror, I cannot see whether my movements are correct, however in the face-to-face program, I can do exercises with familiar classmates, and we can rectify each other’s mistakes in performing exercises, which cannot replaceable by Zoom” (F, R, 20, INFP); she added, “I am afraid I am not able to use the recording function in Zoom”.

“I am not very disciplined. Without an exercise program my exercises become irregular, some time watching TV, some time talking on the phone, sometimes shopping for food and cooking” (F, R, 15, ESFJ).

Table 1 and Table 2 provide summaries of the retrieved literature and the categories enriched by the literature and interviews.

Summary of the retrieved literature.

Summary of categories and coding for literature synthesis and interviews.

6. Discussion

The current review summarizes the interaction between healthy lifestyle behaviors, goal setting, and personality, and the results are supported and extended by interviews with participants. The study results demonstrate that healthy lifestyle behaviors mainly consist of participating in physical activity, adopting healthy eating habits, and engaging in social activities. There is a tendency for people with different personality traits to have different attitudes toward engaging in HLB. In addition to progress in achieving goals, both the literature review and interviews provide evidence for the use of different types of goal setting plans, including personalized goals, short-term and long-term goals, generalized goals, and progressive goals.

Based on the review of the literature and interviews with participants, conscientiousness and neuroticism are the two personality traits that showed a significant interaction with personality, goals, and HLBs. Among those studies that focused on it, conscientiousness was shown to have a significant effect on the intention to protect one’s health, as well as the self-reported practice of health-protecting activities (e.g., exercise), according to the theory of planned behavior [ 61 ]. Furthermore, a study that used electronic devices in a physical activity intervention revealed that people with a high level of conscientiousness showed greater improvement in their daily steps, while people with health neuroticism and who have high levels of both neuroticism and conscientiousness had much higher daily steps [ 30 ]. It can be presumed that people with both neuroticism and conscientiousness have a strong fear of their possible future self, thus forcing them to develop greater self-regulation and self-control in order to prevent negative health-related outcomes, and it makes them more eager to strive for HLBs. However, the level of conscientiousness was shown to be changeable [ 62 , 63 ]. Nonetheless, studies documented that one’s level of conscientiousness increases with age [ 64 ]; hence, we acknowledge that most of the literature reviewed in the current study and the interviews with older adults tended to focus on the characteristic of conscientiousness. Studies have further indicated that a high level of conscientiousness is associated with more beneficial health behaviors and health-related outcomes [ 65 , 66 ]. Conversely, it is important to note that harmful behaviors such as drug and alcohol abuse do not seem to improve with conscientiousness over time or with age [ 67 , 68 ]. Therefore, this provides further evidence that conscientious people tend to take preventative actions to achieve health protection outcomes. Aside from age, social environment, and personal experience, psychological interventions such as behavioral cognitive therapy, mindfulness, and mental contrasting were found to be effective in increasing people’s level of conscientiousness by enhancing their commitment to goals and improving effective goal selection and goal striving, thus cultivating behavioral changes [ 63 ]. Based on this, interventions that include both physical activity and psychological elements should be promoted to cultivate conscientiousness and goal setting not only in older adults specifically but also in people in general, thus resulting in better HLB engagement.

7. Future Implications

It is shown that extroverts and conscientious people are more capable of achieving goals, adjusting their goals, and re-engaging with goals compared to people with neuroticism; however, the effect of personalities on the types of goals preferred by older adults has been scarcely discussed. While the reviewed literature pointed out that the use of an electronic device during exercise, such as a Fitbit, can cultivate personalized goal setting by using the device’s planning, regulation, and monitoring functions, the effect of personalized goals showed a greater effect among people who were conscientious and introverted [ 30 , 48 ]. This was also indicated in the participants’ interviews. The interviews indicated that introverts mostly avoid social gatherings or group activities because they would like the activity to be individualized. Attending group activities, including physical activity interventions, can cause worry and anxiety, such as worrying about not being as capable as others or not being able to meet the standard of the group. On the contrary, extroverts are more likely to attend group activities, because they like to share their experiences with others or within the group, thus they prefer non-personalized goals. In addition, no discernible personality differences were found between the preference for ultimate goals and progressive goals.

Based on the interview content, it is suggested that for physical activity or other HLB interventions in the future, the personality should be considered as a covariant and be controlled, or its possible effects on intervention outcomes should be examined during data analyses. Interventions that highlight individual differences could be offered, for instance, by recruiting participants with a particular personality type to improve their goal-setting skills and HLBs. Furthermore, different types of goals should be included in HLB inventions to investigate their effects on different personality traits when cultivating HLB. These suggestions are not exclusive to older adults but are also applicable to different populations and age groups. In addition, with an understanding of the importance of goal setting for healthy lifestyle behaviors, coaches and other health professionals can be given practical suggestions to enhance older adults’ self-understanding and literacy regarding healthy lifestyle behaviors (i.e., help them better understand their own physical capability, provide health information, or encourage them to set goals for themselves) before participating in exercise classes or undergoing medical treatments.

8. Strengths and Limitations of the Study

In the current study, we reviewed and summarized the interaction between goal setting, personality, and HLBs in the literature, further supported by qualitative interviews. Based on this review, it was found that conscientiousness, neuroticism, and extraversion had a significant effect on health-related behaviors as well as actual healthy lifestyle behaviors. Although personality traits such as agreeableness and openness were less likely to be examined or showed no significant outcomes, from the qualitative interviews, we are able to further conclude that older adults with all types of personalities, except neuroticism, tended to take the initiative to try new things, participate in physical activity interventions, and learn new knowledge. They were more open-minded toward unknown life and health-related knowledge, which facilitated their development and maintenance of a healthy lifestyle. On the other hand, older adults with neuroticism tended to overthink the unknown in the form of, for example, fear over their possible self or anxiety about the outcomes of new physical activities, thus holding them off from engaging in healthy behaviors.

Given that the literature review was not a systematic review and might have neglected the quality of retrieved studies, it also could not indicate and quantify the interaction effects between personalities, goal setting, and healthy lifestyle behaviors. Moreover, the interviewees were recruited by using convenience sampling from a previous physical activity intervention; hence, it could be assumed that they have already engaged in regular HLBs. This represents a limitation in that we were not able to distinguish potential differences between older adults who do not engage in regular HLBs and those who are not willing to engage in group-based physical activity interventions. Additionally, in the current study, we adopted the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) instead of the Big Five Inventory, because we considered the difficulty of distinguishing the participants’ personalities based on the latter. This indicates the interaction effect between two or more strong traits within an individual. The interaction effect between personality traits can make it difficult to identify the specific effect of personality traits on HLBs and goal setting. Therefore, we adopted the MBTI, with the understanding that the Big Five Inventory would be more suitable for quantitative analyses. Therefore, a meta-analysis of the interaction between personalities, goal setting, and physical activities or other specific HLBs is suggested. In addition, examining different types of HLB interventions that consider personality and goal setting strategies in future research is highly encouraged.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.Y.C.W., K.-l.O. and P.K.C.; methodology, M.Y.C.W.; software, M.Y.C.W. and K.-l.O.; validation, M.Y.C.W. and K.-l.O.; formal analysis, M.Y.C.W. and K.-l.O.; investigation, M.Y.C.W. and K.-l.O.; resources, M.Y.C.W. and K.-l.O.; data curation, M.Y.C.W. and K.-l.O.; writing—original draft preparation, M.Y.C.W. and K.-l.O.; writing—review and editing, P.K.C.; visualization, M.Y.C.W. and K.-l.O.; supervision, P.K.C.; project administration, P.K.C.; funding acquisition, P.K.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Research Ethics Committee (REC) at the Hong Kong Baptist University (Ref: REC/18–19/0149).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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